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in a nucleotide sequence read, Y may be used to indicate that either pyrimidine nucleobase – C, T, or U – can be substituted at the indicated position. pyrimidine dimer A type of molecular lesion caused by photochemical damage to DNA or RNA, whereby exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation induces the formation of covale... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - P | 210 | 929 | null |
Section: R. random walk A popular description of the path followed by a locomotive cell or particle when there is no bias in movement, i.e. when the direction of movement at any given instant is not influenced by the direction of movement in the preceding instant. The essential randomness of cell movement in a uniform ... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 321 | 1,536 | null |
real-time PCR (rtPCR) See quantitative PCR. reassociation kinetics The measurement and manipulation of the rate of reannealing of complementary strands of DNA, generally by heating and denaturing a double-stranded molecule into single strands and then observing their rehybridization at a cooler temperature. Because the... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 341 | 1,670 | null |
When the exchange of material is evenly balanced, reciprocal translocations are usually harmless. recombinant DNA (rDNA) Any DNA molecule in which laboratory methods of genetic recombination have brought together genetic material from multiple sources, thereby creating a sequence that would not otherwise be found in a ... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 324 | 1,495 | null |
the same repressor or activator. The term is most commonly used with prokaryotes, where a regulon may consist of genes from multiple operons. repeat Any pattern of nucleobases within a nucleic acid sequence which occurs in multiple copies in a nucleic acid molecule such as a chromosome or within a genome. Repeated sequ... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 338 | 1,754 | null |
repetitive DNA Also repetitious DNA. A region or fragment of DNA consisting largely or entirely of repeated nucleotide sequences. replacement mutation See nonsynonymous mutation. replication 1. The process by which certain biological molecules, notably the nucleic acids DNA and RNA, produce copies of themselves. 2. A t... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 293 | 1,580 | null |
A pair of replication forks forms when helicases work in opposite directions from a single origin of replication, creating a replication eye. replication rate The speed at which deoxyribonucleotides are incorporated into an elongating chain by DNA polymerases during DNA replication; or more generally the speed at which... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 325 | 1,601 | null |
Reporters are commonly cloned into plasmid vectors in proximity to putative promoters, enhancers, or response elements, which are then mutated in order to precisely identify the specific recognition motifs and interaction sites within these sequences that are necessary for expression. In the broadest sense, reporters m... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 340 | 1,787 | null |
response element A short sequence of DNA within a promoter region that is able to bind specific transcription factors in order to regulate transcription of specific genes. restitution The spontaneous rejoining of an experimentally broken chromosome which restores the original configuration. restitution nucleus A nucleu... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 348 | 1,860 | null |
A short, specific sequence of nucleotides (typically 4 to 8 bases in length) that is reliably recognized by a particular restriction enzyme. Because restriction enzymes usually bind as homodimers, restriction sites are generally palindromic sequences spanning both strands of a double-stranded DNA molecule. Restriction ... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 336 | 1,674 | null |
When the gene of interest is the only one in the genome whose expression has been manipulated, any observed phenotypic changes are assumed to be influenced by it. This is the opposite of forward genetics, in which a known phenotype is linked to one or more unknown genes. reverse transcriptase (RT) An enzyme capable of ... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 347 | 1,521 | null |
Various types of RNA molecules serve in a wide variety of essential biological roles, including coding, decoding, regulating, and expressing genes, as well as functioning as signaling molecules and, in certain viral genomes, as the primary genetic material itself. ribonucleoprotein (RNP) A nucleoprotein that is a compl... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 314 | 1,200 | null |
RNR plays a critical role in regulating the overall rate of DNA synthesis such that the ratio of DNA to cell mass is kept constant during cell division and DNA repair. ribose A monosaccharide sugar which, as D-ribose in its pentose ring form, is one of three primary components of the ribonucleotides from which ribonucl... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 308 | 1,371 | null |
ribosome A macromolecular complex made of both RNA and protein which serves as the site of protein synthesis. Ribosomes have two subunits, each of which consists of one or more strands of ribosomal RNA bound to various ribosomal proteins: the small subunit, which reads the messages encoded in messenger RNA molecules, a... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 301 | 1,378 | null |
RNA polymerases are essential for transcription and are found in all living organisms and many viruses. They build long single-stranded polymers called transcripts by adding ribonucleotides one at a time in the 5'-to-3' direction, relying on the template provided by the complementary strand to transcribe the nucleotide... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - R | 347 | 1,652 | null |
Section: S. S phase Also synthesis phase or synthetic phase. The phase of the cell cycle during which nuclear DNA is replicated, occurring after the G1 phase and before the G2 phase. samesense mutation See synonymous mutation. Sanger sequencing A method of DNA sequencing based on the in vitro replication of a DNA templ... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 331 | 1,690 | null |
selectable marker A gene or other genetic material whose expression in cultured cells confers a selective advantage in the culture environment, causing cells expressing the gene to have one or more traits suitable for artificial selection. Selectable markers are widely used in the laboratory as a type of reporter gene,... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 321 | 1,716 | null |
Selfish elements usually work by producing self-acting gene products which repeatedly copy and paste their own coding sequences into other parts of the genome, independently of normal DNA replication (as with transposable elements); by facilitating the uneven swapping of chromosome segments during genetic recombination... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 290 | 1,587 | null |
The two complementary strands are distinguished as sense and antisense or, equivalently, the coding strand and the template strand. It is the antisense/template strand which is actually used as the template for transcription; the sense/coding strand merely resembles the sequence of codons on the RNA transcript, which m... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 331 | 1,681 | null |
sex chromosome See allosome. sex linkage The presence of a particular gene or DNA sequence on a sex chromosome (in mammals either the X chromosome or the Y chromosome) rather than on an autosome. Expression of sex-linked genes varies by organism depending on the mechanism of sex determination and the types of sex chrom... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 311 | 1,489 | null |
silencing The total or near-total loss of expression of a particular gene or DNA sequence by any mechanism, natural or artificial, whether before, during, or after transcription or translation, which completely prevents the normal gene product from being produced and thereby deprives the cell of its ordinary function. ... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 286 | 1,415 | null |
simple sequence repeat (SSR) See microsatellite. single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) Any substitution of a single nucleotide which occurs at a specific position within a genome and with measurable frequency within a population; for example, at a specific base position in a DNA sequence, the majority of the individuals... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 300 | 1,333 | null |
single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) Any DNA molecule that consists of a single nucleotide polymer or strand, as opposed to a pair of complementary strands held together by hydrogen bonds (double-stranded DNA). In most circumstances, DNA is more stable and more common in double-stranded form, but high temperatures, low concentr... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 270 | 1,331 | null |
site-directed mutagenesis small conditional RNA (scRNA) A class of small RNA molecules engineered so as to change conformation conditionally in response to cognate molecular inputs, often with the goal of controlling signal transduction pathways in vitro or in vivo. small interfering RNA (siRNA) small nuclear RNA (snRN... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 295 | 1,343 | null |
In contrast to siRNAs, which serve similar purposes, stRNAs bind to their target mRNAs after the initiation of translation and without affecting mRNA stability, which makes it possible for the target mRNAs to resume translation at a later time. small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO) Any of a family of small proteins, eac... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 330 | 1,538 | null |
The technique combines separation of DNA fragments by gel electrophoresis, transfer of the DNA to a synthetic membrane, and subsequent identification of target fragments with radio-labeled or fluorescent hybridization probes. spacer Also intergenic spacer (IGS) or non-transcribed spacer (NTS). Any sequence or region of... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 331 | 1,586 | null |
ssDNA See single-stranded DNA. ssRNA See single-stranded RNA. standard genetic code The genetic code used by the vast majority of living organisms for translating nucleic acid sequences into proteins. In this system, of the 64 possible permutations of three-letter codons that can be made from the four nucleotides, 61 c... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 319 | 1,487 | null |
stem-loop Also hairpin or hairpin loop. sticky end A term used to describe the end of a double-stranded DNA molecule where one strand is longer than the other by one or more nucleobases, creating a single-stranded "overhang" of unpaired bases, in contrast to a so-called "blunt end", where no such overhang exists becaus... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 328 | 1,456 | null |
strand An individual chain of nucleotides comprising a nucleic acid polymer, existing either singly (in which case the nucleic acid molecule is said to be single-stranded) or paired in a duplex (in which case it is said to be double-stranded). stringency The effect of conditions such as temperature and pH upon the degr... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 341 | 1,691 | null |
fluorescent labelling) of the precise location(s) within a cell where a specific molecule has occupancy, or at which a specific activity occurs. submetacentric (of a linear chromosome or chromosome fragment) Having a centromere positioned close to but not exactly in the middle of the chromosome, resulting in chromatid ... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 341 | 1,541 | null |
A type of post-translational modification in which a SUMO protein is conjugated to a polar residue of another protein (usually a lysine) via a covalent isopeptide bond. This effectively tags the second protein, making it distinguishable to other biomolecules and in many cases allowing it to participate in specific reac... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 340 | 1,596 | null |
glucose and sodium ions. Contrast antiporter and uniporter. synapsis synaptonemal complex A complex of scaffolding proteins that mediates synapsis and homologous recombination between the chromatids of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis. syncytium Also symplasm; pl. syncytia. A multinucleate cell, i.e.... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - S | 322 | 1,422 | null |
Section: T. tandem repeat A pattern within a nucleic acid sequence in which one or more nucleobases are repeated and the repetitions are directly adjacent (i.e. tandem) to each other. An example is ATGACATGACATGAC, in which the sequence ATGAC is repeated three times. TATA box Also Goldberg-Hogness box. A highly conserv... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 319 | 1,506 | null |
Compare acrocentric. telomere A region of repetitive nucleotide sequences at each end of a linear chromosome which protects the end of the chromosome from deterioration and from fusion with other chromosomes. Since each round of replication results in the shortening of the chromosome, telomeres act as disposable buffer... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 328 | 1,542 | null |
termination codon See stop codon. terminator A DNA sequence or its RNA complement which signals the termination of transcription by triggering processes that ultimately arrest the activity of RNA polymerase or otherwise cause the release of the RNA transcript from the transcriptional complex. Terminator sequences are u... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 326 | 1,442 | null |
thymine (T) Also 5-methyluracil. A pyrimidine nucleobase used as one of the four standard nucleobases in DNA molecules. Thymine forms a base pair with adenine. In RNA, thymine is not used at all, and is instead replaced with uracil. thymine dimer See pyrimidine dimer. tissue In a multicellular organism, a contiguous ag... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 329 | 1,593 | null |
tonicity tonoplast See vacuole. topoisomerase Any of a class of DNA-binding enzymes which catalyze changes in the topological state of a double-stranded DNA molecule by nicking or cutting the sugar-phosphate backbone of one or both strands, relaxing the torsional stress inherent in the double helix and unwinding or unt... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 315 | 1,444 | null |
The zygote that serves as the progenitor cell for sexually reproducing multicellular organisms is the archetypal totipotent cell; almost all of the cells into which it ultimately differentiates are not totipotent, though some cells such as stem cells remain totipotent or pluripotent throughout the organism's life. trac... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 333 | 1,603 | null |
transcript A product of transcription; that is, any RNA molecule which has been synthesized by RNA polymerase using a complementary DNA molecule as a template. When transcription is completed, transcripts separate from the DNA and become independent primary transcripts. Particularly in eukaryotes, multiple post-transcr... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 331 | 1,773 | null |
Transcription is also not always beneficial for a cell: when it occurs at the wrong time or at a functionless locus, or when mobile elements or infectious pathogens utilize the host's transcription machinery, the resulting transcripts (not to mention the waste of valuable energy and resources) are often harmful to the ... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 295 | 1,537 | null |
Nucleotides upstream of the start site are assigned negative numbers and those downstream are assigned positive numbers, which are used to indicate the positions of nearby sequences or structures relative to the TSS. For example, the binding site for RNA polymerase might be a short sequence immediately upstream of the ... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 321 | 1,648 | null |
the sum total of all of the RNA transcripts produced from it by transcription. Transcriptomics technologies allow scientists to isolate and sequence transcriptomes, which can then be mapped to the genome to determine which genes are being expressed or which cellular processes are active and which are dormant at a given... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 336 | 1,747 | null |
As a contrast to both standard non-viral transformation and transduction, transfection has also occasionally been used to refer to the uptake of purified viral nucleic acids by bacteria or plant cells without the aid of a viral vector. transfer RNA (tRNA) Formerly referred to as soluble RNA (sRNA). A special class of R... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 346 | 1,578 | null |
transfer-messenger RNA (tmRNA) A type of RNA molecule in some bacteria which has dual tRNA-like and mRNA-like properties, allowing it to simultaneously perform a number of different functions during translation. transformant A cell or organism which has taken up extracellular DNA by transformation and which can express... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 341 | 1,731 | null |
There are two main types: reciprocal and Robertsonian. transmembrane protein See integral polytopic protein. transmission genetics The branch of genetics that studies the mechanisms involved in the transfer of genes from parents to offspring. transport protein Also transporter. Any transmembrane protein which functions... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 315 | 1,595 | null |
transposase Any of a class of self-acting enzymes capable of binding to the flanking sequences of the transposable element which encodes them and catalyzing its movement to another part of the genome, typically by an excision/insertion mechanism or a replicative mechanism, in a process known as transposition. transposi... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 348 | 1,496 | null |
Any of a class of chemical compounds which are ester derivatives of glycerol, consisting of a glycerol backbone connected to any three fatty acid substituents via ester bonds. Triglycerides are one of three major classes of esters formed by fatty acids in biological systems, along with phospholipids and cholesteryl est... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 334 | 1,466 | null |
tRNA-ligase See aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase. tropism Also tropic movement. The directional growth or movement of a cell or organism in response to a stimulus, e.g. light, heat, the pull of gravity, or the presence of a particular chemical, such that the response is dependent on the direction of the stimulus (as opposed t... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - T | 247 | 1,125 | null |
Section: U. ubiquitin (Ub) A small protein of 76 amino acids found in great quantities (ubiquitously) in all eukaryotic cells, employed chiefly as a post-translational protein tag, by which its C-terminal glycine residue is covalently bonded to electrically charged residues within other proteins or polypeptides, a proc... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - U | 342 | 1,450 | null |
umber See opal. uncharged tRNA A transfer RNA without an attached amino acid. Contrast charged tRNA. underwinding See negative supercoiling. unequal crossing over uniparental inheritance uniporter A type of transport protein which catalyzes the movement of a single, specific solute or chemical species across a lipid me... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - U | 343 | 1,632 | null |
UTRs are a consequence of the fact that transcription usually begins considerably upstream of the start codon of the coding sequence and terminates long after the stop codon has been transcribed, whereas translation is more precise. They often include motifs with regulatory functions. upregulation Also promotion. Any p... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - U | 283 | 1,220 | null |
Section: V. vacuole Any of a class of enclosed, fluid-filled compartments present in many eukaryotic cells as well as bacteria, often large and conspicuous under the microscope and serving any of a huge variety of functions, including acting as a resizable reservoir for the storage of water, metabolic waste, toxins, or... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - V | 347 | 1,741 | null |
Vectors are typically engineered recombinant DNA sequences consisting of an insert (often a transgene) and a longer "backbone" sequence containing an origin of replication, a multiple cloning site, and a selectable marker. Vectors are widely used in molecular biology laboratories to isolate, clone, or express the inser... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - V | 171 | 857 | null |
Section: X. X chromosome One of two sex chromosomes present in organisms which use the XY sex-determination system, and the only sex chromosome in the X0 system. The X chromosome is found in both males and females and typically contains much more gene content than its counterpart, the Y chromosome. X-inactivation The p... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - X | 212 | 1,031 | null |
Section: Z. Z-DNA zinc finger zygonema Also zygotene stage. In meiosis, the second of five substages of prophase I, following leptonema and preceding pachynema. During zygonema, synapsis occurs, physically binding homologous chromosomes to each other, and the cell's centrosome divides into two daughter centrosomes, eac... | Wikipedia - Glossary of cellular and molecular biology (M–Z) - Z | 269 | 1,136 | null |
Article: History of genetics. The history of genetics dates from the classical era with contributions by Pythagoras, Hippocrates, Aristotle, Epicurus, and others. Modern genetics began with the work of the Augustinian friar Gregor Johann Mendel. His works on pea plants, published in 1866, provided the initial evidence ... | Wikipedia - History of genetics - Summary | 343 | 1,632 | null |
In the 1940s and early 1950s, experiments pointed to DNA as the portion of chromosomes (and perhaps other nucleoproteins) that held genes. A focus on new model organisms such as viruses and bacteria, along with the discovery of the double helical structure of DNA in 1953, marked the transition to the era of molecular g... | Wikipedia - History of genetics - Summary | 161 | 856 | null |
Section: Pre-Mendel ideas on heredity > Ancient theories. The most influential early theories of heredity were that of Hippocrates and Aristotle. Hippocrates' theory (possibly based on the teachings of Anaxagoras) was similar to Darwin's later ideas on pangenesis, involving heredity material that collects from througho... | Wikipedia - History of genetics - Pre-Mendel ideas on heredity > Ancient theories | 318 | 1,572 | null |
From this semen, Venus produces a varied variety of characteristics and reproduces ancestral traits of expression, voice or hair; These features, as well as our faces, bodies, and limbs, are also determined by the specific semen of our relatives. Similarly, Marcus Terentius Varro in "Rerum rusticarum libri tres" and Pu... | Wikipedia - History of genetics - Pre-Mendel ideas on heredity > Ancient theories | 183 | 764 | null |
Section: Pre-Mendel ideas on heredity > Preformation theory. The preformation theory is a developmental biological theory, which was represented in antiquity by the Greek philosopher Anaxagoras. It reappeared in modern times in the 17th century and then prevailed until the 19th century. Another common term at that time... | Wikipedia - History of genetics - Pre-Mendel ideas on heredity > Preformation theory | 217 | 1,028 | null |
Section: Pre-Mendel ideas on heredity > Plant systematics and hybridisation. In the 18th century, with increased knowledge of plant and animal diversity and the accompanying increased focus on taxonomy, new ideas about heredity began to appear. Linnaeus and others (among them Joseph Gottlieb Kölreuter, Carl Friedrich v... | Wikipedia - History of genetics - Pre-Mendel ideas on heredity > Plant systematics and hybridisation | 228 | 1,231 | null |
Section: Mendel. Between 1856 and 1865, Gregor Mendel conducted breeding experiments using the pea plant Pisum sativum and traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits. Through these experiments, Mendel saw that the genotypes and phenotypes of the progeny were predictable and that some traits were dominant over ot... | Wikipedia - History of genetics - Mendel | 276 | 1,368 | null |
Section: Post-Mendel, pre-rediscovery > Pangenesis. Mendel's work was published in a relatively obscure scientific journal, and it was not given any attention in the scientific community. Instead, discussions about modes of heredity were galvanised by Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, in which mechanis... | Wikipedia - History of genetics - Post-Mendel, pre-rediscovery > Pangenesis | 152 | 657 | null |
Section: Rediscovery of Mendel. Hugo de Vries wondered what the nature of germ plasm might be, and in particular he wondered whether or not germ plasm was mixed like paint or whether the information was carried in discrete packets that remained unbroken. In the 1890s he was conducting breeding experiments with a variet... | Wikipedia - History of genetics - Rediscovery of Mendel | 321 | 1,561 | null |
Section: Emergence of molecular genetics. After the rediscovery of Mendel's work there was a feud between William Bateson and Pearson over the hereditary mechanism, solved by Ronald Fisher in his work "The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance". In 1910, Thomas Hunt Morgan showed tha... | Wikipedia - History of genetics - Emergence of molecular genetics | 348 | 1,661 | null |
Using these x-rays and information already known about the chemistry of DNA, James D. Watson and Francis Crick demonstrated the molecular structure of DNA in 1953. Together, these discoveries established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA which is transcribed by D... | Wikipedia - History of genetics - Emergence of molecular genetics | 348 | 1,730 | null |
Section: Discovery. Its discovery was based on studying its genetic behavior, i.e., "jumping genes" in maize and published by Barbara McClintock, leading to her 1983 Nobel Prize in Medicine. The Ac/Ds transposable elements were first isolated and sequenced By Fedoroff et al. 1983 using insertions of Ac and Ds into the ... | Wikipedia - Ac/Ds transposable controlling elements - Discovery | 186 | 842 | null |
Section: In corn. Activator (Ac)/ Dissociation (Ds) transposable elements were discovered by Barbara McClintock when she was studying the maize genomic composition of the short arm of chromosome 9. She noticed that when chromosome 9 had been exposed to drastic structural modifications, the progeny had changes such as m... | Wikipedia - Ac/Ds transposable controlling elements - In corn | 335 | 1,581 | null |
Ds elements have shown to cause a 4.1kB and 2.0 kB insertions. The transposable elements were seen in progeny of plants that had undergone stress, and mutations caused by the insertion are like those caused by x-rays, UV light, or chemicals causing events like chromosome breakage and fusion. There are distinct families... | Wikipedia - Ac/Ds transposable controlling elements - In corn | 348 | 1,802 | null |
Some excision events of these elements restore gene function and can be detected as somatic reversions. If Ac or Ds insertions in an exon, and the transposable elements are excised leaving some of the duplicated base pairs behind, it alters the protein structure either by causing mutations such as frame shift mutations... | Wikipedia - Ac/Ds transposable controlling elements - In corn | 309 | 1,560 | null |
The transposable elements not only entirely remove or alter the gene function via insertion, but can also exert a mutator activity when they leave the position where they had visited the chromosome. Induced disturbances in quantity and organization of the heterochromatic elements of the chromosome could give rise to a ... | Wikipedia - Ac/Ds transposable controlling elements - In corn | 339 | 1,700 | null |
The properties of transposable elements can also be altered in a clonally heritable fashion. Ds elements can be used as building blocks for complicated structures like the double Ds or the 30kb transposon-like insertion which is terminated by Ds elements. Ds elements can generate long direct inverted duplicates of a ch... | Wikipedia - Ac/Ds transposable controlling elements - In corn | 152 | 765 | null |
Article: Accessory gene regulator. Accessory gene regulator (agr) is a complex 4 gene locus that is a global regulator of virulence in Staphylococcus aureus. It encodes a two-component transcriptional quorum-sensing (QS) system activated by an autoinducing, thiolactone-containing cyclic peptide (AIP). Agr occurs in 4 a... | Wikipedia - Accessory gene regulator - Summary | 334 | 1,341 | null |
RNAIII acts by antisense inhibition or activation of target gene translation. In vitro, early in growth, genes encoding surface proteins important for adhesion and immune evasion (such as spa – encoding proteinA) are expressed, enabling the organism to gain a foothold. Later in growth, these genes are down-regulated by... | Wikipedia - Accessory gene regulator - Summary | 257 | 1,153 | null |
Article: Active chromatin sequence. An active chromatin sequence (ACS) is a region of DNA in a eukaryotic chromosome in which histone modifications such as acetylation lead to exposure of the DNA sequence thus allowing binding of transcription factors and transcription to take place. Active chromatin may also be called... | Wikipedia - Active chromatin sequence - Summary | 154 | 722 | null |
Article: Additive genetic effects. Genetic effects are broadly divided into two categories: additive and non-additive. Additive genetic effects occur where expression of more than one gene contributes to phenotype (or where alleles of a heterozygous gene both contribute), and the phenotypic expression of these gene(s) ... | Wikipedia - Additive genetic effects - Summary | 154 | 784 | null |
Section: Heritability > Broad sense heritability. Variation in phenotypes across a population arises from the interaction between environmental variation and genetic variation between individuals. This can be stated mathematically as: VP = VE + VG, where the terms refer to variation in phenotype, environment, and genot... | Wikipedia - Additive genetic effects - Heritability > Broad sense heritability | 163 | 717 | null |
Article: Agouti coloration genetics. The agouti gene, the Agouti-signaling protein (ASIP) is responsible for variations in color in many species. Agouti works with extension to regulate the color of melanin which is produced in hairs. The agouti protein causes red to yellow pheomelanin to be produced, while the competi... | Wikipedia - Agouti coloration genetics - Summary | 195 | 911 | null |
Section: Mice. As of 1979, there were 17 known alleles of agouti in mice. Lethal yellow Ay causes yellow coloration and obesity. It is dominant to all other alleles in the series. When homozygous, it is lethal early in development. Viable yellow Avy looks similar to lethal yellow and also causes obesity, but is not let... | Wikipedia - Agouti coloration genetics - Mice | 333 | 1,396 | null |
The nonagouti allele a is unusually likely to revert to the black-and-tan allele at or to the white-bellied agouti allele AW. Agouti production is regulated by multiple different promoter regions, capable of promoting transcription just in the ventral (belly) area, as seen in white-bellied agouti and black-and-tan mice... | Wikipedia - Agouti coloration genetics - Mice | 223 | 1,043 | null |
Section: Dogs. In dogs, the agouti gene is associated with various coat colors and patterns. The alleles at the A locus are related to the production of agouti-signaling protein (ASIP) and determine whether an animal expresses an agouti appearance and, by controlling the distribution of pigment in individual hairs, wha... | Wikipedia - Agouti coloration genetics - Dogs | 348 | 1,569 | null |
Ay is incompletely dominant to at, so that heterozygous individuals have more black sabling, especially as puppies and Ayat can resemble the awaw phenotype. Other genes also affect how much black is in the coat. aw is the only allele present in many Nordic spitzes, and is not present in most other breeds. at includes t... | Wikipedia - Agouti coloration genetics - Dogs | 225 | 1,023 | null |
Section: Horses > History. The cause behind the various shades of bay, particularly the genetic factors responsible for wild bay and seal brown, have been contested for over 50 years. In 1951, zoologist Miguel Odriozola published "A los colores del caballo" in which he suggested four possible alleles for the "A" gene, ... | Wikipedia - Agouti coloration genetics - Horses > History | 331 | 1,438 | null |
Section: Evolution. Insufficient information is available as to the exact contribution of mutations, particular mutation types, pre-existing genetic diversity, specific genes, and introgression to syndrome acquisition. It is also unknown whether we can discern the genetic signatures of adaptation to different weed mana... | Wikipedia - Agricultural weed syndrome - Evolution | 346 | 1,643 | null |
Section: Genes. Antioxidant pigmentation: Rc in Oryza rufipogon and its weedy rice descendants. Shattering: sh4 in O. rufipogon and its weedy rice descendants, including some new alleles of similar function but entirely new origin. Germination temperature: Unknown in weedy rice. Vavilovian mimicry: SD1 alleles conveyin... | Wikipedia - Agricultural weed syndrome - Genes | 224 | 925 | null |
Article: Allelic exclusion. Allelic exclusion is a process by which only one allele of a gene is expressed while the other allele is silenced. This phenomenon is most notable for playing a role in the development of B lymphocytes, where allelic exclusion allows for each mature B lymphocyte to express only one type of i... | Wikipedia - Allelic exclusion - Summary | 229 | 1,034 | null |
Section: In B-lymphocytes. Allelic exclusion has been observed most often in genes for cell surface receptors and has been extensively studied in immune cells such as B lymphocytes. Allelic exclusion of immunoglobulin (Ig) heavy chain and light chain genes in B cells forms the genetic basis for the presence of only a s... | Wikipedia - Allelic exclusion - In B-lymphocytes | 205 | 856 | null |
Section: In B-lymphocytes > Models > Asynchronous recombination. In the asynchronous recombination models, the recombination process is controlled by timing of recombination-activating gene (RAG) recombinase and accessibility of each Ig allele within the chromatin structure. Asynchronous Probabilistic Recombination Mod... | Wikipedia - Allelic exclusion - In B-lymphocytes > Models > Asynchronous recombination | 211 | 879 | null |
Section: In Igκ and Igλ light chain genes. The allelic exclusion of light chain genes Igκ and Igλ is a process that is controlled by the monoallelic initiation of V(D)J recombination. While little is known about the mechanism leading to the allelic exclusion of Igλ genes, the Igκ locus is generally inactivated by RAG-m... | Wikipedia - Allelic exclusion - In Igκ and Igλ light chain genes | 230 | 945 | null |
Section: In sensory neurons. Vomeronasal sensory neurons are found in the vomeronasal organ at the nasal septum base and their specialty is in pheromone detection. A vomeronasal receptor, V1R, exhibits allelic exclusion. When a V1R receptor gene is expressed, an odorant receptor gives negative feedback that prevents tr... | Wikipedia - Allelic exclusion - In sensory neurons | 287 | 1,272 | null |
Section: Recent research. Intracellular GATA3 expression is a crucial component of T cell receptor beta (TCR𝛽) allelic exclusion in mammalian cells. GATA3 transgenic overexpression by a 2.5- to 5-fold increase partly due to Gata3 transcriptional activation from monoallelic to biallelic primarily resulted in both allel... | Wikipedia - Allelic exclusion - Recent research | 303 | 1,396 | null |
Article: Allotype (immunology). The word allotype comes from two Greek roots, allo meaning 'other or differing from the norm' and typos meaning 'mark'. In immunology, allotype is an immunoglobulin variation (in addition to isotypic variation) that can be found among antibody classes and is manifested by heterogeneity o... | Wikipedia - Allotype (immunology) - Summary | 341 | 1,545 | null |
Section: Definition and organisation of allotypes in humans. Human allotypes nomenclature was first described in alphabetical system and further systematized in numerical system, but both could be found in the literature. For example, allotype expressed on constant region of heavy chain on IgG are designated by Gm whic... | Wikipedia - Allotype (immunology) - Definition and organisation of allotypes in humans | 266 | 1,202 | null |
Section: Implications for monoclonal antibody therapy. Antibody allotypes came back to spotlight due to development and use of therapies based on monoclonal antibodies. These recombinant human glycoproteins and proteins are now well established in clinical practise, but sometimes leads to adverse effects such as genera... | Wikipedia - Allotype (immunology) - Implications for monoclonal antibody therapy | 301 | 1,577 | null |
Article: Amelogenin. Amelogenins are a group of protein isoforms produced by alternative splicing or proteolysis from the AMELX gene, on the X chromosome, and also the AMELY gene in males, on the Y chromosome. They are involved in amelogenesis, the development of enamel. Amelogenins are type of extracellular matrix pro... | Wikipedia - Amelogenin - Summary | 174 | 737 | null |
Section: Variants. The amelogenin gene has been most widely studied in humans, where it is a single copy gene, located on the X and Y chromosomes at Xp22.1–Xp22.3 and Yp 11.2 [5]. The amelogenin gene's location on sex chromosomes has implications for variability both between the X chromosome form (AMELX) and the Y chro... | Wikipedia - Amelogenin - Variants | 201 | 850 | null |
Section: Application in sex determination. Differences between the X chromosome and Y chromosome versions of the amelogenin gene (AMELX and AMELY respectively) enable it to be used in sex determination of unknown human samples. AMELX’s intron 1 contains a 6-base-pair deletion relative to intron 1 of AMELY. This can be ... | Wikipedia - Amelogenin - Application in sex determination | 316 | 1,287 | null |
The misidentification rate may vary among populations, but in general appears to be low. In one study in Spain, the amelogenin sex determination test using AMELX (977bps) and AMELY (790bps) bands was performed for 1224 individuals of known gender with a 99.84% (1222/1224) accuracy rate. Another study in India, however,... | Wikipedia - Amelogenin - Application in sex determination | 236 | 943 | null |
Article: Genetic analysis. Genetic analysis is the overall process of studying and researching in fields of science that involve genetics and molecular biology. There are a number of applications that are developed from this research, and these are also considered parts of the process. The base system of analysis revol... | Wikipedia - Genetic analysis - Summary | 168 | 993 | null |
Section: History > Mendelian research. Modern genetic analysis began in the mid-1800s with research conducted by Gregor Mendel. Mendel, who is known as the "father of modern genetics", was inspired to study variation in plants. Between 1856 and 1863, Mendel cultivated and tested some 29,000 pea plants (i.e., Pisum sati... | Wikipedia - Genetic analysis - History > Mendelian research | 221 | 1,070 | null |
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