id int64 39 79M | url stringlengths 31 227 | text stringlengths 6 334k | source stringlengths 1 150 ⌀ | categories listlengths 1 6 | token_count int64 3 71.8k | subcategories listlengths 0 30 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
78,882,441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium%20pentasulfide | Ammonium pentasulfide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula .
Synthesis
Passing hydrogen sulfide through a suspension of powdered sulfur in a concentrated ammonia solution:
Physical properties
Ammonium sulfide forms yellow crystals, decomposing in water, of monoclinic system, space group P21/c, cell parameters a = 0.5427 nm, b = 1.6226 nm, c = 0.9430 nm, β = 105.31°, Z = 4.
The compound can be stored under the mother liquor without air access. When dry, it decomposes quickly in the air. the compound emits sulfur intensively in water and melts in a sealed ampoule at 95 °C to form a red liquid.
Chemical properties
The compound decomposes when stored in air or slightly heated:
References
Ammonium compounds
Polysulfides | Ammonium pentasulfide | [
"Chemistry"
] | 177 | [
"Ammonium compounds",
"Salts"
] |
78,882,857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IDRX-42 | IDRX-42 (formerly M4205) is a highly selective small molecule KIT inhibitor compound developed for the treatment of gastrointestinal stromal tumors. The compound was originally discovered by the German company Merck and later out-licensed to IDRX. In November 2024, promising anti-tumor data from ongoing Phase 1/1B studies were reported. In January 2025, the compound played a key role in the $1 billion acquisition of IDRX by GSK.
References
Tyrosine kinase inhibitors
Pyrazoles
Imidazoles
Imidazopyridines
Pyrrolidines
Secondary amines | IDRX-42 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 131 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Pharmacology stubs",
"Medicinal chemistry stubs"
] |
78,883,103 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V488%20Persei | V488 Persei is a variable star in the constellation Perseus. The star was first identified as a variable in 1985 from data of a 0.9 m telescope at Kitt Peak. The survey targeted stars of the Alpha Persei Cluster, for which the researchers found a few stars to be variable. The star AP 70, later called V488 Persei was found to be variable with a period of 123.5 hours. The star is a BY Draconis variable, which shows periodic variations due to starspots. In 2012 researchers found a debris disk with extreme infrared excess. The researchers suggested that this dust is the aftermath of the collision between two planetary embryos.
Candidate wide companions around V488 Persei were identified in 2015. Another work does point out problems with this approach, pointing out that wide companions cannot be distinguished from unrelated cluster members.
The disk
The disk was first found with Spitzer and WISE data. The researchers find dust with a temperature of about 800 Kelvin (K) at 0.06 astronomical units (AU). The researchers suspect that two planetary embroys collided with each other at distances similar to transiting rocky exoplanets, known at the time. At first it was suspected that the disk also contains a cold component at 120 K. Using far-infrared observations it was indeed found that the disk has a cold component with a temperature of around 130 K. There are currently two interpretations of the disk. One work interprets the infrared excess as two rings: an inner ring at 0.30–0.35 AU and an outer ring at 25–45 AU. Another work interprets the excess as two disks: an inner disk at around 0.07 AU and an outer disk at 2.7 AU.
In 2021 it was found that the infrared brightness of the system is extreme variable, similar to NGC 2547-ID8. This was found from a observation campaign with Spitzer. This work found that one major event occured in 2019, leading to an increase of infrared brightness. This event was produced by the collision of two objects 60 km in size. The disk was however extreme before this event and variable over a period of 15 years, meaning additional collisions must take place in the disk. The same work suggests that the objects in an asteroid-like belt at 0.3 AU are perturbed by a giant planet or brown dwarf. This results in a high level of collisions between planetesimals and the dust will be dragged towards the star due to the stellar wind. A high level of collisions are happening in the inner region, because the dust is removed very fast. The system might be an analogue to the late heavy bombardment in the solar system. Another work failed to detect silicate emission in the mid-infrared with Subaru/COMICS. The researchers interpret this as dust grains composed primarily of metallic iron. The researchers interpret this observation as a similar scenario that formed planet Mercury. In this scenario a rocky planet is subjected to erosive bombardment and the ejecta from the interior of the planet is ground into small particles. This scenario is more likely with an inner system packed with earth-type and super-earth-type planets.
See also
List of extrasolar planetary collisions
References
Circumstellar disks
Impact events
K-type main-sequence stars
Perseus (constellation)
Astronomical objects discovered in 1985 | V488 Persei | [
"Astronomy"
] | 684 | [
"Perseus (constellation)",
"Astronomical events",
"Impact events",
"Constellations"
] |
78,884,325 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1ES%201927%2B654 | 1ES 1927+654 is a type 2 Seyfert galaxy located 270 million light-years away in the constellation of Draco, containing an active galactic nucleus. 1ES 1927+654 it is located in a host galaxy that is relatively unremarkable in appearance. However, its core, powered by a supermassive black hole, has exhibited behaviors that challenge conventional theories about accretion disks and black hole environments, and is the subject of academic papers analysing its unusual characteristics. Its supermassive black hole is found massive and is a source of X-ray flashes.
Timeline of Discoveries
Initial Identification (1984):
1ES 1927+654 was first cataloged during the Einstein Slew Survey, which aimed to identify X-ray sources in the sky. It was classified as a Seyfert galaxy due to its emission-line features.
Optical Variability Detected (1990s):
Observations in the 1990s revealed irregular optical variability, suggesting active processes in its nucleus.
Significant Flares Observed (2017):
A dramatic increase in brightness was detected, with the galaxy brightening by a factor of about 40 in the ultraviolet spectrum. This event triggered follow-up studies to investigate the cause.
Accretion Disk Disruption Event (2018):
Detailed observations by X-ray and ultraviolet telescopes revealed that the AGN's accretion disk had undergone a partial or total disruption.
Magnetic Field Hypothesis (2020):
Studies suggested that the extreme variability could be linked to magnetic field instabilities around the black hole. The event challenged models of black hole accretion and inspired new theories about AGN outbursts.
Popular interest
1ES 1927+654 has captured the attention of both professional astronomers and amateur stargazers due to its unpredictable behavior. Its sudden changes have made it a target for multi-wavelength observation campaigns, drawing data from X-ray, optical, and radio observatories around the world.
Gallery
References
External links
1ES 1927+654 on NASA/IPAC Database
Seyfert galaxies
Active galaxies
Draco (constellation)
Supermassive black holes | 1ES 1927+654 | [
"Physics",
"Astronomy"
] | 426 | [
"Black holes",
"Unsolved problems in physics",
"Supermassive black holes",
"Constellations",
"Draco (constellation)"
] |
78,884,788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20of%20rational%20indices | The law of rational indices is an empirical law in the field of crystallography concerning crystal structure. The law states that "when referred to three intersecting axes all faces occurring on a crystal can be described by numerical indices which are integers, and that these integers are usually small numbers." The law is also named the law of rational intercepts or the second law of crystallography.
Definition
The International Union of Crystallography (IUCr) gives the following definition: "The law of rational indices states that the intercepts, OP, OQ, OR, of the natural faces of a crystal form with the unit-cell axes a, b, c are inversely proportional to prime integers, , , . They are called the Miller indices of the face. They are usually small because the corresponding lattice planes are among the densest and have therefore a high interplanar spacing and low indices."
History
The law of constancy of interfacial angles, first observed by Nicolas Steno, (De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento, Florence, 1669), and firmly established by Jean-Baptiste Romé de l'Isle (Cristallographie, Paris, 1783), was a precursor to the law of rational indices.
René Just Haüy showed in 1784 that the known interfacial angles could be accounted for if a crystal were made up of minute building blocks (molécules intégrantes), such as cubes, parallelepipeds, or rhombohedra. The 'rise-to-run' ratio of the stepped faces of the crystal was a simple rational number p/q, where p and q are small multiples of units of length (generally different and not more than 6). Haüy's method is named the law of decrements, law of simple rational truncations, or Haüy's law. The law of rational indices was not stated in its modern form by Haüy, but it is directly implied by his law of decrements.
In 1830, Johann Hessel proved that, as a consequence of the law of rational indices, morphological forms can combine to give exactly 32 kinds of crystal symmetry in Euclidean space, since only two-, three-, four-, and six-fold rotation axes can occur. However, Hessel's work remained practically unknown for over 60 years and, in 1867, Axel Gadolin independently rediscovered his results.
Miller indices were introduced in 1839 by the British mineralogist William Hallowes Miller, although a similar system (Weiss parameters) had already been used by the German mineralogist Christian Samuel Weiss since 1817.
In 1866, Auguste Bravais showed that crystals preferentially cleaved parallel to lattice planes of high density. This is sometimes referred to as Bravais's law or the law of reticular density and is an equivalent statement to the law of rational indices.
Crystal structure
The law of rational indices is implied by the three-dimensional lattice structure of crystals. A crystal structure is periodic, and invariant under translations in three linearly independent directions.
Quasicrystals do not have translational symmetry, and therefore do not obey the law of rational indices.
References
Crystallography
Mineralogy concepts
Scientific laws | Law of rational indices | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science",
"Mathematics",
"Engineering"
] | 663 | [
"Mathematical objects",
"Scientific laws",
"Equations",
"Materials science",
"Crystallography",
"Condensed matter physics"
] |
78,885,347 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuffles%20by%20Pinterest | Shuffles is a mobile application developed by Pinterest that allows users to create, share, and explore collages. It was officially launched in July 2022.
Development and launch
Shuffles was initially released as an invite-only platform, and quickly gained usage among Gen Z audiences for creating and sharing mood boards and designs. The app includes tools for editing and layering images, often used in collage-making.
Functionality
Users can cut out objects from photos, rotate, resize, and layer them to create static or animated compositions. Shuffles provides access to Pinterest's image repository, allowing users to incorporate images into their collages. The app includes tools for adding animations and effects to the compositions, as well as linking products within the collages.
Usage
Shuffles is used on platforms such as TikTok, where users shared their creations with music. The app was accessed by younger audiences for creating and curating visuals. It was used by a range of individuals, including influencers, designers, and hobbyists.
See also
clipix
List of image-sharing websites
Timeline of social media
Visual marketing
References
External link
Social media
Pinterest
2022 introductions | Shuffles by Pinterest | [
"Technology"
] | 241 | [
"Computing and society",
"Social media"
] |
78,887,898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C4H6O2S | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C4H6O2S}}
The molecular formula C4H6O2S (molar mass: 118.15 g/mol) may refer to:
Vinyl sulfone
Sulfolene, or butadiene sulfone | C4H6O2S | [
"Chemistry"
] | 59 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
78,888,751 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bistrifluron | Bistrifluron is an insecticide of the benzoylurea class. It is used to control chewing insects such as aphids, whiteflies, caterpillars, and termites. It is not highly toxic to mammals, but bioaccumulation may be a concern. It has a low level of toxicity to birds and moderate to high toxicity to most aquatic animals, honeybees, and earthworms.
References
Insecticides
Ureas
2-Fluorophenyl compounds
Anilides
Benzamides
2-Chlorophenyl compounds
Trifluoromethyl compounds | Bistrifluron | [
"Chemistry"
] | 124 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs",
"Ureas"
] |
78,889,296 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuwi | CHUWI (馳為創新科技（深圳）有限公司) is an electronics manufacturer headquartered in Shenzhen, China. The company primarily produces laptops, tablet computers, and mini PCs.
History
CHUWI was established in September 2004 in Shenzhen, China. The company began its operations by offering MP4 products, laying the foundation for its future growth in the electronics industry.
In 2010, CHUWI formed strategic partnerships with MediaTek, Huawei, and Google. These collaborations played a crucial role in expanding the company's technological capabilities and market reach.
By 2013, CHUWI had established business relationships with Microsoft and Intel, further solidifying its position in the industry. During this time, the company also began recruiting sales agents to strengthen its distribution network.
In May 2015, CHUWI became a sponsor of the 2015 China Table Tennis Super League. This move helped enhance the company's brand visibility and reputation in the competitive electronics market.
Later in September 2015, CHUWI took significant steps to expand into overseas markets. The company established dedicated teams for Amazon, AliExpress, and eBay, and opened a warehouse in the United States to support its international operations.
Products
Laptops
LapBook Plus
CoreBook
FreeBook - 360 Touchscreen
GemiBook
MiniBook
AeroBook
Tablets
Hi10 X
Ubook Pro 8100Y
Ubook Pro N4100
Mini PCs
CoreBox
HeroBox
GBox Pro
HiGame
RZBox
Controversies
Some PCs lack Japanese regulatory certification, prompting administrative guidance
On April 12, 2023, Japan's Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications issued administrative guidance to CHUWI Innovation Technology Co., Ltd., which handles laptops and tablets. It was discovered that some products sold under the CHUWI brand did not have the required Technical Conformity Certification (TCC) for the 5 GHz band.
The affected models included the 2017 "Hi13 (CWI534)," 2019 "UBook (CWI509)," "UBook Pro (CWI535)," "MiniBook (CWI526)," and 2020 "Hi10 X (CWI529)." These products were sold with misleading compliance labels. CHUWI plans to address the issue through a software update and has advised users to use only the 2.4 GHz band until the update is applied.
On April 14, CHUWI issued an apology for the lack of 5 GHz band certification in some of its laptops and 2-in-1 detachable devices. The company stated that it had been advised by a certification provider that "5GHz band channel certification could be inherited" and that "only 2.4GHz band certification was necessary," leading to the oversight.
CHUWI has begun the certification process for the affected products and expects to complete it by April 30. The company has expressed deep regret and pledged to prevent similar issues in the future.
Frequent failures of educational tablets
On October 4, 2023, the Tokushima Prefectural Board of Education revealed that nearly 20% of the 16,500 tablets provided to high schools as part of the "one device per student" initiative had become unusable due to issues such as battery swelling. These tablets were manufactured by CHUWI.
As of October 26, no repair timeline had been established, and students were sharing devices or using personal ones. The number of failures continued to rise sharply, reaching 4,834 by December 11.
In March 2024, the prefectural education director resigned to take responsibility for the issue.
References
External links
Computer hardware companies
Companies based in Shenzhen
Companies established in 2004 | Chuwi | [
"Technology"
] | 726 | [
"Computer hardware companies",
"Computers"
] |
78,890,137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Sylvester | Paul Joseph Sylvester is a geochemist, academic, editor, and author. He is the Endowed Pevehouse Chair and Professor of Geosciences at Texas Tech University.
Sylvester is known for his work in developing analytical methods for mineral micro-analysis using LA-ICP-MS (Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry) and for applying U-Th-Pb geochronology and Hf-Nd-Sr-Pb isotope tracing in research across various subdisciplines of the geosciences. This has included studies of crustal evolution, critical metal ore formation, igneous petrogenesis, and sedimentary provenance.
Sylvester is a Fellow of the Mineralogical Society of America, the Geological Society of America, and the Society of Economic Geologists. He was listed in Stanford University's "World's Top 2% Scientists" in 2020, ranked in the top 0.46% in the geochemistry and geophysics discipline according to their standardized citation metrics in 2023, and has an h-index of 61 as of 2025. He served as Editor-in-Chief of Minerals from 2016 to 2023, has been Joint Editor-in-Chief of Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research since 2016, and Founding Editor-in-Chief of Critical Insights in Geochemistry & Geophysics since 2024.
Education
Sylvester earned his Bachelor's (B.S.) in Geology from Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, in 1978, and his Doctorate (PhD) in Geochemistry from Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri, in 1984.
Career
Sylvester started his career as a Research Associate at NASA Johnson Space Center in the mid-1980s, later becoming a Research Management Associate at NASA Headquarters. From 1998 to 2004, he served as Associate Professor and, from 2004 to 2014, as Full Professor at Memorial University of Newfoundland. During this time, he was the Principal Investigator at the Inco Innovation Centre as well, a role he held from 2005 to 2014. He holds an appointment as Principal Investigator at the TTU MILL Mineral Isotope Laser Laboratory and, since 2014, has been a Professor and the Endowed Pevehouse Chair at Texas Tech University.
Research
Sylvester has applied microbeam techniques like LA-ICP-MS and automated mineralogy (Mineral Liberation Analysis) to study the elemental and isotopic compositions of minerals, focusing on Earth's early crust, meteorites, impact melts, metal ores, and sedimentary rock provenance.
Mineral geochemistry and geochronology
Sylvester studied alkaline granites in post-collisional environments like the Alaskan Cordillera and Arabian-Nubian Shield, linking them to anorogenic and volcanic arc granites, and suggesting formation through crustal anatexis. He examined the effects of collision pressures on granite formation, revealing smaller, cooler granites in high-pressure settings like the Himalayas and larger, hotter ones in high-temperature environments like the Lachlan Fold Belt, with distinct geochemical signatures based on protolith type. Collaboratively, he developed methods for high-precision elemental analysis using ICP-MS to trace geochemical variations, supporting research on high-field strength element fractionation during the partial melting of the mantle wedge.
Furthermore, he refined U–Pb zircon dating with LA-ICP-MS to near-SIMS (secondary-ion mass spectrometry) precision, applying it to detrital zircons from the Ulven Group (western Norway) and revealing a mix of Archean, Proterozoic, and early Ordovician zircons. His work established LA-ICPMS as a viable alternative to SIMS for zircon geochronology, with further analysis of Zircon 91500 confirming its utility in calibrating rare earth elements. His research also demonstrated the potential of apatite for sedimentary provenance analysis, improved U-(Th-)Pb geochronology standards for zircon, monazite, and titanite, refining uncertainty propagation and data calibration and showed how in situ analyses of Pb-isotope ratios in feldspar can be a powerful tool for understanding magmatic processes.
Sylvester's work encompassed the isotopic study of meteorites, the effects of impact melting, and the formation of early solar system materials. He utilized laser ablation MC-ICP-MS to analyze Fe isotopic variations in iron meteorites and sulfides, demonstrating its ability to detect subtle differences in small samples. His comparative studies on impact melting revealed distinct compositions in melt products from sedimentary and crystalline targets, while his research on unequilibrated ordinary chondrites suggested their formation as rapidly quenched liquids shaped by varied histories in the solar nebula. Among other works, he edited a special issue of Tectonophysics titled "Continent Formation, Growth and Recycling," which explored perspectives on continental formation, growth, and recycling through numerical models, geochronologic and isotopic studies, and global crustal growth models.
Sylvester edited the book Laser-ablation-ICPMS in the Earth Sciences: Principles and Applications (2001) for the Mineralogical Association of Canada short course series, which Philip E. Janney reviewed, stating, "I was very impressed by the depth and scope of the book." In 2023, he was guest editor of Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research's issue highlighting innovations in LA-ICP-MS methods, instrumentation, and reference materials, sparked by the pandemic's disruptions and opportunities in research.
Awards and honors
2013 – Fellow, Mineralogical Society of America
2013 – Fellow, Geological Society of America
2024 – Fellow, Society of Economic Geologists
Bibliography
Selected articles
Sylvester, P. J. (1989). Post-collisional alkaline granites. The Journal of Geology, 97(3), 261–280.
Eggins, S. M., Woodhead, J. D., Kinsley, L. P. J., Mortimer, G. E., Sylvester, P., McCulloch, M. T., ... & Handler, M. R. (1997). A simple method for the precise determination of≥ 40 trace elements in geological samples by ICPMS using enriched isotope internal standardisation. Chemical geology, 134(4), 311–326.
Sylvester, P. J. (1998). Post-collisional strongly peraluminous granites. lithos, 45(1–4), 29–44.
Wiedenbeck, M., Hanchar, J. M., Peck, W. H., Sylvester, P., Valley, J., Whitehouse, M., ... & Zheng, Y. F. (2004). Further characterisation of the 91500 zircon crystal. Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research, 28(1), 9-39.
Horstwood, M. S., Košler, J., Gehrels, G., Jackson, S. E., McLean, N. M., Paton, C., ... & Schoene, B. (2016). Community‐derived standards for LA‐ICP‐MS U‐(Th‐) Pb geochronology–Uncertainty propagation, age interpretation and data reporting. Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research, 40(3), 311–332.
Selected books
Continent Formation, Growth and Recycling (2000) ISBN 9780444506221
Laser-ablation-ICPMS in the Earth Sciences: Current Practices and Outstanding Issues (2008) ISBN 90921294498
References
American geochemists
American editors
American science writers
Purdue University alumni
Washington University in St. Louis alumni
Texas Tech University faculty
Living people | Paul Sylvester | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,625 | [
"Geochemists",
"American geochemists"
] |
78,890,509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium%20salicylate | Ammonium salicylate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula .
Synthesis
The effect of ammonia solution on salicylic acid in an inert atmosphere:
Physical properties
Ammonium salicylate forms colorless crystals that are highly soluble in water and ethanol. The compound decomposes at 213°C.
Uses
The compound is commonly used in several industries, such as pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and agriculture.
As a drug, it is used in cases of topical skin diseases, relief of various muscle pains and as a component of several medications. Under exposure to light it discolors with the release of ammonia. It easily discolors iron compounds, and it forms a slightly acidic solution in water.
References
Ammonium compounds
Salicylates | Ammonium salicylate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 152 | [
"Ammonium compounds",
"Salts"
] |
78,890,582 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VSYS%20Host | VSYS Host (Virtual Systems LLC) is a hosting provider specializing in dedicated servers, virtual private servers (VPS), and web hosting. The company offers its services through data centers located in Ukraine, the Netherlands, the USA, and Singapore, ensuring hosting solutions across multiple regions worldwide. It was founded in 2009 in Ukraine.
History
In 2009, the company began operations under the domain stop-ddos.net, focusing on protection against DDoS attacks. After starting to offer hosting services, it was renamed Virtual Systems LLC.
On April 30, 2010, the domain stop-ddos.net was replaced with v-sys.org, reflecting the company's service expansion. On February 4, 2019, the domain was changed to vsys.host, which the company operates under to this day.
In 2012, under the name v-sys.org, the company added shared hosting, dedicated servers, and virtual private servers (VPS) services in Ukraine.
In December 2020, the company opened a new location in the Netherlands, enabling dedicated servers, VPS, and shared hosting services.
In the same year, VSYS Host developed and launched the SHKeeper crypto processor as an open-source project on GitHub. SHKeeper allows decentralized cryptocurrency payment acceptance.
In the summer of 2024, the company opened a new location in Singapore, providing dedicated servers and VPS in the region.
VSYS Host has been recognized on platforms such as HostAdvice, WHTop and SourceForge for its high level of service, reliability, and server performance.
References
Companies established in 2009
Technology companies
IT infrastructure | VSYS Host | [
"Technology"
] | 337 | [
"Information technology",
"IT infrastructure"
] |
78,890,688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicians%27%20Medicine | Musicians' medicine deals with physical and mental issues suffered by musicians ('Musicians' illnesses').
It is sometimes also referred to as Music Medicine, which also describes different forms of music therapy. The related field of music physiology consists of research of physiological foundations of making music as well as the prevention of common health problems in musicians. The term Musicians' Health, often used as a synonym for Musicians' Medicine, generally refers to the health maintenance and wellbeing of musicians, as well as preventive measures, such as sufficient and appropriate exercise, a healthy diet, and enough sleep.
The studies also include mental health problems, for instance stage fright.
Research and Science
As early as 1832, Karl Sundelin published his Medical Guidebook for Musicians. Later, around the turn of the century, Adolf Steinhausen (1859–1910) published multiple tracts on music medicine. Then, in the 1920s, Julius Flesch wrote about Berufskrankheiten des Musikers (Occupational Diseases of the Musician) (Celle, 1925). The neurologist Kurt Singer published his book Berufskrankheiten der Musiker (Occupational diseases of musicians). From 1923, Singer taught at the Hochschule für Musik Hanns Eisler Berlin. The Kurt-Singer-Institute for Music Physiology and Musicians’ Health in Berlin (Academy of Arts and Hochschule für Musik Hans Eisler), currently headed by Alexander Schmidt, was named after him. Further institutions for Musicians' Medicine are the Institute of Music Physiology and Musicians' Medicine at the Hanover University of Music, Drama and Media, founded by Christoph Wagner in 1974 and headed by Eckart Altenmüller since 1994, as well as the Freiburg Institute for Musicians’ Medicine, founded in 2005 and headed by Claudia Spahn and Bernhard Richter. In the former GDR, the field was studied at the Occupational Health Clinic of theatres and orchestras in Berlin.
Further institutes and departments for Music Physiology and Musicians' Medicine are located at the Universities of Music in Weimar, Leipzig, Dresden and Frankfurt, as well as the Düsseldorf University Hospital and the Rechts der Isar Hospital in Munich.
In 1994, the German Society for Music Physiology and Musicians' Medicine was founded and holds annual conferences. Similar associations have been established in Switzerland, Austria, France, the UK, the Netherlands, the US and New Zealand since the 1990s.
Common health problems
The most common problems are related to overstressing particular muscles, tendons and joints, especially the arms and hands. Of the 264,000 professional musicians working in the US in 2006, 50-76% (depending on the instrument) suffered work-related muscoskeletal ailments. Women were affected more often than men (70% vs 52%). These problems occur most commonly between the ages of 20 and 40. Risk factors are a general hyperlaxicity, abrupt increase in training and rehearsal times, a change of conductor, bad posture, wrong use of the instrument and general stress.
Common medical conditions are:
Enthesopathy especially of the underarms and hands
Tenosynovitis and Tendinopathy
Nerve compression syndrome such as the carpal tunnel syndrome or ulnar neuropathy at the elbow
Focal dystonia with uncontrollable spastic muscle contractions
Osteoarthritis mostly in the carpometacarpal joint (trapeziometacarpal osteoarthritis), in the carpus, the finger joints (heberden's node)
Thoracic outlet syndrome
Tinnitus
Noise-induced hearing loss
Stage fright
Some illnesses are typical for certain instruments. For example, playing the violin, the viola or wind instruments often lead to changes in the mouth cavity, jaw, teeth or face.
Musicians in orchestras are often seated close together in orchestra pits and are exposed to high sound levels. Due to the positioning of the orchestra, sound is often not loud enough and doesn't reach the audience and therefore has to be amplified. Over the course of the last centuries, orchestra music has become increasingly louder. This can lead to lasting hearing loss and tinnitus.
Such problems emerge slowly and often unnoticed. Musicians suffering from these conditions have to concentrate more while playing their instrument, resulting in insecurities and stress. In some cases even minor hearing problems can hinder their work.
Prevention and therapy
Musicians medicine is mainly concerned with prevention, which means educating musicians about preventative measures. These can be ergonomic adjustments of the instruments to the musician's body, good chairs, appropriate exercises and basic physiological and anatomical knowledge, as well as healthy eating habits and sufficient sleep.
Additionally, relaxation techniques can be helpful, for example progressive muscle relaxation (Jacobsen), autogenic training, meditation, Tai chi and Qigong. Furthermore, movement therapies such as Eutony, Alexander Technique, Feldenkrais method, Dispokinesis and functional movement therapy are efficient in diagnosing and correcting bad posture. Such measures can not only prevent, but also reduce or even eradicate existing problems. Another commonly used form of therapy is osteopathy.
Currently, there is no cure for hearing damage. Many musicians are not aware of the health risks that come with being a musician. According to the German Occupational Safety Law relating to Noise and Vibration (Lärm- und Vibrations-Arbeitsschutzverordnung) employees have to be protected from damaging noise. Many employers often are not aware how demanding the job really is, since it includes many different tasks, such as teaching music or a lot of practice. For these instances, Germany set up a training programme to help identify how affected a musician is by being exposed to loud sounds and what preventative measures should be established. Since that exposure can vary significantly, the software related to the programme creates a weekly average.
References
Musical culture
Medicine | Musicians' Medicine | [
"Biology"
] | 1,193 | [
"Medicine"
] |
78,891,148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicolocellus | Helicolocellus cantori is an extinct sponge from the late Ediacaran, found in the Dengying Formation of South China and possibly related to the Hexactinellida. If confirmed, H.cantori would be the oldest crown group sponge known as of 2025.
Discovery and name
The holotype fossil of Helicolocellus was found in the Dengying Formation of South China in 2019, and formally described in 2024.
The generic name Helicolocellus derives from the Greek words helix, to mean twisted; and locellus, to mean small box. The specific name cantori derives from the surname of Georg Cantor, a Mathematician who is known for the Cantor set which describes regular patterning, reminiscent of what is seen in the fossil material.
Description
Helicolocellus cantori is a possible hexactinelliid sponge that grew up to around in height, with a conical body made up of small, intricate boxes, which themselves contain smaller boxes. With both the large size of the fossil material, and a “boxy” appearance, it has been proposed that Helicolocellus is a glass sponge.
Unlike most sponges of today, it would have had a soft body, and possibly non-mineralised spicules, which are used by modern sponges to provide structural support, and as such most researchers look for these in fossil material of possible sponges. However, the authors of the paper describing Helicolocellus put this method into doubt, as earlier softer sponges would most likely not preserve properly, let alone their spicules.
See also
List of Ediacaran genera
References
Ediacaran life
Fossils of China
Fossil taxa described in 2024
Sponges
Prehistoric sponge genera | Helicolocellus | [
"Biology"
] | 357 | [
"Sponges",
"Animals"
] |
78,891,324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C15H26O6 | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C15H26O6}}
The molecular formula C15H26O6 (molar mass: 302.364 g/mol) may refer to:
Tributyrin
Trimethylolpropane triglycidyl ether, or TMPTGE | C15H26O6 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 65 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
75,783,166 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate%20Change%20Isn%27t%20Everything%3A%20Liberating%20Climate%20Politics%20from%20Alarmism | Climate Change Isn’t Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism is a book by Mike Hulme published in 2023 by Polity Press.
Synopsis
Climate Change Isn’t Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism is a book by Mike Hulme, Professor of Human Geography at the University of Cambridge, where the author introduces the readers to his meaning of the term / neologism ‘climatism’. According to a blurb for the book offered by Ted Nordhaus of the Breakthrough Institute climatism reduces the condition of the world to the fate of global temperature or to the atmospheric concentration of Carbon dioxide, to the detriment of tackling serious issues as varied as poverty, liberty, biodiversity loss, inequality and international diplomacy. Hulme notes that the term has been used before, and noticeably in Steve Goreham’s Climatism, Science, Common Sense and the 21st Century Hottest Topic, New Lenox Books 2010. While Goreham contest the human origin of climate change, Hulme holds the opposite view, p. 168.
Main
The author opens the book with a discussion of how the Syrian Civil War, started in March 2011 after civil unrest following the torture by President Assad's security agents of young Syrians schoolboys, was blamed on climate change: according to the narrative, a multi-year draught had displaced agricultural labourers to towns and cities, with a consequent unrest for lack of available jobs.
The narrative was upheld by authoritative figures such as the US secretary of state John Kerry, President Barack Obama, Prince Charles and important institutions such as the World Bank, Friends of the Earth. As a result, in the following years the flux of migrants escaping the civil war was likewise blamed on climate change by the President of the European Commission Jean-Claude Juncker, p. 2.
Hulme disagrees with this narrative and argues that blaming the civil war in Syria, the increase of hate speech and racist tweets on Twitter, or floods devastation on climate is ultimately a distraction from tackling their major underlying causes. p. 2.
According to a review Hulme is clear that he believes human behaviour is changing the climate and that society should move toward net zero emissions.
Hulme compares ‘climatic determinism’ to racial determinism in presenting value-based judgments as science and offers an alternative based on what he calls climatic pragmatism, as a recipe that is contextually sensitive, diverse and pragmatic (p. 11 of Hulme's book).
Still for review the author – living a tension between critique and sympathy regarding climate change – is aware of the risk of his work being appropriated by climate deniers, and has accepted the risk to fight what he perceives as the dangers of climatism.
Each chapter ends with a section entitled ‘Retort’ where likely objections are discussed, and a ‘Further Reading’ section at the end of the book offers suggestions relating to climate science, the relation between expertise, politics and democracy, the different meanings of climate change, the power of narratives, climate reductionism and climate anxieties.
For Hulme climate change has become the lens through which we perceive and address societal challenges. This has made climate as a "self-sufficient" narrative capable of explaining political, socio-ecological, and ethical dilemmas.
Hulme dedicates a chapter to reconstruct the genesis of climatism in ten "moves", Among these, the adoption of global temperature as a "flawed index for capturing the full range of complex relationships between climate and human welfare and ecological integrity" (move 3) appear as especially relevant.
For Hulme the moves have led to the ideology of climatism, making climate change into the "leitmotif of contemporary politics."
A final chapter entitled "If Not Climatism, Then What?" offers Hulme's recipes, under the banner that "Wicked problems need clumsy solutions": these include foregrounding scientific uncertainty, defusing deadline-ism, and acknowledging the plurality of values and goals as.
The chapters
A succinct summary of the book chapter by chapter is offered in:
‘From Climate to climatism’, How an Ideology is Made. Introduces climatism as an ideology.
‘How did Climatism Arise’, Fetishizing Global Temperature. Describes the ascent of climatism in ten "moves".
‘Are the Sciences Climatist’, The Noble Lie and Other Misdemeanors.Presents use and misuse of climate scenarios, with particular attention to IPCC's Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5.
‘Why is Climatism So Alluring’, Master-Narratives and Polarizing Moralism. The main ingredient of climatism: climatism as a master narrative, its Manichean worldview and its apocalyptic rhetoric.
‘Why is Climatism Dangerous’, The Narrowing of Political Vision. Exemplifies the perverse effects of compressing all ailment of the world under a single heading, unlike the broad spectrum of the sustainable development goals. The case of deforestation in Indonesia driven by European Union biofuel policies.
‘If Not Climatism, Then What’, Wicked Problems Need Clumsy Solutions. Gives a recipe for progress: replace a culture of hubris with one of humility, discontinue presenting the future in terms of cliff-edges or no-return points, embrace a plurality of values and perspectives, including site-, culture- and context-specific values and perspectives.
‘Some Objections’, You sound Just Like…. Anticipates objections to the positions expressed in the book.
Reception
The reception of the book is varied. For Teresa de León:Hulme has the merit of having shown how the social encounter with nature has been narrowed by a generic distinction of villains and saviors of the Earth, which has triggered ethical reflections about what is more socially sensitive to nature and what is not. For Volker Hahn, writing in the blog of Roger Pielke Jr.:Hulme’s book may not deliver radically new or surprising insights. But it is a concise digest of the current climate discourse and depicts where things are going wrong.
For Nicholas Clairmont writing in The New Atlantis: The book is a welcome remedy for a climate discourse beset by scientization, the antidemocratic process by which “scientific statements substitute — or at least become a short-hand — for ethical or political reasoning and argument.”
A more critical view is offered by Simon Maxwell:It’s hard to decide whether Mike Hulme’s new book is: (a) a salutary warning to over-enthusiastic advocates of climate action, (b) a case of over-egging the pudding in regard to same, or (c) and despite protestations to the contrary, a gift to climate deniers. The book has elements of all three, but I confess Hulme’s central assertion, that ‘climatism’ has emerged as a technocratic, pervasive and apocalyptic ‘ideology’ which explains all the world’s ills and claims pre-eminence in policy, strikes me mainly as a case of over-egging the pudding.
References
External links
https://www.geog.cam.ac.uk/people/hulme/ Prof. Hulme page at the University of Cambridge
Book page at Polity Press
Climate change
Environmental issues
Globalization
Sustainable development
Earth sciences
Environmental science
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
World Bank
History of environmentalism
Environmental policy
Global governance | Climate Change Isn't Everything: Liberating Climate Politics from Alarmism | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 1,557 | [
"nan"
] |
75,783,909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feiler%27s%20rat | Feiler's rat (Rattus feileri) is a newly described species of rat from Indonesia. The species is known only from a holotype collected in 1938 on Taliabu Island, and stored in the State Museum of Zoology in Dresden. It is named after German zoologist Albert Feiler.
References
Rattus
Mammals described in 2023
Mammals of Indonesia
Species known from a single specimen | Feiler's rat | [
"Biology"
] | 82 | [
"Individual organisms",
"Species known from a single specimen"
] |
75,785,156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strangler%20fig%20pattern | In programming, the strangler fig pattern or strangler pattern is an architectural pattern that involves wrapping old code, with the intent of redirecting it to newer code or to log uses of the old code. Coined by Martin Fowler, its name derives from the strangler fig plant, which tends to grow on trees and eventually kill them. It has also been called Ship of Theseus pattern, named after a philosophical paradox.
The pattern can be used at the method level or the class level.
Rewrites
One use of this pattern is during software rewrites. Code can be divided into many small sections, wrapped with the strangler fig pattern, then that section of old code can be swapped out with new code before moving on to the next section. This is less risky and more incremental than swapping out the entire piece of software.
The strangler fig pattern can be used on monolithic applications to migrate them to a microservices architecture.
Logging
Another use of this pattern is the addition of logging to old code. For example, logging can be used to see how frequently the code is used in production, which can be used to decide whether to delete low-usage code, or to rewrite high-usage code.
See also
List of software architecture styles and patterns
External links
https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/architecture/patterns/strangler-fig
https://martinfowler.com/bliki/StranglerFigApplication.html
References
Software design patterns | Strangler fig pattern | [
"Technology"
] | 322 | [
"Computing stubs",
"Computer science",
"Computer science stubs"
] |
75,786,010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shape%20of%20the%20atomic%20nucleus | The shape of the atomic nucleus depends on the variety of factors related to the size and shape of its nucleon constituents and the nuclear force holding them together. The origins of nuclear shape begin with the spacial extent (aka root mean squared charge radius) of almost nearly all stable and a great many unstable nuclei has been determined mainly by electron and muon scattering experiments as well as spectroscopic experiments. An important factor in the internal structure of the nucleus is the nucleon-nucleon potential, which ultimately governs the distance between individual nucleons, while a dip in the charge density of some light nuclide structures a lesser density of nucleonic matter. A surprising non-spherical expectation for the shape of the nucleus originated in 1939 in the spectroscopic analysis of the quadrupole moments while the prolate spheroid shape of the nucleon arises from analysis of the intrinsic quadruple moment. The simple spherical approximation of nuclear size and shape provides at best a textbook introduction to nuclear size and shape. The unusual cosmic abundance of alpha nuclides has inspired geometric arrangements of alpha particles as a solution to nuclear shapes, although the atomic nucleus generally assumes a prolate spheroid shape. Nuclides can also be discus-shaped (oblate deformation), triaxial (a combination of oblate and prolate deformation) or pear-shaped.
Origins of nuclear shape
The atomic nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons (collectively called nucleons). In the Standard model of particle physics, nucleons are in the group called hadrons, the smallest known particles in the universe to have measurable size and shape. Each is in turn composed of three quarks. The spatial extent and shape of nucleons (and nuclides assembled from them) ultimately involves quark interactions within and between nucleons. The quark itself does not have measurable size at the experimental limit set by the electron (≈ 10−18 m in diameter). The size, or root mean squared (RMS) charge radius, of the proton (the smallest nuclide) has a 2018 CODATA recommended value of 0.8414 (19) fm (10−15 m), although values may vary by a few percent according to the experimental method employed (see proton radius puzzle). Nuclide size ranges up to ≈ 6 fm. The largest stable nuclide, lead-208, has an RMS charge radius of 5.5012 fm, and the largest unstable nuclide americium-243 has an experimental RMS charge radius of 5.9048 fm. The main source of nuclear radius values derives from elastic scattering experiments (electron and muon), but nuclear radii data also come from experiments on spectroscopic isotope shifts (x-ray and optical), β decay by mirror nuclei, α decay, and neutron scattering. Although the radius values delimit the spatial extent of the nucleus, spectroscopic and scattering experiments dating back to 1935 in many cases indicate a deviation of the nuclear charge distribution or quadrupole moment consistent with non-spherical nuclear shapes for many nuclei.
Simple spherical approximation
The atomic nucleus been depicted as a compact bundle of the two types of nucleons depicted as hard-packed spheres. This depiction of the atomic nucleus only approximates the empirical evidence for the size and shape of the nucleus. The root mean squared (RMS) charge radius of most stable (and many unstable) nuclides have been experimentally determined. If the nucleus is assumed to be spherically symmetric, an approximate relationship between nuclear radius and mass number arises above A=40 from the formula R=RoA1/3 with Ro = 1.2 ± 0.2 fm. R is the predicted spherical nuclear radius, A is the mass number, and Ro is a constant determined by experimental data. This radius to mass relationship has its roots in the liquid drop model as proposed by Gamow in 1930. The graph on the right plots the radius-to-mass of the experimental charge radius (blue line) as compared to the spherical approximation (green line). For light nuclides below A=40, the smooth curvilinear spherical radius plot contrasts with the erratic experimental radius-to-mass. For medium and heavy nuclides above A=40, the plots converge and run approximately parallel when Ro = 1.
Nucleon shape
The empirical knowledge of nucleon shape originates from the study of the transition from the proton ground state N(938) to the first excited state ∆+(1232). Multiple studies using a variety of models have led to an expectation of non-spherical shape. The proton's RMS charge radius of 0.8414 fm only defines the spatial extent of its charge distribution, i.e. the distance from its center of mass to its farthest point. Examination of the angular dependence of the charge distribution indicates that the proton is not a perfect sphere. Model-dependent analyses of the intrinsic quadrupole moment suggests that the ground-state nucleon shape conforms to a prolate spheroid shape.
The intrinsic quadrupole moment is distinct from the spectroscopic quadrupole moment, as realized more than 50 years ago. The intrinsic quadrupole moment relates to a body-fixed coordinate system that rotates with the nucleon in contrast to the spectroscopically measured quadrupole moment. While the nucleon's spectroscopic quadrupole moment is zero due to angular moment selection rules related to spin, the non-zero intrinsic quadrupole is obtained by electromagnetic quadrupole transitions between the nucleon ground N(938) and ∆(1232) excited states. The proton and neutron have nearly the same mass (938 MeV), and may be regarded as one particle, the nucleon N(938),with two different charge states (proton +1, and neutron 0). The proton's N(938) ground state and ∆+(1232) excited state have different shapes. The transition between the states supports a prolate spheroid deformation for the ground state, and an oblate spheroid deformation for the excited state.
The prolate shaped ground state reflects quark-to-quark interactions arising from the Pauli exclusion principle. In the ground state, the two down quarks of a ground-state neutron are in an isospin 1 state, and simultaneously in a spin 1 state in order that the spin-isospin wave function is symmetric. The exclusion principle is built into the anti-symmetric fermionic wave function, thereby forbidding a pair of identical fermions from occupying the same quantum state. In accordance with Pauli exclusion force, the spin-spin repulsive force between identical fermions pushes like-flavored quarks further apart. Conversely, when the spins of a pair of unlike fermions align, such as an up-/down-quark pair within a ground-state nucleon, the nuclear force is attractive and draws the particles close to other each other without violating the Pauli exclusion principle. Within the ground state neutron, this results in a picture of the spin interactions (above) in which the two down quarks (like fermions) qualitatively repel to either end of the prolate nucleon structure while simultaneously attracting to the up quark (unlike fermion) in the middle. Similar spin-spin interactions play out in the proton, considered identical to the neutron but existing in a different charge state.
Electron scattering techniques pioneered by Robert Hofstadter gave the first indication of a deeper structure for the nucleon. The technique is similar in principle to Rutherford's gold foil experiment in which alpha particles are directed at a thin gold foil, but Hofstadter's use of electrons, rather than alpha particles, enabled much higher resolution. The radial charge density of the neutron in particular was shown to have a complex internal structure consisting of a positive core and a negative skin, qualitatively consistent with the neutron's quark charge distribution shown above. Hofstadter received a Nobel prize for this work in 1961, several years before Murray Gell-Mann posited the quark model in 1965.
Space between nucleons
The atomic nucleus is a bound system of protons and neutrons. The spatial extent and shape of the nucleus depend not only on the size and shape of discrete nucleons, but also on the distance between them (the inter-nucleon distance). (Other factors include spin, alignment, orbital motion, and the local nuclear environment (see EMC effect).) The proximity of adjacent nucleons is governed by the nucleon-nucleon potential, and the force between a pair of nucleons can be obtained by taking the derivative of the potential. The strong nuclear force between nucleons is short-range, and the interaction between a pair of nucleons depends on the distance between them . Below 0.5 fm, each nucleon has a repulsive hard core that prevents neighboring nucleons from approaching any closer. Repulsive and attractive forces balance at ≈ 0.8 fm, and become maximally attractive at ≈ 1.0 fm, as illustrated in the diagram. Because energy is required to separate them, the pair of nucleons are said to be in a bound state. The proton-neutron (p-n) bound state, or p-n pair, is stable and ubiquitous in baryonic matter. The p-n pair contributes implicitly to the top ten most abundant isotopes in the universe, eight of which contain equal numbers of protons and neutrons (see Oddo-Harkins rule and abundance of the elements). Conversely, the proton-proton (diproton) and neutron-neutron (dineutron) bound states are unstable and therefore rarely found in nature. The deuteron (the simplest p-n pair) does not have a spherical shape owing to its quadrupole moment. The transverse charge density of the deuteron now confirms a prolate or elongated shape.
Soft core of light nuclides
Electron scattering techniques have yielded clues as to the internal structure of light nuclides. Proton-neutron pairs experience a strongly repulsive component of the nuclear force within ≈ 0.5 fm (see "Space between nucleons" above). As nucleons cannot pack any closer, nearly all nuclei have the same central density. While this statement generally holds true for nuclides above calcium-40, electron scattering experiments of many of the lighter nuclides reveal a nuclear core that is remarkably less dense then the rest of the nucleus. Model-independent analyses of nuclear charge densities for both He-3 and He-4, for example, indicate a significant central depression within a radius of 0.8 fm. Other light nuclides, including carbon-12 and oxygen-16, exhibit similar off-center charge density maxima. A lower radial charge density within the nuclear core reflects a lower likelihood that scattering electrons will encounter a nucleon near the center of the nucleus compared to the surrounding nuclear structure.
Alpha particle as possible building block
Although the proton and the neutron are the building blocks of the atomic nucleus, the unusual natural abundance of alpha nuclides has prompted investigations of the role of the alpha particle, or helium-4 nucleus, as a potential building block of matter. Alpha cluster models envision the atomic nucleus as having discrete alpha particles that occupy average relative positions. Hydrogen makes up 74% of the ordinary baryonic matter of the universe, but 99% of the remaining matter is contained within just eight nuclides (^{4}_{2}He, ^{12}_{6}C, ^{14}_{7}N, ^{16}_{8}O, ^{20}_{10}Ne, ^{24}_{12}Mg, ^{28}_{14}Si, and ^{32}_{16}S), seven of which are alpha nuclides. In the table below, the shapes of these nuclides may correspond to simple geometric arrangements of alpha particles, with associated radius predictions.
Heavier nuclides
For many medium-to-heavy nuclides, in particular those far from the magic numbers of protons and neutrons, a spherical model of the atomic nucleus is incompatible with observed large quadrupole moments, indicating that lower potential energy is obtained for an ellipsoidal shape than for a spherical nucleus of the same volume. In general, their ground states tend towards a prolate shape, although experimental data hint at oblate ground-state shapes in certain nuclei, for example krypton-72. Experiments also suggest that some heavy nuclei, such as barium-144 and radium-224, possess asymmetric pear shapes evidenced by their measured octupole moments. It is also possible for a nucleus to adopt different shapes in states with a similar excitation energy, which is referred to as shape coexistence. For example, the ground states of krypton-74 and krypton-76 have prolate shapes, but there is evidence for oblate-shape excited structures in these nuclei appearing at low excitation energy. In this particular case, the shapes of coexisting structures tend to mix together.
References
Chemistry
Nuclear physics | Shape of the atomic nucleus | [
"Physics"
] | 2,762 | [
"Nuclear physics"
] |
75,786,308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaving%20the%20world%20a%20better%20place | Leaving the world a better place, often called the campground rule, or just leaving things better than you found them, is an ethical proposition that individuals should go beyond trying not to do harm in the world, and should try to remediate harms done by others.
History and application
This ethic was articulated by Bessie Anderson Stanley in 1911 (in a quote often misattributed to Ralph Waldo Emerson): "To leave the world a bit better, whether by a healthy child, a garden patch or a redeemed social condition; To know even one life has breathed easier because you have lived. This is to have succeeded." In his last message to the Boy Scouts, founder Robert Baden-Powell wrote: "Try and leave this world a little better than you found it and when your turn comes to die, you can die happy in feeling that at any rate you have not wasted your time but have done your best". American writer William Gaddis, in his 1985 novel, Carpenter's Gothic, disputed the wisdom of this ethic, writing: "Finally realize you can't leave things better than you found them the best you can do is try not to leave them any worse . . ."
Dan Savage, in his syndicated sex-advice column, Savage Love has articulated a variation of the rule for relationships, which he calls the "campsite rule", stating that in any relationship, but particularly those with a large difference of age or experience between the partners, the older or more experienced partner has the responsibility to leave the younger or less experienced partner in at least as good a state (emotionally and physically) as before the relationship. The "campsite rule" includes things like leaving the younger or less experienced partner with no STDs, no unwanted pregnancies, and not overburdening them with emotional and sexual baggage. In 2013, humorist Alexandra Petri premiered a sex comedy play, The Campsite Rule, based on Savage's rule. Savage also created a companion rule, the "tea and sympathy rule" in reference to a line in the play, Tea and Sympathy, in which an older woman asks of a high-school-age boy, right before having sex with him: "Years from now, when you talk about this – and you will – be kind". The companion rule imposes on the younger person in the relationship the requirement to be kind to an older partner who followed the "campsite rule".
In 2015, a crowdsourcing competition to rethink the Ten Commandments called the Rethink Prize included "Leave the world a better place than you found it" as one of the ten winning beliefs selected by a panel of judges. Augustana College bioethicist Deke Gould invoked the "campground rule" in a 2021 article advocating "efforts to design future minds—whether these are full artificial, enhanced biological, or postbiological ones—should aim to produce minds that are not relevantly human‐like".
See also
Beneficence (ethics)
Leave No Trace
Leave the gate as you found it
Primum non nocere ("First, do no harm")
References
Environmental ethics
Environmental sayings
Ethical principles | Leaving the world a better place | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 651 | [
"Environmental ethics"
] |
75,786,449 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%2084607 | HD 84607 (HR 3879; 1 G. Sextantis) is a solitary star located in the equatorial constellation Sextans. It is faintly visible to the naked eye as a yellowish-white hued point of light with an apparent magnitude of 5.64. The object is located relatively close at a distance of 250 light-years based on Gaia DR3 parallax measurements, but it is receding with a heliocentric radial velocity of . At its current distance, HD 84607's brightness is diminished by an interstellar extinction of 0.18 magnitudes and it has an absolute magnitude +1.12.
HD 84607 has a stellar classification of F0/2 IV, indicating that it is a slightly evolved star with the characteristics of a F0 and F2 subgiant. At the age of 1.06 billion years, the star is ceasing hydrogen fusion at its core and is cooling and expanding onto the red giant branch. It has 2.01 times the mass of the Sun and a slightly enlarged radius 3.43 times that of the Sun. It radiates 26.29 times the luminosity of the Sun from its photosphere at an effective temperature of . HD 84607 is metal enriched with an iron abundance of [Fe/H] = +0.14 or 138% of the Sun's and it spins fairly quickly with a projected rotational velocity of within 1.51 days.
References
F-type subgiants
Sextans
Sextantis, 1
BD+02 02246
084607
047960
3879
00455274792 | HD 84607 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 341 | [
"Sextans",
"Constellations"
] |
75,786,487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey%20B.%20Remmel | Jeffrey Brian Remmel (October 12, 1948 September 29, 2017) was an American mathematician employed by the University of California, San Diego. At the time of his death he held a distinguished professorship—his title was Distinguished Professor of Mathematics; he also held a position as a professor of computer science.
Personal life
Remmel was born on October 12, 1948, in Clintonville, Wisconsin. He died aged 68 at Scripps Memorial Hospital in La Jolla, California on September 29, 2017, with a reported cause of death being a heart attack.
Education
Remmel received a Bachelor of Arts degree in mathematics from Swarthmore College in 1970. Later, he received two degrees from Cornell University—a Master of Science in mathematics and a Doctor of Philosophy, also in math (1972 and 1974, respectively). At Cornell, he was advised by Anil Nerode, and his dissertation was entitled Co-recursively Enumerable Structures.
Career
After obtaining his Ph.D., though before he had published a single paper, Remmel joined the faculty of the University of California, San Diego as an assistant professor, where he worked for his entire career. Remmel was noted for his successful publication record in two separate fields—logic, in which he published in mathematical logic; and combinatorics, where he published papers on algebraic combinatorics. He published over 20 papers in logic with Victor W. Marek, and Remmel's more prominent career in combinatorics included over 20 co-authored papers with Sergey Kitaev. A double issue of the Journal of Combinatorics was published in his memory.
Remmel's work is highly cited in the fields of vector spaces, including computably enumerable sets and vector spaces.
References
Notes
1948 births
2017 deaths
People from Clintonville, Wisconsin
People from La Jolla, San Diego
Swarthmore College alumni
Cornell University alumni
University of California, San Diego faculty
American mathematicians
American mathematics educators
Mathematical logicians
Computability theorists
American computer scientists
American computer science educators
Combinatorialists | Jeffrey B. Remmel | [
"Mathematics"
] | 414 | [
"Mathematical logic",
"Combinatorialists",
"Combinatorics",
"Mathematical logicians"
] |
75,786,880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Award%20of%20Merit%20-%20Association%20for%20Information%20Science%20and%20Technology | The Award of Merit is bestowed by the Association for Information Science and Technology. It is an annual prize to an individual for a lifetime of achievement that recognizes sustained contributions to and/or achievements in the field of information science and/or the professions in which it is practiced. The Award of Merit was first given in 1964 to Hans Peter Luhn.
References
Information science awards
Information scientists
Library and information science
Awards established in the 1960s
Science and technology awards
Lists of award winners | Award of Merit - Association for Information Science and Technology | [
"Technology"
] | 94 | [
"Science and technology awards",
"Information science awards"
] |
75,787,516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panasonic%20Connect | Panasonic Connect Co., Ltd. was established on April 1, 2022, as part of the Panasonic Group's switch to an operating company system, a move which gives authority to each company to operate independently. It was formerly called Panasonic Connected Solutions Company. Along with the company name change, it also adopted a new brand logo. Headquartered in Tokyo, Japan, the company provides products for the supply chain, public service, infrastructure, and entertainment sectors. The company has approximately 28,500 employees under its umbrella with regional sales companies in North America, Europe, Asia, and Oceania.
Main businesses
Panasonic Connect consists of consolidated business divisions and independent subsidiaries including: the Gemba Solutions Company (formerly Panasonic System Solutions Japan Co., Ltd.) responsible for sales in Japan; the Process Automation Business Division which provides electronic component mounting machines and welding equipment; the Media Entertainment Business Division which provides projectors, broadcasting cameras, and sound systems; the Mobile Solutions Business Division which provides mobile devices and PCs; Panasonic Avionics Corporation which provides in-flight entertainment systems and connectivity for commercial airlines; Zetes Industries S.A. which deals in logistics traceability and people identification services; as well as the supply chain software company Blue Yonder which became a wholly owned subsidiary in September 2021. In May 2022, the company announced plans for the preparation of a stock exchange listing of its supply chain management businesses, centering on Blue Yonder.
References
Japanese brands
Panasonic
Computer hardware companies
Technology companies of Japan
Manufacturing companies of Japan
Electronics companies of Japan
Supply chain software companies
Avionics companies | Panasonic Connect | [
"Technology"
] | 329 | [
"Computer hardware companies",
"Computers"
] |
75,789,898 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susana%20Vinga | Susana Vinga is currently associate professor at Instituto Superior Técnico/Universidade de Lisboa (IST/ULisboa) at the Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering (DEI) and the Dept. of Bioengineering (DBE). She is a Senior Researcher at INESC-ID in the Information and Decision Support Systems lab. She received a degree in Mechanical Engineering from Instituto Superior Técnico (1999) and a PhD in Biology/Bioinformatics at ITQB/Univ. Nova de Lisboa (2005). Before this position, she was Principal Investigator (Investigador FCT) at IDMEC. Susana was part of the Board of Directors at INESC-ID between 2021 and 2023 and is a Senior Editorial Board Member of BMC Bioinformatics, a top journal in Mathematical and Computational Biology, PLoS ONE, and Genes.
She has successfully coordinated as Principal Investigator several national projects and participated in several national and European projects as a team member and work package leader in the areas of Biotechnology and Computational Biology. Since January 2021, she is the PI of the European H2020 Twinning project OLISSIPO - Fostering Computational Biology Research and Innovation in Lisbon, which aims to strengthen INESC-ID/IST research profile in Computational Biology. By promoting several training activities in this area, OLISSIPO contributed to leverage the skills of Early-Stage Researchers in Portugal and around Europe.
Publications
She has published in high-impact journals, achieving a Google h-index=29 with more than 4355 citations. Among main achievements in the development of methods for Genomics, she coined the area of alignment-free biological sequence analysis and comparison in a review, which is one of the most cited paper in Portugal in Computer Science. Susana wrote a book chapter on Biological sequence analysis by vector-valued functions.
In 2021, she integrated the Stanford’s list of the World’s top 2% most-cited researchers in 2021 via Elsevier. The same achievement was repeated in 2023.
Awards
In 2010, she was granted the Young Research Award of the Technical University of Lisbon, and in 2017 and 2022, she was awarded the Scientific Award from Universidade de Lisboa/CGD in the area of Computer Science and Engineering for the impact of her publications.
References
Living people
20th-century births
Year of birth missing (living people)
Bioinformaticians
Portuguese computer scientists
Women bioinformaticians
Portuguese women computer scientists | Susana Vinga | [
"Biology"
] | 517 | [
"Bioinformatics",
"Bioinformaticians"
] |
75,791,592 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN%202022jli | SN 2022jli is a Type Ic supernova discovered in 2022 in the spiral galaxy NGC 157 at a distance of about 23 Mpc. The light curve of the supernova exhibited oscillations that are interpreted as an interaction of a companion star of the star that exploded with a compact object, probably a neutron star or a black hole.
Discovery
SN 2022jli was discovered by astronomer at Kleinkaroo Observatory, who reported it to the Transient Name Server (TNS) on May 5, 2022, as AT 2022jli. The supernova was offset north and west of the NGC 157 galactic core. It was independently detected by the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) survey on May 16, 2022, and given the internal name ATLAS22oat. Due to an initial astrometric error in the TNS report, ATLAS incorrectly registered it as a separate object AT 2022jzy. This duplication was later removed from TNS records to confirm both discoveries as the same supernova SN 2022jli.
Another supernova found in NGC 157 is SN 2009em.
Observations
Photometry of SN 2022jli was obtained by the Zwicky Transient Facility (internal name ZTF22aapubuy), ESA's Gaia space telescope (internal name Gaia22cbu), ASAS-SN, Liverpool Telescope, Las Cumbres Observatory, and the Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory. A single radio observation was made with MERLIN.
The extensive photometric observations reveal periodic undulations or bumps in the declining light curve with a period of 12.5 ± 0.2 days. This repeating pattern of oscillations is observed across multiple filters and instruments over many cycles, the first unambiguous detection of periodicity in a supernova light curve. SN 2022jli displays an extreme early excess in luminosity that declines over about 25 days before rising to the main peak. The total rise time to maximum brightness is ≥59 days, much longer than typical for stripped-envelope core-collapse supernovae. At peak luminosity of 10^42.1 erg/s, SN 2022jli is within the normal brightness range for Type Ic supernovae. Simple light curve modeling indicates a large ejecta mass around 12 ± 6 solar masses. Spectra show features typical of Type Ic supernovae, with iron, calcium and sodium P Cygni profiles. The velocities derived from Fe II lines are initially high at 8500 km/s but decline slowly over time. The source of the early excess and periodic oscillations is uncertain, but plausible explanations include interaction of the ejecta with circumstellar material or a binary companion star. The periodicity may arise from concentric shells of CSM or repeated episodes of accretion onto a compact object.
References
Further reading
Supernovae
Cetus | SN 2022jli | [
"Chemistry",
"Astronomy"
] | 603 | [
"Supernovae",
"Astronomical events",
"Cetus",
"Constellations",
"Explosions"
] |
75,795,241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petra%20Isenberg | Petra Isenberg (née Neumann) is a computer scientist specializing in collaborative and interactive information visualization and in human–computer interaction. Educated in the US, Germany, Taiwan, and Canada, she has worked in the Netherlands and France, where she is a director of research for the French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation (Inria), affiliated with the Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire des Sciences du Numérique (LISN) at Paris-Saclay University.
Education and career
After secondary school at Stephen Decatur High School (Maryland) in the US and the in Welzheim, Germany, Isenberg earned a diplom (German equivalent of a master's degree) in engineering in 2004 from Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg in Germany; her studies for this degree also included a term as a research intern at National Taiwan University. She went to the University of Calgary in Canada for doctoral study in computer science; her 2009 dissertation, Co-located Collaborative Information Visualization, was supervised by Sheelagh Carpendale.
After a stint as a visiting researcher at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands, Isenberg began working for Inria in 2010. She was promoted to director of research in 2022.
Recognition
Isenberg was named to the IEEE Visualization Academy in 2023.
References
External links
Home page
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Computer scientists
Women computer scientists
Data and information visualization experts
Human–computer interaction researchers
Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg alumni
University of Calgary alumni | Petra Isenberg | [
"Technology"
] | 313 | [
"Computer science",
"Computer scientists"
] |
75,795,534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Ring | The Big Ring is a ring-shaped large-scale structure formed by galaxies and galaxy clusters near the constellation Boötes with a diameter of 1.3 billion light years, located 9.2 billion light years away. It was discovered in 2024 by Alexia Lopez, a PhD student at the University of Central Lancashire. In 2021, she discovered the Giant Arc, a similar structure located in the same region. It is a significant astronomical discovery, as it challenges the Cosmological Principle. Currently, there is no known cause for its formation within our current understanding of the universe. The Big Ring is the seventh large structure discovered that contradicts the understanding of smooth matter distribution across the largest scale of the universe.
Characteristics
The Big Ring is composed of numerous galaxies and galaxy clusters that form a continuous, almost perfect ring-like pattern in space. With its diameter of 1.3 billion light years and a circumference of 4 billion light years, it is one of the largest known structures within the observable universe. The structure is made up of many galaxy clusters and galaxies of various types. Some regions of the ring are denser than others, indicating variations in the mass and number of galaxies present. It exceeds the theoretical size limit of cosmic formations, which calculated to be 1.2 billion light-years. This was previously thought to be impossible, as there wasn't enough time to be had for such a large structure to form.
Discovery
The discovery of the Big Ring was announced on 10 January 2024 by PhD student Alexia Lopez from the University of Central Lancashire. It resulted from her ongoing research into large-scale structures of the universe using MgII (singly ionized magnesium) absorbers detected in quasar spectra from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). Lopez focused her attention on this region of the cosmos because of her previous work on the Giant Arc. Through examining absorption lines in the spectra of quasars, Lopez and her team were able to identify intervening Magnesium-II (MgII) absorption systems. These absorption lines, back-lit by distant quasars, revealed the presence of a massive, ring-like structure.
One theory suggested the structure to be related to Baryonic Acoustic Oscillations (BAOs), however, due to its large scale and non-spherical shape, it was incompatible with this theory. Other suggested explanations were Conformal Cyclic Cosmology or effects of speculative cosmic strings (which are filamentary ‘topological defects’ of great size) passing through. Despite these hypotheses, the exact cause of these two structures remains unknown.
Significance
The discoveries of the Big Ring as well as the Giant Arc are significant as they challenge the Cosmological Principle, which asserts that the universe is homogeneous and isotropic on large scales. Currently, there is no theoretical model to account for the existence of the gigantic galactic formations. Lopez stated “Neither of these two ultra-large structures is easy to explain in our current understanding of the universe."
See also
Huge-LQG
Sloan Great Wall
CfA2 Great Wall
South Pole Wall
BOSS Great Wall
Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall
Galaxy filament
List of largest cosmic structures
References
Large-scale structure of the cosmos
Boötes
20240110 | Big Ring | [
"Astronomy"
] | 661 | [
"Boötes",
"Constellations"
] |
75,795,633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiades%20Phenomenon | The Pleiades Phenomenon refers to the chance encounter between a star and an interstellar cloud of dust that leads to the appearance of a reflection nebulosity with characteristics similar to those observed in the Pleiades open star cluster. This contrasts against reflection nebulae surrounding young stars where the dust is the remnant of star formation. The term Pleiades Phenomenon was coined by astronomer Paul Kalas who discovered five nebulosities not related to star forming regions using a coronagraph. The nebulosities were found to have "linear, filamentary, striated morphological structure" located between 1000 and 100,000 astronomical units from each star. A subsequent study of infrared sources in the Small Magellanic Cloud found evidence for the Pleiades Phenomenon outside of the Milky Way.
References
Astronomical hypotheses | Pleiades Phenomenon | [
"Astronomy"
] | 167 | [
"Astronomical hypotheses",
"Astronomical controversies"
] |
75,795,846 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%207800 | NGC 7800 is an irregular galaxy located around 70 million light-years away in the constellation Pegasus. It was discovered on the 24th of December in 1783 by William Herschel. NGC 7800 is not known to have an active galactic nucleus, and is not known to have much star-forming regions.
References
External links
More on NGC 7800
Irregular galaxies
Pegasus (constellation)
7800
12885
+02-01-007
23570+1431
073177
073177
Astronomical objects discovered in 1783
Discoveries by William Herschel | NGC 7800 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 110 | [
"Pegasus (constellation)",
"Galaxy stubs",
"Astronomy stubs",
"Constellations"
] |
75,797,186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triangular%20arch | In architecture, a triangular arch (sometimes angular arch) typically defines an arch where the intrados (inner surface of an arch) consists of two straight segments formed by two stone slabs leaning against each other. In this roof-like arrangement, mitre joint is usually used at the crown, thus the arch was in the past also called a mitre arch. Brick builders would call triangular any arch with straight inclined sides. Mayan corbel arches are also sometimes called triangular due to their shape.
Since the sides of a triangular arch are experiencing bending stress, it is a false arch in a structural sense (historically preceding the invention of true arches and going back to Neolithic times). The design was used in Anglo-Saxon England until the late 11th century (St Mary Goslany) over small openings.
See also
Pediment, a triangular gable
References
Sources | Triangular arch | [
"Engineering"
] | 174 | [
"Architecture stubs",
"Architecture"
] |
75,797,438 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kensington%20Computer%20Products%20Group | Kensington Computer Products Group is an American manufacturer of personal computer peripherals. The company produces peripherals including docking stations, mice, and the eponymous Kensington Lock security cable. Headquartered in Burlingame, California, Kensington is a division of ACCO Brands .
History
Co-founded by Philip Damiano as Kensington Microware in 1981, their first product was called the System Saver, an accessory for the Apple IIe that added a cooling fan and surge protection. In 1986, the company was acquired by ACCO Brands. Kensington's first trackball mouse was the Turbo Mouse for Macintosh released in 1986 and trackballs have since been one of the major offerings by the company. Their first laptop physical security lock was made in 1992.
Kensington also produced accessories for portable devices like the iPod, including the Stereo Dock in 2005.
Products
Kensington primarily sells computer accessories, such as mice and keyboards as well as power supplies and anti-theft systems for computers and electronic devices. They have also made cases for laptops and other consumer electronics, such as the KeyFolio Expert protective case for iPad. The use of the accessories is aimed at both fixed and mobile workstations.The company offers the Kensington Lock, an anti-theft system for laptops and other peripherals, together with a range of individual locking systems with various options to secure computing devices such as laptops, desktops, projectors, TFTs and external hard drives.
References
External links
ACCO Brands
Computer companies of the United States
Computer hardware companies
Security | Kensington Computer Products Group | [
"Technology"
] | 304 | [
"Computer hardware companies",
"Computers"
] |
75,798,769 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annulohypoxylon%20annulatum | Annulohypoxylon annulatum is a pyrenomycete, a carbonaceous fungus that produces its ascospores in perithecia (flask shaped container), and then shoots them out through an opening called the ostiole. Annulohypoxylon was derived from the original genus Hypoxylon in 2005 and is distinguished by their flat, disk-like rings encircling the ostioles (hence the annulo- prefix). The stromata (fruiting bodies) of A. annulatum are semi-globose to cushion-like and are black in color. They are covered in ostioles (pimple-like in appearance) surrounded by a flat disc area. A hand lens may be needed in order to see this. This species commonly grows on oak and when crushed and mixed with potassium hydroxide will produce an olive green pigment. Microscopically, "ascospores brown to dark brown, ellipsoid-inequilateral, 7.5–12 × 3.5–5 μm, with straight germ slit spore-length".
References
Xylariales
Fungi described in 1825
Taxa named by Lewis David de Schweinitz
Fungus species | Annulohypoxylon annulatum | [
"Biology"
] | 262 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
75,798,967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bunamidine | Bunamidine is an anthelmintic drug used in veterinary medicine to treat infections by tapeworm parasites of the genus Taenia; thus it is classified as a taeniacide.
It is also effective against Echinococcus granulosus (dog tapeworm) and Hymenolepis diminuta (rat tapeworm).
References
Anthelmintics
Veterinary drugs
Naphthalenes
Amidines
Butyl compounds | Bunamidine | [
"Chemistry"
] | 87 | [
"Bases (chemistry)",
"Amidines",
"Functional groups"
] |
75,799,084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiovascular%20health%20awareness%20in%20Nepal | Cardiovascular health awareness in Nepal has improved in recent times. It has emerged as a cost-effective tool for prevention of heart disease in recent years.
Background
Cardiovascular diseases in Nepal is responsible for maximum number of deaths and rapid urbanization possess extra threat in this situation emphasizing need for widespread awareness campaigns.
Efforts to enhance cardiovascular health awareness among the general public, particularly through social media platforms, have proven pivotal in motivating individuals to adopt healthier lifestyle choices and improve heart health in Nepal in recent years. These awareness initiatives, often organized on special occasions such as World Heart Day of World Heart Federation, World Hypertension Day, and World Health Day of World Health Organization, have garnered active participation from the public, reflecting a growing interest in health-related information.
Notably, various hospitals, organizations, and health professionals actively contribute to cardiovascular health awareness in Nepal. The prevalence of heart health-related content on social media platforms indicates a substantial dissemination of information. The engagement of a large number of followers underscores the audience's keen interest in health matters, evident in the significant engagement on various social media accounts and pages.
During an event of cardiovascular health awareness a Guinness World Record was achieved on World Heart Day 2023. A Facebook live awareness programme on heart health prevention attracted 11,212 viewers during the 30-minute presentation and was awarded the "Most viewers for a cardiovascular health awareness live stream on Facebook" by Guinness World Record signifying depth of public involvement and importance of social media use in health awareness.
In 2014, a 11-day heart camp was conducted in Nepal to raise awareness .
References
Health in Nepal
Cardiovascular diseases
Health awareness days
Social media
Health campaigns | Cardiovascular health awareness in Nepal | [
"Technology"
] | 331 | [
"Computing and society",
"Social media"
] |
69,951,332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics%20of%20open%20science | The economics of open science describe the economic aspects of making a wide range of scientific outputs (publication, data, software) to all levels of society.
Open science involves a plurality of economic models and goods. Journals and other academic institutions (like learned societies) have historically favored a knowledge club or a toll access model: publications are managed as a community service for the selected benefit of academic readers and authors. During the second half of the 20th century, the "big 5" largest publishers (Elsevier, Springer, Wiley, Taylor & Francis and the American Chemical Society) have partly absorbed or outcompeted non-profits structure and applied an industrial approach to scholarly publishing.
The development of the web shifted the focus of scholarly communication from publication to a large variety of outputs (data, software, metrics). It also challenged the values and the organization of existing actors with the development of an international initiatives in favor of open access and open science. While initially distanced by new competitors, the main commercial publishers have started to flip to author-pay models after 2000, funded through article processing charges and the negotiation of transformative deals. Actors like Elsevier or Wiley have diversified their activities from journal ownership to data analytics by developing a vertical integration of tools, database and metrics monitoring academic activities. The structuration of a global open science movement, the enlargement of scientific readership beyond professional researchers and increasing concerns for the sustainability of key infrastructures has enabled the development of open science commons. Journals, platforms, infrastructures and repositories have been increasingly structured around a shared ecosystem of services and self-governance principles.
The costs and benefits of open science are difficult to assess due to the coexistence of several economic models and the untraceability of open diffusion. Open publishing is less costly overall than subscription models, on account of reduced externalities and economies of scale. Yet the conversion of leading publishers to open science has entailed a significant increased in article processing charges, as the prestige of well-known journals make it possible to extract a high consent to pay. Open science brings significant efficiency gain to academic research, especially regarding bibliographic and data search, identification of previous findings and text and data mining projects. Theses benefits extend to non-academic research, as open access to data and publications eases the development of new commercial services and products. Although the overall economic and social impact of open science could be high, it has been hardly estimated.
The development of open science has created new forms of economic regulations of scientific publishing, as funders and institutions has come to acknowledged that this sector no longer operated in normal market conditions. International coordinations like the cOAlitionS attempt to set up global rules and norms on to manage the transition to open science.
Economic models
Debates on the economic theory of open science have been largely influenced by the classic typology of economic goods between Private goods, Public goods, Club goods and Common-pool resources. According to a common definition matrix gradually developed by Paul Samuelson, Ricard Musgrave and Elinor Ostrom, private goods and club goods are exclusive (they cannot be freely shared and are exclusively used by owners or members), while private goods and common goods are rivalrous (they cannot be consumed simultaneously).
In theory, the outputs of open science could be defined as public goods: they are not exclusive (free-licensed publications, data or software can be shared without restriction) and they are not substractive (they can be indefinitely copied). In 2017 an OECD report underlined that research data "exhibit public good characteristics" as "it is not exhausted in consumption (i.e. it can be consumed many times without being diminished), and it may be inefficient to exclude potential users". For Elinor Ostrom and Charlotte Hess this approach does not fit with the actual uses and constraints of knowledge online. Like shared natural resources, the outputs of open science can be polluted, exhausted or enclosed: "The parallel, yet contradictory trends, where, on the one hand, there is unprecedented access to information through the Internet but where, on the other, there are ever-greater restrictions on access (...) indicate the deep and perplexing characteristics of this resource". Additionally, in contrast to other forms of knowledge commons, open science actors continue to enforce exclusion rules for the creation, curation and administration of resources: "the scientific and scholarly commons furnishes information input into a scientific discovery but the Mertonian norms of priority award the property rights in the claim to whoever is first to publish."
The leading definitions of open access and open science are sufficiently ambiguous to allow for a plurality of allocation systems: "open access is a boundary object that does not refer to a common set of practices, assumptions or principles." Consequently, uses and models of open science can span the entire typology of economic goods:
The coexistence of the differing economic models of open science remains an evolving process. Competing narratives of the future of open access involve all the potential axis of open science goods: they include the disruption of legacy scientific publisher by new competitors, the transformation of private scientific goods into public goods and the rehabilitation of community-led governance. Nikos Koutras has argued for a structural inflexion of the role of commercial publishers, which would act more as editorial service than gatekeeper, as "it is feasible for authors to not rely on [them]".
Models of open science are embedded into wider socio-economic structures. North-South inequalities remain a major structural factor, that affect not only the access and use of open science output, but also the way the discourses and representations on open science.
Open science club
The economic theory of club goods was originally developed in the 1965 by James Buchanan to complement the distinction between private and public goods. While clubs are private organizations they also manage the allocation of the resources between the individual members, in a similar manner to a public service. Membership criteria are a fundamental feature of clubs and affect their efficiency: "The central question in a theory of clubs is that of determining the membership margin, so to speak, the size of the most desirable cost and consumption sharing arrangement."
Definitions of knowledge club
Before the Second World War, academic publishing was mostly characterized by a wide range of community-driven scholarly structures with little concerns for profitability. They relied on informal community norms rather than commercial regulations. Theses structures have been described as knowledge clubs: "until the second part of the twentieth century, most journals could be assimilated to a club model".
While managed by a community and publicly available, knowledge club are demic and mostly used to the benefit of their members. As a defining feature of the club model, scientific authors are not paid for their publications: "ever since the first scientific journals were founded in 1665 in London and Paris, journals have not paid authors for articles." Acknowledgment and recognition by the relevant community of peers is the main incentive: "intangible rewards (made nearly tangible in tenure and promotion) compensate scholars for relinquishing royalties on their journal articles".
Users and consumers of club goods are basically the same population as the core readers of scientific journals are also their core contributors: "the set of potential producers and the set of incumbent consumers are the same set". Determination of relevant membership and exclusion criteria plays a fundamental role in the management of the club. In contrast with other forms of clubs (such as Health clubs), membership criteria of knowledge clubs are not enforced strictly but stem from widespread conventions: it "happens quite naturally (i.e. culturally) in scholarly knowledge clubs by simple cost of access in time and language." As there are no formal process of adhesion, knowledge club can be joined by non-reliable members, so long as they are willing to devote the necessary time to demonstrate they adhere to common cultural values and customs: "Hostile pranks, such as the Sokal hoax/fraud, demonstrate that clubs may be hoodwinked by outsiders who apparently ‘speak their language’ but are in fact using it to challenge their knowledge."
The concept of knowledge club has highlighted the continuities between scientific publications and other form of restrictive associations. Journals are strongly embedded in wider institutional networks and communities and cannot be dissociated from it: "More specialized journals appeared in the 18th and 19th centuries, most of which were published by learned societies. Only at the end of the 19th century did university presses gain importance as publishers of scholarly journals". While in their daily management knowledge clubs are not strictly separated from other economic actors, the interests of the community takes precedence over any other economic incentive: "we see a journal as a club in which access to these services is internalised as a membership benefit. While the services might still be outsourced, in practice it can be seen that such a shift potentially has substantial political and economic consequences as to how we see the relations among players." As adhesion to the club is not exclusionary, researchers are usually part of a complex network of clubs: "Membership of an academic institution with the relevant benefits, including access to subscription content, is another parallel club (...) Further work will be needed to define those situations which are better analysed as complex clubs, with differential membership contributions, and those situations where multiple clubs are interacting."
Community-lead journals have been progressively acquired or outcompeted by large international publishers after the Second World War: "The small society presses, struggling to cope with growing scale, were supported and then largely supplanted by the ‘Big 5’ commercial presses". While the knowledge club has receded, some of its conventions have persisted: "academic journals have retained their club-like qualities through blind peer review (even more through open review), and via editorial boards that are carefully constructed to ‘send the right signals’ in order to build prestige and quality assurance". The evaluation of scientific journal remained largely performed as a community service, with researchers submitting peer-reviews for free. Journals continued to be officially managed by editorial committee, although in a context of ownership by a large industrial structure, their authority and their ability to set the policy of the publication is limited. Both the authors and the audience of academic publication have primarily non-commercial incitations: "When publishing articles in academic journals, most scholars are predominantly motivated by curiosity, priority and the expected gain in reputation, and much less so by any monetary rewards for the actual publications."
Knowledge club and open science
The OA Diamond Study states that non-commercial journals in open access "maintain a secular tradition of “club” journals, set up for the uses and interests of a specific closed community of knowledge." While access to read is no longer a material condition for membership, non-commercial journals are still largely managed for the benefits of a community. They are "still strongly embedded in institutional environments (from a legal and governance perspective)."
Club journals have gained a new relevance with the development of electronic publishing and played a fundamental role in the early development of online open science in the early 1990s. Pioneers of open access electronic publishings were non-commercial and community-driven initiatives that built up on a trend of grassroot publishing innovation in the social sciences and the humanities: "In the late ‘80s and early ‘90s, a host of new journal titles launched on listservs and (later) the Web. Journals such as Postmodern Cultures, Surfaces, the Bryn Mawr Classical Review and the Public-Access Computer Systems Review were all managed by scholars and library workers rather than publishing professionals."
The development of the web and free editing tools for scientific publications like Open Journal System made it possible to run non-commercial journals and apply automated editorial routines at a limited cost: "model made economic sense as outsourced specialisation, but technological change has upended that logic by dramatically lowering the cost of in-house production." Equipment in personal computers has additionally reinforced the free exchange of services among club members, as new contributions could be made beyond peer review evaluation: "The wide availability of desktop hardware and software enabled new capabilities among authors, and an expectation from publishers that authors would self-manage much of the layout and editing of articles." Unless they had largely transformed their publication in a commercial activity, knowledge clubs and historical scientific societies have embraced open access: since 2014, the Royal Society has published the Royal Society Open Science journal.
New forms of research infrastructure developed in the context of open science have also retained some features of a "club model". While they create and manage a common or a public goods, reearch data repositories are frequently developed for the selected benefit and prestige of a few institutions: "In the case of research data repositories, such a “privileged” situation may arise for research funders, research centres, universities, or a disciplinary group or society that may gain recognition and further funding from supporting or hosting an open data repository." Yet, a full membership or club model, that would also include restrictions to access, remains rare among research data repositories as "it is difficult to develop and maintain a group large enough to cover costs, affecting both scale and sustainability."
Despite the continuities, the articulation between the historical values of the club (exclusion, internal management, centrality) and the new values of open science remain challenging. Scientific clubs have long maintained an ambiguous position on the value of openness. While openness was held as fundamental scientific principle, that makes it possible to have a free exchange of ideas, knowledge club have also relied on structural mechanism of exclusion: "A claim of openness, and a narrative that this openness sits at the core of the value system, that is not quite realized in practice. The building of institutions that seek to enhance openness – the Royal Society holding formalized meetings, open to members, in the place of private demonstrations – that are nonetheless exclusive (...) Yet what is passed down to us today, is less that exclusive gentleman's club and more the core values that it sought to express."
Recent developments of open science and citizen science creates a new source of tension that is still not resolved: "There are profound challenges to adapting our institutions to interact productively with differing knowledge systems, but we are perhaps for the first time well placed to do so." According to Samuel Moore, the main discourses on open science and scientific commons continues to encover exclusionary practices reminiscent of historical knowledge clubs : "many uses of the term commons in scholarly communications are themselves ill- or un-defined and intend to evoke a kind of participatory, inclusive or freely accessible resource."
Open Science market
Scientific publishing: a hybrid market
In Western Europe and North America, direct ownership of journals by academic communities and institutions started to wane in the 1950s. The historical model of scientific periodicals seemed unable to keep up with the quickly increasing volume of publication in the context of big science. In 1959, Robert Maxwell created one of the first giant of scientific publishing, Pergamon and through the following decades acquired hundreds of journal to small university press and scientific societies. While theses journals were not very profitable individually, with such a high concentration made Pergamon became "too big to fail" and was able to impose its own conditions to academic libraries and other potential customers. This approach was applied as well by Springer and Elsevier. Scientific publishing in the second half of the 20th century has been described as a two-sided market with "significant network externalities" since "authors prefer to publish in academic journals with the largest readership, and readers prefer the journals with the best authors".
Due to high market concentration, scholarly journal are not "subtractable": they cannot be replaced by equivalent product on the market, which hinders competition. The development of bibliometric index has reinforced this locked-in process, as highly quoted journals will receive more submissions.
By the 1980s, the CEO of Elevier, Pierre Vinken aimed for an annual growth rate of 20%, mostly through an uncontrolled raise of subscription prices. From 1985 to 2010, the budget allocated by American Research Libraries to periodicals increased five-fold.
As it became a private good, the scientific journal was also transformed into an industrial product, with an increased standardization of publishing norms, peer-review process or copyrights. In contrast smaller scientific publishers participate to a more typical publishing market, with a persistent competition. Four out of the five most costly journals "are published by big five publishers".
With the conversion to electronic journals, scientific publishing became a hybrid market: along with individual subscriptions, leading publishers introduced big deals or pluri-annual licenses to large bundle of journal titles. Big deals were typically negotiated with national networks of research libraries and academic institutions. Big deals proved advantageous to publishers as well as they limited the "administrative costs" of managing a large number of contracts between journals and buyers. The bundling of thousands of journals titles made it possible to ensure the commercial viability of journals that would have had a limited success. In 2011, David Colquhoun showed that 60% of the journals included in the Elsevier licenses granted to the University College were accessed less than 300 times per year and 251 journals were not even accessed once. Even though the inflation of individual subscription cost has slowed, the total amount allocated to scientific periodicals has continued to rise: "While the North-American research libraries spent about a third more on journals than on monographs in 1987, this ratio had risen to about four to one by 2011."
Following the generalization of the big deal model, the main transactions between large publishers and scientific institutions no longer operated under normal market conditions with fixed public prices: "An optimal pricing strategy when bundling electronic information still does not exist (...) Prices will be determined in bilateral negotiations and every library pays a different price according to its institutional willingness to pay." Opting out of a big deal is a nearly impossible choice for major scientific institutions as "big deals of different publishers are complementary and not substitutes". Big deal licenses are usually covered by non-disclosure agreements, so that prices can be determined on the basis of the financial capacity of the buyer: "these practices give publishers pricing flexibility that allows them to try to charge the highest price that each institution is willing to pay and make it hard for new publishers to compete." For Jason Potts et al., this deviation from the market norms shows that the market model is fundamentally less efficient than the knowledge club in the context of scientific publishing. It creates more ecosystemic costs than the direct management of the journals and other scientific outputs by the community: ""If our argument is that clubs and communities are capable of acting together to solve collective action provisioning problems in ways that are more efficient than either markets or the state, then the dissolution of clubs, or their inability to coordinate, will lead to inefficient or non-existent provisioning." Due to increased concentration, large publishers also became a powerful lobby: in the United States, Elsevier had long influenced some key policy issues relating to the economy of publishing and was able to significantly slow down the transition to open access.
The scientific market is structured by large scale inequalities. Overpriced subscriptions and paywalls have been "a major barrier to progress in developing countries"' While leading publishers have initiated programs at a reduced costs for developing countries, their impact has been limited by the complexity of the subscriptions procedures: "the library or consortia have to go through a procedure to request the discount, assuming they know it exists and can navigate the bureaucracy involved."
From readers to authors: hybrid and full open access
The early developments of Open science and the open sharing of scientific publication on the web was at first a challenge for leading commercial publishers: the executive board of Elsevier "had failed to grasp the significance of electronic publishing altogether, and therefore the deadly danger that it posed—the danger, namely, that scientists would be able to manage without the journal". Initial experiments of scientific journals were mostly led by non-commercial initiatives.
Commercially viable open access journals have appeared in the late 1990s, under the leadership of new competitors such as the Public Library of Science (PLOS), MDPI or Hindawi. They relies generally on the author-pay model: the journal provides an editorial service to the author of a publication and charge an article-processing charge to cover the editing costs. This practice is anterior to open access, as subscription-based journals held by scientific societies occasionally charged for additional services (such as photographies in color). For Peter Suber, this economic model is similar to broadcast television: "If advertisers can pay all the costs of production, then a TV studio can broadcast a show without charging viewers. In the case of scholarly research articles, the model works because authors are willing to relinquish royalties to get their message across and a growing number of institutions that employ researchers or fund research are willing to consider the cost of dissemination".
After 2000 large commercial publishers started to adopt a hybrid business model also termed open choice: authors have either the possibility to submit for free a paywalled articles or pay for a free versions. This practice has been increasingly criticized as double dipping. Due to the complexity of the publishing market, largely structured around big deal license, scientific publishers were in a position of "collecting money twice" Supervisors of open access policies have become more skeptical of the transitory nature of hybrid models. According to the lead coordinator of Plan S, Robert-Jan Smits "when I then asked [the large publishers] when this transition would be completed, they were silent. The reason for this was clear: they saw hybrids as a way to continue the status quo." To overcome this risk, the Plan S stated that transformative journals will no longer be compliant after a transition period that ends in 2023.
While they were originally devised for a subscription-based model, big deals have been repurposed as large scale agreement to generalize commercial open access. Since subscription costs were already bundled at a national level, they could be repurposed as publications licenses or Article-Processing Charges licenses as part of a journal flipping. In 2015, the Max Planck Society issued a White Paper on the economic cost of the transformation to open access: "All the indications are that the money already invested in the research publishing system is sufficient to enable a transformation that will be sustainable for the future." In this context, the APC become the default business model for all journals: "Our own data analysis shows that there is enough money already circulating in the global market – money that is currently spent on scientific journals in the subscription system and that could be redirected and re-invested into open access business models to pay for APCs." The economic debate over journal flipping has largely evacuated the issue of potential savings: negotiations aim rather to ensure a global conversion to open science at the same costs as existing subscriptions licenses. Several national negotiations with big publishers attempted to implement the journal flipping approach with a limited success.
Commercial open access models based on article processing charges create new structural inequalities, no longer in terms of access to read but access to publish. High APC prices mean that in practices global south authors are bound to be cut off from major journals: "APCs also present a problem for researchers in the Global South, who typically have much smaller budgets to work with than their northern counterparts."
From publishing to analytics: diversification of revenue streams
In parallel with the open science movement, leading scientific publishers have diversified their activities beyond publishing and moved "from a content-provision to a data analytics business". The ubiquituous use of digital technologies in research activities and in the institutional management of science and highed education has been "creating new income streams". Large publishers have been well positioned in this new market, as they already have know-how, the infrastructures and intellectual property on a large range of scientific outputs. Additionally, they have the necessary resources for long-term investments thanks to the accumulated high margins of journal subscriptions. Negotiation of "big deal" additionally created a favorable framework, as access to subscriptions or APCs could be easily tied with exclusive contracts on other databases and tools.
In the 2010s, leading publishers developed or acquired new key infrastructures for the management scientific and pedagogic activities: "Elsevier has acquired and launched products that extend its influence and its ownership of the infrastructure to all stages of the academic knowledge production process". In the past two decades, there has been 340 merging and acquisitions for Elsevier, 240 for Informa (Taylor & Francis) and 80 for Wiley. While most of theses transactions were linked to academic content, until the 2010s, it has quickly been expanded to academic "services" and other data analytics tools. Although all leading publishers attempt a vertical integration of existing and new services it can take different shapes. For instance there is "a clear attempt by Wiley to enhance its control over the university decision-making process in education, as Elsevier has for academic knowledge production." By 2019, Elsevier has either acquired or built a large portofolio platforms, tools, databases and indicators covering all aspects and stages of scientific research:
Since it has expanded beyond publishing, the vertical integration of privately owned infrastructures has become extensively integrated to daily research activities: "the privatised control of scholarly infrastructures is especially noticeable in the context of ‘vertical integration’ that publishers such as Elsevier and SpringerNature are seeking by controlling all aspects of the research lifecycle, from submission to publication and beyond". In contrast with publication, which was an outsourced business separated from institutional and community activities, the new services developed by large publishers are embedded in the infrastructure of universities and create potentially stronger dependency links: "Pure embeds Elsevier within the university workflow process through its abilities to manage research at the university level, including the provision of a dashboard to facilitate decision making by university research administrators (Elsevier, “Features”)."
Metrics and indicators are key components of vertical integration: "Elsevier's further move to offering metrics-based decision making is simultaneously a move to gain further influence in the entirety of the knowledge production process, as well as to further monetize its disproportionate ownership of content". While depency subscription journals has been fragilized by the open science movement, metrics can create a new locked-in situation for scientific institutions: "For universities keen on raising or maintaining their rankings, publishing in Elsevier high impact journals may help them gain the advantage (...) vertical integration and the promotion of citation metrics and algorithmic recommendations may, in fact, constitute rent-seeking behavior designed to increase." Consequently, a shift of leading publishers to data analytics is not incompatible with the parallel development of a large APC market for open science publishing. For Samuel Moore, it is even "incentivised by the governmental policies for OA through APCs, repository services" as it create new "need to track compliance".
The emerging open science market has been compared with the business models of social networks, search engines and other forms of platform capitalism. While content access is free, it is indirectly paid through data extraction and surveillance. "If the primary negative manifestation of market power in the publishing sector is high paywall price (lack of access, therefore), the result of monopolistic competition in academic data analytics will be the combination of dependence and surveillance that we might associate with, e.g., Facebook." Increasing similarities with other digital platforms may have contributed to the increased regulations on the academic publishing market in Europe in the 2010s: "It's why Facebook, Apple and Google are now dominant: once they are controlling X per cent of the market, it's almost impossible for a competitor to come up."
Open Science Commons
The concept of commons was originally developed to describe the management of "a resource shared by a group of people" and the establishment of common governance rules to ensure that the resource is not overused or polluted (which would result in a tragedy of the commons).</ref> Similarly to club goods, common goods are used and maintained by a community. Yet, the membership is no longer exclusive: "toll goods (also called club goods) share with private goods the relative ease of exclusion". Typical forms of commons include shared natural resources like timber, berries or fishes. They are managed by unformal local associations. Governance rules are neither rigid nor pre-existing but have to be adapted to the specific requirements of the resource and the local environment: "One of the central findings was that an extremely rich variety of specific rules were used in systems sustainable over a long time period. No single set of specific rules, on the other hand, had a clear association with success." Common goods are also differentiated to Public goods (such as air or radio waves) due their subtractibility: natural resources can be depleted and rules have to be put in place to ensure they will not be overused.
The emergence of digital knowledge commons
Until the 1990s open knowledge was not considered as a commons in economic theory but as a "classic example of a pure public good, a good available to all and where one person's use does not subtract from another's use". For Elinor Ostrom and Charlotte Hess, this framework is no longer viable as the principle of non-excludability has been significantly weakened: "new technologies can enable the capture of what were once free and open public goods (...) Knowledge, which can seem so ubiquitous in digital form, is, in reality, more vulnerable than ever before" In a scientific context, examples of new enclosures of public goods may include all the surveillance data systems put in place by Elsevier, Springer or Academic social networks that capturate activities such as social interactions, reference collections. The uncontrolled development of the early web highlighted the need for common management of knowledge resources: "People started to notice behaviors and conditions on the web — congestion, free riding, conflict, overuse, and pollution — that had long been identified with other types of commons."
The open access of the 1990s and early 2000s movement aimed to ensure that science will be a public good, freely usable to all. The unlimited potential circulation of online content has transformed historical forms of non-commercial open access as a commons, at least from a reader's point of view: "By definition, OA literature excludes no one, or at least no one with an Internet connection. By contrast, non-OA electronic journals try very hard to exclude nonsubscribers from reading the articles".
While "knowledge commons is not synonymous with open access", the process of making open access a reality has also incidentally created a global "community network of the open-access movement": decisions had to be made regarding a commonly accepted definition of open access, free licenses and potential exclusions of non-open access initiatives that are embodied in the Budapest Open Access Initiative.
The early open science infrastructures aimed to ensure the circulation of scientific publications as a common good. Archives or institutional repositories were conceived as local or global community services. In August 1991, Paul Ginsbarg created the first inception of the arXiv project at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in answer to recurring storage issue of academic mailboxes on account of the increasing sharing of scientific articles. Repositories embody numerous characteristics of common resources under the definition of Elinor Ostrom: they maintain and protect a scientific resources, they implement weak requirements for membership (submissions are not peer-reviewed) and they prime coordination and shared management over competition. By the early 2000s, numerous repositories strived to "comply with the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH) of 1999, which ensures the interoperability of different repositories for the purpose of locating their contents".
Enclosures of open science commons
Archive repositories and other forms of open science infrastructures have been originally individual initiatives. As such, their status as a scientific commons were not always institutionalized and they were hardly protected against potential privatizations: "one recent strategy of traditional commercial journal publishers to avoid negative externalities from green OA is to acquire successful OA repositories". The acquisition of Digital Commons and SSRN by Elsevier has highlighted the lack of reliability of critical scientific infrastructure for open science, which creates the conditions of a tragedy of the commons. The SPARC report on European Infrastructures underlines that "a number of important infrastructures at risk and as a consequence, the products and services that comprise open infrastructure are increasingly being tempted by buyout offers from large commercial enterprises. This threat affects both not-for-profit open infrastructure as well as closed, and is evidenced by the buyout in recent years of commonly relied on tools and platforms such as SSRN, bepress, Mendeley, and GitHub." Weak definitions of scientific commons, and of the requirements and expectations of commons governance, may have facilitated this take-over: "many self-described ‘commons’ projects for open access publishing simply restate the values of commercial publishing (...) while relying on the language of a more progressive politics."
In contrast with the consolidation of privately owned infrastructure, the open science movement "has tended to overlook the importance of social structures and systemic constraints in the design of new forms of knowledge infrastructures." It remained mostly focused to the content of scientific research, with little integration of technical tools and few large community initiatives. "common pool of resources is not governed or managed by the current scholarly commons initiative. There is no dedicated hard infrastructure and though there may be a nascent community, there is no formal membership." In 2015, the Principles for open science infrastructures underlined the discrepancy between the increasing openness of scientific publications or datasets and the closeness of the infrastructure that control their circulation.
The fragility of open science commons until the 2010s contrasts with the dynamics of contributive projects beyond the scope of research and scientific activities. Wikipedia, Open Street Map or Wikidata are open communities with a low threshold of admission and membership that will come to tipify the online knowledge commons. Their management is analogous to natural common-pool resource system, where local uses and participation are rarely discriminated a priori, although repeated abuses can lead to exclusion.
Consolidation of the common ecosystem (2015-)
Since 2015, open science infrastructures, platforms and journals have converged to the creation of digital academic commons. While they were initially conceived either as a public good (a "grid" that ensure the distribution of a non-excludable resource) or a club good (with a limited range beyond a specific communities), open science infrastructures have been increasingly structured around a shared ecosystem of services and standards has emerged through the network of dependencies from one infrastructure to another. Open science infrastructures face similar issues met by other open institutions such as open data repositories or large scale collaborative project such as Wikipedia: "When we study contemporary knowledge infrastructures we find values of openness often embedded there, but translating the values of openness into the design of infrastructures and the practices of infrastructuring is a complex and contingent process".
The conceptual definition of open science infrastructures has been largely influenced by the analysis of Elinor Ostrom on the commons and more specifically on the knowledge commons. In accordance with Ostrom, Cameron Neylon understates that open infrastructures are not only a public good characterized by the management of a pool of common resources but also by the elaboration of common governance and norms. The economic theory of the commons make it possible to expand beyond the scope of limited scope of scholar associations toward large scale community-led initiatives: "Ostrom's work (...) provide a template (...) to make the transition from a local club to a community-wide infrastructure." Open science infrastructure tend to favor a non-for profit, publicly funded model with strong involvement from scientific communities, which disassociate them from privately owned closed infrastructures: "open infrastructures are often scholar-led and run by non-profit organisations, making them mission-driven instead of profit-driven." This status aims to ensure the autonomy of the infrastructure and prevent their incorporation into commercial infrastructure. It has wide range implications on the way the organization is managed: "the differences between commercial services and non-profit services permeated almost every aspect of their responses to their environment".
As of 2022, major actors that have formally adopted the core principles of open science infrastructures (or POSSE) include Crossref, CORE, OpenAir, and OpenCitations.
Consolidation of the commons ecosystem has been also visible in non-commercial journals, which moved from a knowledge club paradigm to more global commons initiative. While the daily management of non-commercial journals fit better to the definition of a knowledge club, more innovative models of governance "tend to bridge the secular heritage of scientific societies with the new wave of digitized knowledge commons such as Wikipedia or OpenStreetMap". New forms of common-based regulations and distributed decision-making processes have been gradually introduced: "The ascending role of the editorial committee and volunteers brings OA diamond journals closer to community-run projects where contributors are constantly self-learning and appropriating tasks" Integrations of the specific perspectives of the global South have redefined the common "understandings of the commons" beyond the perspectives of "more powerful stakeholders, wealthy disciplines and countries in the Global North".
The future of scientific commons remain a debated issue. The OA Diamond Study underlines the Open Access Commons as a potential future road of development for non-commercial open access journals and beyond: "The OA Commons will be a new more integrated international OA publishing system and ecosystem that serves the research community." Fragmentation has hindered on the development of non-commercial structures. Reliancy on small local communities result on a low visibility to potential readers or funders: most of the estimated 17,000 to 29;000 non-commercial journals are currently off the charts of scientific publishing indicators. The creation of common services and infrastructures as well as inter-disciplinary and inter-community coordinations may contribute to overcome built-in limitations of the knowledge club model: "The OA Commons will be community-driven and will bring communities together who already are or want to work together to become more effective." Alternatives visions of scientific commons include more decentralized models of "small, semi-autonomous projects that are loosely affiliated but mutually reliant" as large platforms and infrastructures could be "unable to account for nuanced relational practices of commoning in local communities and a variety of contexts."
Cost
Due to the coexistence of several economic models, there can be no unilateral estimate of the cost of open science. Cost-estimate frequently relies on different "scenarios" that match the different models of open science. In 2021, Grossmann and Brembs retain 7 different scenarios that includes outsourcing to a leading commercial publisher, small-scale non-commercial journals supported by free software and volunteer contributions or a hypothetical "decentralized, federated platform solution where all scholarly articles are published without being divided into journals". Economies of scale are also a significant factor, as large platforms and infrastructures can benefit from bundled expenses in numerous areas.
According to Grossmann and Brembs the total costs of scholarly publication range between $194.89 to $723.16 per article. Regardless of the wide variation per models and potential economies of scale, even the highest estimate of costs of publications in open science are low: "publication costs only cover 15% of the subscription price (...) assuming a conservative profit margin of 30% (i.e., US$1,200 per article) for one of the large publishers there remains a sizeable gap of about US$2,200 in non-publication costs, or 55% of the price of a scholarly subscription article".
Editorial work and evaluation
Editorial work and the management of peer review remain the core activity of academic journals and their most identified contribution and service rendered to scientific communities. It is the main expenses of the non-commercial journals surveyed by the OA Diamond Study: "the five main expenses/payables of the journal are editing (531), copy-editing (463), technical and software support (393), typesetting (384), and design (336)". Translation is a frequently quoted added cost, that may have been incentivicized by open science as the potential audience of local non-academic readers create incentives to maintain a multilingual website. Even before their conversion to electronic publishing, non-for-profits journals have maintained an affordable price, due to a nearly exclusive focus on editorial services: "in 2013, the mean price per article in for-profit journals was 3.2 times higher than in non-for-profit journals, and that the corresponding ratio for the median price per article was even 4.33:1". With Internet publication, costs can be significantly lower, due to additional cuts in transaction and labor costs, use of share platforms and infrastructure or reliance on voluntary work: "over 60% of journals reported annual costs in the previous year under $/€10,000, including in-kind contributions."
In contrast with the more technical aspects of scientific publication, editorial work cannot be easily scaled. Unless relying on volunteer work, cost in time and expertise is roughly similar: "For certain tasks, for example copyediting or typesetting, there are hundreds of individual companies worldwide providing those services (...) having compared the pricing of those service providers with others, we found only a very small variation of cost for such tasks". The only potential margin is by allocating this work to the scientific authors: "The wide availability of desktop hardware and software [has created] an expectation from publishers that authors would self-manage much of the layout and editing of articles."
For Peter Suber, the expenses of open science journals "peer review is the most significant." As an inheritance of the historical model of knowledge club the main costs of peer review are not directly supported by journals: the evaluation is performed freely by researchers. Following the expansion of commercial journals since the late 20th century, free services of peer review have increasingly become an over-exploited resource. The conversion of subscription journals to author-pays model of open access has added new pressure to a strained practice: as authors are the main customers of what has essentially become an editorial service, fast-track evaluation are in high demand. While the development of integrated editorial system has streamlined the editorial process of receiving and managing reviews, locating competent reviewers is major issue and create added costs and work to journal editors: "finding, recruiting and retaining reviewers" are a major concern of non-commercial journal editors.
The development of new Open science platforms and infrastructure makes it possible to unbundle the academic editorial workflow: "costs are reduced by eliminating the need for type-setting and copy-editing, with web-hosting costing only $15/year, and a total operating cost of between $6.50–$10.50 per article." Through theses mechanism, "open access has the opportunity to become a cost-reducing mechanism for scholarly publishing."
Technical infrastructure
Conversion to electronic publishing has created significant economies of scale. Large scale publishers has been among the first beneficiaries of reduced editorial and technical cost, through to the concentration and the standardization of the publishing infrastructure: "These newly empowered players brought an industrial approach to the publication and dissemination process, for the first time realising the benefits that these specialised capital and skills could provide by operating at a scale that was unprecedented to that date." This process started before the development of electronic publishing, with the creation of internal databases to manage peer-review and other key aspects of editorial management. Large academic search engines finalized this process: "As the dominant publishers build databases, discovery systems, and online platforms to house large and integrated collections of journals, it is more difficult for small publishers to compete with them. Building an effective platform for publishing e-journals is expensive (...) After a platform has been created, it is much cheaper and easier to add new journals to it than to build new and redundant platforms."
After 2000, non-commercial publishers and infrastructure have gradually benefited from the same economies of scale, due to the development of open software tools dedicated to academic production such as Open Journal Systems, that facilitated the creation and the administration of journal website and the digital conversion of existing journals. Among the non-commercial journals registered to the Directory of Open Access Journals, the number of annual creation has gone from 100 by the end of the 1990s to 800 around 2010. By 2021, Open Journal Systems has become "a widespread solution in the peer review management of journals".
Many Open Science Infrastructure run "at a relatively low cost" as small infrastructures are an important part of the open science ecosystem. 16 data research repositories surveyed by the OECD in 2017 quoted technical infrastructure and shared services among the costs "most likely to be susceptible to cost optimisation". In 2020, 21 out of 53 surveyed European infrastructures "report spending less than €50,000". Overall, European infrastructures were financially sustainable in 2020 which contrasts with the situation ten years prior: in 2010, European infrastructures had much less visibility: they usually lacked "a long-term perspective" and struggled "with securing the funding for more than 5 years".
Beyond the economies of scale, technical infrastructure also created fixed costs to standard publishing services such as article identification (DOI), plagiarism check, long-term digital preservation and standardized XML. While most of theses services are covered by flat fees at a limited expenses, it can still affect significantly the tight budgets of small non-commercial journals.
Commercial services and prestige
The overall price per article of commercial publishers is consistently higher than in the non-commercial sectors. This discrepancy has been partly accounted by the maintenance of several services necessary to run a business activity (pricing, transaction management, marketing...), that non-commercial structure can drop entirely with little impact. Leading commercial journals claim to be more selective in regard to article submissions, which has the effect of creating a more complex and time-consuming acceptation workflow: "The more effort a publisher invests in each paper, and the more articles a journal rejects after peer review, the more costly is each accepted article to publish [although] the key question is whether the extra effort adds useful value". Besides, "costs vary widely in this sector". Without any transformation of the editorial workflow or efficiency gain a standard well-established subscription journal could "charge about $3,700 per paper to cover costs". Yet, in a publisher like Nature, the costs would be "at £20,000–30,000 ($30,000–40,000) per paper". In the higher end of the commercial spectrum, cost per articles are more likely to embed services that are not directly related to publishing : "One possible reason for such variation between journals and publishers is that it is generally unclear whether proposed costs relate to those directly involved in article processing or those required in order for a publisher to ‘break even’ if they receive zero subscription income for an article made OA."
Early projections suggested that commercial models of open science would result in lower editorial costs than subscription journals. On the basis of the APC commonly practiced by leading open access publishers like PLOS, Houghton & Oppenheim identified a potential save of £800 per articles (£1525 instead of £2335 for subsciption publishing). Taken globally, this would result in "savings of around £500 million per annum nationally in the UK in a worldwide open access system". Critics at the time focused on the irrealism of a global conversion to open science: "many of the savings hypothesised would depend on the rest of the world adopting author-pays or self-archiving models." In 2012, David Lewis characterized commercial open access based on article-processing charges as a "disruptive innovation" that will radically "shift in the nature of scholarly journal publishing”. New commercial publishers seemed able to lower significantly editorial expenses: by 2013, "some emerging players (...) say that their real internal costs are extremely low" with Hindawi publishing "22,000 articles at a cost of $290 per article".
Prestige continues to be a significant driver of price-making in the commercial open access market: "In the academic environment, prestige and reputation have a lot of staying power (...) So far, leading firms in the academic industry have been remarkably resistant to disruptive innovators." The evolution of the cost of article processing charge and the concentration of the commercial open access market has challenged this assumptions. Due to the prestige of some publishers or the integration of new editorial services (like fast-track peer review), the mean price of open access articles has consistently risen: "there is no standard price, and largely no regulation of APCs, which results in some publishers demanding very large amounts of money from authors for the privilege of publishing OA." In France, the mean price of APCs of open access journals has gone up significantly between 2013 (€1395) and 2020 (€1745). A range of scenarios include the total cost of APCs nearly getting comparable to the cost of subscriptions by 2030 (68.7M€ vs. 97,5M€), while a full journal flip from subscriptions to APCs would be much costlier (168.7M€).
High APCs price are less related to the measurable quality of the journal or of the editorial service than to the capacity of well-known actors to impose elevated prices: "several studies reported only very weak or no correlation between quality of journals (measured in journal impact factors) and the level of APC. Contrarily, the level of APCs for publishing an article is more related to the market power of specific academic publishing companies". The risk of uncontrolled growth of APCs had been clearly identified at the start of the Plan S initiative: its coordinator, Robert-Jan Smits, was "determined to introduce a limit on APCs of €2,000", but in the end, "the cap rejected, on account of too many members of the Plan S Coalition being against its enforcement."
Benefits
The economic contribution of open science to scientific publishing, to non-academic economic sectors or to society remains little documented. In 2019, the economists Michael J. Fell underlined that while open science policies usually advanced the claim that opening research can bring "significant social and economic benefits", there have been "no systematic attempt has yet been made to identify and synthesize evidence relating to this claim and present a clear picture of the economic impacts that open science might have, how these comes about, and how benefits might be maximized." In his assessment of the state of the art, Fell identified 21 empirical studies that aimed to evaluate the "direct economic impacts in which open science has been a contributory factor", with a focus on Anglo-american countries (United Kingdom, United States and Canada) and Scandinavian countries (Denmark and Finland). Estimates are complicated by the fact that open science is both a scientific and a social movement: the specific scope of academic publishing is too limiting and yet it is more challenging to develop global macro-economic indicators like has been done on open data.
Transaction costs
In a market economy, the diffusion of private goods is usually assorted with transactions costs. Theses costs cover all the services required to manage the commoditization of a product, both from the side of the producer as from the side of a consumer. In a wider sense, it encompasses all the work and time allocated all the stakeholders of the transactions to perform it, such as benchmarks, negotiations or contractualizations.
Savings on transaction costs are frequently quoted as a significant advantage of non-excludable resource system (common good, public good) over private markets. Since access to the resource is weakly restrained and conditioned by unformal rules, its allocation is less costly overall: "a community could (...) produce better quality outcomes at lower economic costs, because of lower transaction costs, than alternative institutional systems involving private property" According to a 2017 OECD report, market allocation of open knowledge outputs is not sufficiently efficient: as the price of a public good converges to zero, any attempt at setting up a price will result in excessive exclusion and reduced collective benefits.
All the models of open science have a direct impact on one sub-sample of transaction costs: exclusion costs. There is no need to maintain systems of enforce rules to ensure that a publication will not be used by an unauthorized reader: "This exclusion costs the excluder money. One cost is digital-rights management or DRM, the software lock that opens for authorized users and blocks access to the unauthorized. A second cost is writing and enforcing the licensing agreement that binds subscribers." In addition to DRM system, large commercial publishers have also developed intrusive methods to track subsequent usages of a publication.
Non-commercial Open Science journals and open infrastructures can mitigate a larger range of services and costs. Author-paid journals still have to maintain transactional activities, as the management of article-processing charges becomes a core business activity. Moreover, the real cost of large commercial agreements with leading publisher is not well documented as the proceedings of big deals are not public. Even in the context of journal flipping, the negotiation of complex licenses may represent a significant time investments from library and research institution.
Access costs
Access to pre-existent research outputs such as publications, datasets or code is a major condition of research. The subscription model used to rely on the assumptions that researchers only need to access a few specialized publications. In practice, research is more unpredictible and frequently rely crossing methods and observations from different fields or even different disciplines. In 2011, a survey of JISC showed that 68% of UK researchers felt they did have a sufficiently wide access to journal and conference papers. Non-academic professional audiences experience difficulties in accessing directly relevant research: "a quarter of those in industry/commerce described their current level of access as fairly/very difficult" as "the main barrier was unwillingness to pay". A survey of business use of research in Denmark highlighted a large range of strategies to avoid the high cost of pay-per-view, especially through collaboration with academics that have institutional access. The impact of open access is amplified by the high degree of internationalization of research: "83% of the economic return on cancer research is drawn from research from non-UK sources" which are less likely to be accessible in a subscription-based model.
Beyond the extended coverage, Open science can enhance the efficiency of bibliographic search: "It can take longer for people to access closed research outputs than when access is open." Access to the full text is also a common bibliographic search strategies, since it will often reference other relevant publications. A case studies on knowledge workers shows that restrictions to access translate in significant costs in work-time: "knowledge-based SME employees spent on average 51 min to access the last research article they had difficulty accessing, and this rose to 63 min for university researchers."
The open science movement has also entailed the diffusion of new resources: open research data and software. In these cases, access was not limited or constrained by high prices but generally non-existent, as they were at most shared across research teams or institutions. Economic estimates of the impact of opening new research output are consequently more difficult, as there is no prior market. Several studies Houghton and Beagrie on the commercial use of major open data portals (Economic and Social Data Service, Archaeology Data Service, British Atmospheric Data Service and the European Bioinformatics Institute) attempted to circumvent the issue by estimating the "willingness to pay", as a proxy for the positive economic impact: how much would the company would agree to pay if the service became only accessible through subscriptions. In all the case, this "consumer surplus" was much higher than the cost needed to run the service (for instance, £21m per year for the Economic and Social Data Service against an operating cost of £3m, or £322m per year for the European Bioinformatics Institute against an operating cost of £47). For large repositories of data or publication, the consumer surplus may be even more significant on a long-term basis, as the value of the infrastructure and the potential benefits it brings becomes more important as the range of hosted outputs continues to expand: "data archives are appreciating rather than depreciating assets. Most of the economic impact is cumulative and it grows in value over time, whereas most infrastructure (such as ships or buildings) has a declining value as it ages. Like libraries, data collections become more valuable as they grow and the longer one invests in them, provided that the data remain accessible, usable, and used."
Research efficiency
Impacts of open science on research efficiency stem from the benefits of enhanced access to previous work. Due to the complexity of bibliography search, closed subscription system "can lead to high levels of duplication—that is, where separate teams work on the same thing unbeknownst to each other." The issue is not limited to academic research, but affect industrial R&D as well: "an analysis of pharmaceutical patents by 18 large companies showed that 86% of target compounds were investigated by two or more companies" Non-publication of data or intermediary results can also have cascading effects on the overall quality of research. Meta-analysis rely on the reproductibility of pre-existent observations and experiments to identify the scientific consensus on a specific topic or field of research. They can be affected by statistical errors and bias, as well as the pre-selection of statistically significant results. Extensive opening of final and intermediary data sources makes it easier to spot potential mistakes.
Text and data mining projects have more recently become a major focus of studies on potential gain of research efficiency. In contrast with the standard procedures of state of the art, text mining projects process very large corpus and are bound to be limited by the available collections in academic libraries. Additionally, special authorization has to be given from the publishers unless the corpus is published in a free license, as the proper use of automated analyses require making copies accessible among project members. Access procedures may represent a significant investment for text mining projects: "As well as the costs and time required to reach such agreements, it also introduces significant uncertainty into such projects as it is possible that some agreements may not be reached". In 2021, a quantitative analysis of text and data mining research showed that "there is strong evidence that the share of DM research in total research output increases, where researchers do not need to acquire specific consent by rights holders". The restrictive effect of the lack of open access or text and data mining exception is sufficiently noticeable to highlight "an adverse net effect of IP on innovation, in the sense that there is strong evidence for stricter copyright hindering the wide adoption of novel ways to build on copyright works and generate derivative works." In 2012, a JISC report estimated that a facilitated use of text and data mining tools, notably in the context of bibliographic search, could generate significant gains of productivity: "if text mining enabled just a 2% increase in productivity – corresponding to only 45 minutes per academic per working week (...) this would imply over 4.7 million working hours and additional productivity worth between £123.5m and £156.8m in working time per year."
Economic and social development
The potential economic impact for open science research outputs is significant. Innovation commons are a major, although overlooked, source of economic growth: "The innovation commons is the true origin of innovation. It is the source from which the subsequent markers of innovation emerge — the entrepreneurial actors, the innovating firms, the new markets, and so on." Recent developments like the growth of data analytics services across a large variety of economic sectors have created further needs for research data: "There are many other values (...) that are promoted through the longterm stewardship and open availability of research data. The rapidly expanding area of artificial intelligence (AI) relies to a great extent on saved data." In 2019, the combined data market of the 27 countries of the European Union and the United Kingdom was estimated at 400 billion euros and had a sustained growth of 7.6% per year. although no estimation was given of the specific value of research data, research institutions were identified as important stakeholders in the emerging ecosystem of "data commons".
In 2011, a JISC report estimated that there was 1.8 million knowledge workers in the United Kingdom working in R&D, IT, engineering services most of whom being "unaffiliated, without corporate library or information center support." Among a representative set of English knowledge workers, 25% stated that access to the literature was fairly difficult or very difficult and 17% had a recent access problems that has never been resolved. A 2011 survey of Danese business highlighted a significant dependence of R&D to academic research: "Forty-eight per cent rated research articles as very or extremely important". Consequently, lack or difficulty of access affects the development of commercial services and products: "It would have taken an average of 2.2 years longer to develop or introduce the new products or processes in the absence of contributing academic research. For new products, a 2.2 years delay would cost around DKK 36 million per firm in lost sales, and for new processes it would cost around DKK 211 000 per firm in lost savings." Research data repositories have also experimented with efficient data management workflows that can become a valuable inspiration for commercial structures: "properly designed data commons can serve to R&D processes as an active and accessible repository for research data".
Estimations of the global business impact of open science are challenged by another positive economic factor of open science: weak or even inexistent transactions costs. Commercial uses of open publications, data or software occurs unformaly and is hardly identifiable: "use of open science outputs (e.g., by firms) often leaves no obvious trace, so most evidence of impacts is based on interviews, surveys, inference based on existing costs, and modelling approaches." Concrete impact of open science on commercial products and activities has been measured at the scale of a few major projects. The Human Genome Project made all the progressively available results of human sequencing within 24 of discovery from 1990 to 2003. A retrospective assessment showed a very high return cost on investment: "a $3.8 billion project drove $796 billion in economic impact [and] created 310,000 jobs". Another case study focused on the incidence of opening data on a pharmaceutical compound, JQ1: 105 patents have been filed in the following years, in comparison with less than 30 for similar compounds.
Social impact has become an important focus of open science infrastructure in the late 2010s. Access to non-academic audiences has created a new potential justification for their funding and maintenance. Potential groups that may benefit from open access "include citizen scientists, medical patients and their supporting networks, health advocates, NGOs, and those who benefit from translation and transformation (e.g., sight-impaired people)."
Economic regulation of open science
Economic regulation of scientific publishing has long be stuck in a "collective action dilemma", due to the lack of coordinations between all stakeholders: "To truly reduce their costs, librarians would have to build a shared online collection of scholarly resources jointly managed by the academic community as a whole, but individual academic institutions lack the private incentives necessary to invest in a shared collection."
Although it was initially expected by some economists, that the academic publishing markets would be structurally disrupted by new open access competitors, change was mostly driven by scientific communities, scientific institutions and, lately, coordinations of funders. In the 2000s, forms of regulation appear at a local scale to solve obvious market failure in the management of open science outuput. Development of research data repositories has been sustained by the implementation of "government or funder mandates for open data that require the producers of data to make them openly accessible". Mandates have been less easily expanded to other scientific outputs such as publications, that could not be covered by open data programs and were already invested by large commercial structures. In the great recession, scientific institutions and libraries had to balanced significantly reduced budgets, which entailed a first wave of big deal cancellation as well as "promoted the search for alternatives to this model". This specific context created a precedent for a secondary wave of big deal cancellation, no longer solely motivated by fund cuts but also by "the advance of open science"<ref>
In the early 2010s, leading publishers had come under heightened pressure to convert to open access. Along with the mobilization of researchers, the realization that academic publishing no longer operated in normal market conditions has redefined the position of scientific funders and policy-makers: [For Robert-Jan Smits], "if we really want OA to become a reality, we just have to make it obligatory, I thought: no more friendly requests, but rules and implications." Freedom of Information Requests has come to unveil the real cost of big deals in several countries. On July 17, 2012 the European Union issued a recommendation on Access to and Preservation of Scientific Information that called to "define clear policies" on open access. This approach "was a major shift compared with the previous EU 7th Framework Programme (2007–13), which had defined OA merely as a pilot action in select areas." It initiated a new cycle of regulatory policies of large academic publishers. The Horizon 2020 research program made open access a requirement for funding.
The Plan S was originally "a simple plan" mostly addressed to funding agencies: "any researcher who receives a grant from one of them must only publish in an OA journal under a CC BY licence". The early draft included a mechanism to cap the price of Article-Processing charges that was finally not retained in the final version. The first official version released in September 2018 favored "transformative agreements, where subscription costs are offset by publication costs, can help to accelerate the transition to open access." While criticized for its bias in favor of commercial open access, and the perpetuation of high publishing costs, the Plan S has facilitated the creation of a global coordination in negotiations with large publishers.
References
Bibliography
Thesis and books
Reports
Journal articles
Conference sources
Web sources
Open science
Open access (publishing)
Data publishing | Economics of open science | [
"Technology"
] | 13,739 | [
"Data",
"Data publishing"
] |
69,951,427 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tucson%20Modernism%20Week | Tucson Modernism Week is an annual cultural festival and celebration organized by the Tucson Historic Preservation Foundation held in October - November which highlights Southern Arizona's unique and distinct mid-20th century architecture and design heritage. Established in 2012 the programming includes tours, lectures, films, publications, and special events. The event draws national and international speakers and participants. Tucson Modernism Week produces an annual magazine featuring original scholarship and content highlighting the contributions of 20th-century designers, architects, and thought leaders. The events and programming primary focus on Tucson and greater Pima County which is home to a significant collection of mid-twentieth century buildings by noted architects including Judith Chafee, Arthur T. Brown, Bernard J. Friedman, William Kirby Lockard, William Wilde, Sylvia Wilde, Taro Akutagawa, Tom Gist, Bob Swaim, Nicholas Sakellar, and others.
During the Covid-19 pandemic, programing was offered entirely online with virtual tours, lectures and other innovative programing.
References
External links
Architecture festivals
Festivals in Tucson, Arizona
Modernist architecture in Arizona
2012 establishments in Arizona | Tucson Modernism Week | [
"Engineering"
] | 220 | [
"Architecture festivals",
"Architecture"
] |
69,953,986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LHA%20120-S%2079 | LHA 120-S 79 is an RV Tauri variable star located in the Large Magellanic Cloud, located about 163,000 light years away in the constellation of Dorado, with a period of 37.203 days. The star is extremely hot for a star of its type, as its temperature is over 10,000 K, and it is hot enough to be classified as a B-type blue giant, as well as being the hottest RV Tauri variable in the LMC. LHA 120-S 79 is also extremely luminous, at over 14,000 L☉, and it is the most luminous known star of its type in the galaxy.
However, the star may be less luminous than it seems, as its spectral energy distribution is contaminated by a very nearby star, 2MASS J05044388−6858371, which is also a long-period variable star and is just 8 arcseconds from LHA 120-S 79.
Notes
References
RV Tauri variables
Large Magellanic Cloud
B-type giants
Dorado
Post-asymptotic-giant-branch stars | LHA 120-S 79 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 229 | [
"Dorado",
"Constellations"
] |
69,954,323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sterile%20male | Sterile males are deliberately produced by humans in several species for several unrelated purposes:
Sterile insect technique for insect pest control
Cytoplasmic male sterility for plant breeding
Sterile male plant for plant breeding
Humans and other species | Sterile male | [
"Biology"
] | 45 | [
"Humans and other species"
] |
69,954,346 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofia%20University%20Museum%20of%20Paleontology%20and%20Historical%20Geology | The Sofia University "St. Kliment Ohridski" Museum of Paleontology and Historical Geology (SUMPHG) (), is a paleontology museum located in the main building of Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski", Sofia, Bulgaria.
History
The museum is within the main building of Sofia University, designed by Jean Bréasson, re-designed by Yordan Milanov, and later by Ljuben Konstantinov. Its collections are primarily intended for research and are, thus, not accessible to the public. A limited number of fossils from the collection is on display in the SUMPHG, and is one of the primary localities for storing fossils collected in Bulgaria. The original fossils, around which the current collection has grown, were those gathered by the first Bulgarian state geologist Georgi Zlatarski (1854 - 1909) and those purchased from Dr. A. Krantz. Later specimens collected by doctoral students and as part of the Bulgarian geological surveys were added.
Faculty
Many notable Bulgarian paleontologists have worked at SUMPHG, including Peter Bakalov, Vassil Tzankov, Ivan Nikolov, Natalia Dimitrova, Milka Entcheva, Emilia Kojumdjieva, Nonka Motekova, Stoycho Breskovski, Angel Pamouktchiev et al.
Public access
Admission is free to the museum for all visitors. The museum is open 10 am - 12 am, 1 pm - 4 pm Monday to Friday. It is closed on Saturdays and Sundays. SUMPHG is an important venue for widening interest in paleontology, evolutionary biology and Earth sciences.
The museum logo is based on the Deinotherium skeleton displayed by the entrance.
Gallery
Exhibits of geologic eras and periods
References
External links
See also
National Museum of Natural History, Bulgaria
Museums established in 1897
Paleontology websites
University museums
Natural history museums in Bulgaria
Geology museums
Museums in Bulgaria
Paleontology in Bulgaria
Evolutionary biology
Fossil museums in Bulgaria
Historical geology
Museums in Sofia
Geology museums in Bulgaria | Sofia University Museum of Paleontology and Historical Geology | [
"Biology"
] | 417 | [
"Evolutionary biology"
] |
69,955,049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feferman%E2%80%93Vaught%20theorem | The Feferman–Vaught theorem in model theory is a theorem by Solomon Feferman and Robert Lawson Vaught that shows how to reduce, in an algorithmic way, the first-order theory of a product of structures to the first-order theory of elements of the structure.
The theorem is considered to be one of the standard results in model theory. The theorem extends the previous result of Andrzej Mostowski on direct products of theories.
It generalizes (to formulas with arbitrary quantifiers) the property in universal algebra that equalities (identities) carry over to direct products of algebraic structures (which is a consequence of one direction of Birkhoff's theorem).
Direct product of structures
Consider a first-order logic signature L.
The definition of product structures takes a family of L-structures for for some index set I and defines the product structure
, which is also an L-structure, with all functions and relations defined pointwise.
The definition generalizes the direct product in universal algebra to structures for languages that contain not only function symbols but also relation symbols.
If is a relation symbol with arguments in L and are elements of the cartesian product, we define the interpretation of in by
When is a functional relation, this definition reduces to the definition of direct product in universal algebra.
Statement of the theorem for direct products
For a first-order formula in signature L with free variables a subset of , and for an interpretation of the variables , we define the set of indices for which holds in
Given a first-order formula with free variables , there is an algorithm to compute its equivalent game normal form, which is a finite disjunction of mutually contradictory formulas.
The Feferman–Vaught theorem gives an algorithm that takes a first-order formula and constructs a formula that reduces the condition that holds in the product to the condition that holds in the interpretation of sets of indices:
The formula is thus a formula with free set variables, for example, in the first-order theory of fields of sets.
Proof idea
The formula can be constructed following the structure of the starting formula . When is quantifier free then, by definition of direct product above it follows
Consequently, we can take to be the equality in the language of fields of sets.
Extending the condition to quantified formulas can be viewed as a form of quantifier elimination, where quantification over product elements in is reduced to quantification over subsets of .
Generalized products
It is often of interest to consider substructure of the direct product structure. If the restriction that defines product elements that belong to the substructure can be expressed as a condition on the sets of index elements, then the results can be generalized.
An example is the substructure of product elements that are constant at all but finitely many indices. Assume that the language L contains a constant symbol and consider the substructure containing only those product elements for which the set
is finite. The theorem then reduces the truth value in such substructure to a formula in the field of sets, where certain sets are restricted to be finite.
One way to define generalized products is to consider those
substructures where the sets belong to some field of sets of indices (a subset of the powerset set algebra ), and where the product substructure admits gluing. Here admitting gluing refers to the following closure condition: if are two product elements and is the element of the field of sets, then so is the element defined by "gluing" and according to :
Consequences
The Feferman–Vaught theorem implies the decidability of Skolem arithmetic by viewing, via the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, the structure of natural numbers with multiplication as a generalized product (power) of Presburger arithmetic structures.
Given an ultrafilter on the set of indices , we can define a quotient structure on product elements, leading to the theorem of Jerzy Łoś that can be used to construct hyperreal numbers.
References
Model theory | Feferman–Vaught theorem | [
"Mathematics"
] | 823 | [
"Foundations of mathematics",
"Mathematical logic",
"Model theory",
"Mathematical problems",
"Mathematical theorems",
"Theorems in the foundations of mathematics"
] |
69,956,143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EX%20Lupi | EX Lupi is a young, single T-Tauri star in the southern constellation of Lupus. An irregular variable, it is the prototype of young, low-mass eruptive stars named EXors, with EX Lupi being this object's variable star designation. At its minimal activity level, EX Lupi resembles a classical T-Tauri star of the M0 dwarf type. The low latitude of this star, at a declination of −40°, makes it difficult for northern observers to view. Based on parallax measurements, it is located at a distance of about 505 light years from the Sun. The star lies next to a gap in the Lupus cloud complex, a star forming region.
During 1944, Edith M. Janssen at Harvard Observatory noticed a stellar spectrum that displayed bright lines on a photographic plate taken April 11, 1929, but these lines were missing on a spectrum from July 13, 1928. This star was found to be only two magnitudes fainter than at maximum, so a nova was ruled out. D. B. McLaughlin then undertook a study of this object going as far back as 1893, finding further outbursts in 1901, 1914, 1925, 1929, 1934. Each time the brightness increased by about two magnitudes, followed by smaller, irregular fluctuations lasting 1–2 years before returning to a near constant minimum at magnitude 13.2. Now designated EX Lupi, George Herbig studied the spectrum of this irregular variable in 1950, finding that it is similar to other emission-line stars associated with nebulosity.
The next observed outburst was during the period 1955–1957 and was tracked by A. F. Jones. It reached a peak magnitude of 8.4, followed by a secondary brightening about 300 days later. After a period of quiescence during the 1980s, another eruptive burst was observed in March 1994. It reached a peak magnitude of 11.5 on both April 30 and May 14. The cause was now understood to be the result of a mass accretion event with the infalling matter releasing its kinetic energy on the T-Tauri star. This creates a hot emission region that dominates the light output from the star. Many of the emission lines show an inverse P Cygni profile, thereby demonstrating that it is coming from infalling material. Absorption lines in the spectrum show a redshift indicating a velocity of .
A major outburst of EX Lupi began in January 2008, and it reached a peak visual magnitude of 8 during February. It remained optically brighter by five magnitudes for a period of seven months. Infrared observations of the star's circumstellar disk during the outburst shows spectral features of crystalline silicates, including strong indications of forsterite. The features resembled those seen in comets and some protoplanetary disks. The temperature of the disk is mostly below , indicating a circumstellar dust-free inner hole with a radius of . The disk may extend outward to at least . At stellar quiescence, the infrared silicate feature at a wavelength of can be explained as amorphous silicates of olivine and pyroxene.
Matter from the circumstellar disk is being accreted onto the star by means of accretion columns. This column may be the cause of the 7.417 day radial velocity variations observed with this star. EX Lupi is accreting mass at a typical estimated rate of ·yr−1, which can climb as high as ·yr−1 during peak bursts. Between outbursts, the star undergoes moderate variability of 1–2 magnitudes due to variations in the rate of accretion.
See also
FU Orionis star
References
Further reading
Red dwarfs
T Tauri stars
Eruptive variables
Circumstellar disks
Lupus (constellation)
Lupi, EX | EX Lupi | [
"Astronomy"
] | 784 | [
"Constellations",
"Lupus (constellation)"
] |
69,956,175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensitrelvir | Ensitrelvir, sold under the brand name Xocova is an antiviral medication used as a treatment for COVID-19. It was developed by Shionogi in partnership with Hokkaido University and acts as an orally active 3C-like protease inhibitor. It is taken by mouth.
The most common adverse events include transient decreases in high-density lipoprotein and increases blood triglycerides.
Medical uses
Ensitrelvir is indicated for the treatment of COVID-19.
History
, ensitrelvir had reached Phase III clinical trials. The Japanese government is reportedly considering allowing Shionogi permission to apply for approval for medical use before the final steps of trials are completed, potentially speeding up the release for sale. This conditional early approval system has previously been used in Japan to accelerate the progression to market of other antiviral drugs targeting COVID-19, including remdesivir and molnupiravir. In a study of 428 patients, viral load was reduced, but symptoms were not significantly reduced.
In February 2022, the company sought emergency approval from regulators in Japan.
Shionogi announced they had reached a preliminary agreement to supply 1million doses to the Japanese government once the drug is approved. The CEO said they could have capacity to make 10million doses a year.
Ensitrelvir may be effective in treating smell and taste loss from COVID-19 infection. In a 2023 study, the drug was associated with a 39% reduction in these symptoms.
Society and culture
Legal status
Ensitrelvir was approved for emergency use in Japan in November 2022, before gaining full approval in March 2024. It was approved in Singapore in November 2023.
In April 2023, ensitrelvir was given a "Fast Track" designation from the US Food and Drug Administration.
Names
Ensitrelvir is the international nonproprietary name (INN) .
Research
Ensitrelvir is being studied for its potential use as post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) after SARS-CoV-2 exposure. The SCORPIO-PEP trial is a global Phase 3 trial that will evaluate the safety and efficacy of the drug in preventing symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection in household contacts of people who tested positive for COVID-19.
An April 2024 pre-clinical study in a mouse model investigating ensitrelvir demonstrated its potential use as a pre-exposure prophylactic (PrEP) against developing COVID-19. When administered 24 hours before viral exposure, a single dose of ensitrelvir significantly increased survival rates, inhibited weight loss, and suppressed viral replication in aged mice.
A retrospective study conducted between November 2022 and July 2023 using a large Japanese health insurance database suggested that ensitrelvir may be effective in reducing hospitalization risk in outpatients at high risk for severe COVID-19. The study found a significantly lower risk of hospitalization and a reduced need for respiratory monitoring and oxygen therapy in the ensitrelvir group compared to the control group. In addition, other clinical study shows that early Ensitrelvir treatment resulted in rapid symptom relief and significant viral load reduction, with no adverse events, viral rebound, or PASC symptoms, demonstrating its potential efficacy and safety.
In May 2024, Shionogi announced that in a phase 3 trial (SCORPIO-HR), ensitrelvir did not achieve its primary endpoint of a statistically significant reduction in the time to sustained resolution of 15 common COVID-19 symptoms compared to placebo. However, the drug did meet key secondary endpoints, including demonstrating a significant reduction in viral RNA levels, a shorter time to achieve the first negative infectious viral titer in nasal swabs compared to placebo, and a shorter resolution time of 6 symptoms.
References
Antiviral drugs
COVID-19 drug development
Fluoroarenes
Indazoles
Chloroarenes
SARS-CoV-2 main protease inhibitors
Triazoles | Ensitrelvir | [
"Chemistry",
"Biology"
] | 828 | [
"Antiviral drugs",
"COVID-19 drug development",
"Biocides",
"Drug discovery"
] |
69,957,468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HD%20165590 | HD 165590 is a quintuple system dominated by the binary Algol variable star known as V772 Herculis. The system lies in the constellation of Hercules about from the Sun, and is suspected to be a part of the Pleiades moving group.
System
The primary star is an eclipsing binary ADS 11060A composed of G1 and K6 young main-sequence stars with strong starspot activity. A radio flare from the star V772 Her was detected in 2011. The period of the components of the primary, ADS 11060Aa and ADS 11060Ab, is 0.87950 days.
A main-sequence companion star ADS 11060B of spectral type G5 at a separation of 0.491 arcseconds, is orbiting the primary with a period of 20.08 years.
Also, there is a suspected companion binary star ADS 11060C (Gaia EDR3 4576326312901650560) at a projected separation of 29 arcseconds (1200 AU) from ADS 11060AB. ADS 11060C is composed of K7 and M0 main-sequence stars, orbiting each other with a period of 25.7631 days without eclipses. The binary is a BY Draconis variable with the variable star designation V885 Herculis.
The planetary orbits in the habitable zones in the system ADS 11060AB are unstable due to the gravitational influence of the stellar companions.
References
5
Hercules (constellation)
J18054972+2126453
BD+21 3302
088637
165590
G-type main-sequence stars
K-type main-sequence stars
M-type main-sequence stars
Algol variables
Herculis, V772
BY Draconis variables | HD 165590 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 371 | [
"Hercules (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
69,959,302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrosion%20Science | Corrosion Science is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Elsevier in 16 issues per year. Established in 1961, it covers a wide range of topics in the study of pure/applied corrosion and corrosion engineering, including but not limited to oxidation, biochemical corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, and corrosion control methods, as well as surface science and engineering. The editors-in-chief are J.M.C. Mol (Delft University of Technology) and O.R. Mattos (Federal University of Rio de Janeiro).
Abstracting and indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
Chemical Abstracts
Current Contents/Engineering, Computing & Technology
Inspec
Materials Science Citation Index
Scopus
According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 7.205.
References
External links
English-language journals
Academic journals established in 1961
Elsevier academic journals
Journals published between 13 and 25 times per year
Chemical engineering journals
Materials science journals
Corrosion | Corrosion Science | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 194 | [
"Materials science stubs",
"Metallurgy",
"Chemical engineering",
"Materials science journals",
"Corrosion",
"Chemical engineering journals",
"Materials science journal stubs",
"Materials science",
"Electrochemistry",
"Electrochemistry stubs",
"Materials degradation",
"Physical chemistry stubs"... |
69,959,874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph-Alexandre%20Auzias-Turenne | Joseph-Alexandre Auzias-Turenne, born on March 1, 1812, in Pertuis (Vaucluse) and died on May 27, 1870, in Paris, was a French doctor.
Biography
He advocated the preventive inoculation of syphilis, on the model of the variolation, and dedicated his life to this idea that posterity has not ratified.
In 1859, with Camille-Melchior Gibert, he took part in a controversial experiment in which human patients were deliberately infected with syphilis in order to prove the infectious nature of secondary syphilis.
He supported a theory of immunization as depletion, in the subject, of a substance necessary for the infectious agent. This theory, although adopted by Louis Pasteur, has not been ratified by posterity either.
He advocated the use of microbial antagonisms for therapeutic purposes (cure of diseases like favus, elephantiasis, lupus and cancer). This idea was also defended by Pasteur and, this time, ratified by posterity, but was not implemented neither by Auzias-Turenne, nor by Pasteur.
Publications
Jenner et la vaccine, Paris : Imprimerie Divry et cie., 1862
Questions, 1° Des causes des scrofules : 2° Des luxations, des causes qui les déterminent et de leur mécanisme : 3° Quelles sont les diverses substances qui entrent dans la composition du cervelet ? Quelle est leur situation respective et dans quelles propositions concourent-elles à la formation de l'organe ? : 4° Quelles sont les préparations dont l'aconit fait la base. Les décrire et les comparer entre elles, Paris : Imp. Rignoux, 1841
Théorie ou mécanisme de la migraine, Paris, Plon, 1849
La variole et la vaccine ne sont pas produites par un même principe virulent, Paris, 1850
De la syphilisation et de la contagion des accidents secondaires de la syphilis : communications à l'Académie Nationale de Médecine, par MM. Ricord, Bégin, Malgaigne ; avec les communications de MM. Auzias-Turenne et C. Sperino à l'Académie des Sciences de Paris et à l'Académie de Médecine de Turin, Paris : J.-B. Baillière, 1853
Lettre à M. le préfet de police sur la syphilisation, Paris, 1853
Discussion sur la syphilis : Extrait des procès-verbaux de la Société médicale du Panthéon, Paris : Imprimerie de Moquet, 1856
Correspondance syphilographique, suivi du Rapport fait par M. Gibert à l'Acad. imp. d. Méd., Paris : Leclerc, 1860
Communication sur le traitement de la blennorragie et de la blennorrée, faite à la Société médicale du Panthéon, le 10 août 1859, Paris, L. Leclerc, 1860
Discours sur la syphilisation..., Paris : Bailly, 1861
De la syphilis vaccinale : Communications à l'Académie impériale de médecine, par Depaul, Suivies de mémoires sur la transmission de la syphilis par la vaccination et la vaccination animale, par A. Viennois, Paris : J.-B. Baillière et fils, 1865
Les Virus au tribunal de l'Académie & dans la Presse, Paris : Imp. Divry, 1868
La syphilisation, Publication de l'oeuvre du docteur Auzias-Turenne faite par les soins de ses amis. Paris, G. Baillière, 1878
Théorie ou mécanisme de la migraine, Paris, Plon, 1849. Electronic edition online.
Discours prononcés sur la tombe de M. Isidore Geoffroy-St-Hilaire, le 13 Octobre 1861, Henri Milne-Edwards, Paris, F. Didot
Bibliography
Burke D. S. , « Joseph-Alexandre Auzias-Turenne, Louis Pasteur, and early concepts of virulence, attenuation, and vaccination », Perspectives in biology and medicine, 1996, vol. 39, n° 2, pp. 171–186.
Dracobly, Alex. « Ethics and Experimentation on Human Subjects in Mid-Nineteenth-Century France: The Story of the 1859 Syphilis Experiments », Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 77, n° 2, 2003, online.
Notes and references
External links
Daniel Wallach, « Les inoculations dans l'histoire des maladies vénériennes », Société française d'histoire de la dermatologie.
19th-century French physicians
1812 births
1870 deaths
Vaccination advocates | Joseph-Alexandre Auzias-Turenne | [
"Biology"
] | 1,065 | [
"Vaccination",
"Vaccination advocates"
] |
69,961,217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative%20Biosciences%20Institute | The Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) was established in 2016 as an organized research unit (ORU) within the School of Pharmacy at the University of California-San Francisco. The current director of QBI is Nevan Krogan.
History
In 1993, Irwin Kuntz, created an ORU within the School of Pharmacy, called the Molecular Design Institute (MDI). The Dean of the School of Pharmacy, B. Joseph Guglielmo with the support of the UCSF campus and the UC Office of the President transformed MDI into QBI.
Previously, QBI was a part of QB3, also known as QB3-UCSF. In March 2016, UCSF established QBI as a Organized Research Unit (ORU) within the School of Pharmacy.
QBI Coronavirus Research Group
The institute formed the QBI Coronavirus Research Group (QCRG), a collaborative group of labs, aimed at finding solutions for COVID-19.
References
University of California, San Francisco
2016 establishments in California
Organizations based in San Francisco
Research institutes established in 2016 | Quantitative Biosciences Institute | [
"Chemistry"
] | 220 | [
"Pharmacology",
"Pharmacology stubs",
"Medicinal chemistry stubs"
] |
69,961,810 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraethylammonium%20trichloride | Tetraethylammonium trichloride (also known as Mioskowski reagent) is a chemical compound with the formula [NEt4][Cl3] consisting of a tetraethylammonium cation and a trichloride as anion. The trichloride is also known as trichlorine monoanion representing one of the simplest polychlorine anions. Tetraethylammonium trichloride is used as reagent for chlorinations and oxidation reactions.
Properties
At room temperature, tetraethylammonium trichloride is a yellow solid which is soluble in polar organic solvents (e.g., methylene chloride or acetonitrile). As it is a strong oxidant and chlorinating agent it is reacting with most organic solvents. The trichloride can be considered as an symmetric anion as found in [NnPr4][Cl3], which is formed by a 3c-4e bond.
Preparation
Commonly, tetraethylammonium trichloride is prepared by the reaction of tetraethylammonium chloride and elemental chlorine in methylene chloride at room temperature. After evaporation of the solvent, tetraethylammonium trichloride is obtained as a yellow solid.
[NEt4]Cl + Cl2 → [NEt4][Cl3]
Recently, an alternative preparation of tetraethylammonium trichloride has been described using tetraethylammonium chloride and potassium peroxymonosulfate as oxidant.
Applications
In general, tetraethylammonium trichloride has a similar reactivity compared to elemental chlorine and other trichlorides, e.g., triethylmethylammonium trichloride. As tetraethylammonium trichloride is a solid and can be dissolved in methylene chloride or acetonitrile, it is used as an easier to handle alternative to elemental chlorine, in particular for the synthesis of intermediates in natural product synthesis. Tetraethylammonium trichloride reacts with alkenes to the corresponding vicinal 1,2-dichlorinated alkanes and similarly with alkynes to the corresponding trans-dichlorinated alkenes. Electron rich arenes are chlorinated in para-position. While aldehydes are dichlorinated in alpha-position, ketones react to the monochlorinated alpha-chloroketones. In presence of 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane tetraethylammonium trichloride is a useful oxidant for the oxidation of primary alcohols to the corresponding aldehydes and of secondary alcohols to the corresponding ketones. For compounds bearing both a primary and a secondary alcohol, selective oxidation of the secondary alcohol is observed. Acetals undergo C-H chlorination of the tertiary C-H bond providing the corresponding chlorinated acetals.
References
Tetraethylammonium salts
Chlorine compounds
Hypervalent molecules
Polyhalides | Tetraethylammonium trichloride | [
"Physics",
"Chemistry"
] | 665 | [
"Molecules",
"Hypervalent molecules",
"Matter"
] |
69,962,868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phallus%20formosanus | Phallus formosanus is a species of fungus in the stinkhorn family Phallaceae. It was first described in 1938.
References
Phallales
Fungi described in 1938
Fungus species | Phallus formosanus | [
"Biology"
] | 39 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
69,962,999 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phallus%20granulosodenticulatus | Phallus granulosodenticulatus is a species of fungus belonging to the Phallus genus. It was discovered in 1832 in São Leopoldo, Brazil.
References
Phallales
Fungus species | Phallus granulosodenticulatus | [
"Biology"
] | 43 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
69,963,339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phallus%20haitangensis | Phallus haitangensis is a species of fungus belonging to the Phallus genus. It was documented in 2016 in Yunnan, China. The species name "haitangensis" refers to Haitangwa, the name of the village in which the species was found. It was found on soil under Pinus armandii.
References
Phallales
Fungus species | Phallus haitangensis | [
"Biology"
] | 74 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
69,963,516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anixia%20buxi | Anixia buxi is a species of fungus belonging to the Anixia genus. It was documented in 1882. Its basionym is Orbicula buxi, which belongs to the Orbicula genus, but its taxonomy is uncertain.
References
Agaricomycetes
Fungi described in 1882
Fungus species | Anixia buxi | [
"Biology"
] | 64 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
69,963,616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anixia%20wallrothii | Anixia wallrothii is a species of fungus belonging to the Anixia genus. It was documented in 1870 by German mycologist Karl Wilhelm Gottlieb Leopold Fuckel. The Anixia is a part of a larger fungal family known for their diverse habitats and role in ecosystem.
References
A multi-level analysis to evaluate the extinction risk of and conservation strategy for the aquatic fern Marsilea quadrifolia L. in Europehttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/257150377_A_multi-level_analysis_to_evaluate_the_extinction_risk_of_and_conservation_strategy_for_the_aquatic_fern_Marsilea_quadrifolia_L_in_Europe
Agaricomycetes
Fungi described in 1870
Taxa named by Karl Wilhelm Gottlieb Leopold Fuckel
Fungus species | Anixia wallrothii | [
"Biology"
] | 184 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
69,964,722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary%20chromosome | Chromids, formerly (and less specifically) secondary chromosomes, are a class of bacterial replicons (replicating DNA molecules). These replicons are called "chromids" because they have characteristic features of both chromosomes and plasmids. Early on, it was thought that all core genes could be found on the main chromosome of the bacteria. However, in 1989 a replicon (now known as a chromid) was discovered containing core genes outside of the main chromosome. These core genes make the chromid indispensable to the organism. Chromids are large replicons, although not as large as the main chromosome. However, chromids are almost always larger than a plasmid (or megaplasmid). Chromids also share many genomic signatures of the chromosome, including their GC-content and their codon usage bias. On the other hand, chromids do not share the replication systems of chromosomes. Instead, they use the replication system of plasmids. Chromids are present in 10% of bacteria species sequenced by 2009.
Bacterial genomes divided between a main chromosome and one or more chromids (and / or megaplasmids) are said to be divided or multipartite genomes. The vast majority of chromid-encoding bacteria only have a single chromid, although 9% have more than one (compared with 12% of megaplasmid-encoding bacteria containing multiple megaplasmids). The genus Azospirillum contains three species which have up to five chromids, the most chromids known in a single species to date. Chromids also appear to be more common in bacteria which have a symbiotic or pathogenic relationship with eukaryotes and with organisms with high tolerance to abiotic stressors.
Chromids were discovered in 1989, in a species of Alphaproteobacteria known as Rhodobacter sphaeroides. However, the formalization of the concept of a "chromid" as an independent type of replicon only came about in 2010. Several classifications further distinguish between chromids depending on conditions of their essentiality, their replication system, and more.
The two hypotheses for the origins of chromids are the "plasmid" and "schism" hypotheses. According to the plasmid hypothesis, chromids originate from plasmids which have acquired core genes over evolutionary time and so stabilized in their respective lineages. According to the schism hypothesis, chromids as well as the main chromosome originate from a schism of a larger, earlier chromosome. The plasmid hypothesis is presently widely accepted, although there may be rare cases where large replicons originate from a chromosomal schism. One finding holds that chromids originated 45 times across bacterial phylogenies and were lost twice.
Discovery and classification
Discovery
Early in the era of bacterial genomics, the genomes of bacteria were thought to have a relatively simple architecture. All known bacteria had circular chromosomes containing all the crucial genes. Some bacteria had additional replicons known as plasmids, and plasmids were characteristically small, circular, and dispensable (meaning that they only encoded non-essential genes). As more bacteria and their genomes were studied, many alternative forms of bacterial genomic architecture began to be discovered. Linear chromosomes and linear plasmids were discovered in a number of species. Soon after, bacteria with several large replicons were discovered, leading to the view that bacteria, just like eukaryotes, can have a genome made up of more than one chromosome. The first example of this was Rhodobacter sphaeroides in 1989, but additional discoveries quickly followed with Brucella melitensis in 1993, Burkholderia cepacia complex in 1994, Rhizobium meliloti in 1995, Bacillus thuringiensis in 1996, and now about 10% of bacterial species are known to have large replicons that are separate from the main chromosome.
Definition
With the onset of these discoveries, several approaches in classifying different components of multipartite genomes were proposed. Various terms have been used to describe large replicons other than the main chromosome, including simply designating them as additional chromosomes, or "minichromosomes", "megaplasmids", or "secondary chromosomes". Criteria used to distinguish between these replicons typically revolve around features such as size and the presence of core genes. In 2010, the classification of these genomic elements as chromids was proposed. Previous terms, such as "secondary chromosome", are considered inadequate upon the observation that these replicons contain the replication systems of plasmids and so are a fundamentally different class of replicons than chromosomes. The original definition of a 'chromid' involves meeting three criteria:
While this definition is robust, the authors who proposed it did so with the expectation that some exceptions would be found that would blur the lines between chromids and other replicons. This expectation existed because of the general tendency for evolutionary lineages to produce ambiguous systems, which has resulted in the more well-known issues in formulating a widely-encompassing species definition.
Since the classification of chromids, other replicons have been discovered which share some features of chromids but have been categorized separately. One example is the designated "rrn-plasmid" found in a clade within the bacterial genus Aureimonas. The rrn-plasmid contains the rrn (rRNA) operon (hence its name), and the rrn operon cannot be found on the main chromosome. The main chromosome is therefore termed as an "rrn-lacking chromosome" or RLC, and so the clade of bacteria within Aureimonas which possess the rrn-plasmid is also termed the "RLC clade". Members of the RLC clade have nine replicons, of which the main chromosome is the largest and the rrn-plasmid is the smallest at only 9.4kb. The rrn-plasmid also has a high copy number in RLC bacteria. While this very small size and copy number resembles plasmids moreso than it does chromids, the rrn-plasmid still ahs the only copies of the genes in the rrn operon and for tRNA(Ile). This distinctive collection of features led the scientists discovering this replicon to simply classify it as an rrn-plasmid, which is thought of as a separate classification than a "plasmid" or "chromid".
Additional proposed classifications
Beyond classifying certain replicons as chromids, a number of scientists have proposed further distinguishing between different types of chromids. One classification distinguishes between primary and secondary chromids. Primary chromids are defined as chromids containing core genes that are always essential for the survival of the bacterium under all conditions. Secondary chromids are defined as chromids essential for survival in the native conditions of the bacterium, but may be non-essential in certain "safe" conditions such as a laboratory environment. Secondary chromids may also have more recent evolutionary origins and may retain some more plasmid-like features as compared with primary chromids. An example of a proposed primary chromid is "chromosome II" of Paracoccus denitrificans PD1222.
Characteristics
Size and copy number
In a bacterial genome, the main chromosome will always be the largest replicon, followed by the chromid and then the plasmid. One exception to this trend is known in Deinococcus deserti VCD115, where both plasmids are larger than the chromid.
Chromids vary considerably in size between organisms. In the bacterial genus Vibrio, the main chromosome varies between 3.0 and 3.3 Mb whereas the chromid varies between 0.8 and 2.4 Mb in size. A replicon in a strain of Buchnera, which encodes some core genes, is only 7.8kb. While the presence of core genes may lead to the classification of this replicon as a chromid, this replicon may also be excluded on certain definitions. Some approaches only categorize certain replicons as chromids if they meet a threshold size of 350kb. It has also been observed that chromids tend to have a low copy number in the cell, as with chromosomes and megaplasmids. On average, chromids are twice as large as megaplasmids (and so the emergence of a chromid from a megaplasmid is associated with a sizable gene accumulation in the aftermath of the conversion). One of the largest chromids is the one in Burkholderia pseudomallei, which exceeds 3.1 million nucleotides in size, i.e. 3.1 megabases or 3.1 Mb.
Genomic features
Chromids more frequently have a lower G + C content compared with the main chromosome, although the strength of this association is not very strong. A chromid will also typically have a G + C content within 1% of that of the main chromosome, reflecting its nearing the base composition equilibrium of the main chromosome after having stably existed within a bacterial lineage for a necessary period of time. Chromids also resemble the main chromosome in their codon usage bias. One analysis found that chromids had a median 0.34% difference in GC content with the main chromosome, compared with values of 1.9% for megaplasmids and 2.8% for plasmids.
Chromids have at least one core gene absent from the main chromosome. (Main chromosomes contain the bulk of the core genes of a bacterium, whereas plasmids contain no core genes.) For example, the chromid in Vibrio cholerae contains genes for the ribosomal subunits L20 and L35. While most chromids have a disproportionately smaller number of essential genes compared to the main chromosome, such as rRNA genes or the genes in the rRNA operon, some may have many more essential genes and may even be considered "equal partners" with the chromosome. In general, chromids also see an enrichment of genes involved in the processes of transport, metabolism, transcription, regulatory functions, signal transduction, and motility-related functions. Proteins located on chromids are involved in processes which can interact with proteins encoded on the main chromosome. Chromids also have more transposase genes than chromosomes, but less than megaplasmids.
Phylogenetic distribution
The presence of core genes makes the chromid essential to the survival of the bacterium. The same core genes will be found on the chromids within a genus but not necessarily between genera. All chromids of a genus may additionally share a large number of conserved but non-essential genes which help define the phenotype of the genus (and the emergence of chromids appears to be the primary evolutionary force in the formation of chromid-encoding bacterial genera, as has been suggested in the case of Vibrio). In contrast, bacterial chromosomes may universally or near-universally share hundreds of conserved core genes. Plasmids contain no core genes, and unlike chromids, plasmids of different species within a bacterial genus (or even just different isolates within the same species) share few genes. This is partly due to the common transfer of gain and loss of plasmids and their transfer between bacteria through conjugation (a form of horizontal gene transfer), while chromids are passed on through cell divisions (vertically) with no evidence of chromids moving through horizontal gene transfer. It has been observed that the chromid in at least one bacterial species could be eliminated without making the bacterium inviable, however, the bacterium did become auxotrophic indicating a severe fitness compromise associated with the loss of the chromid.
Due to their stable presence within a bacterial genus, chromids also have a feature of being phylogenetically restricted to specific genera. Examples of genera of bacteria with chromids include Deinococcus, Leptospira, Cyanothece (a type of cyanobacteria), and an enrichment of genera of the Pseudomonadota. Overall, bacterial genome sequencing indicates that roughly 10% of bacterial species have a chromid. It has also been found that there is a bias towards co-occurrence of a chromid and a megaplasmid in the same organism. Chromids also appear more frequently in phylogenies than do megaplasmids (in approximately twice as many species), despite megaplasmids being the putative evolutionary source for chromids. This may result in the tendency of organisms to lose their megaplasmids over time, compared with the inherently greater evolutionary stability of chromids.
Replication
Chromids share features of the replication of both chromosomes and plasmids. For one, chromids use the replication system of plasmids. While plasmids do not replicate in coordination with the main chromosome or the cell cycle, chromids do and only replicate once per cell cycle. In the bacterial genus Vibrio, replication of the main chromosome begins before replication of the chromid. The chromid is smaller than the chromosome, and so takes a shorter amount of time to finish replication. For this reason, replication of the chromid is delayed to coordinate replication termination between the chromosome and chromid. Earlier replication of the chromosome compared with the chromid has also been observed in Ensifer meliloti. Bacteria also rely on different replication factors to start replication between the chromosome and the chromid. Replication of the chromosome is initiated upon stimulation of the expression of the protein DnaA, whereas expression of chromid replication requires DnaA but also depends on RctB. This is similar to F1 and P plasmids which also depend on DnaA but still have their replication controlled by other proteins (specifically RepA and RepE). Segregation of the chromid follows different patterns between different genera of bacteria, although it typically takes place after the segregation of the main chromosome.
So far, chromids are known to replicate with one of two types of systems: either with the repABC system or with iterons.
Evolutionary flexibility
Several studies indicate that chromids are less conserved and evolve more rapidly than do chromosomes in bacteria. In a study of many species of the genus Vibrio, it was found that the main, large chromosome had a consistent size range of 3–3.3 Mb, whereas the secondary chromosome flexibly ranged from 0.8 to 2.4 Mb. This considerable variation indicates a greater degree of structural flexibility. Bacteria of the genus Agrobacterium and another genera can have three or more chromids, and these multiple chromids in several strains commonly undergo large-scale rearrangements which can involve the translocation of one sizable portion of one chromid into another. Genes located on chromids are also more prone to evolve and display less purifying selection. Since common species definition for prokaryotes are based on DNA sequence or average nucleotide identity, the greater evolvability of the chromid may result in organisms with chromids having a greater tendency to speciate.
Origins
"Schism" and "plasmid" hypotheses
Several suggestions have been put forwards to explain the origins of chromids. The two main hypotheses are the "schism hypothesis" and the "plasmid hypothesis". According to the schism hypothesis, two separate bacterial chromosomes may arise through the splitting of one larger chromosome, resulting in a main and a secondary chromosome (or a chromid). However, due to the plasmid-type maintenance and replication systems in chromids as well as the uneven distribution of core genes between the main chromosome and the chromid, the plasmid hypothesis suggesting that chromids evolved from megaplasmids which acquired core genes is widely accepted. Once megaplasmids acquire core genes from the main chromosome, combined with the simultaneous loss of those core genes from the main chromosome, the plasmid becomes a stable and required element of the bacterial genome. (Megaplasmids may also acquire duplicate copies of core genes from the main chromosome. The existence of the duplicate core gene may degenerate on the main chromosome, leading to its sole presence on the newly formed chromid. In this case, the chromid is formed through a neutral transition.) This event also stabilizes the other genes located on the new chromid, which may result in a characteristic phenotype for the new lineage. These core genes can transfer to a megaplasmid through several means. One is homologous recombination between the main chromosome and the plasmid. It is also possible that an existing chromid could recombine with a plasmid to gain its replication system. Once a chromid appears in a lineage, it is stable over long evolutionary periods. Several bacteria genera have chromids which are characteristic to each genus. Whereas the chromids found in a single genus may universally share a large number of genes, there are no genes universally found across the chromids of different genera.
Plasmids are almost always if not always the source for the origins of chromids, but at least two bacterial strains may have their large replicons derive from the schism of a larger chromosome. In these exceptional cases, the term "secondary chromosome" may be retained to describe them and so, in this sense, differentiate them from "chromids". Identifying a replicon as a "secondary chromosome" may be done on the basis of conserved synteny and random distribution of core genes with the main chromosome.
Proposed adaptive causes
The question of the origins of chromids is tied to the question of why they evolved. One possibility is that chromids are a "frozen accident", where they simply happened to evolve by chance and for no particular reason and so, for this reason alone, are present in the lineage descendant from the organism in which they emerged. In this scenario, core genes end up on the chromid by chance, but the chance fixation of core genes on the secondary replicon through neutral transitions leads to its essentiality to the organism. However, chromids may also bring some advantages which helps the bacterium compete in its environment. It has been observed that bacteria with chromids are capable of growing faster in culture, and also contain fairly more sizable genomes. Chromid-encoding bacteria have a genome with an average size of 5.73 ± 1.66 Mb, whereas bacteria which do not encode chromids have an average genome size of 3.38 ± 1.81 Mb. For this reason, some have concluded that the placement of a number of genes on the chromid instead of the main chromosome allows for genome expansion without compromising replication speed and efficiency. On the other hand, two thirds of bacterial genomes over 6 Mb are not multipartite and only three of the fifty largest genomes are multipartite, and so a larger genome has not yet been causally demonstrated as a reason for the evolutionary origins of a chromid. Chromids can also be frequently found on fast-growing bacteria, suggesting their contribution to replication and division speed, although here too several analyses have raised difficulties with this suggestion as a driving evolutionary force for the emergence of chromids. Instead, it is more likely that genome expansion and faster replication speed may be involved in the maintenance of chromids in lineages but not a causal explanation for their emergence. Chromids may also allow for coordinated expression of niche-specific genes. Random though rare emergence of chromids which happen to have the necessary genes to confer an advantageous lifestyle in a given environment may play an important role in stabilizing that chromid in the organism and leading to a new lineage defined by the presence of the now crucial replicon.
References
DNA replication
Bacterial genetics | Secondary chromosome | [
"Biology"
] | 4,262 | [
"Genetics techniques",
"Bacterial genetics",
"DNA replication",
"Molecular genetics",
"Bacteria",
"Genetics by type of organism"
] |
69,964,891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophilus%20bipartitus | Geophilus bipartitus is a species of soil centipede in the family Geophilidae found in Japan. It grows up to 15 millimeters in length; the males have about 35 leg pairs, the females 39. It lives in Japanese white birch.
References
bipartitus
Animals described in 1937
Arthropods of Japan
Zoology
Taxa named by Yosioki Takakuwa | Geophilus bipartitus | [
"Biology"
] | 82 | [
"Zoology"
] |
69,965,808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anixia%20interrupta | Anixia interrupta is a species of fungus belonging to the genus Anixia. It was documented in 1832 by German-American mycologist Lewis David de Schweinitz.
References
Agaricomycetes
Fungi described in 1832
Fungus species
Taxa named by Lewis David de Schweinitz | Anixia interrupta | [
"Biology"
] | 62 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
69,965,873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anixia%20minuta | Anixia minuta is a species of fungus belonging to the Anixia genus. It was documented in 1872 by Hungarian-Croatian mycologist Stephan Schulzer von Müggenburg.
References
Agaricomycetes
Fungi described in 1872
Fungus species | Anixia minuta | [
"Biology"
] | 53 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
69,965,920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anixia%20myriasca | Anixia myriasca is a species of fungus that belongs to the Anixia genus. It was documented in 1902 by Austrian mycologist Franz Xaver Rudolf von Höhnel.
References
Agaricomycetes
Fungi described in 1902
Fungus species | Anixia myriasca | [
"Biology"
] | 53 | [
"Fungi",
"Fungus species"
] |
78,892,966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andotrope | An Andotrope is a device that allows viewing of a two-dimensional video from any direction, without limiting it to a specific perspective as with conventional screens.
Name and idea
The device is named after its inventor, Mike Ando, with the suffix -trope (Ancient Greek τρόπος, "turning"). The idea came to Ando from Gehn’s Holographic Imager in the computer game Riven – The Sequel to Myst. The Andotrope is a replica of this device, but differs from a technical perspective in that the image is not a three-dimensional hologram.
Functionality
According to Ando, the device updates "a 150-year-old children’s toy into the 21st century.” The functionality of an Andotrope is similar to a Zoetrope, but differs technically on several key points.
The device is built from a cylindrical housing containing at least one fixed screen. The cylinder has a slot for each screen that allows it to be viewed from outside. When at least two screens are used, the content must be synchronized to show the same image at the same time. This case is attached to a rotating electric turntable to create the stroboscopic effect of a film projector, whereby a linear sequence of images becomes a fluid video. Ando states that his device can reach 1200 revolutions per minute, and with two screens, can show a video at approximately 40 frames per second.
According to Ando, important requirements for the screens are:
No flickering
High brightness
Strong resistance (due to high rotation speed)
Andotrope in the media
The invention was met with a generally positive reception. For example, the Australian Diyode Magazine published an interview with Ando covering the device and process of its invention. The German magazine Coolsten also covered the Andotrope. The YouTube channel The Action Lab released a video in November 2024 covering the use of 3D printing and two smartphones in creating its own Andotrope.
References
Animation_technology
Australian_inventions
Display_technology | Andotrope | [
"Engineering"
] | 420 | [
"Electronic engineering",
"Display technology"
] |
78,893,360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Ready%20Mixed%20Concrete%20Association | The National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA) is a nonprofit organization established in 1930 to support the ready mixed concrete industry in the United States.
History
NRMCA was founded in 1930 and has since evolved into the leading advocate for the ready mixed concrete industry and has expanded its focus to include environmental sustainability, technological innovations and workforce training.
Since 1996, CONEXPO-CON/AGG, the trade show resulting from the merger of CONEXPO and CON/AGG, has been organized by the Association of Equipment Manufacturers (AEM), the National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA), and the National Stone, Sand & Gravel Association (NSSGA). The resulting exhibition created the largest construction trade show in North America, showcasing advancements in construction, aggregates and ready mixed concrete industries.
In 2015, the Dubai Central Laboratory of the Dubai Municipality (DCL-DM) partnered with NRMCA to recognize the equivalencies of its concrete plant and truck certification programs, enabling Dubai-based facilities certified by DCL-DM to obtain internationally recognized NRMCA certification without additional audits.
Programs and initiatives
NRMCA annually recognizes excellence in the industry through various awards and programs. Notable awards include "Excellence in Quality Awards" and "Environmental Excellence Awards."
The "ThinkFirst" safety program aims to reduce workplace injuries, while the "Driver of the Year" program and the "National Mixer Driver Championship" celebrate safety and driving excellence.
NRMCA promotes sustainable practices through its "Build With Strength" coalition, which has partnered with Habitat for Humanity to construct energy-efficient concrete homes using insulated concrete forms (ICFs). The association has also supported advancements in low-carbon concrete technologies and also promotes roller-compacted concrete (RCC) as a durable, sustainable and cost-effective paving solution.
NRMCA played a key role in New York State's "Buy Clean Concrete Guidelines," which established phased greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions limits for state-funded projects. NRMCA's benchmarks, developed through extensive data collection since 2014, have guided these initiatives, resulting in a reported 21% reduction in concrete's carbon footprint by 2021.
The association is also expanding Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) development with a $9.63 million EPA grant to train specialists and collect data from additional plants.
References
Trade associations based in the United States
Organizations based in Alexandria, Virginia
Organizations established in 1930
1930 establishments in Virginia
Concrete
Construction industry of the United States | National Ready Mixed Concrete Association | [
"Engineering"
] | 513 | [
"Structural engineering",
"Concrete"
] |
78,893,962 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukase%20Y%C5%8Dshun | was a Japanese physician.
Biography
Fukase Yōshun was born in Hakodate as the eldest son of , a medical expert originally from the Yonezawa Domain in Dewa Province who moved to Hakodate in order to open a medical practice. His brother, , became the second director of the founded by Kurimoto Jō'un.
Fukase studied Western medicine in Edo under .
In 1857, alarmed by an epidemic of smallpox spreading rapidly among the Ainu, the shogunate commanded a small team of physicians including Fukase and Kuwata Ryūsai to enter Ezo and carry out compulsory vaccination of the Ainu populace.
In his later years, Fukase returned to his hometown of Hakodate and served at the local medical outpost of the Kaitakushi. He died in 1905.
References
1834 births
1905 deaths
19th-century Japanese physicians
People from Hokkaido | Fukase Yōshun | [
"Biology"
] | 184 | [
"Vaccination",
"Vaccinologists"
] |
78,894,356 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IC%204051 | IC 4051 is a large elliptical galaxy in the northern constellation of Coma Berenices. It was discovered by the French astronomer Guillaume Bigourdan on April 12, 1891. This object is located east of the core of the large Coma Cluster of galaxies, at a distance of from the Milky Way. With a combined apparent visual magnitude of 13.20, it is the fifth brightest galaxy within a degree of the cluster core. The galaxy displays a significant radial velocity difference from the cluster as a whole, indicating that it may oscillate back-and-forth through the cluster and is now passing through the more dense core at high velocity.
The morphological classification of IC 4051 is E2, indicating a slightly oval-shaped elliptical galaxy. The structure of the galaxy is relatively compact, suggesting it has undergone tidal trimming of its halo from the surrounding galaxy cluster. It has a peculiar core that is counter-rotating with respect to the galaxy as a whole. This core region extends out to an angular radius of , which corresponds to a physical radius of about . This star population is old and metal-rich, but contributes only 1% of the total galactic luminosity.
IC 4051 has an unusually large population of globular clusters, comparable to a Type-cD galaxy. Most of these clusters appear metal-rich. The evolutionary picture of this galaxy suggests that it was stripped of most of its gas after the globular cluster population was formed in situ, with the gas being carried away during the early passages through the cluster core. Metal-rich globulars are found within about of the galactic center, while the metal-poor globulars are found further out in a halo orbiting the galaxy.
SN 1950A was a Type I supernova event that was discovered by M. L. Humason from photographic plates taken March 20 and April 11, 1950. It was positioned North and West of the galactic center of IC 4051. The event was at magnitude on March 20.
References
Elliptical galaxies
IC objects
Coma Berenices
Discoveries by Guillaume Bigourdan | IC 4051 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 421 | [
"Coma Berenices",
"Constellations"
] |
78,895,170 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%20photoionization | DNA photoionization is the phenomenon according to which ultraviolet radiation absorbed directly by a DNA system (mononucleotide, single or double strand, G-quadruplex…) induces the ejection of electrons, leaving electron holes on the nucleic acid.
The loss of an electron gives rise to a radical cation on the DNA. Radical cations are precursors to oxidative damage, ultimately leading to carcinogenic mutations and cell death. This aspect, detrimental to the health, is exploited in the germicidal equipments using far-UVC lamps. The electric charges photogenarated in DNA could potentially find applications in optoelectronic devices.
Two properties are crucial regarding photoionization. On the one hand, the ionization energy (also called ionization potential, IP), refers to the energy necessary to remove one electron from a molecule; the lowest IP, corresponding to the ejection of a first electron, is the most biologically relevant factor. On the other hand, the photoionization quantum yield Φ, that is the number of electrons that are ejected over the number of absorbed photons; Φ depends on the irradiation wavelength and decreases.
The mechanism underlying DNA ionization depends on the number of photons that provoke the ejection of one electron (one-photon or multiphoton, induced by intense laser pulses). And, in the case of one-photon process, it differs according to the photon energy (high-energy or low-energy). While one- and two-photon ionization in condensed phase (aqueous solutions, cells…) is mainly studied in respect with the UV-induced oxidative damage, multiphoton ionization in the gas phase, often coupled to mass spectroscopy, is used in various techniques in order to obtain broader spectroscopic,
analytical,
structural or therapeutic information.
Ionization potentials
Since the end of the 20th century, numerous theoretical studies, performed using various types of quantum chemistry methods, focus on the computation of the lowest IP of nucleobases. Particular effort is being dedicated to evaluate environmental effects, such as the presence of water molecules, base-pairing, base stacking or base-sequence. All these studies agree that the IP decreases in the order: thymine, cytosine, adenine, guanine.
Experimentally, IPs are determined by photoelectron spectroscopy. A series of systematic measurements of all the elementary DNA components as well as of genomic DNA in liquid jets, associated with computations, provided important information regarding the ionization in aqueous media. The IP values measured for nucleosides/nucleotides (8.1, 8.1, 7.6 and 7.3 eV for thymidine monophosphate, cytosine, adenosine and guanosine, respectively) match those computed for vertical ionization. The latter corresponds to electron ejection without prior geometrical rearrangement of the molecular framework. Most importantly, it was evidenced that base-pairing and base-stacking do not have any significant effect.
One photon ionization
Photoionization quantum yields
Photoionization quantum yields are determined for DNA in aqueous solution by means of the transient absorption spectroscopy using as excitation source nanosecond laser pulses. The ejected electrons are solvated by the water molecules (hydrated) on the sub-picosecond time scale. As the absorption spectrum of hydrated electrons, peaking 720 nm, is well known, they can be characterized in a quantitative way.
High-energy photoionization
The first experiments were reported in the 1990s using excitation at 193 nm. The quantum yields determined for the nucleobases at this wavelength amount to a few percent. In agreement with the later studies performed by photoelectron spectroscopy, the Φ found for genomic DNA is the linear combination of the quantum yield values of the individual nucleobases, in agreement with the findings of the photoelectron spectroscopy.
Low-energy photoionization
The first studies on low-energy photoionization, occurring at wavelengths for which the photon energy is significantly smaller compared to the lowest ionization potential of DNA, were reported back in 2005 (G-Quadruplexes at 308 nm) and 2006 (single and double strands at 266 nm). But this unexpected phenomenon started to be studied in a systematic way only ten years later. To that effect, specific protocols regarding the purity of the nucleic acids and the ingredients of the aqueous solution as well as the intensity of the exciting laser pulses were established.
In contrast to the high-energy, low-energy photoionization strongly depends on the secondary DNA structure. It is not observed for mononucleosides, mononucleotides or purely stacked single strands (Φ<0.5x10−4). The quantum yields determined for duplexes fall in the range of (1-2)x10−3 while the highest Φ values, up to 1.4x10−2, have been detected for G-Quadruplexes. The photonization quantum yield determined for genomic DNA is similar to that reported for the formation of bipyrimidine photoproducts.
The detailed examination of the structural factors affecting the low-energy photoionization, combined to quantum chemical calculations, indicates that it occurs via a complex mechanism. The latter involves excited charge transfer states, in which an atomic charge is transferred from one nucleobase to a neighboring one; such states are known to be populated during the electronic relaxation following photon absorption. Subsequently, a small population of these states undergoes charge separation. And, eventually, the electron is ejected from the nucleobase bearing the negative charge, because its ionization potential is lower compared to those of neutral nucleobases.
Two-photon ionization
Two-photon photoionization is provoked by intense laser pulses of short duration. In this case, a first photon absorbed by DNA gives rise to an electronic excited state. During its lifetime, the latter may absorb a second photon. The electron is then ejected from this excited state and not from the ground state, as happens for the one-photon ionization.
This ionization mode started to be used already from the 1980sin order to characterize chemically the final DNA lesions (single and double strand breaks, 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine,..), stemming from this process. Typically, lasers emitting at 248 or 266 nm have been employed in combination to analytical or biochemical methods. Such measurements are performed both on DNA solutions and on cells.
The need to correlate the observed lesions with the ejected electrons lead to first time-resolved absorption studies on the process triggered by absorption of UV radiation directly by DNA. Thus, signatures of the nucleobase radicals were discovered either in the UV-visible spectral domain or in the infrared.
References
Further reading
Reviews and Accounts
Book Chapters
DNA
Photochemistry | DNA photoionization | [
"Chemistry"
] | 1,440 | [
"nan"
] |
78,896,082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Journal%20of%20Coal%20Preparation%20and%20Utilization | The International Journal of Coal Preparation and Utilization is a peer-reviewed scientific journal publishing twelve issues per year. The journal covers coal preparation. The journal was founded in 1984, by Janusz S. Laskowski, who served as editor-in-chief until 2004. The journal was known as Coal Preparation from 1984 to 2007, and the International Journal of Coal Preparation and Utilization from 2008 to the present. The current editor-in-chief is Barbara J. Arnold, a professor of practice in mining engineering from Pennsylvania State University.
Abstracting and indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
Science Citation Index Expanded
Current Contents/Engineering, Computing & Technology
Ei Compendex
EBSCO databases
ProQuest databases
Scopus
Inspec
References
External links
Academic journals established in 1984
Engineering geology journals
Energy and fuel journals
Taylor & Francis academic journals
English-language journals
Hybrid open access journals | International Journal of Coal Preparation and Utilization | [
"Environmental_science"
] | 180 | [
"Environmental science journals",
"Energy and fuel journals"
] |
78,897,242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tech-industrial%20complex | The expression tech–industrial complex describes the relationship between a country's tech industry and its influence on the concentration of wealth, censorship or manipulation of algorithms to push an agenda, spread of misinformation and disinformation via social media and artificial intelligence, and public policy. The expression is used to describe Big Tech, Silicon Valley, and the largest IT companies in the world. The term is related to the military-industrial complex, and has been used to describe the United States Armed Forces and its adoption of AI-enabled weapons systems. The expression was popularized after a warning of the relationship's detrimental effects, in the farewell address of U.S. President Joe Biden on January 15, 2025.
Etymology
U.S. President Joe Biden used the term in his Farewell Address to the Nation on January 15, 2025:
Analysis
The term was first used in U.S. President Joe Biden's farewell address, and alluded to President Eisenhower's warning of the military-industrial complex and what Politico described as "echoing Roosevelt's language in calling out the "robber barons" of a new dystopian Gilded Age". Since Elon Musk purchased X, there's been wide spread allegations that the social media company has been manipulating its algorithm to promote right-wing content as well as supress left-wing content. A Biden aide demurred when asked if Biden was referring to Elon Musk, but said that the billionaire "was certainly an example of one". The comments came amidst large financial donations by tech leaders to Donald Trump's second presidential inauguration and for taking actions seen as deferential to the president-elect. It also came amidst surging stock prices of "The Magnificent Seven", seven tech companies whose combined value rose 46% in 2024, vastly beating the S&P 500 share index. Other tech leaders described as part of the tech-industrial complex included Mark Zuckerberg, Jeff Bezos, Satya Nadella, Sundar Pichai, Shou Zi Chew, Tim Cook, and Vivek Ramaswamy.
See also
References
2025 neologisms
Artificial intelligence
Arms industry
Communication of falsehoods
Disinformation
Distribution of wealth
Media manipulation
Military economics
Misinformation
Social media
Technology in society
Joe Biden | Tech-industrial complex | [
"Technology"
] | 475 | [
"Sociology of the Internet",
"Computing and society",
"Information society",
"Social media"
] |
78,901,970 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algaeus | The "Algaeus" was the moniker for a modified Toyata Prius that ran on algal fuel.
The vehicle was produced by Sapphire Energy, maker of an algae-based replacement for gasoline and jet fuel, and was unveiled in front of San Francisco's City Hall on September 8th, 2008. The algae was provided by Sapphire Energy and refined by Syntroleum. The vehicle conducted a 10-city, 3,750-mile pilot demonstration to raise awareness for alternative fuels, which culminated with the New York City premiere of the documentary film Fuel (film), directed by filmmaker and activist Josh Tickell.
The vehicle was intended to provide a model for the viability of algae-based biofuels as a market alternative to fossil fuels. The coast-to-coast promotional tour used only 25 gallons of algal biofuel on an unmodified engine. However, algal biofuel fuel only accounted for 5% of the overall diesel blend, the remainder of which was derived from fossil fuels. The vehicle achieved 147 miles per gallon (mpg) city in plug-in electric hybrid mode (PHEV) and 52 mpg highway in hybrid mode, according to Sapphire Energy.
The endeavor was driven by optimistic market forecasts that predicted billion-gallon scale production of algae fuels by 2014. These estimates and associated investments, which pre-dated the mass commercialization of electric vehicles, did not materialize as predicted.
In this context, the Algaeus, which was never developed for commercial production, could be seen as emblematic of what has been described as "The Great Algae Biofuel Bubble" of 2005 - 2012.
References
Biofuels
Biomass
Economics and climate change
Emissions reduction Fuels
Renewable fuels
Sustainable technologies | Algaeus | [
"Chemistry"
] | 350 | [
"Greenhouse gases",
"Chemical energy sources",
"Fuels",
"Emissions reduction"
] |
78,902,127 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangarevan%20whistler | The mangarevan whistler (?Pachycephala gambierana) is a dubious species of extinct bird in the family Pachycephalidae that was once found in Mangareva in French Polynesia.
Discovery and extinction
It is a mysterious bird with no known specimens existing today. A single specimen was collected before 1840 by Pierre Adolphe Lesson during French expeditions to the island of Mangareva, French Polynesia.
The holotype was in the collection of Abeillé de Bordeaux, and a painting of the specimen was prepared by Charles Thélot de Rochefort, with both the painting and the specimen being lost today. René Lesson was the only person to study the specimen before it was lost, having done so in 1844.
Extinction
The Mangarevan whistler was native to the island of Mangareva and it is believed to have gone extinct during the late 19th century, almost certainly after 1840. A 1922 expedition to Mangareva was unable to locate the species.
Classification
The mangarevan whistler is tentatively classified as a species of Pachycephala. It was initially described as a shrike known as Lanius gambieranus by Lesson (1844), then it was classified as an Eopsaltria "robin", and ?P. gambierana may actually instead be an Acrocephalus warbler, potentially being synonymous with Acrocephalus astrolabii.
References
Mangarevan whistler
Extinct birds of Oceania
Species made extinct by human activities
†
†
Mangarevan whistler
Nomina dubia | Mangarevan whistler | [
"Biology"
] | 319 | [
"Biological hypotheses",
"Nomina dubia",
"Controversial taxa"
] |
78,904,028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strontium%20thiocyanate | Strontium thiocyanate refers to the salt . It is a colorless solid. According to X-ray crystallography, it is a coordination polymer. The Sr2+ ions are each coordinated to eight thiocyanate anions in a distorted square antiprismatic molecular geometry where each square face contains two adjacent S atoms and two adjacent N atoms. The motif is reminiscent of the fluorite structure. The same structure is observed for Ca(SCN)2, Ba(SCN)2, and Pb(SCN)2.
References
Thiocyanates
Strontium compounds | Strontium thiocyanate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 129 | [
"Thiocyanates",
"Inorganic compounds",
"Functional groups",
"Inorganic compound stubs"
] |
78,904,128 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium%20thiocyanate | Calcium thiocyanate refers to the salt . It is a colorless solid. According to X-ray crystallography, it is a coordination polymer. The Ca2+ ions are each bonded to eight thiocyanate anions, with four Ca-S and four Ca-N bonds. The motif is reminiscent of the fluorite structure.
References
Thiocyanates
Calcium compounds | Calcium thiocyanate | [
"Chemistry"
] | 84 | [
"Thiocyanates",
"Inorganic compounds",
"Functional groups",
"Inorganic compound stubs"
] |
78,904,770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%201719 | NGC 1719 is an edge-on spiral galaxy located around 199 million light-years away in the constellation Orion. It was discovered on November 23rd, 1827 by the english astronomer John Herschel, and it has a diameter around 90,000 light-years. NGC 1719 is not known to have much star-formation, and it is not known to have an active galactic nucleus.
References
External links
Orion (constellation)
1719 | NGC 1719 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 85 | [
"Constellations",
"Orion (constellation)"
] |
78,906,002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo%20M%C3%BCller | Hugo Müller (29 July 1833 – 23 May 1915) was a Anglo-German analytical chemist, botanist and industrialist. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society. He is known for being the first person to synthesize hexachlorobenzene.
Early life
Hugo Müller was born on 29 July, 1833, in Tirschenreuth, Germany. He studied chemistry in Leipzig University. He was a student of Friedrich Wöhler at the University of Göttingen, where he earned his PhD. He was also assistant to Justus von Liebig at the University of Munich.
Career
Müller moved to United Kingdom in 1855 to work with Warren De la Rue, as recommended by Liebig. De la Rue and Müller developed a chloride of silver battery.
He earned a Legum Doctor degree from the University of St Andrews and a Doctor of Science degree from the University of Manchester. He also worked with John Stenhouse. Müller discovered that iodine could be used as catalyst in chlorination. In 1864, Müller synthesized the compound hexachlorobenzene by the reaction of benzene and antimony pentachloride.
Müller became a consultant for De La Rue company before leaving academic research to pursue an industrial career. He became a partner of the company and remained there until 1902. After retirement he continued his research at the Davy-Faraday Laboratory. His work extended to horticulture. Studying the species of Primula, he discovered that their bloom is related the presence of flavone.
Personal life
Müller married Elizabeth Russell in 1878, who survived him and passed away in 1931. They had two daugthers. Müller was naturalized as British citizen after marriage.
His work on horticulture led him to develop a vast garden in his home at Camberley, Surrey, England.
Hugo Müller passed away on 23 May, 1915 at his home.
Honors and awards
Müller was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society on 7 June 1866. He was treasurer but stopped working at the Royal Society when World War I started due to personal convictions.
He also joined the Chemical Society in 1859, becoming its foreign secretary from 1869 to 1885 and president of the society from 1885 to 1887. He was also member of the Royal Horticultural Society.
References
Analytical chemists
1833 births
1915 deaths
German chemists
German scientists | Hugo Müller | [
"Chemistry"
] | 469 | [
"Analytical chemists"
] |
78,906,072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yes%20no%20maybe%20list | A Yes no maybe list or a Yes no maybe checklist is a list of sexual activities and other information designed for sexual partners to better communicate and understand each other's desires and limitations. Typical use of such a list is each partner fills out a questionnaire naming a sexual act and checks 'yes' for interested in that act, 'no' for not interested and 'maybe' for maybe interested. It can also note as to whether the partners want to be giving or receiving and other information such as sexual trauma triggers or safe words. Such lists are common in BDSM communities and are separately also popular with sex therapists for their clients to improve communication.
Lists such as these have been made into apps, such as Spicer and have been used as a means of measuring sexual consent.
References | Yes no maybe list | [
"Biology"
] | 162 | [
"Behavior",
"Sexuality stubs",
"Sexuality",
"Sex"
] |
78,906,362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C12H15ClN2 | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C12H15ClN2}}
The molecular formula C12H15ClN2 may refer to:
5-Chloro-DMT
5-Chloro-αET | C12H15ClN2 | [
"Chemistry"
] | 47 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
78,906,407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C7H6O2S | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C7H6O2S}}
The molecular formula C7H6O2S may refer to:
4-Mercaptobenzoic acid
Thiosalicylic acid | C7H6O2S | [
"Chemistry"
] | 46 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
78,908,332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlvaDesc | AlvaDesc is a software application for the calculation and analysis of molecular descriptors, fingerprints, and structural patterns. Developed by Alvascience, alvaDesc is widely used in cheminformatics and quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR) modeling to numerically describe molecular structures, aiding in chemical property prediction and machine learning applications.
Overview
Molecular descriptors and fingerprints serve as mathematical representations of chemical compounds, enabling computational models to predict properties such as bioactivity, toxicity, and solubility.
The software is used widely in drug discovery, materials science, and environmental chemistry, allowing researchers to process large chemical datasets, extract key molecular features, and integrate results into machine learning workflows.
Features
AlvaDesc supports the calculation of descriptors and fingerprints across multiple categories:
0D–3D molecular descriptors: including constitutional indices, topological indices, connectivity indices, geometrical descriptors, pharmacophore descriptors, charge descriptors, and more.
Molecular properties: including LogP (octanol-water partition coefficient), molar refractivity, polar surface area (PSA), solvent-accessible surface area (SASA), and hydrogen bond donors/acceptors.
Molecular fingerprints: including MACCS keys, Extended Connectivity Fingerprints (ECFP), Path-based fingerprints.
3D coordinate calculation: alvaDesc can generate 3D molecular structures from 1D/2D representations. The 3D coordinates calculation is performed using a Distance Geometry (DG) method, followed by a Force Field (FF) optimization.
Descriptor analysis tools: including Principal Component Analysis (PCA), t-SNE analysis, correlation analysis, variable reduction.
Support for disconnected structures: Handles salts, mixtures, ionic liquids, and metal complexes.
Cross-platform compatibility: Available for Windows, macOS, and Linux, supporting both graphical user interface (GUI) and command-line interface (CLI).
KNIME and Python integration: alvaDesc can be integrated into cheminformatics workflows using the KNIME analytics platform and Python scripting.
Scientific contributions
AlvaDesc has been referenced in numerous peer-reviewed scientific publications, particularly in QSAR and Quantitative Structure-Property Relationship (QSPR) research
See also
Molecular descriptor
Topological index
Quantitative structure–activity relationship (QSAR)
References
Computational chemistry software
Cheminformatics | AlvaDesc | [
"Chemistry"
] | 493 | [
"Computational chemistry software",
"Chemistry software",
"Computational chemistry",
"nan",
"Cheminformatics"
] |
78,908,504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LMC%20N79 | LMC N79 (or just N79) is an emission nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The nebula is part of the catalog of H-alpha stars and nebulae by Karl G. Henize, published in 1956. It is composed of the smaller nebulae N79A to N79E From a CO survey it was however seen that the nebula is larger and contains N79-S, N79-W and N79-E. These nebulae were described by Henize with other names, with N79-S being the original N79 nebula, N79-W being N77 and N79-E being N83.
Super star cluster
The central nebula N79-S contains the super star cluster (SSC) H72.97-69.39, also called HSO BMHERICC J072.9711-69.3911. This SSC was first suspected to exist in N79 in 2017 from Spitzer and Herschel observations. The SSC was observed with ALMA. This showed that the SSC is at the center of two colliding filaments. ALMA also showed bipolar outflows that are 65,000 years old and a HII region associated with the SSC. The stellar content was first studied with Gemini in 2021. At that time it was estimated that the SSC contains stars with a mass between 10,000 and 100,000 . Observations with JWST confirmed H72.97-69.39 as a SSC. Researchers discovered five massive stars in the center of the SSC with masses ranging between 20 and 40 . The youngest massive young stellar objects (YSOs) of H72.97-69.39 is called Y3 and is 10,000 years old. The central ionizing source is Y4, which is the most massive of the YSOs with a mass of around 40 . With MIRI the researchers identified 102 embedded YSOs in total. Yet to be published work with NIRCam detected 1550 young stars in N79.
Gallery
See also
List of most massive stars
NGC 2070 with central condensation R136 is another SSC in the Large Magellanic Cloud
Milky Way SSCs:
Westerlund 1
NGC 3603
References
Emission nebulae
Large Magellanic Cloud
Dorado
H II regions
Star-forming regions
Astronomical objects discovered in 1956
Super star clusters | LMC N79 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 505 | [
"Dorado",
"Constellations"
] |
78,908,798 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zelenirstat | Zelenirstat, also known as PCLX-001, is an investigational new drug that is being evaluated for the treatment of cancer and as an antiviral agent. It is a small molecule inhibitor targets both N-myristoyltransferase 1 (NMT1) and N-myristoyltransferase 2 (NMT2) proteins, which are responsible for myristoylation. Its dual mechanism of action disrupts both cell signaling and energy production in cancer cells.
Zelenirstat is a strong pan-N myristoyl transferase inhibitor, which prevents addition of myristic acid into penultimate glycine of protein with myristoylation signal, and initially has been introduced as anti-tumor drug. It has completed phase I clinical trial and is going through escalation phase. Its prototype DDD85646 and its analogue IMP-1088 have strong antiviral activities against viruses that required myristoylated proteins to complete their life cycle, including hemorrhagic viruses, such as lassa and argentinian virus, and pox viruses, such as vaccinia and monkeypox.
Mechanism of action
Zelenirstat acts by inhibiting NMT I and II enzymes, which are required to complete the myristoylation of proteins. Without myristoylation, these proteins are targeted for proteasomal degradation.
References
Antineoplastic drugs
Antiviral drugs
Aminopyridines
Chloroarenes
Isobutyl compounds
Piperazines
Pyrazoles
Sulfonamides | Zelenirstat | [
"Biology"
] | 325 | [
"Antiviral drugs",
"Biocides"
] |
78,909,914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1%2C3-Bis%283-%28dimethylamino%29propyl%29urea | 1,3-Bis(3-(dimethylamino)propyl)urea is an aliphatic organic chemical principally used as a curing agent in epoxy chemistry and a blowing agent in the polyurethane foam industry. It has the formula C11H26N4O. It is on TSCA and also on EINECS and thus by definition, REACH registered with a number of 257-861-2. The CAS number is 52338-87-1.
Uses
As the material has tertiary amine functionality, it finds use as a catalyst for polyurethane foam production.
The molecule has two secondary amines and thus can be used to cure epoxy resin based materials. Other uses include as a propellant and also blowing agents. The amine functionality allows it to be used as an intermediate to synthesize other compounds.
References
Ureas
Tertiary amines
Catalysts
Secondary amines
Dimethylamino compounds | 1,3-Bis(3-(dimethylamino)propyl)urea | [
"Chemistry"
] | 198 | [
"Catalysis",
"Catalysts",
"Organic compounds",
"Chemical kinetics",
"Organic compound stubs",
"Organic chemistry stubs",
"Ureas"
] |
77,413,880 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan%20forge | The Catalan forge is a set of technological processes designed to obtain iron by directly reducing the ore—without going through the intermediary of smelting as in a blast furnace—and then shingling the resulting . The Catalan forge employs hydraulic power to operate a hammer or trip hammer, and a ventilation system, known as the trompe, is utilized to maintain the furnace's combustion. The term refers to the technology and building where this activity occurs. Despite its name, this type of forge was used extensively from the 17th to the 19th century in mountainous regions such as the Alps, the Massif Central, and the Pyrenees, as well as by the first American settlers.
Origin
Metallurgy has used rich, easily meltable ores for millennia, including compact brown hematites and decomposed, hydrated carbonates. The ores were placed in circular hearths dug into the ground and constructed from clay in a rudimentary manner. These hearths were fueled by charcoal and activated by two leather bellows. The ores were transformed into a malleable mass of iron, known as a "burr," through the application of heat and pressure. This mass was then beaten with hammers to remove slag and impurities. This was the "hand forge," or "flying forge," constructed where the ore was discovered. When the vein was exhausted or charcoal was in short supply, the metallurgists departed from the site and established their operations elsewhere, leaving behind the crucibles and slag heaps. The consumption of charcoal was a significant contributing factor to the deforestation of the Pyrenees, which in turn gave rise to numerous conflicts, including the War of the Maidens.
The hand forge was a ubiquitous primitive tool. It was gradually understood that river mills, which were used for grinding grain or powering sawmills, could also be used for beating metal. The iron mill gradually supplanted the hand forge with two waterwheels, one of which activated the bellows and the other the hammer. The innovation that would become the most distinctive aspect of Catalan forging appeared in Italy during the early 17th century. This innovation, variously known as the "Pyrenees" or the "Alps" in different regions, reached the French Pyrenees around the midway point of the century and subsequently proliferated throughout the Pyrenean region.
Tools and features
The hydraulic trompe
A defining feature of the Catalan forge is the necessity for a relatively elevated head, ranging from 7 to 10 meters. The water is directed into a wooden receptacle, the , and allowed to flow down a vertical pipe, the shaft. Typically, two shafts are in operation concurrently. The shaft is constructed from a tree trunk bisected and subsequently hollowed out. Subsequently, iron bands are affixed to join the two components. At the upper extremity of the pipe, apertures are created at oblique angles, descending inwards and serving as aspirators. The shaft opening is closed by movable wedges, operated from below, which regulate the water flow. The lower extremity of the shaft culminates in a sizable trapezoidal wooden receptacle designated as the "wind box." The water flows into the wind box, which is directed onto a bench-like structure protected by a stone slab. It then exits the wind box through a sliding door. As the water descends, air is drawn in through the suction tubes, resulting in a mixture of water and air that flows into the box. The pressurized air is then conveyed through a quadrangular duct, designated as the "man or sentinel," and subsequently through a nozzle to the upper portion of the firebox. Consequently, the proboscis offers a permanent and automated solution for the ventilation of the firebox, which can be precisely regulated by varying the flow rate.
Foyer
A further defining characteristic of the Catalan forge is the blowing over a low, open hearth with a trompe. Thus, the Catalan forge differs from the Stückofen, another highly advanced low furnace of the same period, in that the charge filled the latter's chimney.
The foyer is a quadrangular mass of masonry (comprising clay and large stones), measuring 2.5 to 3 meters in length and 0.70 to 0.90 meters in height. One of its sides is inclined at an angle to the ground. The hearth is positioned at the intersection of two walls. The dimensions of the furnace vary depending on the smith and their specific requirements. The base of the furnace, or hearth, is constructed from a single large slab of granite or gneiss. The stones that support and surround the crucible are frequently grindstones or fragments of old millstones, preventing water or humidity accumulation. The wall on the shorter side of the crucible is arched and has an opening through which the nozzle from the windbox can pass.
The crucible, a pivotal component of the Catalan forge, exhibits distinctive inner surfaces. The front face, designated as the "hand," is situated on the left when observing the crucible from a frontal perspective. The left face, which allows the wind to pass through, is called the . The posterior aspect of the crucible is the cellar, while the lateral aspect is the ore or contrevent. The basement is constructed of masonry, while the remaining sides are lined with thick iron plates. The is constructed of two plates, separated by a third plate, the , which serves as a fulcrum for the workers' levers, facilitating the lifting of the massé. As mentioned earlier, the plates are affixed to one another by a horizontal crosspiece. This is supported by robust structures on either side, frequently comprising substantial stones and an antiquated hammerhead.
Hammer
The hammer utilized to strike the massé represents the primary tool employed by the forge. A hydraulic wheel drives the hammer. The wheel is affixed to a cylindrical wooden axle, with cams protruding from its circumference. The cams are designed to grip the tail of the hammer, which is positioned perpendicularly and movable vertically on an axle. The hammer is elevated until the cam releases its grip and falls back. At this juncture, the subsequent cam advances to initiate a repetition of the process, as mentioned earlier. The anvil, the point at which the hammer headlands, is fitted with a removable metal pile in its center, which can be changed according to the nature of the work in progress. Similarly, the hammerhead is a heavy metal mass, but its lower part—the part that comes into contact with the hammerhead—is also removable. The cadence of the hammer blows is regulated by varying the rate of fall on the wheel.
Layout of the forge
Construction
The forge is situated on a watercourse with an adequate flow rate, sufficient elevation, and convenient accessibility, given the necessity for transporting ore, coal, and finished products, typically by mule. The advent of the horn prompted the relocation or upgrading of existing forges, contingent on their geographical positioning.
The stream is channeled and directed to two : one feeds the trompe, and the other is the paddlewheel that drives the swift(s). The water flow can be regulated by opening or closing the relevant valves. The interior of the forge consists of multiple sections, one of which is designated for the hammers. The hammer, or malh (actually a swift), is the critical tool used to shape the mass of raw iron (the 'massé'), transforming it into refined bars or its final shape before shipment.
The wind box, strategically situated at the base of the horn, is a crucial component that ensures the furnace's efficiency. A wall through which the tuyere passes separates it from the furnace. The various rooms or compartments are responsible for the reception and distribution of the raw materials, namely ores, coal, and finished iron. Additionally, workers can be allocated a designated area during their designated rest periods.
Staff
In principle, the forge is staffed by a brigade of eight workers.
Four masters are responsible for the following areas: the , the , and two . The is responsible for overseeing the operation of the forge. The maillé, or hammer-maker, is to supervise the iron's mechanical work and the hammer's operation, or hammer-maker, is to oversee the iron's mechanical work and the hammer's operation. The are responsible for managing the fire and wind.
Four "valets" assist the blacksmiths, crushing the ore with the hammer.
A "garde-forge" procures raw materials, ore, and coal.
A "clerk" is responsible for the oversight of supplies, orders, and accounting.
Production
An iron magnifier weighs approximately 125 kilograms. Consequently, a well-coordinated team can operate the device manually. The production of this magnifying glass requires five hours of shingling and forging before it can be transformed into a marketable iron product.
Geographical distribution
Pyrénées-Orientales
Ariège
Pyrénées-Atlantiques
Andorra
In France, the numerous modest rural metallurgical facilities reliant on the Catalan forge, which had persisted despite the advent and enhancements of blast furnaces, ultimately ceased to exist at the advent of the 20th century, when the Thomas process was perfected. This process was responsible for the remarkable expansion of the Lorraine steel industry. Before the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the two departments of Meurthe and Moselle collectively produced 1.4% of France's steel output. By 1913, Thomas Steel, produced exclusively in Meurthe-et-Moselle, accounted for 69% of the nation's total steel production. This trend was also accentuated by the significant advancement in transportation methods, which enabled manufactured goods to be delivered to distant locations from their point of production.
The initial American settlers refined the cast iron they produced using the Catalan forge, a relatively simple construction compared to blast furnaces and their associated forges. This process was employed in the southern United States until the mid-nineteenth century.
Disappearance
The growth and subsequent decline of the Catalan forges had a notable influence on the price of charcoal. At the zenith of the process, the price of wood rose considerably: from 1833 to 1842, the cost per quintal increased from 7.50 to 9-10 francs. As production declined, the price also fell. In 1854-1855, it was sold for 8 francs, but by 1868, it was worth only 6.10 francs, and by 1872, it was worth 6.80 francs, despite the high inflation rate.
See also
Forge
Notes
References
Bibliography
History of metallurgy
Hydropower
Metallurgy | Catalan forge | [
"Chemistry",
"Materials_science",
"Engineering"
] | 2,179 | [
"Metallurgy",
"History of metallurgy",
"Materials science",
"nan"
] |
77,413,901 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Gamma-ray%20Transients%20Monitor | Gamma-ray Transients Monitor(GTM) is the first space astronomical telescope of Taiwan. It is a secondary payload on board Formosat-8B (FS-8B), which is a remote-sensing satellite developed by TASA.
The goal of GTM is to track Gamma Ray Bursts (GRBs) and other bright gamma-ray transients with energies ranging from 50 keV to 2 MeV. GTM is made up of two identical modules on opposite sides of the FS-8B. Each module has four sensor units facing different directions, covering half of the sky. The two modules will then cover the entire sky, including the direction obscured by the Earth. The sensor units consist of a Gadolinium Aluminum Gallium Garnet (GAGG) (a semiconductor) scintillator array (50 mm x 50 mm x 8 mm) that is readout by SiPM with 16 pixel channels. GTM is expected to detect approximately 50 GRBs per year. It is expected to launch in 2026.
It is a collaboration between National Tsing Hua University, Academia Sinica and TASA. The repository that stores the code for Science Data Center (SDC) of Gamma-ray Transients Monitor is on GitHub.
Science
GRBs are the universe's most energetic explosions. However, there is significant overlap in the duration comparison of SGRBs and LGRBs, complicating a clear distinction between the two types of GRBs. Actually, many other classification methods, such as hardness ratio, time and lag, encounter overlapping issues. To advance our understanding of GRB classification based on their true progenitor mechanisms, more GRB monitors, such as GTM, can increase the number of GRB databases, which is very useful.
Using the above relationships, GRBs can be viewed as a type of standard candle for measuring distances that supernovae of type Ia cannot probe. The large redshifts make it possible to use these correlations to constrain cosmological parameters. As a result, more GRB monitors, such as GTM, can provide greater sky coverage and location capability, allowing for the discovery of more GRB afterglows, host galaxies, and redshifts, all of which are highly desirable.
References
Space telescopes orbiting Earth
Gamma-ray telescopes
CubeSats
Satellites of Taiwan | The Gamma-ray Transients Monitor | [
"Astronomy"
] | 486 | [
"Space telescopes",
"Space telescopes orbiting Earth"
] |
77,413,983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20638 | NGC 638 is a barred spiral galaxy located in the constellation of Pisces. Its velocity speed to the cosmic microwave background is 2,864± 21 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble's law of 42.2 ± 3.0 Mpc (∼138 million light-year). NGC 638 was discovered by American astronomer Lewis A. Swift in 1886.
Only Professor Seligman classifies this galaxy as a barred spiral, and the SDSS survey image proves him right.
NGC 638 has a broad Hydrogen line. NGC 638 is a galaxy whose nucleus shines in the ultraviolet domain. It is listed in the Markarian catalogue under the code Mrk 1003 (MK 1003).
To date, two non-redshift measurements give a distance of 55.330 0 ± 1.273 Mpc (∼180 million light-year), which is outside the Hubble distance values. Note that the NASA/IPAC database calculates the diameter of a galaxy using the average value of independent measurements, when available, and that consequently the diameter of NGC 638 could be about 11.1 kpc (∼36,200 light-year) if the Hubble's law were used to calculate it.
NGC 645 Group
NGC 638 is part of the NGC 645 group which includes at least five galaxies. The other three galaxies in this group are NGC 632, UGC 1137 and UGC 1172.
See also
Related article
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
Other links
NGC 638 on spider.seds.org
NGC 638 on the LEDA database
NGC 638 on WikiSky
NGC 638 on the site of Professor C. Seligman
References
External links
0638
Barred spiral galaxies
Pisces (constellation)
06145
Markarian galaxies
Discoveries by Lewis Swift
Astronomical objects discovered in 1886 | NGC 638 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 380 | [
"Pisces (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
77,414,579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cactus%20alkaloids | Cactus alkaloids are alkaloids that occur in cactus. Structurally, they are tetrahydroisoquinolines and phenylethylamines.
Occurrence and Representatives
Cactus alkaloids are found in the cactus family, particularly in the genus Lophophora, which alone contains over 40 known compounds. The alkaloids can be categorized into two groups, derived from phenethylamine and tetrahydroisoquinoline, respectively. The primary alkaloid in Lophophora williamsii (in terms of quantity) is mescaline, followed by pellotine. In the species Lophophora diffusa and Lophophora fricii, the primary alkaloid is pellotine, followed by anhalonidine in L. fricii and anhalamine in L. diffusa. In species outside the genus Lophophora, the content and variety of cactus alkaloids are significantly lower, but some contain compounds such as hordenine, N-methyltyramine, mescaline, or pellotine. A number of psychoactive cacti are found in the genus Echinopsis, such as the San Pedro cactus.
Biosynthesis
The biosynthesis of cactus alkaloids starts from the amino acid tyrosine and proceeds initially via tyramine and dopamine. By introducing a third hydroxy group and methylation of all three hydroxy groups, mescaline is formed. A tetrahydroisoquinoline scaffold can also be constructed from the intermediates of mescaline biosynthesis by a ring closure, resulting in anhalamine and anhalonidine. Anhalonidine is the biosynthetic precursor of anhalonine, in which a benzodioxole unit is formed from a hydroxyl and a methoxy group. Further branching of the biosynthetic pathways occurs through the methylation of the amino group from dopamine. This pathway leads to pellotine and subsequently to lophophorin.
Synthesis
Various synthetic methods for cactus alkaloids are known. In the case of tetrahydroisoquinoline compounds, the ring system is usually built up by a Bischler-Napieralski reaction. Anhalamine, anhalidine, anhalonidine, and pellotine can be synthesized starting from mescaline, among others.
Pharmacological Effect
Mescaline is a psychedelic and is responsible for the hallucinogenic properties of Lophophora williamsii (peyote). The other alkaloids predominantly exhibit much less pronounced pharmacological effects and may have anticonvulsant properties. Pellotine was briefly used as a sedative in the early 20th century.
References
Alkaloids | Cactus alkaloids | [
"Chemistry"
] | 583 | [
"Organic compounds",
"Biomolecules by chemical classification",
"Natural products",
"Alkaloids"
] |
77,414,905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballatoio | A ballatoio is a type of Italian balcony.
References
External links
Architectural elements
Italian words and phrases | Ballatoio | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 22 | [
"Building engineering",
"Architectural elements",
"Components",
"Architecture"
] |
77,416,429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary%20of%20number%20theory | This is a glossary of concepts and results in number theory, a field of mathematics. Concepts and results in arithmetic geometry and diophantine geometry can be found in Glossary of arithmetic and diophantine geometry.
See also List of number theory topics.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
L
M
N
P
R
Q
S
T
V
W
References
Number theory
Number theory | Glossary of number theory | [
"Mathematics"
] | 79 | [
"Discrete mathematics",
"Number theory"
] |
77,417,500 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C/2024%20L5%20%28ATLAS%29 | C/2024 L5 (ATLAS) is a comet that was discovered on 14 June 2024 as A117uUD by the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS), South Africa, Sutherland. It will reach perihelion on 10 March 2025 at from the Sun.
It is the second known Solar System comet to become interstellar after experiencing a planetary encounter. C/1980 E1 (Bowell) reached a hyperbolic trajectory after an encounter with Jupiter on 9 December 1980. C/2024 L5 experienced a very close encounter at 0.0048 AU with Saturn on 24 January 2022. C/2024 L5 could be a former retrograde, inactive centaur. The receding velocity of C/2024 L5 when entering interstellar space will be 2.8 km/s, moving towards the constellation of Triangulum.
Orbit
JPL Horizons shows an outbound eccentricity greater than 1 so it will leave the Solar System eventually as C/1980 E1 (Bowell) is doing, but prior to its flyby to Saturn its eccentricity was 0.88.
See also
List of Solar System objects by greatest aphelion
List of hyperbolic comets
List of non-periodic comets
List of periodic comets
1I/ʻOumuamua
2I/Borisov
C/1980 E1 (Bowell)
References
External links
Non-periodic comets
Hyperbolic comets
20240614
Comets in 2024
Discoveries by ATLAS | C/2024 L5 (ATLAS) | [
"Astronomy"
] | 300 | [
"Astronomy stubs",
"Comet stubs"
] |
77,418,202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium%28I%29%20fluoride | Calcium(I) fluoride is an unstable inorganic chemical compound with the chemical formula . It can exist as a high temperature gas, or an isolated molecule in a solid noble gas matrix.
References
Fluorides
Metal halides | Calcium(I) fluoride | [
"Chemistry"
] | 47 | [
"Inorganic compounds",
"Salts",
"Inorganic compound stubs",
"Metal halides",
"Fluorides"
] |
77,418,687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%203430 | NGC 3430 is a barred spiral galaxy in the constellation of Leo Minor. Its velocity with respect to the cosmic microwave background is 1,869 ± 20km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of . In addition, 22 non-redshift measurements give a distance of . It was discovered by German-British astronomer William Herschel on 7 December 1785.
NGC 3430 is classified as a well-known example of an SAc spiral galaxy with no central bar structure but has spiral arms found open and clear-defined. Moreover, it is also a Wolf-Rayet galaxy, with star-forming regions and forms a pair with NGC 3424, a nearby starburst galaxy. According to a 1997 study presented by researchers, these galaxies are clearly showing signs of tidal interaction.
NGC 3396 Group
NGC 3430 is a member of the NGC 3396 group (also known as LGG 218). This group that includes at least 11 galaxies: NGC 3381, NGC 3395, NGC 3396, NGC 3424, NGC 3430, NGC 3442, IC 2604, UGC 5898, PGC 32631, UGC 5934, and UGC 5990.
Supernovae
Two supernovae have been observed in NGC3936:
SN2004ez (typeII, mag.17.3) was discovered by Kōichi Itagaki on 15 October 2004.
PSNJ10520833+3256394 (typeIIb, mag.17.8) was discovered by Kōichi Itagaki on 27 August 2015.
See also
List of NGC objects (3001–4000)
References
External links
3430
05982
032614
10494+3312
17851207
Discoveries by William Herschel
+06-24-026
Barred spiral galaxies
Leo Minor | NGC 3430 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 376 | [
"Leo Minor",
"Constellations"
] |
77,418,981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%204611 | NGC 4611 is a intermediate spiral galaxy in the constellation of Coma Berenices. Its velocity with respect to the cosmic microwave background is 6,437 ± 22km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 94.9 ± 6.7Mpc (∼310million light-years). It was discovered by French astronomer Édouard Stephan on 17 May 1881. This galaxy was also observed by the American astronomer Lewis Swift on 20 April 1889, and listed in the Index Catalogue as IC 805.
According to the SIMBAD database, NGC 4611 is an Active Galaxy Nucleus Candidate, i.e. it has a compact region at the center of a galaxy that emits a significant amount of energy across the electromagnetic spectrum, with characteristics indicating that this luminosity is not produced by the stars.
Supernova
One supernova has been observed in NGC4611: SN2023dtz (type Ia, mag.18.1) was discovered by ATLAS on 21 March 2023.
See also
List of NGC objects (4001–5000)
References
External links
4611
IC objects
07849
042564
F12389+1400
Coma Berenices
18810517
Discoveries by Édouard Stephan
+02-32-179
Intermediate spiral galaxies | NGC 4611 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 254 | [
"Coma Berenices",
"Constellations"
] |
77,419,359 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark%20oxygen | Dark oxygen production refers to the generation of molecular oxygen (O2) through processes that do not involve light-dependent oxygenic photosynthesis. The name therefore uses a different sense of 'dark' than that used in the phrase "biological dark matter" (for example) which indicates obscurity to scientific assessment rather than the photometric meaning. While the majority of Earth's oxygen is produced by plants and photosynthetically active microorganisms via photosynthesis, dark oxygen production occurs via a variety of abiotic and biotic processes and may support aerobic metabolism in dark, anoxic environments.
Abiotic production
Abiotic production of dark oxygen can occur through several mechanisms, such as:
Water radiolysis: This process typically takes place in dark geological ecosystems, such as aquifers, where the decay of radioactive elements in surrounding rock leads to the breakdown of water molecules, producing O2.
Oxidation of surface-bound radicals: On silicon-bearing minerals like quartz, surface-bound radicals can undergo oxidation, contributing to O2 production.
In addition to direct O2 formation, these processes often produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydroxyl radicals (OH•), superoxide (O2•-), and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). These ROS can be converted into O2 and water either biotically, through enzymes like superoxide dismutase and catalase, or abiotically, via reactions with ferrous iron and other reduced metals.
Biotic production
Biotic production of dark oxygen is performed by microorganisms through distinct microbial processes, including:
Chlorite dismutation: This involves the dismutation of chlorite (ClO2−) into O2 and chloride ions.
Nitric oxide dismutation: This involves the dismutation of nitric oxide (NO) into O2 and dinitrogen gas (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O).
Water lysis via methanobactins: Methanobactins can lyse water molecules to produce O2.
These processes enable microbial communities to sustain aerobic metabolism in environments that lack oxygen.
Experimental evidence
Recent studies have provided evidence for dark oxygen production in various geological and subsurface environments:
Groundwater ecosystems: Dissolved oxygen concentrations have been measured in old groundwaters previously assumed to be anoxic. The presence of O2 is attributed to microbial communities capable of producing dark oxygen and water radiolysis. Metagenomic analyses and oxygen isotope studies further support local oxygen generation rather than atmospheric mixing.
Seafloor environments: A study on manganese nodules on the abyssal seafloor has suggested abiotic dark oxygen production. The proposed mechanism is electrolysis, because voltages were recorded on the surface of the nodules. However, no voltage great enough to split water was measured, the energy source for electrolysis is unknown, and previous experiments from the same region have not found any evidence of oxygen production.
Implications
Despite its diverse pathways, dark oxygen production has traditionally been considered negligible in Earth's systems. Recent evidence suggests that O2 is produced and consumed in dark, apparently anoxic environments on a much larger scale than previously thought, with implications for global biogeochemical cycles. It could also prove to be a possible way to support life in water on other planets, which opens up scientists to a new study and giving further evidence that we may not be alone in the universe.
References
Chemistry
Electrolysis
Oceanographical terminology
Oxygen | Dark oxygen | [
"Chemistry"
] | 728 | [
"Electrochemistry",
"Electrolysis"
] |
77,420,464 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%20662 | NGC662 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation of Andromeda. Its velocity with respect to the cosmic microwave background is 5,397 ± 18km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 79.6 ± 5.6Mpc (∼260million light-years). It was discovered by French astronomer Édouard Stephan on 22 November 1884.
According to the Simbad database, NGC662 is a radio galaxy. It features a broad HI line and is classified a field galaxy, meaning it does not belong to the galaxy group nor a cluster and is therefore gravitationally isolated.
Supernovae
Three supernovae have been observed in NGC662:
SN2001dn (type Ia, mag.15.5) was discovered by Tom Boles on 14 August 2001.
SN2022ojo (typeII-P, mag.16.938) was discovered by ATLAS on 5 July 2022.
SN2024pcw (typeII, mag.18.724) was discovered by ATLAS on 8 July 2024.
See also
List of NGC objects (1–1000)
References
External links
0662
01220
006393
01416+3726
Andromeda_(constellation)
18841122
Discoveries by Édouard Stephan
+06-04-060
Spiral galaxies | NGC 662 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 272 | [
"Andromeda (constellation)",
"Constellations"
] |
77,420,715 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205377 | NGC 5377 is an intermediate barred spiral galaxy located in the constellation Canes Venatici. Its speed relative to the cosmic microwave background is 1,951 ± 11 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 28.8 ± 2.0 Mpc (∼93.9 million ly). NGC 5377 was discovered by German-British astronomer William Herschel in 1787.
NGC 5377 was used by Gérard de Vaucouleurs as a morphological type galaxy SAb in his galaxy atlas.
The luminosity class of NGC 5377 is I and it has a broad HI line. NGC 5377 also has an active galactic nucleus.
To date, 17 non-redshift measurements yield a distance of 25.918 ± 5.770 Mpc (∼84.5 million ly), which is within the Hubble distance range. Note, however, that it is with the average value of independent measurements, when they exist, that the NASA/IPAC database calculates the diameter of a galaxy and that consequently the diameter of NGC 5377 could be approximately 37.7 kpc (∼123,000 ly) if Hubble distance is used to calculate it.
Nucleic disk
With observations from the Hubble Space Telescope, a star-forming disk was observed around the core of NGC 5377. The size of its semi-major axis is estimated at 790 pc (~2,575 light years).
Supermassive black hole
According to a study based on near-infrared K-band luminosity measurements of the nuclei of NGC 5377, a supermassive black hole with an apparent mass of approximately 107.8 𝑀⊙ (63 million solar masses) exists within the core of the galaxy.
Supernova
Supernova SN 1992H (type II, mag. 15) was discovered on February 11, 1992, by William R. Wren of the McDonald Observatory at the University of Texas at Austin.
NGC 5448 group
NGC 5377 is a member of the NGC 5448 Group according to A.M. Garcia. The group has nine galaxies, including NGC 5425, NGC 5448, NGC 5481, NGC 5500, NGC 5520, UGC 9056 and UGC 9083.
See also
List of NGC objects (5001–6000)
External links
NGC 5377 at NASA/IPAC
NGC 5377 at SIMBAD
NGC 5377 at LEDA
NGC 5377 (DSS2) at WikiSky
NGC 5377 (SDSS) at WikiSky
NGC 5377 (GALEX) at WikiSky
References
5377
Canes Venatici
Discoveries by William Herschel
Barred spiral galaxies
049563
08863
? | NGC 5377 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 567 | [
"Canes Venatici",
"Constellations"
] |
77,421,081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205394 | NGC 5394 is a barred spiral galaxy located in the constellation Canes Venatici. Its speed relative to the cosmic microwave background is 3,639 ± 14 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble distance of 53.7 ± 3.8 Mpc (∼175 million ly). NGC 5394 was discovered by German-British astronomer William Herschel in 1787.
The luminosity class of NGC 5394 is II and it has a broad HI line. It also contains regions of ionized hydrogen. It is also a Luminous Infrared Galaxy (LIRG).
To date, one non-redshift-based measurement gives a distance of approximately 32,900 Mpc (∼107 million ly). This value is far outside the Hubble distance values. Note that it is with the average value of independent measurements, when they exist, that the NASA/IPAC database calculates the diameter of a galaxy.
One supernova has been observed in NGC 5394: SN 2020aaxs (type Ib, mag. 17).
Arp 84
NGC 5394 and NGC 5395 are a pair of gravitationally interacting galaxies that appear in Halton Arp's Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies under the designation Arp 84. Arp noted that NGC 5495 is a spiral with a high surface luminosity companion at the end of one of its arms.
NGC 5395 group
According to A.M. Garcia, NGC 5394 is part of a group of galaxies that has at least five members, the NGC 5395 group. The other galaxies are NGC 5341, NGC 5351, NGC 5395 and UGC 8806.
See also
NGC 646, another interacting galaxy with a similar shape
List of NGC objects (5001–6000)
External links
NGC 5394 at NASA/IPAC
NGC 5394 at SIMBAD
NGC 5394 at LEDA
NGC 5394 at SEDS
NGC 5394 (DSS2) at WikiSky
NGC 5394 (SDSS) at WikiSky
NGC 5394 (GALEX) at WikiSky
References
Barred spiral galaxies
Interacting galaxies
084
Canes Venatici
Discoveries by William Herschel
049739
08898
IRAS catalogue objects
?
5394 | NGC 5394 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 474 | [
"Canes Venatici",
"Constellations"
] |
77,421,256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential%20tuple%20normal%20form | Essential tuple normal form (ETNF) is a normal form used in database normalization. It lies strictly between fourth normal form (4NF) and fifth normal form (5NF). As per the original paper, ETNF, although strictly weaker than 5NF, is exactly as effective as 5NF in eliminating redundancy of tuples.
History
Hugh Darwen, C. J. Date and Ronald Fagin introduced ETNF in their paper in March 2012.
Definition
Essential Tuple Normal Form (ETNF) is a concept in the field of database normalization, which is the process of organizing the attributes of a relational database to reduce redundancy and improve data integrity. ETNF is a specific normal form that aims to ensure that the database schema is free from undesirable redundancy and dependency anomalies by focusing on the essential tuples, which are the minimal set of tuples necessary to represent the data accurately.
Key characteristics of ETNF include:
Reduction of Redundancy: ETNF minimizes the duplication of data by ensuring that each piece of information is stored only once.
Elimination of Anomalies: By organizing the data into essential tuples, ETNF helps prevent insertion, update, and deletion anomalies that can compromise data integrity.
Dependency Preservation: ETNF maintains functional dependencies, ensuring that the relationships between data attributes are preserved and consistent.
The goal of achieving ETNF in a database design is to create a robust, efficient, and reliable database schema that supports accurate data representation and manipulation.
ETNF
NP-complete problems
References | Essential tuple normal form | [
"Mathematics"
] | 339 | [
"NP-complete problems",
"Mathematical problems",
"Computational problems"
] |
77,421,630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Drug%20Users%20Remembrance%20Day | International Drug Users Remembrance Day is a health awareness day observed on 21 July each year. It is a day where friends and family can meet together to memorialise and remember loved ones whose lives were cut short due to drug use and the criminalisation and stigmatisation of people who use drugs.
It is also a day to remember everyone who has worked to advance the health and human rights of people who use drugs, many of whom have provided services borne out of civil disobedience such as needle and syringe programs and medically supervised injecting center's which have saved many lives.
When talking about what it meant to him, as a young drug user, Matthew Bonn said:
Bonn also talks about specific friends that he had lost to drug use and tells some of their stories.
It is similar to International Overdose Awareness Day (31 August) and International Drug Users Day (1 November).
References
Drug culture
Drug overdose
Drug policy
Drug-related deaths
Drug safety
Health awareness days
Harm reduction
Public health
Substance intoxication
Substance abuse
July observances
Health observances | International Drug Users Remembrance Day | [
"Chemistry"
] | 217 | [
"Drug safety"
] |
77,421,883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orders%20of%20magnitude%20%28magnetic%20moment%29 | This page lists examples of magnetic moments produced by various sources, grouped by orders of magnitude. The magnetic moment of an object is an intrinsic property and does not change with distance, and thus can be used to measure "how strong" a magnet is. For example, Earth possesses an enormous magnetic moment, however we are very distant from its center and experience only a tiny magnetic flux density (measured in tesla) on its surface.
Knowing the magnetic moment of an object () and the distance from its centre () it is possible to calculate the magnetic flux density experienced () using the following approximation:
,
where is the constant of vacuum permeability.
Examples
References
See also
Orders of magnitude (magnetic flux density)
Magnetic moment
Magnetism | Orders of magnitude (magnetic moment) | [
"Mathematics"
] | 148 | [
"Quantity",
"Orders of magnitude",
"Units of measurement"
] |
77,422,279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C28H29NO | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C28H29NO}}
The molecular formula C28H29NO (molar mass: 395.546 g/mol) may refer to:
JWH-146
JWH-364
JWH-365 | C28H29NO | [
"Chemistry"
] | 57 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
77,422,323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C30H33NO | {{DISPLAYTITLE:C30H33NO}}
The molecular formula C30H33NO (molar mass: 423.6 g/mol) may refer to:
JWH-371
JWH-373 | C30H33NO | [
"Chemistry"
] | 53 | [
"Isomerism",
"Set index articles on molecular formulas"
] |
77,422,349 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Nym%20mixnet | The Nym mixnet is a free and open-source software designed to ensure a high level of privacy in all online communications. It is an implementation of a mix network devised by David Chaum in 1981.
History
The research that led to the design of the Nym mixnet was carried out as part of various European Commission projects, including Panoramix and NextLeap. The Nym mixnet directs Internet traffic through a worldwide multi-layered network (an overlay network) consisting of hundreds of nodes, where the source and destination IP addresses are decoupled.
Harry Halpin, Claudia Diaz from KU Leuven University and Aggelos Kiayias, wrote the Nym white paper in February 2021. The latter two also wrote the document "Reward Sharing for Mixnets" describing the token economy on which the Nym mixnet is based.
Anna Piotrowska from University College London and some of the founders of the startup Chainspace, Co-founders of startup Chainspace which was acquired by Meta (as Facebook) to design for Libra, also collaborated in the design.
Chelsea Manning, a whistleblower and former intelligence analyst in the US army, was recruited to audit the Nym mixnet for vulnerabilities. She then joined the team as a security expert in January 2022.
Operation
The Nym mixnet masks metadata using three main techniques: fundamental actions: inserting dummy packets, modifying packet´s transfer times and standardising packet size. These three strategies make it extremely difficult to analyze data patterns and prevent the implementation of computer surveillance devices designed for spying, monitoring or commercial exploitation of data by government or private institutions. The Nym mixnet directs Internet traffic through a worldwide multi-layered network (an overlay network) consisting of hundreds of nodes, where the source and destination IP addresses are decoupled. It is similar to the Tor network or VPNs in that it allows the IP address to be camouflaged, obscuring the location of the user. The main difference is that the Nym mixnet also hides metadata. According to security experts today, metadata can be used for mass surveillance and traffic analysis.
See also
Anonymous P2P
Crypto-anarchism
Darknet
Freedom of information
Internet censorship circumvention
Internet privacy
References
External links
2020 software
Application layer protocols
Computer networking
Free software programmed in Rust
File sharing
Free routing software
Internet privacy software
Internet security
Overlay networks
Proxy servers | The Nym mixnet | [
"Technology",
"Engineering"
] | 492 | [
"Computer networking",
"Computer science",
"Computer engineering"
] |
77,423,022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NGC%205508 | NGC 5508 is a very large and distant spiral galaxy located in the constellation Boötes. Its velocity relative to the cosmic microwave background is 11,615 ± 15 km/s, which corresponds to a Hubble's law of 171 ± 12 Mpc (∼558 million light-years). It was discovered by French astronomer Édouard Stephan in 1882.
This galaxy is classified by all sources consulted, except Professor Seligman, as a lenticular galaxy. However, the image obtained from the SDSS survey clearly shows that it is a spiral galaxy.
According to the Simbad database, NGC 5508 is a LINER galaxy, i.e. a galaxy whose nucleus exhibits an emission spectrum characterized by broad lines of weakly ionized atoms.
The Hubble distance of neighboring galaxy PGC 50725 is 237.51 ± 16.63 Mpc (∼775 million light-years), well beyond NGC 5508. Although they appear as neighbors on the celestial sphere, they do not form a physical galaxy pair.
See also
List of NGC objects (5001–6000)
References
External links
NGC 5508 on the site of Professor C. Seligman
NGC 5508 on the SEDS website
NGC 5508 on the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database
5508
05450
Boötes
09094
Astronomical objects discovered in 1882
Discoveries by Édouard Stephan
LINER galaxies
Spiral galaxies
Lenticular galaxies | NGC 5508 | [
"Astronomy"
] | 281 | [
"Boötes",
"Constellations"
] |
77,423,637 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortifications%20of%20Larrun | The fortifications of Larrun from the late modern period are a series of military works situated on the mountain of Larrun, immediately to the west of the border between Spain and France. Some of the structures were erected during the 1793-1794 campaign and repurposed to impede the advance of the Anglo-Hispano-Portuguese coalition troops, which the future Duke of Wellington led. More than twenty redoubts are distributed across the territories of Ascain, Sare, and Urrugne, with partial coverage also extending to those of Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle and Biriatou.
The battles of the late 18th century were primarily concentrated in the commune of Urrugne. The revolutionary forces were deployed in the Louis XIV, Bertuste, Bayonet, and Emigrés redoubts, situated along the border and overlooking the Bidassoa River as well as the route from Vera de Bidassoa. This configuration proved effective in containing the advance of the Spanish attackers. Théophile de La Tour d'Auvergne, renowned as the "first grenadier of the Republic," distinguished himself notably during these confrontations.
The circumstances at the outset of the nineteenth century were markedly distinct. Wellington advanced as a conqueror and successfully breached the Sare lock, subsequently attacking the slopes of Larrun before heading toward Bayonne. The French army, under the command of Marshal Soult, demonstrated valor in their defense of the Zuhalmendi, Grenada, and Madeleine Chapel redoubts. The inadequacy of the defensive position, ill-suited to counterattacks, and the inexperience of the defenders at the Ermitebaïta and Mendibidea redoubts permitted the Anglo-Hispano-Portuguese coalition troops to breach the defensive line and ultimately force the French forces to retreat towards Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle.
The redoubts, situated on elevated terrain, were constructed by two principal architectural designs, tailored to the local topography. Examples of star-shaped redoubts include the Santa Barbara, the so-called "BF 29" (Border Marker 29), and the Bayonet redoubts. Others adopt a fairly regular quadrilateral configuration, exemplified by the Madeleine Chapel redoubt, or a pentagonal shape, as observed in the Emigrés and Olhain Chapel redoubts. A third category encompasses less common shapes, such as the ovoid Louis XIV redoubt in Sare, which is presumed to be a reuse of a protohistoric structure. Thirteen of these fortifications have been designated as historical monuments.
General overview of the setup
Larrun represents the final summit of the Pyrenees mountain range before the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain reaches an elevation of 905 meters, with its summit and slopes divided between four communes: Vera de Bidassoa in Spain and Ascain, Sare, and Urrugne in France. It overlooks a series of hills that extend across the four localities. The elevations of Biscarzun (185 m) and Esnaur (272 m) are situated within the municipality of Ascain. Similarly, the elevations of Saint-Ignace (273 m), Suhamendy (301 m), Ibantelly (698 m), and Santa- The peak of Mount Barbara (140 m) is located in the commune of Sare, while Mount Faague (552 m) is situated in the same region. The peak of Mount San Benito (462 m) is located in the commune of Vera de Bidassoa. Finally, Mount Mendalé (573 m) is located in the commune of Urrugne.
The fortifications of Larrun are composed of star-shaped redoubts, also known as "bastioned," polygonal, or ovoid, situated on elevated ridges or knolls. Their construction may have been somewhat rudimentary, with some protected by simple ditches or backed by existing ruins, such as the Larrun Hermitage redoubt in Sare. Some, like the Louis XIV redoubt in Sare, have protohistoric origins.
These are modest, isolated fortifications designed to provide refuge for infantrymen, who would otherwise be compelled to form squares in open terrain. The generally uncovered nature of the trenches increased the mobility of the infantry, allowing them to move while remaining partially sheltered. However, these works offered minimal capacity for counterattacks, given the limited number of soldiers they could accommodate and the difficulty of exiting the trenches. It was only through external intervention that an assailed redoubt could be relieved. Some redoubts were equipped with artillery pieces, which, due to the steep slopes of Larrun, were often exposed to enemy fire. This configuration was particularly evident when the Allies captured the Hermitage redoubt at the summit of Larrun, resulting in the fortified Alchangue ridge becoming subject to their artillery fire.
History
The battles of 1793-1794
The execution of Louis XVI on January 21, 1793, served to exacerbate the underlying tensions between France and Spain. Consequently, on March 7 of the same year, the National Convention of France declared war on Charles IV, King of Spain. In the Basque Country, the battles—which had initially commenced in the Val d'Aran in Catalonia—focused on the valleys of the Bidassoa and Nivelle rivers. In 1793, the Committee of Public Safety constructed a redoubt at the summit of Larrun on the site of a previously destroyed hermitage.
The opposing forces included 8,000 French soldiers, positioned by General Servan—who served as War Minister until his resignation on October 3, 1792—in the communes of Sare, Hendaye, and Urrugne. They were opposed by 2,200 Spaniards under the command of General Ventura Caro, who had been reinforced by the army of émigrés led by the Marquis of Saint-Simon.
The French forces were deployed in a manner that allowed them to exert control over three primary sectors. The route from Vera de Bidassoa to Ciboure, traversing the Col d’Insola and following the existing route through the Olhette district (Urrugne), was safeguarded by the Belchenea camp and a network of redoubts situated at the region’s summits. Notable among these were the Choucoutoun redoubt at an elevation of 94 meters, the Gendarmes redoubt, the Voltigeurs redoubt at an elevation of 81 meters, the Joliment redoubt, the Emigrés redoubt, and the Mendalé redoubt at an elevation of 573 meters. Furthermore, fortifications were constructed to safeguard the Bidassoa crossing between Biriatou and Béhobie. The French forces were distributed along the flanks of Croix des Bouquets, Xoldokogaña, Mont du Calvaire, Rocher des Perdrix, and Lumaberde. Finally, the Bidassoa estuary required the establishment or reinforcement of the Sans-Culottes, Ihartzecoborda, and Etsail redoubts from Croix des Bouquets, as well as the digging of trenches to protect the village of Hendaye from the Socorri hill.
A significant portion of the combat occurred within Urrugne's territory, which served as a base of operations for a contingent of French forces, including Théophile de La Tour d’Auvergne and generals Servan, Muller, , and , at the . In contrast, revolutionary troops were situated in Béhobie, Biriatou, or the fortified positions along the ridges.
The initial engagement was precipitated by a Spanish incursion on April 23, 1793, while the French military forces were still undergoing reorganization. The decree formally establishing the Army of the Western Pyrenees was promulgated on May 1. The Spanish offensive focused on Fort Hendaye and the Louis XIV redoubt in Urrugne, which came under artillery bombardment. The French volunteers were compelled to withdraw to Croix des Bouquets.
On May 1, Spanish troops captured the redoubt at the summit of Larrun and established a settlement there. On May 2, another Spanish attack on Hendaye was repelled beyond the Bidassoa by French troops, with La Tour d'Auvergne distinguishing himself by his courageous conduct. On May 26, 1794, French troops under the command of La Tour d’Auvergne once again attempted to seize the Larrun redoubt. Despite encountering fierce resistance on the heights of Santa-Barbara (also known as Sainte-Barbe), a hill located in the commune of Sare, they were ultimately forced to withdraw.
On July 13, another Spanish offensive was repelled, resulting in the enemy troops occupying Biriatou and positions along the Bidassoa. In response, the French headquarters withdrew to a position north of the Nivelle River, where they reinforced their troops with recruits who had undergone training at a camp in Bidart until early 1794. On February 5, 1794, hostilities resumed when a column of 13,000 Spanish infantrymen and 700 cavalrymen entered France via the road from Vera de Bidassoa. The Mont du Calvaire and Mendalé positions were subsequently occupied by the attacking forces, who were subsequently repelled by the French. The latter subsequently recaptured the positions, which were then renamed the "Bayonet Redoubt" due to the intense bayonet fighting that occurred there.
The Battles of October and November 1813
Following the defeat at Vitoria on June 21, 1813—which resulted in the withdrawal of the French troops escorting Joseph Bonaparte—and the subsequent defeats at Sorauren on July 25 and San Marcial on August 31, Arthur Wellesley's troops found themselves positioned on the banks of the Bidassoa. In a letter to William Carr Beresford dated October 2, 1813, the Duke of Wellington articulated his intentions. "[...] the heights of the Bidassoa afford such an extensive view that it would be prudent to secure them with minimal delay." Marshal Soult, in command of the French forces, had partially fortified the heights and approaches to the Bidassoa but appeared more preoccupied with the fate of Pamplona, which had been under siege by General Enrique José O'Donnell's Spanish troops since June 26.The two armies were positioned in such a way that they were facing each other. On the French side, Marshal Soult (also known as the "Duke of Dalmatia") divided his forces into three groups. To the west, Reille's two divisions, commanded by and Maucune, were responsible for covering the right flank between Urrugne and Ciboure. The center was held by Clauzel's three divisions, led by Taupin, Maransin, and Conroux, which were responsible for guarding the heights of Larrun, Sare, and Ascain. These divisions were supported by elements of 's division in the Ascain- sector. To the east, between Amotz and Mondarrain, were the divisions of Erlon and Abbé. Marshal Soult resided in Saint-Jean-de-Luz.
The Anglo-Hispano-Portuguese coalition, under the command of Wellesley, advanced along a common front line, with Ramsay's English and O'Donnell's Spanish divisions situated to the east, between Zugarramurdi and Echalar, while Alten maintained control of the Lizuniaga pass, advancing from Vera de Bidassoa. The western flank, facing Reille's divisions, was occupied by Longa and Freyre's troops.
On October 7, an assault force of 15,000 allied troops crossed the Bidassoa. The so-called "Cross of the Bouquets" combat occurred in Urrugne. The French were taken unawares, as the preceding night's inclement weather had obfuscated the assailants' preparations. They crossed the Bidassoa at three distinct fords upstream of Fontarabie, whereas Soult anticipated that the primary assault would occur in the Ainhoa region, situated to the east of Sare. Reille's forces, which had taken up position in the Louis XIV redoubt in Urrugne by 7:30 that morning, were overwhelmed by Graham's column. Neither Reille nor Clauzel was able to engage their reserves in time, as Montfort and Boyer's brigades were at Calvaire Mountain and Poiriers Pass in Biriatou, and Gauthier's brigade was at Bordegain.
On October 7, 1813, at 4 a.m., an additional 20,000 men initiated an assault on the fortifications of Larrun. The fighting concluded at nightfall, with the French forces still maintaining control of Larrun at the cost of 1,000 casualties on each side. Wellington then opted to circumvent the French defensive positions at Olhain and proceeded to capture the Santa Barbara (or Sainte-Barbe) redoubt. On October 8, the French troops evacuated the Larrun hermitage (Ermitebaita) and commenced a strategic withdrawal to the Alchangue ridge. The battles of October 7 and 8 concluded with 1,400 French casualties and 1,600 Allied casualties.
On the night of October 12-13, the French troops under the command of Conroux recaptured the Santa Barbara redoubt, maintaining control of the position despite a Spanish assault that resulted in the loss of 500 men for the opposing forces. By the conclusion of the battles that transpired between October 7 and 13, the Allied forces had established a foothold along the border ridge, encompassing the Olhain Chapel redoubt, the summit of Larrun, and the entirety of the ridge overlooking the Bidassoa. This included the Urrugne redoubts of the Emigrés, Bayonnette, and Louis XIV. The front stabilized, and a tacit peace emerged, leading the French and English to neutralize certain areas on the southern slope of Petite Larrun.Wellington was informed on October 20 that the defense forces in Pamplona were unable to maintain their position for more than a week. This information was obtained from an intercepted letter from the governor of Pamplona. The city subsequently surrendered on October 31, allowing the Allied forces to concentrate their troops on the French border. In light of the French reversals in Germany—the Battle of Leipzig concluded on October 19 with the withdrawal of Napoleonic forces—the Allied commander opted to concede to the mounting pressures from the allied sovereigns and launch an invasion of France from the south.
On November 10, Wellington initiated a significant military operation, deploying 40,000 troops against the fortifications of Larrun and into the Nivelle Valley. The French center, under the command of Clauzel, was subjected to an assault in the Sare sector by eight divisions. Wellington's strategy entailed capturing the village, which represented a significant vulnerability in the defense line and subsequently advancing towards Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle and Amotz. His objective was to maneuver on Bayonne, thereby dividing the French army and compelling it to engage on multiple fronts. At dawn, the Allied forces, under the command of General Colville, successfully captured the Santa-Barbara and Grenada redoubts and initiated an offensive against the Alchangue positions. The positions held by Clauzel and Erlon were breached by 40,000 men under the command of Hill and Beresford. Meanwhile, Reille's right flank was subjected to assaults from Hope, who commanded 19,000 men and 54 cannons. Hope was also supported by the English fleet's firepower. The Mouiz camp was evacuated by the French forces before 8 a.m., with the troops subsequently retreating to Sare. By 11 a.m., the Louis XIV and Saint-Ignace redoubts had also been captured.
The Allied divisions under the command of Generals Le Cor, Cole, Alten, Longa, and Freyre were able to gain the upper hand over the French defenders. They were able to infiltrate through "all-natural corridors," pursuing the retreating French in disorder towards Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, then Bidart and Arrauntz (Ustaritz district).
The English troops entered Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle at approximately 2 p.m., while Longa's division proceeded to occupy Ascain, which was subsequently pillaged overnight. By the end of November 10, the French army remained deployed to the east, supported by the Nive and Larressore under the command of Drouet d'Erlon. Its center was situated near Bayonne on the Saint-Pée road, while to the west, it occupied the Nivelle Valley from Saint-Jean-de-Luz to Serres under the command of Reille. The Allied troops maintained control of Urrugne, Sare, Ascain, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, Souraïde, and Espelette. French losses totaled 4,265 people, including 1,400 prisoners, along with 51 cannons and the stores of Espelette and Saint-Jean-de-Luz. The Allies sustained 2,694 casualties.
The redoubts of Ascain
The redoubts of Biskarzoun and Esnaur are situated on two mounds overlooking Ascain, affording observation of potential attackers' approach from all directions. Although isolated from the remainder of the position and still incomplete at dawn on November 10, 1813, the redoubts were sufficiently substantial to withstand a direct attack due to their location. Initially, both works appeared to have been held by units from Taupin's division, particularly the 47th line.
The Biskarzoun Redoubt, also known as Biscarzoun or Biskarzun, is situated at an elevation of 185 meters and provides a strategic overlook of the village of Ascain. The structure takes the form of an irregular heptagon, with a pile of rocks situated at its center. The structure's perimeter measures approximately 100 meters, with an area of approximately 650 square meters. To the southeast of the position, a semicircular trench was dug into a terrain ledge approximately 75 meters from the redoubt. This trench allowed defenders to cover the blind spot that hindered artillery from the main fortification. Similarly, it appears that the Biskarzoun redoubt was captured without a fight, presumably at the direction of Taupin, as no evidence of a struggle was discovered. It also encompasses the commune of Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle and has been designated a historic monument since 1992.
The Esnaur Redoubt is situated at an altitude of 273 meters and serves as a dominant defensive position along the route leading to the . The structure replicates the Biskarzoun Redoubt in a larger format, forming an irregular seven-sided polygon with an area of 2,200 m2 and a perimeter of 150 meters. A crown of 6 to 9 meters surrounds it, at times excavated into the rock through techniques analogous to those employed in certain protohistoric "terraced" enclosures. An oval platform marks its center. This fortification has been designated a historic monument since 1992.
The natural fortress of Ihicelhaya serves to protect Ascain from incursions from the south, situated at an elevation of 419 meters. Battles are known to have taken place there, as evidenced by the presence of a dry stone wall, although the precise dates remain uncertain, with some sources indicating 1793-1794 and others 1813. Galleries have been excavated into the rock, forming a structure measuring approximately fifty meters in length and twenty meters in width. The redoubt of the hermitage is situated at the summit of the Larrun. It is a dry stone construction erected on the foundations of the former chapel. It housed an allied battery of cannons, enabling them to reach the fortified crest of Alchangue.
Several fortifications were obliterated in the 20th century, subsumed beneath the processes of urbanization and development. Notable among these are the redoubts of Chanoneta, Uramendi, and Beheré. The Teilleria, or Tuileries, redoubt was situated in the Serres area, between Saint-Jean-de-Luz and Ascain. The fortification served as the Serres camp, where reserve troops were stationed. It was also destroyed by 20th-century developments and formed a pentagon perched at an altitude of 57 meters, 500 meters from the chapel in the hamlet of Serres. It controlled the Nivelle, Ascain, and the road to Saint-Jean-de-Luz.
The redoubts of Sare
The Mouiz camp, also known as Koralhandia, meaning "grand enclosure," was constructed in 1813 and represents the most significant component of the defensive system. The fort is situated on the northern slopes of the Larrun massif, at the location designated as Aira-herri, at an elevation of 537 meters. It is located approximately 800 meters northeast of the Trois-Fontaines railway station on the Larrun railway and 1,400 meters southwest of the . The strategic position was selected to safeguard the access to the Saint-Ignace pass and the village of Sare from an adversary approaching from the west or southwest. Although the redoubt is situated within the boundaries of Sare, the western extremity of the Alchangue ridge, colloquially designated Petite Larrun by military authorities, is depicted on the Ascain cadastre.
The redoubt, constructed using superimposed sandstone slabs without the addition of cement, exhibits a six-pointed star shape, rendering it particularly suited for short-range flanking fire. The structure covers an area of 1,040 square meters and is enclosed by a wall that does not contain loopholes. This wall rises to a height of two meters with a thickness of 80 centimeters. A trench measuring approximately 400 meters in length and constructed in a zigzag configuration connects the redoubt to Alchango-Harriak, a fortified ridge situated 500 meters to the southwest. This ridge extends from the Argaïneko pass to the Trois Fontaines pass and reaches an elevation of 625 meters. Four infantry posts have been established along the ridge. The fortification is equipped with six artillery pieces.
The work, with a perimeter of 1,460 meters, including 1,040 meters of dry stone walls, has been included on the Ministry of Culture's list of protected cultural heritage sites since November 4, 1986.
On November 10, 1813, Kempf's brigades of the 43rd Allied Regiment and Colborne's of the 17th Portuguese Regiment initiated an assault on the Mouiz camp from the ridge, while another Portuguese battalion advanced directly on the fortification. The French defenders engaged in a desperate battle, utilizing their remaining ammunition and strength, and resorting to the use of stones and rocks during the Allies' final assault.The Chapel of La Madeleine is a fortified structure situated to the northeast of Sare, in the vicinity of the Amotz district of Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle. The structure reaches an elevation of 187 meters and is constructed in a quadrilateral formation, with three sides protected by a deep ditch. The side facing Amotz is defended by several smaller defensive structures. The Uhaldekoborda trench extends for nearly 500 meters in an eastward direction, reaching a length of 250 meters. It is protected by a 60-meter-high parapet.
On November 10, 1813, the front formed by the redoubt of the Chapel of La Madeleine and that of Louis XIV was overrun following two unsuccessful assaults by two Anglo-Portuguese divisions. This redoubt has been listed since 1993.
The Zuhalmeni Redoubt, also known as Zuhalmeni or Souhameni, and the Signal Redoubt, is situated to the northwest of the town, close to the Mendionde pass, at an elevation of 301 meters. The star-shaped work has dimensions of 115 by 85 meters, with a perimeter of 310 meters. It is protected by a deep ditch that renders it impassable to attackers. The work, defended by 350 seasoned soldiers of the , endured five successive assaults before surrendering. This surrender was obtained by the English colonel, who came to negotiate with the regiment's commander, convincing him of the futility of resistance in the face of the Allies' advance. In the course of the battle, two hundred English soldiers were killed for the loss of a single French defender.
The entire site has been listed since 1992.
The two fortifications of Ermitebaïta and Mendibidea, which are mutually supportive, comprise a system that affords extensive views of the positions of attackers emerging from the ravine extending from the to the Mendiondo pass. Additionally, the system is designed to safeguard the access to the ridge safeguarded by the Zuhalmendi redoubt. The Ermitebaïta redoubt has a commanding view of the Saint-Ignace pass. It is situated at an altitude of 268 meters, two kilometers northeast of the summit of the Larrun and 750 meters southwest of the Zuhalmendi redoubt. The fortification is star-shaped, with a perimeter of 185 meters, situated within a quadrilateral measuring 90 meters by 75 meters. It is surrounded by a parapet and a four-meter-wide ditch. A trench connects it to a "U"-shaped outpost defending the pass. In 1813, the young recruits stationed there abandoned the fort without a fight after the evacuation of the Louis XIV redoubt. It has been listed as a historic monument since 1992.
The Mendibidea redoubt, situated 250 meters from Ermitebaïta, encompasses the western aspect of the Saint-Ignace pass. The structure's perimeter measures 152 meters. Similarly, the Mendibidea redoubt was vacated by the 70th Line Battalion, comprising inexperienced recruits, following the evacuation of the Louis XIV redoubt due to the advance of the Spanish divisions of Longa and Freyre. Despite General Taupin's endeavors, the battalion could not be reassembled. The structure, which has retained a high degree of integrity, has been designated a historic monument since 1992, along with that of Ermitebaïta.The chapel of Olhain is situated at an elevation of 397 meters on a hilltop overlooking the road from Sare to Vera de Bidassoa. The redoubt is an irregular pentagon, with the two largest sides measuring 25 meters. One side, oriented towards the Larrun, encompasses the chapel and is supported by two opposing lateral walls. During the battles of October 7 and 8, 1813, Wellington seized the redoubt before launching an offensive on the hermitage. The structure has been listed since 1992.
The Santa-Barbara Redoubt is situated at an altitude of 137 meters in the Lehenbiscay district. It is located on the hill of Santa Barbara, on the edge of the plateau overlooking the Lizuniaga stream, 1,500 meters south of the church of Sare. The structure has a star shape and is protected by a ditch ranging in width from 4.60 to 6.50 meters, which is doubled inside by a 180-meter-long parapet. It is inscribed within an 80-meter-square quadrilateral and appears to be part of a larger defensive ensemble, of which it constitutes the main part. The structure has been listed since 1993.
During the Western Pyrenees campaign (1793-1795), the position was defended by Théophile de la Tour d'Auvergne, who was known as "First Grenadier of the Republic." The redoubt was destroyed in 1795 but subsequently rebuilt in 1813. During the battles that took place between October 7 and 13 of that year, the redoubt changed hands several times. Wellington's troops ultimately secured it on November 10, at the cost of 500 combat-ready men, in comparison to 200 imperial soldiers.The Grenada Redoubt, also known as Chelkor, is situated on the territory of Sare. It is positioned at an elevation of 127 meters and overlooks the road leading to the from the summit of a hill. The structure is a six-pointed star-shaped work with a perimeter of 80 meters, surrounded by a ditch measuring between 1.5 and 2 meters in width. The inner parapet of the star is doubled on its southern part by a 50-centimeter ditch. During the 1813 battles, the redoubt offered significant resistance to Allied troops; however, it ultimately succumbed to the combined assault of a British horse battery and a Portuguese infantry brigade.
The Monhoa Redoubt, also known as Monhoa or Monhohandi, is situated in Sare and serves as an outpost for the Santa-Barbara and Grenada redoubts on the route connecting the Lizarrieta pass to the Lizuniaga pass. It is located at an altitude of 167 meters and only a Z-shaped ditch remains, with the absence of remains on either side suggesting that it was only a half-redoubt.
Similarly, the redoubt of boundary marker 29, also designated as Bechini, is situated on a plateau at an elevation of 600 meters, at the base of the Larrun summit. The structure forms a star shape, protected by a ditch measuring 50 centimeters in depth and an earth parapet. It is situated adjacent to a dry stone barn to the southwest. Historical research has demonstrated that it was the site of considerable combat during the wars of 1793–1794.
The Louis XIV Redoubt, also known as Mendiondo or Gastelugaina, has been lost to history since 1977, except for a fragment of rampart into which the current water tower is embedded. According to General Francis Gaudeul, it is a protohistoric enclosure that was adapted for the needs of the 19th-century wars. It was also used during the 1793-1794 battles against Spanish troops.
The elliptical shape is a relatively uncommon feature among modern-era fortifications, which may be attributed to the protohistoric origins of the structure in question.
On November 10, 1813, the troops under the command of General Maransin, protected by the forces of to the east and those of General to the west successfully repelled two assaults. With the withdrawal of Conroux's division to the left, the redoubt was captured by the Allied forces, resulting in the loss of three officers and 179 soldiers for the French. General Maransin, who had been temporarily taken captive by the attackers, managed to escape and subsequently resumed command of his division.
The Idoyko Biskarra Redoubt is situated at the border between Spain and France, in proximity to boundary marker 43. It is positioned at the summit of a hill, at an altitude of 502 meters, 300 meters from the . The structure is ovoid and oriented towards French territory, and historical evidence suggests that it was utilized during the 1793-1794 battles.
The redoubts of Urrugne
The Bayonnette Redoubt is located at an altitude of 560 meters at the summit of Mendalé. It has a view of the village of Vera de Bidassoa.
The parapet surrounding the structure measures 350 meters in length. Before its arrival, a ditch 7 meters in width and 1.5 to 2 meters in depth awaits. The structure has a maximum length of 127 meters from north to south and 107 meters from south-southwest to north-northeast. The mound rising at its center is of a truncated cone shape, measuring 3 to 5 meters in height, with a base circumference of nearly 110 meters and a diameter of 20 meters at the top.
The site saw action during the conflicts of 1793-1794 and 1813. It acquired its designation as the "Bayonnette Redoubt" as a result of the French bayonet charge against the Spaniards, which commenced on July 24, 1794, intending to reclaim the position that had been lost on May 2, 1793.
It was restored in September 1813 and defended by the 9th Light Battalion, from Taupin's division, part of Clausel's army corps. It was attacked by the Allies on October 7. On October 8, 1813, the battalion of the 88th Infantry Regiment, under the command of Battalion Chief Gillet, resisted the English assaults for a long time before being massacred. General Van der Maësen, who died while trying to clear the bridge at Vera de Bidassoa, was temporarily buried there before being subsequently interred at the Ascain cemetery.
The Redoubt and the Bortuste Redoubt have been designated as historic monuments since 1992.
The Emigrés Redoubt is situated at an elevation of 394 meters, overlooking the Ibardin pass. It is positioned on a ridge that runs parallel to the CD 404 road, which connects the pass to the former Herboure customs.
The structure, which appears to have been named in error due to the emigrants' camp erected on the other side of the border, has been listed since 1992. It is noteworthy that the entrance is located to the south, where the parapet covered with stone slabs creates a chicane to repel attackers to the east. The redoubt occupies a quadrilateral of 58 by 70 meters.
The battles of 1793 left little documentation. The redoubt appears to have been captured by the Spaniards on May 2, 1793, and subsequently recaptured by the French in July 1794. In October 1813, given the low density of the French defensive system, the redoubt seems to have been taken by attackers emerging from the wooded ravines surrounding it.
The Louis XIV Redoubt is a distinct structure from that of Sare, which has already been described. It extends over the communes of Urrugne and Biriatou at the 124th meridian. The structure overlooks the Bidassoa and allows a view of Pheasant Island, situated 1 km to the west. It was named the Louis XIV Redoubt in memory of the conference held on this island in 1659. It has been listed as a historic monument since 1997.
On April 23, 1793, the Redoubt, which was defended by French troops, was attacked and subsequently captured by General Caro's troops. On June 26, the troops of General Servan, led by La Tour d’Auvergne, recaptured the redoubt. Further battles took place on July 23 of the same year, during which the Spaniards seized the redoubt, which they were forced to relinquish on January 14, 1794. Despite renewed assaults by General Caro on February 5, the French maintained control of the structure.
In the context of the 1813 battles, to launch an attack on 31 August towards San Marcial, Marshal Soult established his command post in this same redoubt in advance of the aforementioned attack. On October 7, while the fortification was under the protection of the of the brigade, which was under the command of General Reille, the redoubt was subjected to a sudden and intense assault by the troops of Wellington. The French forces were compelled to relinquish their position to the Allied troops and retreat to the Croix des Bouquets.
Prior to 1950, IGN maps reference numerous redoubts in Urrugne that have since been dismantled, including the former Voltigeurs Redoubt, the Choucoutoun Redoubt, and the Legarcia Redoubt. These fortifications have been subsumed by the urban expansion that has encroached upon the Larrun ridges within the town's boundaries.
See also
Battle of the Bidassoa
Battle of the Nive
Battle of Nivelle
Campaign in north-east France (1814)
France–Spain border
Peninsular War
French Revolutionary Wars
Notes
References
Jacques Antz, Sare, volume 1, 1993
Jacques Antz, Autrefois Sare, 2006
Henri Alexis Brialmont, Histoire du duc de Wellington, volume 2,1856-1857
Francis Gaudeul, Les redoutes du Ier Empire du Pays basque, 1984
Francis Gaudeul, Les redoutes du Ier Empire du Pays basque, 1985
Guy Lalanne, Ascain, 1991
Guy Lalanne, Urrugne, 1989
Jean-Claude Lorblanchès, Campagne de l'armée impériale du Pays basque à Toulouse (1813-1814), 2013
Other sources
Bibliography
The author was a Belgian engineer officer specializing in fort construction, and founder of the Journal de l'armée belge (1850).
The description of the battles referenced by Guy Lalanne is based on the nineteenth-century works of Commandant and P.J. Pellot.
Mountain warfare
Mountains of Pyrénées-Atlantiques
Mountains of the Pyrenees
Fortifications
Military installations | Fortifications of Larrun | [
"Engineering"
] | 7,640 | [
"Fortifications",
"Military engineering"
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.