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|---|---|---|
14,763 | Due to historically close ties with France, French literature came to constitute the major Western influence on Ottoman literature throughout the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period also had their Ottoman equivalents: in the developing Ottoman ... | [
{
"answer": "French literature",
"question": "What was the biggest influence from the west on Ottoman literature?"
},
{
"answer": "the latter half of the 19th century",
"question": "During what time period was Ottoman literate most influenced by the west?"
},
{
"answer": "the influence o... |
14,765 | Examples of Ottoman architecture of the classical period, besides Istanbul and Edirne, can also be seen in Egypt, Eritrea, Tunisia, Algiers, the Balkans and Romania, where mosques, bridges, fountains and schools were built. The art of Ottoman decoration developed with a multitude of influences due to the wide ethnic ra... | [
{
"answer": "traditional Byzantine art",
"question": "Ottoman artists mixed Chinese art with the art of what else?"
},
{
"answer": "fountains and schools",
"question": "The ottoman empire built structures in Romania that included Mosques, and Bridges, what else was built?"
},
{
"answer":... |
14,766 | Ottoman illumination covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in muraqqa or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the Ottoman miniature. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (taswir), calligraphy (hat), Islamic calligraphy, bookbinding (c... | [
{
"answer": "muraqqa",
"question": "Were would one find the sheets where Ottoman's created illuminated decorations?"
},
{
"answer": "taswir",
"question": "What is another name for an Ottoman miniature?"
},
{
"answer": "hat",
"question": "Ottoman calligraphy can also be referred to as... |
14,767 | The art of carpet weaving was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism, and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters. The weaving of such carpets originated... | [
{
"answer": "carpet weaving",
"question": "Which art was important in religious symbolism and as a decoration in the Ottoman empire?"
},
{
"answer": "it was customary to remove one's shoes",
"question": "What was the custom for those wearing shoes indoors in the Ottoman empire?"
},
{
"an... |
14,768 | Ottoman classical music was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite, a number of the Ottoman sultans were accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as Selim III, whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of Byzantine music, Ar... | [
{
"answer": "Ottoman classical music",
"question": "The elites of the Ottoman empire found what type of music important?"
},
{
"answer": "musicians and composers",
"question": "Many of the Sultans of the Ottoman empire were accomplished at being what?"
},
{
"answer": "Selim III",
"qu... |
14,769 | The instruments used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the saz, the bağlama, the kemence), other Middle Eastern instruments (the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the... | [
{
"answer": "the saz, the bağlama, the kemence",
"question": "What are the three most used Anatolian and central asian instruments in Ottoman Classical music?"
},
{
"answer": "the ud, the tanbur, the kanun, the ney",
"question": "Which Middle Eastern instruments can be heard in Ottoman classical... |
14,770 | Ottoman cuisine refers to the cuisine of the capital, Istanbul, and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of ... | [
{
"answer": "the capital, Istanbul, and the regional capital cities",
"question": "The cuisine known as Ottoman cuisine is in reference to the food eaten where?"
},
{
"answer": "the Imperial Palace's kitchens",
"question": "In what kitchen's was Ottoman cuisine perfected?"
},
{
"answer":... |
14,771 | Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially Turkish cuisine, and including Greek cuisine, Balkan cuisine, Armenian cuisine, and Middle Eastern cuisine. Many common dishes in the region, descendants of the once-common Ottoman cuisine, include yogurt, dön... | [
{
"answer": "a shared Ottoman cuisine",
"question": "Turkish cuisine originates from what source?"
},
{
"answer": "former Ottoman territories",
"question": "The cuisine of what territories are descended from Ottoman cuisine?"
},
{
"answer": "Balkan cuisine, Armenian cuisine, and Middle E... |
14,772 | Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts. A great part of this desire for local and foreign manuscripts arose in the 15th Century. Sultan Mehmet II ordered Georgios Amiroutze... | [
{
"answer": "15th Century",
"question": "In what century did the Ottoman's start to desire foreign manuscripts?"
},
{
"answer": "Sultan Mehmet II",
"question": "Which sultan ordered a Greek scholar to do translations of work by Ptolemy?"
},
{
"answer": "Georgios Amiroutzes",
"questio... |
14,773 | The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were Turkish Wrestling, hunting, Turkish archery, horseback riding, Equestrian javelin throw, arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of football matches in 19th century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to ti... | [
{
"answer": "19th century",
"question": "When did European sport clubs begin to form in the Ottoman empire?"
},
{
"answer": "Constantinople",
"question": "Where did football matches become to be popular in the Ottoman empire?"
},
{
"answer": "Galatasaray Sports Club",
"question": "Wh... |
14,774 | Philosophy of space and time is the branch of philosophy concerned with the issues surrounding the ontology, epistemology, and character of space and time. While such ideas have been central to philosophy from its inception, the philosophy of space and time was both an inspiration for and a central aspect of early anal... | [
{
"answer": "Philosophy of space and time",
"question": "Which philosophy branch is concerned with issues surrounding ontology?"
},
{
"answer": "early analytic philosophy",
"question": "The philosophy of space and time was inspired by what kind of philosophy?"
},
{
"answer": "the mind",
... |
14,775 | The earliest recorded Western philosophy of time was expounded by the ancient Egyptian thinker Ptahhotep (c. 2650–2600 BC), who said, "Do not lessen the time of following desire, for the wasting of time is an abomination to the spirit." The Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy, dating bac... | [
{
"answer": "Ptahhotep",
"question": "Who expounded the earliest recorded Western philosophy of time?"
},
{
"answer": "late 2nd millennium BC",
"question": "When do the Vedas date back to?"
},
{
"answer": "Indian philosophy and Hindu philosophy",
"question": "Which philosophies are t... |
14,776 | In Book 11 of St. Augustine's Confessions, he ruminates on the nature of time, asking, "What then is time? If no one asks me, I know: if I wish to explain it to one that asketh, I know not." He goes on to comment on the difficulty of thinking about time, pointing out the inaccuracy of common speech: "For but few things... | [
{
"answer": "St. Augustine",
"question": "Which christian philosopher ruminated on time?"
},
{
"answer": "the difficulty",
"question": "What did St. Augustine comment on in Book 11, regarding thinking about time?"
},
{
"answer": "Augustine",
"question": "Who presented the first philo... |
14,777 | In the early 11th century, the Muslim physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen or Alhazen) discussed space perception and its epistemological implications in his Book of Optics (1021), he also rejected Aristotle's definition of topos (Physics IV) by way of geometric demonstrations and defined place as a mathematical spatial e... | [
{
"answer": "al-Haytham",
"question": "Which 11th century Muslim physicist discussed space perception and its epistemological implications? "
},
{
"answer": "Book of Optics",
"question": "Which 11th century book discussed space perception and its epistemological implications?"
},
{
"answ... |
14,778 | In 1781, Immanuel Kant published the Critique of Pure Reason, one of the most influential works in the history of the philosophy of space and time. He describes time as an a priori notion that, together with other a priori notions such as space, allows us to comprehend sense experience. Kant denies that either space or... | [
{
"answer": "1781",
"question": "When did Kant publish one of the most influential works in the history of the philosophy of space and time."
},
{
"answer": "Critique of Pure Reason",
"question": "What was Kant's influential work on the history of the philosophy of space and time titled?"
},
... |
14,779 | Arguing against the absolutist position, Leibniz offers a number of thought experiments with the purpose of showing that there is contradiction in assuming the existence of facts such as absolute location and velocity. These arguments trade heavily on two principles central to his philosophy: the principle of sufficien... | [
{
"answer": "the absolutist position",
"question": "What did Leibniz argue against?"
},
{
"answer": "the principle of sufficient reason and the identity of indiscernibles",
"question": "Which principles did Leibniz's arguments trade heavily upon?"
},
{
"answer": "fact",
"question": "... |
14,780 | The example Leibniz uses involves two proposed universes situated in absolute space. The only discernible difference between them is that the latter is positioned five feet to the left of the first. The example is only possible if such a thing as absolute space exists. Such a situation, however, is not possible, accord... | [
{
"answer": "two",
"question": "Leibniz's example involves how many universes?"
},
{
"answer": "absolute space",
"question": "Where are Leibniz's universes situated?"
},
{
"answer": "five feet",
"question": "How far are Leibniz's universes situated apart?"
},
{
"answer": "abs... |
14,781 | Standing out in Clarke's (and Newton's) response to Leibniz's arguments is the bucket argument: Water in a bucket, hung from a rope and set to spin, will start with a flat surface. As the water begins to spin in the bucket, the surface of the water will become concave. If the bucket is stopped, the water will continue ... | [
{
"answer": "the bucket argument",
"question": "What stood out in Clark's response to Leibniz?"
},
{
"answer": "flat",
"question": "According to Clark's argument, water in a bucket, hung from a rope and spun, will begin with kind of surface?"
},
{
"answer": "the water will become concave... |
14,782 | Leibniz describes a space that exists only as a relation between objects, and which has no existence apart from the existence of those objects. Motion exists only as a relation between those objects. Newtonian space provided the absolute frame of reference within which objects can have motion. In Newton's system, the f... | [
{
"answer": "objects",
"question": "Leibniz describes space as existing only as a relation between what?"
},
{
"answer": "space",
"question": "According to Leibniz, what has no existence apart from the existence of objections?"
},
{
"answer": "Newtonian space",
"question": "What prov... |
14,783 | Mach suggested that thought experiments like the bucket argument are problematic. If we were to imagine a universe that only contains a bucket, on Newton's account, this bucket could be set to spin relative to absolute space, and the water it contained would form the characteristic concave surface. But in the absence o... | [
{
"answer": "problematic",
"question": "How did Mach describe thought experiments like the bucket argument?"
},
{
"answer": "that the bucket was indeed spinning",
"question": "What is difficult to confirm about the bucket in the absence of anything else in the universe?"
},
{
"answer": "... |
14,784 | Mach argued that, in effect, the water experiment in an otherwise empty universe would remain flat. But if another object were introduced into this universe, perhaps a distant star, there would now be something relative to which the bucket could be seen as rotating. The water inside the bucket could possibly have a sli... | [
{
"answer": "would remain flat",
"question": "What did Mach argue about the water experiment in an otherwise empty universe?"
},
{
"answer": "the bucket could be seen as rotating",
"question": "What did Mach argue would happen if another object were introduce in the bucket's universe?"
},
{
... |
14,785 | Albert Einstein proposed that the laws of physics should be based on the principle of relativity. This principle holds that the rules of physics must be the same for all observers, regardless of the frame of reference that is used, and that light propagates at the same speed in all reference frames. This theory was mot... | [
{
"answer": "relativity",
"question": "lbert Einstein proposed that the laws of physics should be based on what principle?"
},
{
"answer": "all observers",
"question": "The principle of relativity holds that the rules of physics must be the same for who?"
},
{
"answer": "the same",
"... |
14,786 | In classical physics, an inertial reference frame is one in which an object that experiences no forces does not accelerate. In general relativity, an inertial frame of reference is one that is following a geodesic of space-time. An object that moves against a geodesic experiences a force. An object in free fall does no... | [
{
"answer": "does not accelerate",
"question": "In classical physics, an inertial reference frame is one in which an object without force does what?"
},
{
"answer": "an inertial frame of reference",
"question": "What follows a geodesic of space-time?"
},
{
"answer": "force",
"questio... |
14,787 | Einstein partially advocates Mach's principle in that distant stars explain inertia because they provide the gravitational field against which acceleration and inertia occur. But contrary to Leibniz's account, this warped space-time is as integral a part of an object as are its other defining characteristics, such as v... | [
{
"answer": "partially",
"question": "How does Einstein advocate Mach's principle?"
},
{
"answer": "contrary",
"question": "How Einstein's theory compared to Leibniz's?"
},
{
"answer": "objects exist independently of the mind",
"question": "What is considered contrary to idealist bel... |
14,788 | Coordinative definition has two major features. The first has to do with coordinating units of length with certain physical objects. This is motivated by the fact that we can never directly apprehend length. Instead we must choose some physical object, say the Standard Metre at the Bureau International des Poids et Mes... | [
{
"answer": "two",
"question": "Coordinative definition has how many major features?"
},
{
"answer": "coordinating units of length with certain physical objects",
"question": "The first feature of Coordinative definition involves what?"
},
{
"answer": "we can never directly apprehend len... |
14,789 | In the classical case, the invariance, or symmetry, group and the covariance group coincide, but, interestingly enough, they part ways in relativistic physics. The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes all differentiable transformations, i.e., all properties of an object are dynamical, in other wo... | [
{
"answer": "all differentiable transformations",
"question": "The symmetry group of the general theory of relativity includes what?"
},
{
"answer": "the covariance group",
"question": "What else besides invariance, or symmetry and group part ways in relativistic physics?"
},
{
"answer"... |
14,790 | The problem of the direction of time arises directly from two contradictory facts. Firstly, the fundamental physical laws are time-reversal invariant; if a cinematographic film were taken of any process describable by means of the aforementioned laws and then played backwards, it would still portray a physically possib... | [
{
"answer": "two",
"question": "How many contradictory facts does the problem of the direction of time arise from?"
},
{
"answer": "fundamental",
"question": "What kind of physical laws are time-reversal invariant?"
},
{
"answer": "physically possible process",
"question": "If if a c... |
14,791 | But in statistical mechanics things get more complicated. On one hand, statistical mechanics is far superior to classical thermodynamics, in that thermodynamic behavior, such as glass breaking, can be explained by the fundamental laws of physics paired with a statistical postulate. But statistical mechanics, unlike cla... | [
{
"answer": "complicated",
"question": "How are things in statistical mechanics? "
},
{
"answer": "statistical mechanics",
"question": "What are superior to classical thermodynamics?"
},
{
"answer": "a statistical postulate",
"question": "In order to explain glass breaking, Fundament... |
14,792 | A third type of solution to the problem of the direction of time, although much less represented, argues that the laws are not time-reversal symmetric. For example, certain processes in quantum mechanics, relating to the weak nuclear force, are not time-reversible, keeping in mind that when dealing with quantum mechani... | [
{
"answer": "the laws are not time-reversal symmetric",
"question": "What does the third type of solution to the problem of the direction of time argue?"
},
{
"answer": "weak nuclear force",
"question": "What is are kind of nuclear force is not time-reversibile?"
},
{
"answer": "macrosco... |
14,793 | One recent proponent of the laws solution is Tim Maudlin who argues that the fundamental laws of physics are laws of temporal evolution (see Maudlin ). However, elsewhere Maudlin argues: "[the] passage of time is an intrinsic asymmetry in the temporal structure of the world... It is the asymmetry that grounds the disti... | [
{
"answer": "Tim Maudlin",
"question": "Who argues that the fundamental laws of physics are laws of temporal evolution?"
},
{
"answer": "intrinsic",
"question": "Maudlin argues that the passage of time is what kind of asymmetry?"
},
{
"answer": "asymmetry",
"question": "What grounds ... |
14,794 | The problem of the flow of time, as it has been treated in analytic philosophy, owes its beginning to a paper written by J. M. E. McTaggart. In this paper McTaggart proposes two "temporal series". The first series, which means to account for our intuitions about temporal becoming, or the moving Now, is called the A-ser... | [
{
"answer": "J. M. E. McTaggart",
"question": "Who started the discussion within analytic philosophy on the problem of the flow of time?"
},
{
"answer": "two",
"question": "How many \"temporal series\" did McTaggart propose?"
},
{
"answer": "the A-series",
"question": "What was McTag... |
14,795 | According to Presentism, time is an ordering of various realities. At a certain time some things exist and others do not. This is the only reality we can deal with and we cannot for example say that Homer exists because at the present time he does not. An Eternalist, on the other hand, holds that time is a dimension of... | [
{
"answer": "Presentism",
"question": "According to what theory is time an ordering of various realities?"
},
{
"answer": "exist",
"question": "Presentism states that at a certain time some things do what?"
},
{
"answer": "Eternalist",
"question": "Who believes that time is a dimensi... |
14,796 | The positions on the persistence of objects are somewhat similar. An endurantist holds that for an object to persist through time is for it to exist completely at different times (each instance of existence we can regard as somehow separate from previous and future instances, though still numerically identical with the... | [
{
"answer": "somewhat similar",
"question": "How similar are the positions on the persistence of objects?"
},
{
"answer": "endurantist",
"question": "Who holds that for an object to persist through time is for it to exist completely at different times?"
},
{
"answer": "perdurantist",
... |
14,798 | Traditionally considered the last part of the Stone Age, the Neolithic followed the terminal Holocene Epipaleolithic period and commenced with the beginning of farming, which produced the "Neolithic Revolution". It ended when metal tools became widespread (in the Copper Age or Bronze Age; or, in some geographical regio... | [
{
"answer": "the Neolithic",
"question": "What era is commonly known as the final phase of the Stone Age?"
},
{
"answer": "Holocene Epipaleolithic period",
"question": "What era preceded the Neolithic?"
},
{
"answer": "Neolithic Revolution",
"question": "What event is associated with... |
14,799 | The beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank) about 10,200 – 8,800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was be... | [
{
"answer": "10,200 – 8,800 BC",
"question": "What time period marks the start of Neolithic culture?"
},
{
"answer": "Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank)",
"question": "Where did the Neolithic culture begin?"
},
{
"answer": "wild cereals",
"question": "What food item was the key t... |
14,800 | Not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order: the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. In other parts of the world, such as Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia, independent domestication events led to their own regionally distinct... | [
{
"answer": "pottery",
"question": "What objects were not used by early farm societies in the Near East ?"
},
{
"answer": "agriculture",
"question": "What did the use of pottery help early Japanese societies develop?"
},
{
"answer": "independent domestication events",
"question": "Wh... |
14,801 | The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9,500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity and... | [
{
"answer": "roughly 10,000 years ago",
"question": "When did the The Neolithic 1 (PPNA) period start?"
},
{
"answer": "Turkey",
"question": "Where is the Göbekli Tepe temple located?"
},
{
"answer": "nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes",
"question": "Who built the Göbekli Tepe temple?"
... |
14,802 | The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) began around 8,800 BCE according to the ASPRO chronology in the Levant (Jericho, Israel). As with the PPNA dates, there are two versions from the same laboratories noted above. This system of terminology, however, is not convenient for southeast Anatolia and settlements of the middle Anatolia bas... | [
{
"answer": "around 8,800 BCE",
"question": "When did the The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) era start?"
},
{
"answer": "the Mesolithic era",
"question": "What era followed the The Neolithic 2 (PPNB) era?"
},
{
"answer": "3,000 inhabitants",
"question": "How many settlers were found in Jordan?"... |
14,803 | Around 10,200 BC the first fully developed Neolithic cultures belonging to the phase Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) appeared in the fertile crescent. Around 10,700 to 9,400 BC a settlement was established in Tell Qaramel, 10 miles north of Aleppo. The settlement included 2 temples dating back to 9,650. Around 9000 BC d... | [
{
"answer": "Around 10,200 BC",
"question": "When did the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) phase start?"
},
{
"answer": "Around 10,700 to 9,400 BC",
"question": "When was a settlement developed in Tell Qaramel?"
},
{
"answer": "2",
"question": "How many temples were built in Tell Qara... |
14,805 | Domestication of sheep and goats reached Egypt from the Near East possibly as early as 6,000 BC. Graeme Barker states "The first indisputable evidence for domestic plants and animals in the Nile valley is not until the early fifth millennium bc in northern Egypt and a thousand years later further south, in both cases a... | [
{
"answer": "6,000 BC",
"question": "When did the domestication of sheep first appear in Egypt?"
},
{
"answer": "fishing, hunting, and the gathering of wild plants",
"question": "How did Egyptians gather food before raising livestock?"
},
{
"answer": "the Middle East",
"question": "W... |
14,807 | In 2012, news was released about a new farming site discovered in Munam-ri, Goseong, Gangwon Province, South Korea, which may be the earliest farmland known to date in east Asia. "No remains of an agricultural field from the Neolithic period have been found in any East Asian country before, the institute said, adding t... | [
{
"answer": "2012",
"question": "When was the earliest known Asian farm site found in South Korea?"
},
{
"answer": "between 3600 and 3000 B.C.",
"question": "What time period was the Korean farm site dated?"
},
{
"answer": "Pottery, stone projectile points, and possible houses",
"que... |
14,808 | In Mesoamerica, a similar set of events (i.e., crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles) occurred by around 4500 BC, but possibly as early as 11,000–10,000 BC. These cultures are usually not referred to as belonging to the Neolithic; in America different terms are used such as Formative stage instead of mid-late Neo... | [
{
"answer": "crop domestication and sedentary lifestyles",
"question": "What major trends appeared in Mesoamerica during 4500 BC?"
},
{
"answer": "Formative stage",
"question": "What term is used to describe the mid-late Neolithic era in American education?"
},
{
"answer": "Archaic Era",... |
14,809 | During most of the Neolithic age of Eurasia, people lived in small tribes composed of multiple bands or lineages. There is little scientific evidence of developed social stratification in most Neolithic societies; social stratification is more associated with the later Bronze Age. Although some late Eurasian Neolithic ... | [
{
"answer": "small tribes",
"question": "What social groups were formed during the Neolithic age of Eurasia?"
},
{
"answer": "social stratification",
"question": "What cultural trend did not first appear in large amounts until the Bronze Age?"
},
{
"answer": "Paleolithic cultures",
"... |
14,810 | The domestication of large animals (c. 8000 BC) resulted in a dramatic increase in social inequality in most of the areas where it occurred; New Guinea being a notable exception. Possession of livestock allowed competition between households and resulted in inherited inequalities of wealth. Neolithic pastoralists who c... | [
{
"answer": "domestication of large animals",
"question": "What caused a major increase in social inequality?"
},
{
"answer": "Possession of livestock",
"question": "What started competition between families for wealth?"
},
{
"answer": "Neolithic pastoralists",
"question": "Who was i... |
14,811 | Families and households were still largely independent economically, and the household was probably the center of life. However, excavations in Central Europe have revealed that early Neolithic Linear Ceramic cultures ("Linearbandkeramik") were building large arrangements of circular ditches between 4800 BC and 4600 BC... | [
{
"answer": "the household",
"question": "What was the cultural aspect was the major center of life?"
},
{
"answer": "4800 BC and 4600 BC",
"question": "What time period were the huge circular ditches found in?"
},
{
"answer": "causewayed enclosures, burial mounds, and henge",
"quest... |
14,812 | There is a large body of evidence for fortified settlements at Linearbandkeramik sites along the Rhine, as at least some villages were fortified for some time with a palisade and an outer ditch. Settlements with palisades and weapon-traumatized bones have been discovered, such as at the Talheim Death Pit demonstrates "... | [
{
"answer": "Linearbandkeramik",
"question": "Where was evidence of fortified settlements found?"
},
{
"answer": "a palisade and an outer ditch",
"question": "What did some villages fortify their settlements with?"
},
{
"answer": "weapon-traumatized bones",
"question": "What tools we... |
14,813 | Control of labour and inter-group conflict is characteristic of corporate-level or 'tribal' groups, headed by a charismatic individual; whether a 'big man' or a proto-chief, functioning as a lineage-group head. Whether a non-hierarchical system of organization existed is debatable, and there is no evidence that explici... | [
{
"answer": "Control of labour",
"question": "What production trait existed in tribal groups that were controlled by charismatic leaders?"
},
{
"answer": "Marxist concept of primitive communism",
"question": "What theory describes the implied egalitarianism of Neolithic societies?"
},
{
... |
14,814 | The shelter of the early people changed dramatically from the paleolithic to the neolithic era. In the paleolithic, people did not normally live in permanent constructions. In the neolithic, mud brick houses started appearing that were coated with plaster. The growth of agriculture made permanent houses possible. Doorw... | [
{
"answer": "shelter",
"question": "What lifestyle element changed significantly from the paleolithic to the neolithic era?"
},
{
"answer": "paleolithic",
"question": "What era consisted of people living temporary homes?"
},
{
"answer": "mud brick houses",
"question": "What type of h... |
14,815 | A significant and far-reaching shift in human subsistence and lifestyle was to be brought about in areas where crop farming and cultivation were first developed: the previous reliance on an essentially nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique or pastoral transhumance was at first supplemented, and then increasingl... | [
{
"answer": "crop farming and cultivation",
"question": "What trend led to a major shift in the livelihoods of early cultures?"
},
{
"answer": "nomadic hunter-gatherer subsistence technique",
"question": "What behavior did humans rely on to survive before agriculture?"
},
{
"answer": "th... |
14,816 | However, early farmers were also adversely affected in times of famine, such as may be caused by drought or pests. In instances where agriculture had become the predominant way of life, the sensitivity to these shortages could be particularly acute, affecting agrarian populations to an extent that otherwise may not hav... | [
{
"answer": "drought or pests",
"question": "What were the causes of famine in early farm towns?"
},
{
"answer": "hunter-gatherer communities",
"question": "What type of societies were not affected by famine?"
},
{
"answer": "agrarian communities",
"question": "What type of societies... |
14,817 | Another significant change undergone by many of these newly agrarian communities was one of diet. Pre-agrarian diets varied by region, season, available local plant and animal resources and degree of pastoralism and hunting. Post-agrarian diet was restricted to a limited package of successfully cultivated cereal grains... | [
{
"answer": "diet",
"question": "What food related trend was significant in the new agrarian societies?"
},
{
"answer": "local plant and animal resources",
"question": "What forms of availability dictated Pre-agrarian diets?"
},
{
"answer": "cereal grains, plants and to a variable extent... |
14,818 | Neolithic people were skilled farmers, manufacturing a range of tools necessary for the tending, harvesting and processing of crops (such as sickle blades and grinding stones) and food production (e.g. pottery, bone implements). They were also skilled manufacturers of a range of other types of stone tools and ornaments... | [
{
"answer": "farmers",
"question": "What type of occupation were Neolithic people considered to be proficient at?"
},
{
"answer": "tending, harvesting and processing of crops",
"question": "What purposes were the production of farm tools used for?"
},
{
"answer": "sickle blades and grind... |
14,819 | Neolithic peoples in the Levant, Anatolia, Syria, northern Mesopotamia and Central Asia were also accomplished builders, utilizing mud-brick to construct houses and villages. At Çatal höyük, houses were plastered and painted with elaborate scenes of humans and animals. In Europe, long houses built from wattle and daub ... | [
{
"answer": "houses and villages",
"question": "What did Neolithic people use mud-brick to build?"
},
{
"answer": "humans and animals",
"question": "What scenes did the paintings on homes depict?"
},
{
"answer": "wattle and daub",
"question": "What were European homes constructed fro... |
14,820 | Most clothing appears to have been made of animal skins, as indicated by finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins which are ideal for fastening leather. Wool cloth and linen might have become available during the later Neolithic, as suggested by finds of perforated stones which (depending on size) may have served... | [
{
"answer": "animal skins",
"question": "What did early humans use to make clothing?"
},
{
"answer": "finds of large numbers of bone and antler pins",
"question": "What evidence suggested that humans used animal products for clothing?"
},
{
"answer": "spindle whorls or loom weights",
... |
14,821 | Friedrich Hayek CH (German: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈaʊ̯ɡʊst ˈhaɪ̯ɛk]; 8 May 1899 – 23 March 1992), born in Austria-Hungary as Friedrich August von Hayek and frequently referred to as F. A. Hayek, was an Austrian and British economist and philosopher best known for his defense of classical liberalism. Hayek shared the 1974 Nobel Me... | [
{
"answer": "Austria-Hungary",
"question": "In which nation was Friedrich Hayek born?"
},
{
"answer": "F. A. Hayek",
"question": "Friedrich Hayek name was commonly shortened to what?"
},
{
"answer": "Nobel Memorial Prize",
"question": "What award did Hayek receive in 1974?"
},
{
... |
14,822 | In 1984, he was appointed a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour by Queen Elizabeth II on the advice of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher for his "services to the study of economics". He was the first recipient of the Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize in 1984. He also received the US Presidential Medal of Freedom i... | [
{
"answer": "Order of the Companions of Honour",
"question": "Hayek became a member of which group in 1984?"
},
{
"answer": "services to the study of economics",
"question": "For what reason was Hayek inducted into the order?"
},
{
"answer": "Hanns Martin Schleyer Prize",
"question":... |
14,823 | Friedrich August von Hayek was born in Vienna to August von Hayek and Felicitas Hayek (née von Juraschek). Friedrich's father, from whom he received his middle name, was also born in Vienna in 1871. He was a medical doctor employed by the municipal ministry of health, with passion in botany, in which he wrote a number ... | [
{
"answer": "August von Hayek",
"question": "Who was Hayek's father?"
},
{
"answer": "medical doctor",
"question": "What was August von Hayek's occupation?"
},
{
"answer": "botany",
"question": "What was August von Hayek particularly passionate about?"
},
{
"answer": "her mot... |
14,824 | His father's career as a university professor influenced Friedrich's goals later in life. Both of his grandfathers, who lived long enough for Friedrich to know them, were scholars. Franz von Juraschek was a leading economist in Austria-Hungary and a close friend of Eugen Böhm von Bawerk, one of the founders of the Aust... | [
{
"answer": "His father's",
"question": "Who's occupation inspired Hayek when he was older?"
},
{
"answer": "Franz von Juraschek",
"question": "Eugen Bohm was friends with which of Hayek's grandfathers?"
},
{
"answer": "scholars",
"question": "What occupation did Hayek's grandfather'... |
14,825 | On his mother's side, Hayek was second cousin to the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein. His mother often played with Wittgenstein's sisters, and had known Ludwig well. As a result of their family relationship, Hayek became one of the first to read Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus when the book was published ... | [
{
"answer": "Hayek",
"question": "Who was among the first readers of Ludwig Wittgenstein's book?"
},
{
"answer": "on only a few occasions",
"question": "How often times did Hayek and Wittgenstein meet?"
},
{
"answer": "Ludwig Wittgenstein",
"question": "Whose philosophy heavily infl... |
14,826 | Hayek displayed an intellectual and academic bent from a very young age. He read fluently and frequently before going to school. At his father's suggestion, Hayek, as a teenager, read the genetic and evolutionary works of Hugo de Vries and the philosophical works of Ludwig Feuerbach. In school Hayek was much taken by o... | [
{
"answer": "they were somehow of a different generation",
"question": "What did Hayek conclude regarding his brothers?"
},
{
"answer": "adults",
"question": "With whom did Hayek more frequently converse?"
},
{
"answer": "read fluently and frequently",
"question": "Prior to his schoo... |
14,827 | At the University of Vienna, Hayek earned doctorates in law and political science in 1921 and 1923 respectively; and he also studied philosophy, psychology, and economics. For a short time, when the University of Vienna closed, Hayek studied in Constantin von Monakow's Institute of Brain Anatomy, where Hayek spent much... | [
{
"answer": "University of Vienna",
"question": "Where did Hayek acquire his doctorates?"
},
{
"answer": "Constantin von Monakow's Institute of Brain Anatomy",
"question": "Where did Hayek learn about the brain?"
},
{
"answer": "The Sensory Order",
"question": "What was the name of H... |
14,828 | During Hayek's years at the University of Vienna, Carl Menger's work on the explanatory strategy of social science and Friedrich von Wieser's commanding presence in the classroom left a lasting influence on him. Upon the completion of his examinations, Hayek was hired by Ludwig von Mises on the recommendation of Wieser... | [
{
"answer": "research assistant",
"question": "What work did Hayek begin in 1923?"
},
{
"answer": "University of Vienna",
"question": "Where did Carl Menger and Friedrich von Wieser influence Hayek?"
},
{
"answer": "the Austrian government",
"question": "For whom did Hayek work upon ... |
14,829 | Initially sympathetic to Wieser's democratic socialism, Hayek's economic thinking shifted away from socialism and toward the classical liberalism of Carl Menger after reading von Mises' book Socialism. It was sometime after reading Socialism that Hayek began attending von Mises' private seminars, joining several of his... | [
{
"answer": "democratic socialism",
"question": "What ideology was Hayek originally in support of?"
},
{
"answer": "reading von Mises' book Socialism",
"question": "What caused Hayek to turn away from Wiser's ideology?"
},
{
"answer": "Eric Voegelin",
"question": "During his attendan... |
14,830 | With the help of Mises, in the late 1920s Hayek founded and served as director of the Austrian Institute for Business Cycle Research, before joining the faculty of the London School of Economics (LSE) in 1931 at the behest of Lionel Robbins. Upon his arrival in London, Hayek was quickly recognised as one of the leading... | [
{
"answer": "director",
"question": "What position did Hayek gain at the Austrian Institute?"
},
{
"answer": "Lionel Robbins",
"question": "Who requested that Hayek be employed by LSE?"
},
{
"answer": "one of the leading economic theorists in the world",
"question": "What sort of rec... |
14,831 | Hayek was concerned about the general view in Britain's academia that fascism was a capitalist reaction to socialism and The Road to Serfdom arose from those concerns. It was written between 1940 and 1943. The title was inspired by the French classical liberal thinker Alexis de Tocqueville's writings on the "road to se... | [
{
"answer": "The Road to Serfdom",
"question": "What did Hayek write regarding fascism and socialism?"
},
{
"answer": "Alexis de Tocqueville",
"question": "Whose works served as inspiration for the title of Road to Serfdom?"
},
{
"answer": "March 1944",
"question": "When was the Road... |
14,832 | In 1950, Hayek left the London School of Economics for the University of Chicago, where he became a professor in the Committee on Social Thought. Hayek's salary was funded not by the university, but by an outside foundation. University of Chicago President Robert Hutchins was in the midst of a war with the U. of Chicag... | [
{
"answer": "University of Chicago",
"question": "Upon leaving London, for what college did he choose to work?"
},
{
"answer": "an outside foundation",
"question": "Who supplied Hayek's salary?"
},
{
"answer": "departmental autonomy and control",
"question": "What was the cause for t... |
14,833 | Hayek had made contact with many at the U. of Chicago in the 1940s, with Hayek's The Road to Serfdom playing a seminal role in transforming how Milton Friedman and others understood how society works. Hayek conducted a number in influential faculty seminars while at the U. of Chicago, and a number of academics worked o... | [
{
"answer": "The Road to Serfdom",
"question": "Which of Hayek's works had a profound influence on those at the University of Chicago?"
},
{
"answer": "Aaron Director",
"question": "Who played a critical role in the formation of the Law and Society program?"
},
{
"answer": "Mont Pèlerin ... |
14,834 | After editing a book on John Stuart Mill's letters he planned to publish two books on the liberal order, The Constitution of Liberty and "The Creative Powers of a Free Civilization" (eventually the title for the second chapter of The Constitution of Liberty). He completed The Constitution of Liberty in May 1959, with p... | [
{
"answer": "the liberal order",
"question": "What topic were Hayek's next two books going to cover?"
},
{
"answer": "The Constitution of Liberty",
"question": "Which of Hayek's books was not as well received as The Road to Serfdom?"
},
{
"answer": "sixteen years",
"question": "As of... |
14,835 | From 1962 until his retirement in 1968, he was a professor at the University of Freiburg, West Germany, where he began work on his next book, Law, Legislation and Liberty. Hayek regarded his years at Freiburg as "very fruitful". Following his retirement, Hayek spent a year as a visiting professor of philosophy at the U... | [
{
"answer": "West Germany",
"question": "What country did Hayek move to in 1962?"
},
{
"answer": "Law, Legislation and Liberty",
"question": "What is the name of the book Hayek started upon his arrival in West Germany?"
},
{
"answer": "University of California, Los Angeles",
"questio... |
14,836 | In February 1975, Margaret Thatcher was elected leader of the British Conservative Party. The Institute of Economic Affairs arranged a meeting between Hayek and Thatcher in London soon after. During Thatcher's only visit to the Conservative Research Department in the summer of 1975, a speaker had prepared a paper on wh... | [
{
"answer": "British Conservative Party",
"question": "What political party was Margaret Thatcher the head of in 1975?"
},
{
"answer": "Hayek",
"question": "Who did Thatcher meet with shortly after she was elected as the head of her party?"
},
{
"answer": "the \"middle way\"",
"quest... |
14,837 | In 1977, Hayek was critical of the Lib-Lab pact, in which the British Liberal Party agreed to keep the British Labour government in office. Writing to The Times, Hayek said, "May one who has devoted a large part of his life to the study of the history and the principles of liberalism point out that a party that keeps a... | [
{
"answer": "Lib-Lab pact",
"question": "What was the name of the agreement Hayek criticized in 1977?"
},
{
"answer": "discourage socialist legislation",
"question": "What did some Liberal politicians claim the pact was meant to do?"
},
{
"answer": "British Liberal Party",
"question"... |
14,838 | In 1978, Hayek came into conflict with the Liberal Party leader, David Steel, who claimed that liberty was possible only with "social justice and an equitable distribution of wealth and power, which in turn require a degree of active government intervention" and that the Conservative Party were more concerned with the ... | [
{
"answer": "the Conservative Party",
"question": "Which party was criticized for being less concerned about liberty and democracy?"
},
{
"answer": "Liberal Party",
"question": "With which political group was David Steel affiliated?"
},
{
"answer": "Hayek",
"question": "Who disagreed... |
14,839 | In 1984, he was appointed as a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (CH) by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom on the advice of the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher for his "services to the study of economics". Hayek had hoped to receive a baronetcy, and after he was awarded the CH he sent a le... | [
{
"answer": "Order of the Companions of Honour",
"question": "What group was Hayek inducted into by the Queen of England?"
},
{
"answer": "Margaret Thatcher",
"question": "Who suggest Hayek for the honor of joining the Order?"
},
{
"answer": "Prime Minister",
"question": "In 1984, wh... |
14,840 | In 1991, US President George H. W. Bush awarded Hayek the Presidential Medal of Freedom, one of the two highest civilian awards in the United States, for a "lifetime of looking beyond the horizon". Hayek died on 23 March 1992 in Freiburg, Germany, and was buried on 4 April in the Neustift am Walde cemetery in the north... | [
{
"answer": "a \"lifetime of looking beyond the horizon\"",
"question": "What was the reason given for Hayek's 1991 award from the President?"
},
{
"answer": "George H. W. Bush",
"question": "Which President presented the award to Hayek?"
},
{
"answer": "Freiburg, Germany",
"question... |
14,842 | In 1929, Lionel Robbins assumed the helm of the London School of Economics (LSE). Eager to promote alternatives to what he regarded as the narrow approach of the school of economic thought that then dominated the English-speaking academic world (centred at the University of Cambridge and deriving largely from the work ... | [
{
"answer": "London School of Economics",
"question": "Lionel Robbins came to head which school in 1929?"
},
{
"answer": "narrow approach",
"question": "In regards to economics, Lionel Robbins believe English-speaking academics had what?"
},
{
"answer": "Alfred Marshall",
"question":... |
14,843 | Also in 1931, Hayek critiqued Keynes's Treatise on Money (1930) in his "Reflections on the pure theory of Mr. J. M. Keynes" and published his lectures at the LSE in book form as Prices and Production. Unemployment and idle resources are, for Keynes, caused by a lack of effective demand; for Hayek, they stem from a prev... | [
{
"answer": "Prices and Production",
"question": "Hayek's critical analysis of Keyne's work was published under what title?"
},
{
"answer": "artificially low interest rates",
"question": "Apart from easy money, what did Hayek believe unemployment was caused by?"
},
{
"answer": "Piero Sra... |
14,844 | Hayek continued his research on monetary and capital theory, revising his theories of the relations between credit cycles and capital structure in Profits, Interest and Investment (1939) and The Pure Theory of Capital (1941), but his reputation as an economic theorist had by then fallen so much that those works were la... | [
{
"answer": "works were largely ignored",
"question": "What was the result of Hayek's Prices and Production?"
},
{
"answer": "Nicholas Kaldor",
"question": "Who was particularly critical of Hayek's work following Prices and Production?"
},
{
"answer": "Profits, Interest and Investment",
... |
14,845 | Hayek never produced the book-length treatment of "the dynamics of capital" that he had promised in the Pure Theory of Capital. After 1941, he continued to publish works on the economics of information, political philosophy, the theory of law, and psychology, but seldom on macroeconomics. At the University of Chicago, ... | [
{
"answer": "the dynamics of capital",
"question": "What topic did Hayek never write a book about as he said he would?"
},
{
"answer": "macroeconomics",
"question": "What topic did Hayek shy away from following Pure Theory of Capital?"
},
{
"answer": "an \"ideologue\"",
"question": "... |
14,846 | Building on the earlier work of Ludwig von Mises and others, Hayek also argued that while in centrally planned economies an individual or a select group of individuals must determine the distribution of resources, these planners will never have enough information to carry out this allocation reliably. This argument, fi... | [
{
"answer": "enough information",
"question": "What did Hayek claim those who must distribute resources would lack most?"
},
{
"answer": "Max Weber",
"question": "Whose work most notably influenced Hayek's argument regarding resource distribution?"
},
{
"answer": "through the price mecha... |
14,847 | Some socialists such as H. D. Dickinson and Oskar Lange, responded by invoking general equilibrium theory, which they argued disproved Mises's thesis. They noted that the difference between a planned and a free market system lay in who was responsible for solving the equations. They argued, if some of the prices chosen... | [
{
"answer": "general equilibrium theory",
"question": "What did some socialists bring up as a rebuttal to Hayek's resource distribution argument?"
},
{
"answer": "Mises's thesis",
"question": "What did socialists believe equilibrium theory invalidated?"
},
{
"answer": "who was responsibl... |
14,848 | In The Use of Knowledge in Society (1945), Hayek argued that the price mechanism serves to share and synchronise local and personal knowledge, allowing society's members to achieve diverse, complicated ends through a principle of spontaneous self-organization. He contrasted the use of the price mechanism with central p... | [
{
"answer": "The Use of Knowledge in Society",
"question": "Which of Hayek's books argued against the socialist price mechanism?"
},
{
"answer": "central planning",
"question": "Which type of economy did Hayek believe the price mechanism to be less effective with?"
},
{
"answer": "Oliver... |
14,849 | Hayek was one of the leading academic critics of collectivism in the 20th century. Hayek argued that all forms of collectivism (even those theoretically based on voluntary co-operation) could only be maintained by a central authority of some kind. In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the... | [
{
"answer": "collectivism",
"question": "What was the name of the ideology Hayek criticized?"
},
{
"answer": "a central authority",
"question": "How did Hayek believe collectivism could be maintained?"
},
{
"answer": "central economic planning",
"question": "According to Hayek, what ... |
14,850 | Hayek also wrote that the state can play a role in the economy, and specifically, in creating a "safety net". He wrote, "There is no reason why, in a society which has reached the general level of wealth ours has, the first kind of security should not be guaranteed to all without endangering general freedom; that is: s... | [
{
"answer": "creating a \"safety net\"",
"question": "Hayek believed the state could aid the economy by doing what?"
},
{
"answer": "all",
"question": "Who did Hayek say economic security should be guaranteed to?"
},
{
"answer": "sufficient to preserve health",
"question": "According... |
14,851 | Hayek's work on the microeconomics of the choice theoretics of investment, non-permanent goods, potential permanent resources, and economically-adapted permanent resources mark a central dividing point between his work in areas of macroeconomics and that of almost all other economists. Hayek's work on the macroeconomic... | [
{
"answer": "microeconomics",
"question": "In what economic field of study does Hayek's views differ from those in macroeconomics?"
},
{
"answer": "\"Marshallian\"",
"question": "What is the term used to describe economists following Keynes school of thought?"
},
{
"answer": "Abba Lerner... |
14,852 | During World War II, Hayek began the ‘Abuse of Reason’ project. His goal was to show how a number of then-popular doctrines and beliefs had a common origin in some fundamental misconceptions about the social science. In his philosophy of science, which has much in common with that of his good friend Karl Popper, Hayek ... | [
{
"answer": "During World War II",
"question": "When did Hayek start working on Abuse of Reason?"
},
{
"answer": "fundamental misconceptions about the social science",
"question": "What did Hayek specifically aim to expose in Abuse of Reason?"
},
{
"answer": "Karl Popper",
"question"... |
14,853 | In The Sensory Order: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Theoretical Psychology (1952), Hayek independently developed a "Hebbian learning" model of learning and memory – an idea which he first conceived in 1920, prior to his study of economics. Hayek's expansion of the "Hebbian synapse" construction into a global brain... | [
{
"answer": "1952",
"question": "In what year was the book published in which Hayek developed Hebbian learning?"
},
{
"answer": "Hebbian learning",
"question": "Before he began studying economics, what concept did Hayek come up with that was later featured in his 1952 book?"
},
{
"answer... |
14,854 | In the latter half of his career Hayek made a number of contributions to social and political philosophy, which he based on his views on the limits of human knowledge, and the idea of spontaneous order in social institutions. He argues in favour of a society organised around a market order, in which the apparatus of st... | [
{
"answer": "the latter half of his career",
"question": "When did Hayek begin presenting his ideas on the limits of human knowledge?"
},
{
"answer": "a market order",
"question": "What did Hayek want society to function around?"
},
{
"answer": "to enforce the legal order",
"question... |
14,855 | Hayek disapproved of the notion of 'social justice'. He compared the market to a game in which 'there is no point in calling the outcome just or unjust' and argued that 'social justice is an empty phrase with no determinable content'; likewise "the results of the individual's efforts are necessarily unpredictable, and ... | [
{
"answer": "social justice",
"question": "What concept did Hayek dislike?"
},
{
"answer": "there is no point in calling the outcome just or unjust",
"question": "How did Hayek feel regarding income distribution?"
},
{
"answer": "the results of the individual's efforts are necessarily un... |
14,856 | Hayek’s concept of the market as a spontaneous order has been recently applied to ecosystems to defend a broadly non-interventionist policy. Like the market, ecosystems contain complex networks of information, involve an ongoing dynamic process, contain orders within orders, and the entire system operates without being... | [
{
"answer": "non-interventionist policy",
"question": "What has Hayek's views on the market been used to defend?"
},
{
"answer": "prima facie",
"question": "What is the term used to describe the obligation for humans to avoid disrupting the ecosystem?"
},
{
"answer": "spontaneous orders"... |
14,857 | With regard to a safety net, Hayek advocated "some provision for those threatened by the extremes of indigence or starvation, be if only in the interest of those who require protection against acts of desperation on the part of the needy." As referenced in the section on "The economic calculation problem," Hayek wrote ... | [
{
"answer": "Hayek",
"question": "According to Wapshott, who was promoting the implementation of universal health care?"
},
{
"answer": "the state",
"question": "Who did Hayek say should provide a safety net for society?"
},
{
"answer": "The economic calculation problem",
"question":... |
14,858 | Arthur M. Diamond argues Hayek's problems arise when he goes beyond claims that can be evaluated within economic science. Diamond argued that: “The human mind, Hayek says, is not just limited in its ability to synthesize a vast array of concrete facts, it is also limited in its ability to give a deductively sound groun... | [
{
"answer": "Arthur M. Diamond",
"question": "Who criticizes Hayek's ability to provide specific facts?"
},
{
"answer": "economic science",
"question": "Diamond believes Hayek's weaknesses come out when he steps beyond the bounds of what topic?"
},
{
"answer": "intellectual skeptic",
... |
14,860 | For Hayek, the supposedly stark difference between authoritarianism and totalitarianism has much importance and Hayek places heavy weight on this distinction in his defence of transitional dictatorship. For example, when Hayek visited Venezuela in May 1981, he was asked to comment on the prevalence of totalitarian regi... | [
{
"answer": "totalitarianism",
"question": "Hayek believed that authoritarianism was very different from what?"
},
{
"answer": "Venezuela",
"question": "What country did Hayek arrive in where he provided his disctinction between totalitarianism and authoritarianism?"
},
{
"answer": "tota... |
14,861 | In 1932, Hayek suggested that private investment in the public markets was a better road to wealth and economic co-ordination in Britain than government spending programs, as argued in a letter he co-signed with Lionel Robbins and others in an exchange of letters with John Maynard Keynes in The Times. The nearly decade... | [
{
"answer": "private investment in the public markets",
"question": "What did Hayek claim to be better than investing in government spending programs?"
},
{
"answer": "Lionel Robbins",
"question": "What other notable figure signed the letter in which Hayek made his statement regarding private in... |
14,863 | Hayek is widely recognised for having introduced the time dimension to the equilibrium construction and for his key role in helping inspire the fields of growth theory, information economics, and the theory of spontaneous order. The "informal" economics presented in Milton Friedman's massively influential popular work ... | [
{
"answer": "Milton Friedman's",
"question": "Whose 1980 book mentions \"informal\" economics?"
},
{
"answer": "Free to Choose",
"question": "What is the name of the book Friedman released in 1980?"
},
{
"answer": "Hayekian",
"question": "How is Friedman's book described in regards t... |
14,864 | Hayek had a long-standing and close friendship with philosopher of science Karl Popper, also from Vienna. In a letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated, "I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps Alfred Tarski." (See Hacohen, 2000). Popper dedicated his Conjectures and Refutat... | [
{
"answer": "Karl Popper",
"question": "Which fellow Vienna native was Hayek friends with?"
},
{
"answer": "Alfred Tarski",
"question": "Who is the only exception from whom Hayek claims to have learned more than he did from Popper?"
},
{
"answer": "Conjectures and Refutations",
"ques... |
14,865 | Hayek's greatest intellectual debt was to Carl Menger, who pioneered an approach to social explanation similar to that developed in Britain by Bernard Mandeville and the Scottish moral philosophers in the Scottish Enlightenment. He had a wide-reaching influence on contemporary economics, politics, philosophy, sociology... | [
{
"answer": "The Road to Serfdom",
"question": "Which of Hayek's books had an impact on those against postmodernism?"
},
{
"answer": "Carl Menger",
"question": "To whom did Hayek owe his intellectual success?"
},
{
"answer": "Scottish Enlightenment",
"question": "Carl Menger's work i... |
14,866 | Hayek received new attention in the 1980s and 1990s with the rise of conservative governments in the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada. After winning the United Kingdom general election, 1979, Margaret Thatcher appointed Keith Joseph, the director of the Hayekian Centre for Policy Studies, as her secretary of s... | [
{
"answer": "1979",
"question": "In what year was Margaret Thatcher elected Prime Minister?"
},
{
"answer": "Keith Joseph",
"question": "Whom did the Prime Minister of England choose as secretary of state?"
},
{
"answer": "conservative governments",
"question": "During the 80s and 90... |
14,867 | Hayek wrote an essay, "Why I Am Not a Conservative" (included as an appendix to The Constitution of Liberty), in which he disparaged conservatism for its inability to adapt to changing human realities or to offer a positive political program, remarking, "Conservatism is only as good as what it conserves." Although he n... | [
{
"answer": "conservatism",
"question": "What ideology did Hayek not agree with in an essay appended to The Constitution of Liberty?"
},
{
"answer": "libertarian",
"question": "What word is used in the United States to identify Hayek's ideology?"
},
{
"answer": "internationalism",
"q... |
14,868 | However, for his part, Hayek found this term "singularly unattractive" and offered the term "Old Whig" (a phrase borrowed from Edmund Burke) instead. In his later life, he said, "I am becoming a Burkean Whig." However, Whiggery as a political doctrine had little affinity for classical political economy, the tabernacle ... | [
{
"answer": "Old Whig",
"question": "What did Hayek suggest as an alternative to being called a libertarian?"
},
{
"answer": "liberal-minded economists",
"question": "In opposition to conservatives, what group has Hayek's work influenced?"
},
{
"answer": "James M. Buchanan",
"questio... |
14,869 | His opponents have attacked Hayek as a leading promoter of "neoliberalism". A British scholar, Samuel Brittan, concluded in 2010, "Hayek's book [The Constitution of Liberty] is still probably the most comprehensive statement of the underlying ideas of the moderate free market philosophy espoused by neoliberals." Britta... | [
{
"answer": "neoliberalism",
"question": "What term do those who disagree with Hayek use to describe his ideals?"
},
{
"answer": "Samuel Brittan",
"question": "Who was it that claimed Hayek's The Constitution of Liberty to be an thorough example of neoliberal philosophy?"
},
{
"answer": ... |
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