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In order to determine the relative prevalence of different fetishes, scientists obtained a sample of at least 5000 individuals worldwide, in 2007, from 381 Internet discussion groups. The relative prevalences were estimated based on (a) the number of groups devoted to a particular fetish, (b) the number of individuals ...
Hair fetishism
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In order to determine the relative prevalence of various clothing fetishes, the University of Bologna researchers obtained a sample of at least 5000 individuals worldwide from 381 Internet discussion groups. The prevalence was estimated based on (a) the number of groups devoted to a particular fetish, (b) the number of...
Fur fetishism
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In order to determine the relative prevalences of different types of fetishes, scientists obtained a sample of at least 5,000 individuals worldwide from 381 discussion groups on the internet. The relative prevalences were estimated based on the number of groups devoted to a particular fetish, the number of individuals ...
Shoe fetish
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In order to determine the statistical significance of the indirect effect, a statistic based on the indirect effect must be compared to its null sampling distribution. The Sobel test uses the magnitude of the indirect effect compared to its estimated standard error of measurement to derive a t statistic Where SE is the...
Sobel test
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In order to determine the structural and geometrical factors affecting the intramolecular hydrogen atom transfer, a number of different N-chloroamines were examined in the Hofmann–Löffler–Freytag reaction. The systems were judiciously chosen in order to obtain data on the following points: relative migration tendencies...
Hofmann–Löffler reaction
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It was reported that only 1-n-butyl-2-methylpyrrolidine 14 was formed under the reaction conditions, no 1-n-amylpyrrolidine 15 was detected. This observation provided substantial evidence that the radical attack exhibits strong preference for the 2° over 1° hydrogen. Tendency for 3° vs. 1° hydrogen migration was studie...
Hofmann–Löffler reaction
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When 16 was subjected to the standard reaction conditions, rapid disappearance of 16 was observed, but no pyrrolidine product could be isolated. This result suggested that there is a high selectivity for the 3° hydrogen, but the intermediate tertiary chloro compound 17 is rapidly solvolyzed. Similarly, no cyclic amine ...
Hofmann–Löffler reaction
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A qualitative study of products from the Hofmann–Löffler–Freytag reaction of N-chloromethyl-n-hexylamine 18 was performed in order to evaluate the relative ease of 1,5- and 1,6-hydrogen migration. UV-catalyzed decomposition of 18 followed by basification produced a 9:1 mixture of 1-methyl-2-ethylpyrrolidine 19 and 1,2-...
Hofmann–Löffler reaction
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In order to determine the unknown orbit of a body, some observations of its motion with time are required. In early modern astronomy, the only available observational data for celestial objects were the right ascension and declination, obtained by observing the body as it moved in its observation arc, relative to the f...
Orbit determination
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However, the returned signal strength from radar decreases rapidly, as the inverse fourth power of the range to the object. This generally limits radar observations to objects relatively near the Earth, such as artificial satellites and Near-Earth objects.
Orbit determination
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Larger apertures permit tracking of transponders on interplanetary spacecraft throughout the solar system, and radar astronomy of natural bodies. Various space agencies and commercial providers operate tracking networks to provide these observations. See Category:Deep Space Network for a partial listing. Space-based tr...
Orbit determination
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In order to determine what is important to library users and how satisfied they are with services, resources and physical space, library assessment utilizes a variety of research methods such as: website usability testing, observation, 'In-Library Use' surveys, focus groups, interviews, wayfinding, balanced scorecard, ...
Library assessment
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In order to determine what the profile of a beach looks like, one method for determination is the Emory Beach Profiling Method. Initiating a benchmark, the researcher establishes a control point to start the surveys at. Typically this is far enough away from the swash zone that large changes in elevation will not occur...
Coastal sediment transport
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Then, they will pick up the device and move it to the end point of their last survey, and so on. Until they reach the shoreline. Typically this is done during neap tide (see Tide for more information on neap tide).
Coastal sediment transport
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In order to determine whether or not a given project is feasible, there must be some form of investigation into the goals and implications of the project. For very small scale projects this may not be necessary at all as the scope of the project is easily understood. In larger projects, the feasibility may be done but ...
Structured Systems Analysis and Design Methodology
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When a feasibility study is carried out, there are four main areas of consideration: Technical – is the project technically possible? Financial – can the business afford to carry out the project? Organizational – will the new system be compatible with existing practices?
Structured Systems Analysis and Design Methodology
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Ethical – is the impact of the new system socially acceptable? To answer these questions, the feasibility study is effectively a condensed version of a comprehensive systems analysis and design. The requirements and usages are analyzed to some extent, some business options are drawn up and even some details of the tech...
Structured Systems Analysis and Design Methodology
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In order to determine whether osteogenesis imperfecta is present, genetic sequencing of the most common problematic genes, COL1A1, COL1A2, and IFITM5, may be done; if no mutation is found yet OI is still suspected, the other 10+ genes known to cause OI may be tested. Duplication and deletion testing is also suggested t...
Osteogenesis imperfecta
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In order to determine, whether the replacement of hydrogen in the cyclization of N-haloamines proceeds with retention, inversion, or equilibration of configuration, deuterated amine 9 was synthesized. Chlorination of 9 followed by thermal decomposition of its N-chloro derivative 10 in sulfuric acid at 90 °C produced op...
Hofmann–Löffler reaction
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In order to develop a definition of SFSCs, there are a number of candidate criteria that may be used. SFSCs have been conceptualized in terms of Dimensions of Proximity. Kebir and Torre (2012) were perhaps some of the first to propose such a conceptualization, classifying SFSCs based on two dimensions: Geographical Pro...
Short food supply chains
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In order to develop a mobile anti-aircraft weapon, several 0.5 inch (12.7 mm) twin machine gun mounts were tested on the chassis of the M2 half-track including Bendix, Martin Aircraft Company, and Maxson. The Maxson M33 turret mount was preferred and—on the larger M3 half-track (T1E2)—was accepted for service in 1942 a...
M45 Quadmount
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The M45 Quadmount was the principal weapon (along with the 37mm gun) of highly mobile anti-aircraft artillery battalions deployed in the European Theater during World War II. These battalions provided invaluable air defense to much larger units, particularly field artillery. The M45 Quadmount units served as a very str...
M45 Quadmount
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Multiple-gun mounts were developed for the M2 Browning because the M2's rate of fire (450–550 rounds per minute) for a single gun was too low for anti-aircraft use.The M45 found use throughout the war as a land-based weapon, particularly during the Battle of the Bulge. Although the Allies achieved air supremacy by the ...
M45 Quadmount
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The Luftwaffe also mustered a large number of planes for Operation Bodenplatte that took place on New Year's Day 1945. It was also tested by the US Navy as a solution for the Kamikaze attacks that started in late 1944. Two Essex class aircraft carriers received six mounts each for operational testing starting with CV-1...
M45 Quadmount
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The guns were too light and ineffective against the high speeds that the diving Kamikaze aircraft possessed.The M45 Quadmount was ineffective against the new, fast-flying planes of the Jet Age. However, it was used against infantry targets in US post-war service. In Vietnam they were pressed into service to defend base...
M45 Quadmount
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In order to develop a richer understanding of genetic interactions, experimental approaches are shifting away from this binary classification of phenotypes as wild type or synthetic lethal. The E-MAP approach is particularly compelling because of its ability to highlight both alleviating and aggravating effects and thi...
Epistasis and functional genomics
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While the method has been particularly developed for examining epistasis in S. cerevisiae, it could be applied to other model organisms as well. An E-MAP collates data generated from the systematic generation of double mutant strains for a large clearly defined group of genes. Each phenotypic response is quantified by ...
Epistasis and functional genomics
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This fitness score is compared to the predicted fitness for each single mutant, resulting in a genetic interaction score. Hierarchical clustering of this data to group genes with similar interaction profiles allows for the identification of epistatic relationships between genes with and without known function. By sorti...
Epistasis and functional genomics
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The E-MAP data is therefore able to place genes into new functions within well characterized pathways. Consider for example E-MAP presented by Collins et al. which clusters the transcriptional elongation factor Dst1 alongside components of the mid region of the Mediator complex, which is involved in transcriptional reg...
Epistasis and functional genomics
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The choice of genes examined within a given E-MAP is critical to achieving fruitful results. It is particularly important that a significant subset of the genes examined have been well established in the literature. These genes are thus able to act as controls for the E-MAP allowing for greater certainty in analyzing t...
Epistasis and functional genomics
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Clusters organized by sub-cellular localization and general cellular processes (e.g. cell cycle) have yielded profitable results in S. cerevisiae. Data from protein-protein interaction studies can also provide a useful basis for selecting gene groups for E-MAP data. We would expect genes which exhibit physical interact...
Epistasis and functional genomics
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Collins et al. (2007) carried out a comparison of E-MAP scores and physical interaction data from large-scale affinity purification methods (AP-MS) and their data demonstrate that an E-MAP approach identifies protein-protein interactions with a specificity equal to that of traditional methods such as AP-MS . High throu...
Epistasis and functional genomics
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In order to develop a useful antibiotic, ADEP continues to be modified for greater antimicrobial activity and stability. By restricting components of ADEP to decrease the molecule's flexibility, binding was enhanced and antimicrobial activity significantly increased. Specific amino acids essential to the peptidolactone...
Acyldepsipeptide Antibiotics
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In order to develop an effective emergency warning system, certain things are required: an agreement as to what constitutes an emergency in the area served by the system. This differs from region to region depending on the local climate, geology, and the like. an agreement as to who can initiate an alert.
Emergency population warning
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In some countries all warnings are transmitted by a single command center, while in others (such as the United States) a host of local, regional, and national agencies are authorized to initiate warnings. a system or systems by which the information can be quickly transmitted to the population. an education program to ...
Emergency population warning
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In order to develop an integrated view of an enterprise, many different views of an organization are typically developed. Each "view" is typically a diagram that illustrates a way of understanding the enterprise by highlighting specific information about it. The key views of the enterprise that may be provided by busin...
Business architect
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In order to diagnose Bickerstaff brainstem encephalitis, ataxia and ophthalmoplegia must be present. These are also diagnostic features of Miller Fisher syndrome, and so Bickerstaff's is only diagnosed if other features are present which exclude Miller Fisher syndrome. These may include drowsiness, coma or hyperreflexi...
Bickerstaff brainstem encephalitis
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In order to diagnose a patient specifically with Omenn Syndrome, an autosomal recessive form of SCID, a physician can order a genetic testing panel to look for 22q11 microdeletions or mutations of the RAG1/RAG2 genes.
Omenn syndrome
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In order to diagnose paraneoplastic pemphigus, several tests may be performed. Initially, samples are obtained via skin biopsy for routine microscopy and direct immunofluorescence (DIF) testing. The skin sample needs to be obtained from an unaffected area adjacent to a lesion. Testing in more detail follows depending o...
Paraneoplastic pemphigus
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In order to diagnose peri-implant mucositis, it is essential to investigate probing parameters and complete a radiographic assessment. Correct diagnosis of peri-implant diseases is essential to allow appropriate management of the condition present. Failure to identify a peri-implant disease can lead to a complete loss ...
Peri-implant mucositis
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Clinical presentations to diagnose peri-implant mucositis include:-- Red, swollen and soft peri-implant tissues - Bleeding on probing (BoP) and/or suppuration on probing - Increased probing depths compared to baseline measurements - Absence of bone loss beyond crestal bone level changes as a result of initial remodelli...
Peri-implant mucositis
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A light probing force of 0.25N should be used to probe the gingival margins so as not to damage the soft periodontal tissues. Bleeding on probing can be used in order to predict future loss of support from surrounding tissues. Microbiological testing was shown to improve the prognostic features compared to recording bl...
Peri-implant mucositis
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Increased probing depths over time is linked to loss of attachment and a reduction in the supporting alveolar bone levels. When bone becomes involved, the disease has progressed to peri-implantitis and this site is no longer diagnosed with peri-implant mucositis. The presence of bleeding on probing, the probing depths ...
Peri-implant mucositis
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Mucosal recession, a draining sinus or fistula and swelling or hyperplasia of the gingivae surrounding the implant can all signify the presence of peri-implant disease and should all prompt further investigations to ascertain whether this is the case.Radiographs are required to distinguish between peri-implant mucositi...
Peri-implant mucositis
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If an implant is mobile, this is indicative of a deficiency in osseointegration and at this point the implant should be removed. Therefore, this is not a valuable factor for early diagnosis of peri-implant mucositis. Alveolar bone loss following implant placement after first year in function should not exceed 2mm as ge...
Peri-implant mucositis
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As such changes ≥ 2mm during or after the first year should be considered as pathologic. Ie Peri-implant disease-induced. There are currently no biochemical diagnostic tests clinically available, as no sensitive diagnostic test has yet been found that can detect reversible changes before this is clinically visible and ...
Peri-implant mucositis
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There are many salivary biomarkers and biomarkers in the crevicular fluid surrounding implants that are present in much higher levels when there is peri-implant mucositis or peri-implant disease but all these present after or at the same time as clinical signs and symptoms. Therefore, there is currently no benefit to a...
Peri-implant mucositis
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In order to diminish the translucency of the alabaster and to produce an opacity suggestive of true marble, the statues are immersed in a bath of water and heated gradually—nearly to the boiling point—an operation requiring great care, because if the temperature is not regulated carefully, the stone acquires a dead-whi...
Alabaster
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In order to discourage illegal South African hunting parties and ensure future local use and sustainability, indigenous hunters in Botswana began lobbying for and implementing conservation practices in the 1960s. The Fauna Preservation Society of Ngamiland (FPS) was formed in 1962 by the husband and wife team: Robert K...
Environmental concern
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In 1963, BaTawanga Chiefs and tribal hunter/adventurers in conjunction with the FPS founded Moremi National Park and Wildlife Refuge, the first area to be set aside by tribal people rather than governmental forces. Moremi National Park is home to a variety of wildlife, including lions, giraffes, elephants, buffalo, zeb...
Environmental concern
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In order to discover how the production of the inhibitors was induced, scientists exposed tomato plants to different forms of methyl jasmonate and then assayed using radial immunodiffusion for proteinase inhibitors in leaf juices. A group of tomato plants was sprayed with a solution containing methyl jasmonate, while a...
Proteinase inhibitors in plants
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In order to discover the real probability of a given quantum event occurring, the conventional calculation carries out an operation, analogous to squaring, on an associated set of complex numbers. A complex number involves the use of the square root of minus one, a number which is described as "imaginary" in contrast t...
U-bit
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This model requires the presence of a universal entity which is quantum-entangled with every quantum wave and which he calls the u-bit.Mathematically the u-bit may be represented as a vector rotating in a real two-dimensional plane. It has no known physical representation in the real world. == References ==
U-bit
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In order to discuss the continuous-time Markov decision process, we introduce two sets of notations: If the state space and action space are finite, S {\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}}: State space; A {\displaystyle {\mathcal {A}}}: Action space; q ( i ∣ j , a ) {\displaystyle q(i\mid j,a)}: S × A → △ S {\displaystyle {\m...
Policy iteration
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In order to discuss the relation between the enthalpy increase and heat supply, we return to the first law for closed systems, with the physics sign convention: dU = δQ − δW, where the heat δQ is supplied by conduction, radiation, Joule heating. We apply it to the special case with a constant pressure at the surface. I...
Enthalpy
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In order to disinfect water, such as chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and ozone are introduced which kill microorganisms.
Off-the-grid
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In order to display the number of icons representing the growing complexity offered on a device, different systems have come up with different solutions for screen space management. The computer monitor continues to display primary icons on the main page or desktop, allowing easy and quick access to the most commonly u...
Icon (computing)
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These secondary icons do not provide a link like the primary icons, instead, they are used to show availability of a tool or file on the system.Spatial management techniques play a bigger role in mobile devices with their much smaller screen real estate. In response, mobile devices have introduced, among other visual d...
Icon (computing)
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Above all, the icon itself must remain clearly identifiable on the display screen regardless of its position and size. Programs might display their icon not only as a desktop hyperlink, but also in the program title bar, on the Start menu, in the Microsoft tray or the Apple dock. In each of these locations, the primary...
Icon (computing)
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In order to disseminate warnings to internal and external target groups, EUwarn uses digitally networked communication channels (EUwarn app, on-board computers, smarthome, wearables, displays, portals, etc.) – so-called "multi-channel." The EUwarn system is a multi-channel system. In addition, the system can be used to...
EUwarn
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In order to distinguish between the two versions of the heptode, manufacturers data often describes them as "heptode of the hexode type" for a heptode without a suppressor grid, and a "heptode of the octode type", where a suppressor grid is present.
Heptode
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In order to do SCM we have to use discrete wavelet frame (DWF) transformation first to get a series of sub images. The discrete wavelet frames is nearly identical to the standard wavelet transform, except that one upsamples the filters, rather than downsamples the image. Given an image, the DWF decomposes its channel u...
Scale co-occurrence matrix
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The decomposition is then continued in the LL channels only as in the wavelet transform, but since the image is not subsampled, the filter has to be upsampled by inserting zeros in between its coefficients. The number of channels, hence the number of features for DWF is given by 3 × l − 1. One dimension discrete wavele...
Scale co-occurrence matrix
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In order to do in-situ measurements, the user must be provided with the correct calibration constant E s e n {\displaystyle E_{sen}} . This constant is also called sensitivity. The sensitivity is primarily determined by the sensor construction and operation temperatures, but also by the geometry and material properties...
Heat flux sensor
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In order to do the BRST method justice, we must switch from the "algebra-valued fields on Minkowski space" picture typical of quantum field theory texts (and of the above exposition) to the language of fiber bundles, in which there are two quite different ways to look at a gauge transformation: as a change of local sec...
BRST charge
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(However, for concreteness and relevance to conventional QFT, this article will stick to the case of a principal gauge bundle with compact fiber over 4-dimensional Minkowski space.) A principal gauge bundle P over a 4-manifold M is locally isomorphic to U × F, where U ⊂ R4 and the fiber F is isomorphic to a Lie group G...
BRST charge
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Its most basic property as a fiber bundle is the "projection to the base space" π: P → M, which defines the "vertical" directions on P (those lying within the fiber π−1(p) over each point p in M). As a gauge bundle it has a left action of G on P which respects the fiber structure, and as a principal bundle it also has ...
BRST charge
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The (global) right action Rg: P → P for a fixed g in G corresponds to an actual automorphism of each fiber and hence to a map of P to itself. In order for P to qualify as a principal G-bundle, the global right action of each g in G must be an automorphism with respect to the manifold structure of P with a smooth depend...
BRST charge
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One may define the space Pl of local polynomials in these fields and their derivatives. The fundamental Lagrangian density of one's theory is presumed to lie in the subspace Pl0 of polynomials which are real-valued and invariant under any unbroken non-gauge symmetry groups. It is also presumed to be invariant not only ...
BRST charge
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Identifying local gauge transformations with a particular subspace of vector fields on the manifold P equips us with a better framework for dealing with infinite-dimensional infinitesimals: differential geometry and the exterior calculus. The change in a scalar field under pullback along an infinitesimal automorphism i...
BRST charge
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The Lie derivative on a manifold is a globally well-defined operation in a way that the partial derivative is not. The proper generalization of Clairaut's theorem to the non-trivial manifold structure of P is given by the Lie bracket of vector fields and the nilpotence of the exterior derivative. And we obtain an essen...
BRST charge
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In order to draw attention to John Major's Criminal Justice Bill, a group of cyber-activists staged an event in which they "kidnapped" 60s counter-cultural hero Timothy Leary at a book launch for Chaos & Cyberculture held on Guy Fawkes Day 1994, and then proceeded to "force him to DDoS government websites". Leary calle...
Electronic civil disobedience
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In order to draw probabilistic inferences based on new evidence, it is necessary to already have a prior probability assigned to the proposition in question. But this is not always the case: there are many propositions that the agent never considered and therefore lacks a credence for. This problem is usually solved by...
Bayesian epistemology
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Subjective Bayesians hold that there are no or few constraints besides probabilistic coherence that determine how we assign the initial probabilities. The argument for this freedom in choosing the initial credence is that the credences will change as we acquire more evidence and will converge on the same value after en...
Bayesian epistemology
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One important constraint is the principle of indifference. It states that the credences should be distributed equally among all the possible outcomes. For example, the agent wants to predict the color of balls drawn from an urn containing only red and black balls without any information about the ratio of red to black ...
Bayesian epistemology
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Applied to this situation, the principle of indifference states that the agent should initially assume that the probability to draw a red ball is 50%. This is due to symmetric considerations: it is the only assignment in which the prior probabilities are invariant to a change in label. While this approach works for som...
Bayesian epistemology
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In order to easily cross borders criminals have been known to change EGNs. There were 46 such cases detected in March 2005. Using the EGN system for identification raised some privacy concerns, though they are officially considered personal information and are protected by law.
Uniform civil number
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In order to effectively aid marketers in fully understanding customers and subsequently developing a strategic marketing plan, marketing automation platforms (MAPs) are designed to perform eight key tasks: Development and analysis of marketing campaigns and customers Management of marketing campaigns Appropriate custom...
Marketing automation
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In order to effectively implement precycling practices and behaviors, the public needs to feel "enabled", "engaged", "encouraged", and "exemplified" in their efforts to partake in precycling.Not only can the average consumer practice precycling, but industries can also participate. Purchasing from parts suppliers, reus...
Precycling
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In order to effectively implement variables of such types as array structures (with indexing done by pointer arithmetic), many languages restrict the indices to integer data types (or other types that can be interpreted as integers, such as bytes and enumerated types), and require that all elements have the same data t...
Multidimensional array
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So, these languages usually allow arbitrary new elements to be created at any time. This choice precludes the implementation of array types as array data structures. That is, those languages use array-like syntax to implement a more general associative array semantics, and must therefore be implemented by a hash table ...
Multidimensional array
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In order to effectively manage all the documentation required to care for collections, organized systems are necessary. In the early days of museum registration simple paper ledgers were used to track objects, and documentation was stored in file cabinets. Since computers became more commonplace however, practices have...
Cultural property documentation
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In order to effectively manage and optimize the required communication, response, and lead management processes outlined above, marketers focused on demand generation must become proficient at two other related disciplines Data management – the centralization, de-duplication, profiling, appending, normalizing and clean...
Demand generation
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In order to effectively preserve and maintain timber piles, regular inspection is required to detect deteriorating structures before replacement is necessary. Pile inspections should take place every five years.
Timber pilings
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In order to effectively remove permeate components from the slurry, fresh solvent may be added to the feed to replace the permeate volume, at the same rate as the permeate flow rate, such that the volume in the system remains constant. This is analogous to the washing of filter cake to remove soluble components. Diluti...
Cross-flow filtration
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In order to effectively slow water velocity to reduce erosion and to protect the channel between dams in a larger system, spacing must be designed properly. Check dams should be spaced such that the toe of the upstream check dam is equal to the elevation of the downstream check dam's crest. This allows water to pond be...
Check dam
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In order to effectively train Machine Learning and use AI in healthcare, massive amounts of data must be gathered. Acquiring this data, however, comes at the cost of patient privacy in most cases and is not well received publicly. For example, a survey conducted in the UK estimated that 63% of the population is uncomfo...
Artificial intelligence in healthcare
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In order to efficiently maintain the intersection points of the sweep line L with the input line segments and the sequence of future events, the Bentley–Ottmann algorithm maintains two data structures: A binary search tree (the "sweep line status tree"), containing the set of input line segments that cross L, ordered b...
Bentley–Ottmann algorithm
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Each event is associated with a point p in the plane, either a segment endpoint or a crossing point, and the event happens when line L sweeps over p. Thus, the events may be prioritized by the x-coordinates of the points associated with each event. In the Bentley–Ottmann algorithm, the potential future events consist o...
Bentley–Ottmann algorithm
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The binary search tree may be any balanced binary search tree data structure, such as a red–black tree; all that is required is that insertions, deletions, and searches take logarithmic time. Similarly, the priority queue may be a binary heap or any other logarithmic-time priority queue; more sophisticated priority que...
Bentley–Ottmann algorithm
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In order to elute His-tagged protein from the carrier there are several potential methods, which can be used in combination if necessary. In order to avoid denaturation of proteins, it is generally desirable to use as mild a method as possible. Competition with analogsFor releasing the His-tagged protein from the carri...
His-tag
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The compound added at high concentration replaces virtually all carrier-bound protein which is thus eluted from the carrier. Imidazole is the side chain of histidine and is typically used at a concentration of 150 - 500 mM for elution.
His-tag
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Histidine or histamine can also be used. Decrease in pHWhen the pH decreases, the histidine residue is protonated and can no longer coordinate the metal tag, allowing the protein to be eluted. When nickel is used as the metal ion, it is eluted at around pH 4 and cobalt at around pH 6. Removal of metal ionsWhen a strong...
His-tag
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In order to enable fast and efficient transduction of electrical signals in the nervous system, certain neuronal axons are covered with myelin sheaths. Myelin is a multilamellar membrane that enwraps the axon in segments separated by intervals known as nodes of Ranvier. It is produced by specialized cells: Schwann cell...
Action potential
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Myelination is found mainly in vertebrates, but an analogous system has been discovered in a few invertebrates, such as some species of shrimp. Not all neurons in vertebrates are myelinated; for example, axons of the neurons comprising the autonomous nervous system are not, in general, myelinated. Myelin prevents ions ...
Action potential
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As a general rule, myelination increases the conduction velocity of action potentials and makes them more energy-efficient. Whether saltatory or not, the mean conduction velocity of an action potential ranges from 1 meter per second (m/s) to over 100 m/s, and, in general, increases with axonal diameter.Action potential...
Action potential
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Instead, the ionic current from an action potential at one node of Ranvier provokes another action potential at the next node; this apparent "hopping" of the action potential from node to node is known as saltatory conduction. Although the mechanism of saltatory conduction was suggested in 1925 by Ralph Lillie, the fir...
Action potential
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Myelin has two important advantages: fast conduction speed and energy efficiency. For axons larger than a minimum diameter (roughly 1 micrometre), myelination increases the conduction velocity of an action potential, typically tenfold. Conversely, for a given conduction velocity, myelinated fibers are smaller than thei...
Action potential
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For example, action potentials move at roughly the same speed (25 m/s) in a myelinated frog axon and an unmyelinated squid giant axon, but the frog axon has a roughly 30-fold smaller diameter and 1000-fold smaller cross-sectional area. Also, since the ionic currents are confined to the nodes of Ranvier, far fewer ions ...
Action potential
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They should be as long as possible to maximize the speed of conduction, but not so long that the arriving signal is too weak to provoke an action potential at the next node of Ranvier. In nature, myelinated segments are generally long enough for the passively propagated signal to travel for at least two nodes while ret...
Action potential