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Article: Comparative genomic hybridization. Comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) is a molecular cytogenetic method for analysing copy number variations (CNVs) relative to ploidy level in the DNA of a test sample compared to a reference sample, without the need for culturing cells. The aim of this technique is to qui... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Summary | 318 | 1,578 | null |
In short, this involves the isolation of DNA from the two sources to be compared, most commonly a test and reference source, independent labelling of each DNA sample with fluorophores (fluorescent molecules) of different colours (usually red and green), denaturation of the DNA so that it is single stranded, and the hyb... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Summary | 326 | 1,685 | null |
Section: History. The motivation underlying the development of CGH stemmed from the fact that the available forms of cytogenetic analysis at the time (giemsa banding and FISH) were limited in their potential resolution by the microscopes necessary for interpretation of the results they provided. Furthermore, giemsa ban... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - History | 317 | 1,612 | null |
It was concluded that the fluorescence ratios obtained were accurate and that differences between genomic DNA from different cell types were detectable, and therefore that CGH was a highly useful cytogenetic analysis tool. Initially, the widespread use of CGH technology was difficult, as protocols were not uniform and ... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - History | 324 | 1,574 | null |
Section: Basic methods > Metaphase slide preparation. The DNA on the slide is a reference sample, and is thus obtained from a karyotypically normal man or woman, though it is preferential to use female DNA as they possess two X chromosomes which contain far more genetic information than the male Y chromosome. Phytohaem... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Basic methods > Metaphase slide preparation | 316 | 1,475 | null |
Section: Basic methods > Isolation of DNA from test tissue and reference tissue. Standard phenol extraction is used to obtain DNA from test or reference (karyotypically normal individual) tissue, which involves the combination of Tris-Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid and phenol with aqueous DNA in equal amounts. This is... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Basic methods > Isolation of DNA from test tissue and reference tissue | 241 | 1,142 | null |
Section: Basic methods > Hybridization. 8–12μl of each of labelled test and labelled reference DNA are mixed and 40 μg Cot-1 DNA is added, then precipitated and subsequently dissolved in 6μl of hybridization mix, which contains 50% formamide to decrease DNA melting temperature and 10% dextran sulphate to increase the e... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Basic methods > Hybridization | 326 | 1,309 | null |
Section: Basic methods > Fluorescence visualisation and imaging. A fluorescence microscope with the appropriate filters for the DAPI stain as well as the two fluorophores utilised is required for visualisation, and these filters should also minimise the crosstalk between the fluorophores, such as narrow band pass filte... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Basic methods > Fluorescence visualisation and imaging | 329 | 1,613 | null |
Section: Array comparative genomic hybridization. Array comparative genomic hybridization (also microarray-based comparative genomic hybridization, matrix CGH, array CGH, aCGH) is a molecular cytogenetic technique for the detection of chromosomal copy number changes on a genome wide and high-resolution scale. Array CGH... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Array comparative genomic hybridization | 348 | 1,650 | null |
Section: Array comparative genomic hybridization > Methodology. Array CGH is based on the same principle as conventional CGH. In both techniques, DNA from a reference (or control) sample and DNA from a test (or patient) sample are differentially labelled with two different fluorophores and used as probes that are cohyb... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Array comparative genomic hybridization > Methodology | 306 | 1,312 | null |
Section: Array comparative genomic hybridization > Technological approaches to array CGH. Array CGH has been implemented using a wide variety of techniques. Therefore, some of the advantages and limitations of array CGH are dependent on the technique chosen. The initial approaches used arrays produced from large insert... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Array comparative genomic hybridization > Technological approaches to array CGH | 316 | 1,572 | null |
Section: Array comparative genomic hybridization > Design approaches. There are two approaches to the design of microarrays for CGH applications: whole genome and targeted. Whole genome arrays are designed to cover the entire human genome. They often include clones that provide an extensive coverage across the genome; ... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Array comparative genomic hybridization > Design approaches | 222 | 1,192 | null |
Section: Applications > Conventional > In cancer research. CGH data from several studies of the same tumor type show consistent patterns of non-random genetic aberrations. Some of these changes appear to be common to various kinds of malignant tumors, while others are more tumor specific. For example, gains of chromoso... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Applications > Conventional > In cancer research | 207 | 904 | null |
Section: Applications > Conventional > Chromosomal aberrations. Cri du Chat (CdC) is a syndrome caused by a partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 5. Several studies have shown that conventional CGH is suitable to detect the deletion, as well as more complex chromosomal alterations. For example, Levy et al. (2... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Applications > Conventional > Chromosomal aberrations | 158 | 714 | null |
Section: Applications > Array CGH > Genomic abnormalities in cancer. Genetic alterations and rearrangements occur frequently in cancer and contribute to its pathogenesis. Detecting these aberrations by array CGH provides information on the locations of important cancer genes and can have clinical use in diagnosis, canc... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Applications > Array CGH > Genomic abnormalities in cancer | 209 | 1,062 | null |
Section: Applications > Array CGH > Submicroscopic aberrations. Prader–Willi syndrome (PWS) is a paternal structural abnormality involving 15q11-13, while a maternal aberration in the same region causes Angelman syndrome (AS). In both syndromes, the majority of cases (75%) are the result of a 3–5 Mb deletion of the PWS... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Applications > Array CGH > Submicroscopic aberrations | 240 | 991 | null |
Section: Applications > Array CGH > Prenatal genetic diagnosis. Though not yet a widely employed technique, the use of array CGH as a tool for preimplantation genetic screening is becoming an increasingly popular concept. It has the potential to detect CNVs and aneuploidy in eggs, sperm or embryos which may contribute ... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Applications > Array CGH > Prenatal genetic diagnosis | 189 | 896 | null |
Section: Limitations of CGH and array CGH. A main disadvantage of conventional CGH is its inability to detect structural chromosomal aberrations without copy number changes, such as mosaicism, balanced chromosomal translocations, and inversions. CGH can also only detect gains and losses relative to the ploidy level. In... | Wikipedia - Comparative genomic hybridization - Limitations of CGH and array CGH | 332 | 1,648 | null |
Section: Origin in cell biology. Crossover implies the exchange of chromosomal segments between non-sister chromatids, in meiosis during the production of gametes. The effect is to assort the alleles on parental chromosomes, so that the gametes carry recombinations of genes different from either parent. This has the ov... | Wikipedia - Crossover value - Origin in cell biology | 207 | 1,019 | null |
Section: Career. Flemming trained in medicine at the University of Prague, graduating in 1868. Afterwards, he served in 1870–71 as a military physician in the Franco-Prussian War. From 1873 to 1876 he worked as a teacher at the University of Prague. In 1876 he accepted a post as a professor of anatomy at the University... | Wikipedia - Walther Flemming - Career | 329 | 1,514 | null |
These results were published first in 1878 and in 1882 in the seminal book Zellsubstanz, Kern und Zelltheilung (1882; Cell substance, nucleus and cell division). On the basis of his discoveries, Flemming surmised for the first time that all cell nuclei came from another predecessor nucleus (he coined the phrase omnis n... | Wikipedia - Walther Flemming - Career | 276 | 1,240 | null |
Article: Fluorescence in situ hybridization. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) is a molecular cytogenetic technique that uses fluorescent probes that bind to only particular parts of a nucleic acid sequence with a high degree of sequence complementarity. It was developed by biomedical researchers in the early 1... | Wikipedia - Fluorescence in situ hybridization - Summary | 175 | 900 | null |
Section: Probes – RNA and DNA. In biology, a probe is a single strand of DNA or RNA that is complementary to a nucleotide sequence of interest. RNA probes can be designed for any gene or any sequence within a gene for visualization of mRNA, lncRNA and miRNA in tissues and cells. FISH is used by examining the cellular r... | Wikipedia - Fluorescence in situ hybridization - Probes – RNA and DNA | 273 | 1,308 | null |
The size of the human genome is so large, compared to the length that could be sequenced directly, that it was necessary to divide the genome into fragments. (In the eventual analysis, these fragments were put into order by digesting a copy of each fragment into still smaller fragments using sequence-specific endonucle... | Wikipedia - Fluorescence in situ hybridization - Probes – RNA and DNA | 243 | 1,254 | null |
Section: Probes – RNA and DNA > Preparation and hybridization process – RNA. The purpose of using RNA FISH is to detect target mRNA transcripts in cells, tissue sections, or even whole-mounts. The process is done in 3 main procedures: tissue preparation (pre-hybridization), hybridization, and washing (post-hybridizatio... | Wikipedia - Fluorescence in situ hybridization - Probes – RNA and DNA > Preparation and hybridization process – RNA | 347 | 1,578 | null |
Section: Probes – RNA and DNA > Preparation and hybridization process – DNA. First, a probe is constructed. The probe must be large enough to hybridize specifically with its target but not so large as to impede the hybridization process. The probe is tagged directly with fluorophores, with targets for antibodies or wit... | Wikipedia - Fluorescence in situ hybridization - Probes – RNA and DNA > Preparation and hybridization process – DNA | 282 | 1,402 | null |
Section: Variations on probes and analysis. FISH is a very general technique. The differences between the various FISH techniques are usually due to variations in the sequence and labeling of the probes; and how they are used in combination. Probes are divided into two generic categories: cellular and acellular. In flu... | Wikipedia - Fluorescence in situ hybridization - Variations on probes and analysis | 333 | 1,647 | null |
However, it is possible to create a mixture of smaller probes that are specific to a particular region (locus) of DNA; these mixtures are used to detect deletion mutations. When combined with a specific color, a locus-specific probe mixture is used to detect very specific translocations. Special locus-specific probe mi... | Wikipedia - Fluorescence in situ hybridization - Variations on probes and analysis | 334 | 1,662 | null |
Section: Variations on probes and analysis > Single-molecule RNA FISH. Single-molecule RNA FISH, also known as Stellaris® RNA FISH or smFISH, is a method of detecting and quantifying mRNA and other long RNA molecules in a thin layer of tissue sample. Targets can be reliably imaged through the application of multiple sh... | Wikipedia - Fluorescence in situ hybridization - Variations on probes and analysis > Single-molecule RNA FISH | 204 | 1,029 | null |
Section: Variations on probes and analysis > FIBRE FISH. In an alternative technique to interphase or metaphase preparations, fiber FISH, interphase chromosomes are attached to a slide in such a way that they are stretched out in a straight line, rather than being tightly coiled, as in conventional FISH, or adopting a ... | Wikipedia - Fluorescence in situ hybridization - Variations on probes and analysis > FIBRE FISH | 180 | 909 | null |
Section: Medical applications. Often parents of children with a developmental disability want to know more about their child's conditions before choosing to have another child. These concerns can be addressed by analysis of the parents' and child's DNA. In cases where the child's developmental disability is not underst... | Wikipedia - Fluorescence in situ hybridization - Medical applications | 333 | 1,598 | null |
Section: Medical applications > Species identification. FISH has been extensively studied as a diagnostic technique for the identification of pathogens in the field of medical microbiology. Although it has been proven to be a useful and applicable technique, it is still not widely applied in diagnostic laboratories. Th... | Wikipedia - Fluorescence in situ hybridization - Medical applications > Species identification | 307 | 1,624 | null |
Article: Chromosomal fragile site. A chromosomal fragile site is a specific heritable point on a chromosome that tends to form a gap or constriction and may tend to break when the cell is exposed to partial replication stress. Based on their frequency, fragile sites are classified as "common" or "rare". To date, more t... | Wikipedia - Chromosomal fragile site - Summary | 281 | 1,382 | null |
Section: Common fragile sites > Classification. Unlike RFSs, common fragile sites (CFSs) are not the result of nucleotide repeat expansion mutations. They are a part of the normal human genome and are typically stable when not under replicative stress. The majority of breakages at CFSs are induced by low doses of the a... | Wikipedia - Chromosomal fragile site - Common fragile sites > Classification | 178 | 801 | null |
Section: Common fragile sites > Mechanisms of instability. The instability of CFSs is proposed to stem from late replication: CFSs are likely to initiate proper replication but slow to complete it, introducing breaks from unreplicated regions of DNA. Late-replication may be a result of formation of non-B DNA structures... | Wikipedia - Chromosomal fragile site - Common fragile sites > Mechanisms of instability | 164 | 773 | null |
Section: Clinical relevance. Fragile sites are associated with numerous disorders and diseases, both heritable and not. The FRAXA site is perhaps most famous for its role in Fragile X syndrome, but fragile sites are clinically implicated in many other important diseases, such as cancer. FRA3B and FRA16D lie within the ... | Wikipedia - Chromosomal fragile site - Clinical relevance | 340 | 1,621 | null |
Article: Fryns-Aftimos syndrome. Fryns-Aftimos syndrome (also known as Baraitser-Winter syndrome 1, or BWS1) is a rare chromosomal condition and is associated with pachygyria, severe mental retardation, epilepsy and characteristic facial features. This syndrome is a malformation syndrome, characterized by numerous faci... | Wikipedia - Fryns-Aftimos syndrome - Summary | 220 | 953 | null |
Section: Signs and symptoms. Fryns-Aftimos syndrome is a genetic conditions that presents with a multitude of varying signs, symptoms and characteristics facies. Commonly characterized by hypertelorism, congenital nonmyopathic ptosis, iris or retinal coloboma, deafness, epilepsy, and pachygyria. Individuals affected by... | Wikipedia - Fryns-Aftimos syndrome - Signs and symptoms | 306 | 1,422 | null |
Section: Etiology. "BWS is a genetically heterogeneous disorder, caused by a heterozygous mutation in one of the 2 genes coding for ubiquitously expressed actins: ACTB, located to 7p22-p12 (BRWS1) and ACTG1 on 17q25.3 (BRWS2). All mutations are missense and probably act by a gain of function mechanism, as deletions of ... | Wikipedia - Fryns-Aftimos syndrome - Etiology | 308 | 1,319 | null |
Section: Diagnosis. BWS can be detected prenatally from the occurrence of abnormal gyration patterns in the fetus. Care should be employed when performing antenatal diagnoses as miscarriage and other complications are possible. The diagnosis of unremarkable prenatal scans can be supplemented through the use of WES or t... | Wikipedia - Fryns-Aftimos syndrome - Diagnosis | 203 | 898 | null |
Section: Management. Educative measures can partially manage developmental delays, with success variable on the degree of severity. Management of epilepsy is difficult, and some pachygyria patients are drug resistant, including to combination therapies. Orthopedic monitoring is mandatory, since progressive join limitat... | Wikipedia - Fryns-Aftimos syndrome - Management | 224 | 1,164 | null |
Article: Genome diversity and karyotype evolution of mammals. The 2000s witnessed an explosion of genome sequencing and mapping in evolutionarily diverse species. While full genome sequencing of mammals is rapidly progressing, the ability to assemble and align orthologous whole chromosomal regions from more than a few ... | Wikipedia - Genome diversity and karyotype evolution of mammals - Summary | 284 | 1,540 | null |
Section: Mammalian phylogenomics. Modern mammals (class Mammalia) are divided into Monotremes, Marsupials, and Placentals. The subclass Prototheria (Monotremes) comprises the five species of egg-laying mammals: platypus and four echidna species. The infraclasses Metatheria (Marsupials) and Eutheria (Placentals) togethe... | Wikipedia - Genome diversity and karyotype evolution of mammals - Mammalian phylogenomics | 285 | 1,039 | null |
Section: Historical development of comparative cytogenetics > C-banding and heterochromatin. Karyotype variability in mammals is mainly due to the varying amount of heterochromatin in each mammal. Once the amount of heterochromatin is subtracted from total genome content, all mammals have very similar genome sizes. Mam... | Wikipedia - Genome diversity and karyotype evolution of mammals - Historical development of comparative cytogenetics > C-banding and heterochromatin | 338 | 1,392 | null |
showed that the high genome size was due to the enormous amplification of heterochromatin. Although one single copy gene was found to be duplicated in its genome, data on absence of large genome segment duplications (single paints of most Octodon degu probes) and repetitive DNA hybridization evidence rules against tetr... | Wikipedia - Genome diversity and karyotype evolution of mammals - Historical development of comparative cytogenetics > C-banding and heterochromatin | 275 | 1,440 | null |
Section: Historical development of comparative cytogenetics > Comparative molecular cytogenetics. The third step occurred when molecular techniques were incorporated into cytogenetics. These techniques use DNA probes of diverse sizes to compare chromosomes at the DNA level. Homology can be confidently compared even bet... | Wikipedia - Genome diversity and karyotype evolution of mammals - Historical development of comparative cytogenetics > Comparative molecular cytogenetics | 344 | 1,800 | null |
The method also fails to report internal inversions within large segments. Another limitation is that painting across great phylogenetic distance often results in a decreased efficiency. Nevertheless, the use of painting probes derived from different species combined with comparative sequencing projects help to increas... | Wikipedia - Genome diversity and karyotype evolution of mammals - Historical development of comparative cytogenetics > Comparative molecular cytogenetics | 276 | 1,525 | null |
Section: Post-genomic time and comparative chromosomics. After the Human Genome Project researchers focused on evolutionary comparisons of the genome structures of different species. The whole genome of any species can be sequenced completely and repeatedly to obtain a comprehensive single-nucleotide map. This method m... | Wikipedia - Genome diversity and karyotype evolution of mammals - Post-genomic time and comparative chromosomics | 299 | 1,533 | null |
Section: Post-genomic time and comparative chromosomics > Sex chromosome evolution. In contrast to many other taxa, therian mammals and birds are characterized by highly conserved systems of genetic sex determination that lead to special chromosomes, i.e. the sex chromosomes. Although the XX/XY sex chromosome system is... | Wikipedia - Genome diversity and karyotype evolution of mammals - Post-genomic time and comparative chromosomics > Sex chromosome evolution | 216 | 960 | null |
Article: Genotype-first approach. The genotype-first approach is a type of strategy used in genetic epidemiological studies to associate specific genotypes to apparent clinical phenotypes of a complex disease or trait. As opposed to “phenotype-first”, the traditional strategy that has been guiding genome-wide associati... | Wikipedia - Genotype-first approach - Summary | 277 | 1,447 | null |
Section: Background. Initially the idea of identifying the genotype of individuals and subsequently their associated phenotype(s) was first used in early cytogenetic studies. Around 1960 the discovery of Trisomy 21 led to the realization that genetics could be used to predict phenotype(s). From the 1960s to 1990s cytog... | Wikipedia - Genotype-first approach - Background | 275 | 1,357 | null |
Section: Methods. Several methods can be used with a genotype-first approach, however, the following steps are usually included: Establishment of a study population and genotyping Analysis of genomic variants of interest found in the study population Study populations are assembled based on genotype Association of geno... | Wikipedia - Genotype-first approach - Methods | 298 | 1,549 | null |
Section: Clinical Implications and Examples. The genotype-first approach has been used to diagnose patients with rare diseases, identify novel disease genotype–phenotypes associations, and characterize uncommon or heterogeneous diseases based on patient's genotype. In 2014 the genotype-first approach was used to assess... | Wikipedia - Genotype-first approach - Clinical Implications and Examples | 339 | 1,748 | null |
Microduplication and microdeletion syndromes have a range of characteristics, including intellectual disability and developmental delay, which vary in severity making patients with these syndromes very difficult to diagnose. Since the development of next-generation sequencing technologies, clinicians have been able to ... | Wikipedia - Genotype-first approach - Clinical Implications and Examples | 277 | 1,446 | null |
Section: Advantages and Limitations > Advantages. A shift towards characterizing individuals by a common genotype rather than the clinical presentation will allow for classifying new syndromes and the genetic classification of a certain disease subtypes, as sequencing becoming cheaper, faster and more efficient. Inheri... | Wikipedia - Genotype-first approach - Advantages and Limitations > Advantages | 186 | 1,018 | null |
Section: Advantages and Limitations > Limitations. The phenotype might change over time (e.g. becomes more severe, change in physical location) making genotype-first studies an assumption about the role of the variant in disease manifestation at a specific time point. Therefore, longitudinal follow up is important in o... | Wikipedia - Genotype-first approach - Advantages and Limitations > Limitations | 188 | 932 | null |
Section: History. The term Keimplasma (germ plasm) was first used by the German biologist, August Weismann (1834–1914), and described in his 1892 book Das Keimplasma: eine Theorie der Vererbung (The Germ Plasm: a theory of inheritance). His theory states that multicellular organisms consist of germ cells that contain a... | Wikipedia - Germ plasm - History | 330 | 1,452 | null |
He insisted, like Darwin, that a variable environment was necessary to cause variation in the hereditary material. Because genetic information cannot pass from soma to germ plasm, these external conditions, he believed, caused different effects on the soma and the germ plasm. Thus, the historian of science Rasmus G. Wi... | Wikipedia - Germ plasm - History | 314 | 1,480 | null |
Section: Modern view. The idea of the Weismann barrier, namely that changes acquired during an organism's life cannot affect its offspring, is still broadly accepted. This has been extended into molecular terms as the central dogma of molecular biology, which asserts that information written in the form of proteins can... | Wikipedia - Germ plasm - Modern view | 184 | 943 | null |
Section: Revision history. ISCN (2024). S. Karger Publishing. ISBN 978-3-318-07331-7 ISCN (2020). S. Karger Publishing. ISBN 978-3318068672 ISCN (2016). S. Karger Publishing. ISBN 978-3318058574 ISCN (2013). S. Karger Publishing. ISBN 978-3318022537 ISCN (2009). S. Karger Publishing. ISBN 978-3805589857 ISCN (2005). S.... | Wikipedia - International System for Human Cytogenomic Nomenclature - Revision history | 325 | 961 | null |
ISBN 978-3805530118 Paris Conference (1971): "Standardization in Human Cytogenetics." (PDF) Birth Defects: Original Article Series, Vol 8, No 7 (The National Foundation, New York 1972) Chicago Conference (1966): "Standardization in Human Cytogenetics." Birth Defects: Original Article Series, Vol 2, No 2 (The National F... | Wikipedia - International System for Human Cytogenomic Nomenclature - Revision history | 156 | 593 | null |
Article: Neuroscience. Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system (the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system), its functions, and its disorders. It is a multidisciplinary science that combines physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, developmental biology, cytology, psychology, physics, compu... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - Summary | 183 | 994 | null |
Section: History. The earliest study of the nervous system dates to ancient Egypt. Trepanation, the surgical practice of either drilling or scraping a hole into the skull for the purpose of curing head injuries or mental disorders, or relieving cranial pressure, was first recorded during the Neolithic period. Manuscrip... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - History | 349 | 1,710 | null |
This view was generally accepted until the Roman physician Galen, a follower of Hippocrates and physician to Roman gladiators, observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains. Abulcasis, Averroes, Avicenna, Avenzoar, and Maimonides, active in the Medieval Muslim wor... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - History | 348 | 1,674 | null |
Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive observations, descriptions, and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. In parallel with this research, in 1815 Jean Pierre Flourens induced localized lesions of the brain in living animals to observe their eff... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - History | 324 | 1,746 | null |
Schmitt, and Stephen Kuffler as having played critical roles in establishing the field. Rioch originated the integration of basic anatomical and physiological research with clinical psychiatry at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, starting in the 1950s. During the same period, Schmitt established a neuroscienc... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - History | 343 | 1,665 | null |
Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the FitzHugh–Nagumo model. In 1962, Bernard Katz modeled neurotransmission across the space between neurons known as synapses. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in Aplys... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - History | 257 | 1,302 | null |
Section: Modern neuroscience. The scientific study of the nervous system increased significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to advances in molecular biology, electrophysiology, and computational neuroscience. This has allowed neuroscientists to study the nervous system in all its a... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - Modern neuroscience | 350 | 1,763 | null |
The human brain alone contains around one hundred billion neurons and one hundred trillion synapses; it consists of thousands of distinguishable substructures, connected to each other in synaptic networks whose intricacies have only begun to be unraveled. At least one out of three of the approximately 20,000 genes belo... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - Modern neuroscience | 316 | 1,692 | null |
Section: Modern neuroscience > Molecular and cellular neuroscience. Basic questions addressed in molecular neuroscience include the mechanisms by which neurons express and respond to molecular signals and how axons form complex connectivity patterns. At this level, tools from molecular biology and genetics are used to ... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - Modern neuroscience > Molecular and cellular neuroscience | 341 | 1,857 | null |
Section: Modern neuroscience > Neural circuits and systems. Systems neuroscience research centers on the structural and functional architecture of the developing human brain, and the functions of large-scale brain networks, or functionally-connected systems within the brain. Alongside brain development, systems neurosc... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - Modern neuroscience > Neural circuits and systems | 320 | 1,753 | null |
Section: Modern neuroscience > Cognitive and behavioral neuroscience. Cognitive neuroscience addresses the questions of how psychological functions are produced by neural circuitry. The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI, PET, SPECT), EEG, MEG, electrophysiology, optogenet... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - Modern neuroscience > Cognitive and behavioral neuroscience | 302 | 1,709 | null |
Section: Modern neuroscience > Neuroscience and medicine > Clinical neuroscience. Neurology, psychiatry, neurosurgery, psychosurgery, anesthesiology and pain medicine, neuropathology, neuroradiology, ophthalmology, otolaryngology, clinical neurophysiology, addiction medicine, and sleep medicine are some medical special... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - Modern neuroscience > Neuroscience and medicine > Clinical neuroscience | 258 | 1,295 | null |
Section: Modern neuroscience > Neuroscience and medicine > Translational research. Recently, the boundaries between various specialties have blurred, as they are all influenced by basic research in neuroscience. For example, brain imaging enables objective biological insight into mental illnesses, which can lead to fas... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - Modern neuroscience > Neuroscience and medicine > Translational research | 181 | 1,088 | null |
Section: Neuroscience organizations. The largest professional neuroscience organization is the Society for Neuroscience (SFN), which is based in the United States but includes many members from other countries. Since its founding in 1969 the SFN has grown steadily: as of 2010 it recorded 40,290 members from 83 countrie... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - Neuroscience organizations | 312 | 1,711 | null |
Section: Neuroscience organizations > Public education and outreach. In addition to conducting traditional research in laboratory settings, neuroscientists have also been involved in the promotion of awareness and knowledge about the nervous system among the general public and government officials. Such promotions have... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - Neuroscience organizations > Public education and outreach | 313 | 1,820 | null |
Section: Engineering applications of neuroscience > Neuromorphic computer chips. Neuromorphic engineering is a branch of neuroscience that deals with creating functional physical models of neurons for the purposes of useful computation. The emergent computational properties of neuromorphic computers are fundamentally d... | Wikipedia - Neuroscience - Engineering applications of neuroscience > Neuromorphic computer chips | 277 | 1,470 | null |
Article: Accommodation index. The accommodation index is a statistic used in the neurosciences for describing spike train data. Many methods of experimental neuroscience, such as voltage clamp recordings, give their output in the form of measured voltages of individual neurons. Generally, the only important element of ... | Wikipedia - Accommodation index - Summary | 200 | 1,021 | null |
It is defined by the average of the difference in length of two consecutive interspike intervals (ISIs) normalized by the summed duration of these two ISIs. The equation for the accommodation index is A = 1 N − k − 1 ∑ i = k N ( isi i − isi i − 1 ) ( isi i + isi i − 1 ) {\displaystyle A={\frac {1}{N-k-1}}\displaystyle ... | Wikipedia - Accommodation index - Summary | 244 | 767 | null |
Article: Acoustocerebrography. Acoustocerebrography (ACG) is a medical test used to diagnose changes and problems in the brain and the central nervous system. It allows for the noninvasive examination of the brain's cellular and molecular structure. It can also be applied as a means to diagnose and monitor intracranial... | Wikipedia - Acoustocerebrography - Summary | 185 | 821 | null |
Section: Passive and active acoustocerebrography > Passive acoustocerebrography. All brain tissue is influenced by blood circulating in the brain's vascular system. With each heartbeat, blood circulates in the skull, following a recurring pattern according to the oscillation produced. This oscillation's effect, in turn... | Wikipedia - Acoustocerebrography - Passive and active acoustocerebrography > Passive acoustocerebrography | 220 | 1,077 | null |
Section: Passive and active acoustocerebrography > Active acoustocerebrography. In active ACG applications, a multi-frequency ultrasonic signal is used to detect and classify adverse changes at the cellular or molecular level. In addition to all of the advantages that passive ACG provides, with active ACG it is possibl... | Wikipedia - Acoustocerebrography - Passive and active acoustocerebrography > Active acoustocerebrography | 192 | 878 | null |
Article: Acquired neuroprotection. Acquired neuroprotection is a synaptic-activity-dependent form of adaptation in the nervous system that renders neurons more resistant to harmful conditions. The term was coined by Hilmar Bading. This use-dependent enhancement of cellular survival activity requires changes in gene exp... | Wikipedia - Acquired neuroprotection - Summary | 162 | 802 | null |
Section: Overview. Basic action theory typically describes action as intentional behavior caused by an agent in a particular situation. The agent's desires and beliefs (e.g. a person wanting a glass of water and believing that the clear liquid in the cup in front of them is water) lead to bodily behavior (e.g. reaching... | Wikipedia - Action theory (philosophy) - Overview | 348 | 1,720 | null |
Section: Introduction. Traditional exam script marking began in Cambridge 1792 when, with undergraduate numbers rising, the importance of proper ranking of students was growing. So in 1792 the new Proctor of Examinations, William Farish, introduced marking, a process in which every examiner gives a numerical score to e... | Wikipedia - Adaptive comparative judgement - Introduction | 331 | 1,688 | null |
Section: History > Thurstone's law of comparative judgement. "There is no such thing as absolute judgement" The science of comparative judgement began with Louis Leon Thurstone of the University of Chicago. A pioneer of psychophysics, he proposed several ways to construct scales for measuring sensation and other psycho... | Wikipedia - Adaptive comparative judgement - History > Thurstone's law of comparative judgement | 341 | 1,485 | null |
Section: History > Re-introduction in education. The first published paper using Comparative Judgement in education was Pollitt & Murray (1994), essentially a research paper concerning the nature of the English proficiency scale assessed in the speaking part of Cambridge's CPE exam. The objects were candidates, represe... | Wikipedia - Adaptive comparative judgement - History > Re-introduction in education | 312 | 1,694 | null |
Section: History > Adaptive comparative judgement. Comparative judgement becomes a viable alternative to marking when it is implemented as an adaptive web-based assessment system. In this, the 'scores' (the model parameter for each object) are re-estimated after each 'round' of judgements in which, on average, each obj... | Wikipedia - Adaptive comparative judgement - History > Adaptive comparative judgement | 217 | 1,178 | null |
Section: History > Current comparative judgement projects > e-scape. The first application of Comparative Judgement to the direct assessment of students was in a project called e-scape, led by Prof. Richard Kimbell of London University's Goldsmiths College (Kimbell & Pollitt, 2008). The development work was carried out... | Wikipedia - Adaptive comparative judgement - History > Current comparative judgement projects > e-scape | 223 | 1,122 | null |
Section: History > Current comparative judgement projects > Primary school writing > Further projects. Several projects are underway at present, in England, Scotland, Ireland, Israel, Singapore and Australia. They range from primary school to university in context, and include both formative and summative assessment, f... | Wikipedia - Adaptive comparative judgement - History > Current comparative judgement projects > Primary school writing > Further projects | 185 | 930 | null |
Article: Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity. Addiction is a state characterized by compulsive engagement in rewarding stimuli, despite adverse consequences. The process of developing an addiction occurs through instrumental learning, which is otherwise known as operant conditioning. Neuroscientists believe th... | Wikipedia - Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity - Summary | 333 | 1,646 | null |
Section: Structural changes of learning. Learning by experience occurs through modifications of the structural circuits of the brain. These circuits are composed of many neurons and their connections, called synapses, which occur between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another. A single neuron generally has ... | Wikipedia - Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity - Structural changes of learning | 333 | 1,572 | null |
Section: The reward pathway. The reward pathway, also called the mesolimbic system of the brain, is the part of the brain that registers reward and pleasure. This circuit reinforces the behavior that leads to a positive and pleasurable outcome. In drug addiction, the drug-seeking behaviors become reinforced by the rush... | Wikipedia - Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity - The reward pathway | 348 | 1,707 | null |
Both of these drugs induce increased locomotor activity acutely, escalated self-administration chronically, and dysphoria when the drug is taken away. Although their effects on structural plasticity are opposite, there are two possible explanations as to why these drugs still produce the same indicators of addiction: E... | Wikipedia - Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity - The reward pathway | 251 | 1,232 | null |
Section: The reward pathway > Ventral tegmental area. There are neurons with cell bodies in the VTA that release dopamine onto specific parts of the brain, including many of the limbic regions such as the NAc, the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), dorsal striatum, amygdala, and the hippocampus. The VTA has both dopamine... | Wikipedia - Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity - The reward pathway > Ventral tegmental area | 347 | 1,467 | null |
Excitatory inputs into the VTA will activate the dopamine neurons 200%, but do not increase activation of GABA neurons which are important in local inhibition. This effect of inducing LTP in VTA slices 24 hours after drug exposure has been shown using morphine, nicotine, ethanol, cocaine, and amphetamines. These drugs ... | Wikipedia - Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity - The reward pathway > Ventral tegmental area | 195 | 942 | null |
Section: The reward pathway > Nucleus accumbens. The nucleus accumbens plays an integral role in addiction. Almost every addictive drug of abuse induces the release of dopamine into the nucleus accumbens. The NAc is particularly important for instrumental learning, including cue-induced reinstatement of drug-seeking be... | Wikipedia - Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity - The reward pathway > Nucleus accumbens | 279 | 1,305 | null |
Section: Human relevance > Relapse. Neuroscientists studying addiction define relapse as the reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior after a period of abstinence. The structural changes in the VTA are hypothesized to contribute to relapse. As the molecular mechanisms of relapse are better understood, pharmacological tre... | Wikipedia - Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity - Human relevance > Relapse | 175 | 765 | null |
Section: Human relevance > Search for a cure for addiction. The goal of addiction research is to find ways to prevent and reverse the effects of addiction on the brain. Theoretically, if the structural changes in the brain associated with addiction can be blocked, then the negative behaviors associated with the disease... | Wikipedia - Addiction-related structural neuroplasticity - Human relevance > Search for a cure for addiction | 161 | 787 | null |
Article: Almeida–Pineda recurrent backpropagation. Almeida–Pineda recurrent backpropagation is an extension to the backpropagation algorithm that is applicable to recurrent neural networks. It is a type of supervised learning. It was described somewhat cryptically in Richard Feynman's senior thesis, and rediscovered in... | Wikipedia - Almeida–Pineda recurrent backpropagation - Summary | 159 | 773 | null |
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