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c_fqjee66196dk | The promise of functional genomics is to generate and synthesize genomic and proteomic knowledge into an understanding of the dynamic properties of an organism. This could potentially provide a more complete picture of how the genome specifies function compared to studies of single genes. Integration of functional geno... | Functional genomics |
c_6yv9h4vpixuo | In order to understand how a spatial soliton can exist, we have to make some considerations about a simple convex lens. As shown in the picture on the right, an optical field approaches the lens and then it is focused. The effect of the lens is to introduce a non-uniform phase change that causes focusing. This phase ch... | Optical soliton |
c_n2yvxlnw6xfl | The phase change can be expressed as the product of the phase constant and the width of the path the field has covered. We can write it as: Ο ( x ) = k 0 n L ( x ) {\displaystyle \varphi (x)=k_{0}nL(x)} where L ( x ) {\displaystyle L(x)} is the width of the lens, changing in each point with a shape that is the same of ... | Optical soliton |
c_w70rrivhbkpt | If we leave the width L fixed in each point, but we change the value of the refractive index n ( x ) {\displaystyle n(x)} we will get exactly the same effect, but with a completely different approach. This has application in graded-index fibers: the change in the refractive index introduces a focusing effect that can b... | Optical soliton |
c_17v2j4x039xn | Spatial solitons are based on the same principle: the Kerr effect introduces a self-phase modulation that changes the refractive index according to the intensity: Ο ( x ) = k 0 n ( x ) L = k 0 L {\displaystyle \varphi (x)=k_{0}n(x)L=k_{0}L} if I ( x ) {\displaystyle I(x)} has a shape similar to the one shown in the fi... | Optical soliton |
c_7d66qzhjoijp | In order to have a self-focusing effect, we must have a positive n 2 {\displaystyle n_{2}} , otherwise we will get the opposite effect and we will not notice any nonlinear behavior. The optical waveguide the soliton creates while propagating is not only a mathematical model, but it actually exists and can be used to gu... | Optical soliton |
c_6vbogspkzszn | In order to understand how blood is delivered to cranial tissues, it is important to understand the vascular anatomy of the space itself. Large cerebral arteries in the brain split into smaller arterioles, also known as pial arteries. These consist of endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells, and as these pial arterie... | Hemodynamic response |
c_drtzzip8i8h4 | In order to understand how blue spaces may influence health-promoting behaviours, a group of researchers that focuses on blue spaces has developed a set of novel tools specifically designed to quantify the quality and potential health benefits of these spaces, risks associated with their use, and environmental quality.... | Blue space |
c_c6y3bmdtxslr | In order to understand how information about epistatic interactions relates to gene pathways, consider a simple example of vulval cell differentiation in C. elegans. Cells differentiate from Pn cells to Pn.p cells to VP cells to vulval cells. Mutation of lin-26 blocks differentiation of Pn cells to Pn.p cells. Mutants ... | Epistasis and functional genomics |
c_5r1jlq1k78vu | In both cases, the resulting phenotype is marked by an absence of vulval cells as there is an upstream block in the differentiation pathway. A double mutant in which both of these genes have been disrupted exhibits an equivalent phenotype that is no worse than either single mutant. The upstream disruption at lin-26 mas... | Epistasis and functional genomics |
c_fuwkkjj9meva | Aggravating mutations on the other hand give rise to a phenotype which is worse than the cumulative effect of each single mutation. This aggravated phenotype is indicative of two genes in compensatory pathways. | Epistasis and functional genomics |
c_25pova9ejhd6 | In the case of the single mutant a parallel pathway is able to compensate for the loss of the disrupted pathway however, in the case of the double mutant the action of this compensatory pathway is lost as well, resulting in the more dramatic phenotype observed. This relationship has been significantly easier to detect ... | Epistasis and functional genomics |
c_0nahkpi3a7g2 | For example, genes can act in opposite directions in pathways, so that knocking out both produces a near-normal phenotype, while each single mutant is severely affected (in opposite directions). A well-studied example occurs during early development in Drosophila, wherein gene products from the hunchback and nanos gene... | Epistasis and functional genomics |
c_bnktue1r94pv | In order to understand how life arose knowledge is required of chemical pathways that permit formation of the key building blocks of life under plausible prebiotic conditions. According to the RNA world hypothesis free-floating ribonucleotides were present in the primordial soup. These were the fundamental molecules th... | Nucleotide bases |
c_qm8777krczmw | RNA is composed of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides, both of which are necessary for reliable information transfer, and thus Darwinian evolution. Nam et al. demonstrated the direct condensation of nucleobases with ribose to give ribonucleosides in aqueous microdroplets, a key step leading to RNA formation. Similar res... | Nucleotide bases |
c_n2o1qj7aojhm | In order to understand how life arose, knowledge is required of the chemical pathways that permit formation of the key building blocks of life under plausible prebiotic conditions. According to the RNA world hypothesis free-floating ribonucleotides were present in the primitive soup. These were the fundamental molecule... | Polynucleotide |
c_vdherldnook3 | RNA is composed of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides, both of which are necessary for reliable information transfer, and thus Darwinian natural selection and evolution. Nam et al. demonstrated the direct condensation of nucleobases with ribose to give ribonucleosides in aqueous microdroplets, a key step leading to RNA ... | Polynucleotide |
c_f5zzcg1alqmq | In order to understand how life arose, knowledge is required of the chemical pathways that permit formation of the key building blocks of life under plausible prebiotic conditions. According to the RNA world hypothesis free-floating ribonucleotides were present in the primitive soup. These were the fundamental molecule... | Ribonucleoside monophosphate |
c_m4jwu7purybw | Molecules as complex as RNA must have arisen from small molecules whose reactivity was governed by physico-chemical processes. RNA is composed of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides, both of which are necessary for reliable information transfer, and thus Darwinian natural selection and evolution. The synthesis of activat... | Ribonucleoside monophosphate |
c_cys9pdh76ufu | The starting materials for the synthesis (cyanamide, cyanoacetylene, glycolaldehyde, glyceraldehyde and inorganic phosphate) were considered to be plausible prebiotic feedstock molecules. Nam et al. demonstrated the direct condensation of nucleobases with ribose to give ribonucleosides in aqueous microdroplets, a key s... | Ribonucleoside monophosphate |
c_76ifxsx4j3wd | In order to understand how life arose, knowledge is required of the chemical pathways that permit formation of the key building blocks of life under plausible prebiotic conditions. Nam et al. demonstrated the direct condensation of nucleobases with ribose to give ribonucleosides in aqueous microdroplets, a key step lea... | Synthesis of nucleosides |
c_1ptlunla48vq | In order to understand how life arose, knowledge is required of the chemical pathways that permit formation of the key building blocks of life under plausible prebiotic conditions. Nam et al. demonstrated the direct condensation of purine and pyrimidine nucleobases with ribose to give ribonucleosides in aqueous microdr... | Purine metabolism |
c_u1zdl9ftdncl | In order to understand how life arose, knowledge is required of the chemical pathways that permit formation of the key building blocks of life under plausible prebiotic conditions. The RNA world hypothesis holds that in the primordial soup there existed free-floating pyrimidine and purine ribonucleotides, the fundament... | Pyrimidine biosynthesis |
c_h8mo634kvhkv | In order to understand how life arose, knowledge is required of the chemical pathways that permit formation of the key building blocks of life under plausible prebiotic conditions. The RNA world hypothesis holds that in the primordial soup there existed free-floating ribonucleotides, the fundamental molecules that comb... | Pyrimidine |
c_3yb9hjdkh5oh | RNA is composed of pyrimidine and purine nucleotides, both of which are necessary for reliable information transfer, and thus natural selection and Darwinian evolution. Becker et al. showed how pyrimidine nucleosides can be synthesized from small molecules and ribose, driven solely by wet-dry cycles. Purine nucleosides... | Pyrimidine |
c_hg7ywo5kky2m | In order to understand how sounds are made, experimental procedures are often adopted. Palatography is one of the oldest instrumental phonetic techniques used to record data regarding articulators. In traditional, static palatography, a speaker's palate is coated with a dark powder. The speaker then produces a word, us... | Speech organ |
c_mk4d81nkq9sj | The tongue wipes away some of the powder at the place of articulation. The experimenter can then use a mirror to photograph the entire upper surface of the speaker's mouth. This photograph, in which the place of articulation can be seen as the area where the powder has been removed, is called a palatogram.Technology ha... | Speech organ |
c_db978ewuquxh | In order to understand how the genome arose, knowledge is required of the chemical pathways that permit formation of the key building blocks of the genome under plausible prebiotic conditions. According to the RNA world hypothesis free-floating ribonucleotides were present in the primitive soup. These were the fundamen... | Genome evolution |
c_wmv90sbt3mn8 | Molecules as complex as RNA must have arisen from small molecules whose reactivity was governed by physico-chemical processes. RNA is composed of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides, both of which are necessary for reliable information transfer, and thus Darwinian natural selection and evolution. Nam et al. demonstrated ... | Genome evolution |
c_vime8bdd15t9 | In order to understand how the human mind makes the human perception of self, there are different experimental techniques. One of the more common methods of determining brain areas that pertain to different mental processes is by using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging. fMRI data is often used to determine activati... | Neural basis of self |
c_61n0ntw4puru | In order to understand linguistic intelligence, it is important to understand the mechanisms that control speech and language. These mechanisms can be broken down into four major groups: speech generation (talking), speech comprehension (hearing), writing generation (writing), and writing comprehension (reading). In a ... | Linguistic intelligence |
c_7607irz2dc74 | In order to understand magneto-mechanical behaviour of MREs, theoretical studies need to be performed which couple the theories of electromagnetism with mechanics. Such theories are called theories of magneto-mechanics. | Magnetorheological elastomer |
c_klmc5ma3eb2n | In order to understand meiosis, a comparison to mitosis is helpful. The table below shows the differences between meiosis and mitosis. | Metaphase II |
c_5uso864ekyi0 | In order to understand morphogenetic events, i.e. the growth and shaping of tissues and organs, it is necessary to analyze the packing of cells into tissues. In that context, an analysis of patterning processes can help to identify the underlying mechanisms that drive morphogenesis. == References == | Lewis' law |
c_dtu55vh72gau | In order to understand representations more easily, a decomposition of the representation space into the direct sum of simpler subrepresentations would be desirable. This can be achieved for finite groups as we will see in the following results. More detailed explanations and proofs may be found in and . Theorem. | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_u5jp7of71ibv | (Maschke) Let Ο: G β GL ( V ) {\displaystyle \rho :G\to {\text{GL}}(V)} be a linear representation where V {\displaystyle V} is a vector space over a field of characteristic zero. Let W {\displaystyle W} be a G {\displaystyle G} -invariant subspace of V . {\displaystyle V.} | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_lcqjkui40qyx | Then the complement W 0 {\displaystyle W^{0}} of W {\displaystyle W} exists in V {\displaystyle V} and is G {\displaystyle G} -invariant.A subrepresentation and its complement determine a representation uniquely. The following theorem will be presented in a more general way, as it provides a very beautiful result about... | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_93fq0f00jfxm | Note that this decomposition is not unique. However, the number of how many times a subrepresentation isomorphic to a given irreducible representation is occurring in this decomposition is independent of the choice of decomposition. The canonical decomposition To achieve a unique decomposition, one has to combine all t... | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_qk4514wnqn2s | That means, the representation space is decomposed into a direct sum of its isotypes. This decomposition is uniquely determined. It is called the canonical decomposition. | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_kiwbxvithacf | Let ( Ο j ) j β I {\displaystyle (\tau _{j})_{j\in I}} be the set of all irreducible representations of a group G {\displaystyle G} up to isomorphism. Let V {\displaystyle V} be a representation of G {\displaystyle G} and let { V ( Ο j ) | j β I } {\displaystyle \{V(\tau _{j})|j\in I\}} be the set of all isotypes of V ... | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_jkn6eb140h8b | The projection p j: V β V ( Ο j ) {\displaystyle p_{j}:V\to V(\tau _{j})} corresponding to the canonical decomposition is given by p j = n j g β t β G Ο Ο j ( t ) Β― Ο ( t ) , {\displaystyle p_{j}={\frac {n_{j}}{g}}\sum _{t\in G}{\overline {\chi _{\tau _{j}}(t)}}\rho (t),} where n j = dim β‘ ( Ο j ) , {\displaystyle n_{j... | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_9bx0t4t9dbji | For every representation ( Ο , V ) {\displaystyle (\rho ,V)} of a group G {\displaystyle G} we define V G := { v β V: Ο ( s ) v = v β s β G } . {\displaystyle V^{G}:=\{v\in V:\rho (s)v=v\,\,\,\,\forall \,s\in G\}.} In general, Ο ( s ): V β V {\displaystyle \rho (s):V\to V} is not G {\displaystyle G} -linear. | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_fdc50em9y3ar | We define P := 1 | G | β s β G Ο ( s ) β End ( V ) . {\displaystyle P:={\frac {1}{|G|}}\sum _{s\in G}\rho (s)\in {\text{End}}(V).} Then P {\displaystyle P} is a G {\displaystyle G} -linear map, because β t β G: β s β G Ο ( s ) = β s β G Ο ( t s t β 1 ) . | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_gyjy5ad8r9vn | {\displaystyle \forall t\in G:\qquad \sum _{s\in G}\rho (s)=\sum _{s\in G}\rho (tst^{-1}).} Proposition. The map P {\displaystyle P} is a projection from V {\displaystyle V} to V G . | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_vn4hjqbq7a1q | {\displaystyle V^{G}.} This proposition enables us to determine the isotype to the trivial subrepresentation of a given representation explicitly. How often the trivial representation occurs in V {\displaystyle V} is given by Tr ( P ) . | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_drobwuendme3 | {\displaystyle {\text{Tr}}(P).} This result is a consequence of the fact that the eigenvalues of a projection are only 0 {\displaystyle 0} or 1 {\displaystyle 1} and that the eigenspace corresponding to the eigenvalue 1 {\displaystyle 1} is the image of the projection. Since the trace of the projection is the sum of al... | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_chwjfxja8umr | Let V Ο {\displaystyle V_{\pi }} be a nontrivial irreducible representation of G . {\displaystyle G.} Then the isotype to the trivial representation of Ο {\displaystyle \pi } is the null space. | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_75bv80np4vj6 | That means the following equation holds P = 1 | G | β s β G Ο ( s ) = 0. {\displaystyle P={\frac {1}{|G|}}\sum _{s\in G}\pi (s)=0.} | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_i5xodpbts6wk | . , e n {\displaystyle e_{1},...,e_{n}} be an orthonormal basis of V Ο . | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_2rm1puxrmiqp | {\displaystyle V_{\pi }.} Then we have: β s β G Tr ( Ο ( s ) ) = β s β G β j = 1 n β¨ Ο ( s ) e j , e j β© = β j = 1 n β¨ β s β G Ο ( s ) e j , e j β© = 0. {\displaystyle \sum _{s\in G}{\text{Tr}}(\pi (s))=\sum _{s\in G}\sum _{j=1}^{n}\langle \pi (s)e_{j},e_{j}\rangle =\sum _{j=1}^{n}\left\langle \sum _{s\in G}\pi (s)e_{j}... | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_ty6z6ka4dkid | Therefore, the following is valid for a nontrivial irreducible representation V {\displaystyle V}: β s β G Ο V ( s ) = 0. {\displaystyle \sum _{s\in G}\chi _{V}(s)=0.} Example. | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_xmlemlyh1lrb | Let G = Per ( 3 ) {\displaystyle G={\text{Per}}(3)} be the permutation groups in three elements. Let Ο: Per ( 3 ) β GL 5 ( C ) {\displaystyle \rho :{\text{Per}}(3)\to {\text{GL}}_{5}(\mathbb {C} )} be a linear representation of Per ( 3 ) {\displaystyle {\text{Per}}(3)} defined on the generating elements as follows: Ο (... | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_30jor9x3ll0z | This representation can be decomposed on first look into the left-regular representation of Per ( 3 ) , {\displaystyle {\text{Per}}(3),} which is denoted by Ο {\displaystyle \pi } in the following, and the representation Ξ·: Per ( 3 ) β GL 2 ( C ) {\displaystyle \eta :{\text{Per}}(3)\to {\text{GL}}_{2}(\mathbb {C} )} wi... | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_rfvvlb1fejnv | This is because (in terms of the inner product from βInner product and charactersβ below) we have ( Ξ· | Ξ· ) = 1 , ( Ο | Ο ) = 2. {\displaystyle (\eta |\eta )=1,(\pi |\pi )=2.} The subspace C ( e 1 + e 2 + e 3 ) {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} (e_{1}+e_{2}+e_{3})} of C 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{3}} is invariant with res... | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_4it4tivinur4 | Restricted to this subspace we obtain the trivial representation. The orthogonal complement of C ( e 1 + e 2 + e 3 ) {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} (e_{1}+e_{2}+e_{3})} is C ( e 1 β e 2 ) β C ( e 1 + e 2 β 2 e 3 ) . {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} (e_{1}-e_{2})\oplus \mathbb {C} (e_{1}+e_{2}-2e_{3}).} | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_0j19auuwjn2c | Restricted to this subspace, which is also G {\displaystyle G} βinvariant as we have seen above, we obtain the representation Ο {\displaystyle \tau } given by Ο ( 1 , 2 ) = ( β 1 0 0 1 ) , Ο ( 1 , 3 ) = ( 1 2 3 2 1 2 β 1 2 ) , Ο ( 2 , 3 ) = ( 1 2 β 3 2 β 1 2 β 1 2 ) . {\displaystyle \tau (1,2)={\begin{pmatrix}-1&0\\0&1... | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_85fqljzckf09 | Now, Ξ· {\displaystyle \eta } and Ο {\displaystyle \tau } are isomorphic because Ξ· ( s ) = B β Ο ( s ) β B β 1 {\displaystyle \eta (s)=B\circ \tau (s)\circ B^{-1}} for all s β Per ( 3 ) , {\displaystyle s\in {\text{Per}}(3),} in which B: C 2 β C 2 {\displaystyle B:\mathbb {C} ^{2}\to \mathbb {C} ^{2}} is given by the ma... | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_f2t8rshrnza9 | We obtain the canonical decomposition by combining all the isomorphic irreducible subrepresentations: Ο 1 := Ξ· β Ο {\displaystyle \rho _{1}:=\eta \oplus \tau } is the Ο {\displaystyle \tau } -isotype of Ο {\displaystyle \rho } and consequently the canonical decomposition is given by Ο = Ο 1 β 1 , C 5 = C ( e 1 , e 2 , ... | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_0d4lk6tlhedt | This will be demonstrated by the following example: let G = { A β GL 2 ( C ) | A is an upper triangular matrix } . {\displaystyle G=\{A\in {\text{GL}}_{2}(\mathbb {C} )|\,A\,\,{\text{ is an upper triangular matrix}}\}.} Together with the matrix multiplication G {\displaystyle G} is an infinite group. | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_3vsibt2xfkcv | G {\displaystyle G} acts on C 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{2}} by matrix-vector multiplication. We consider the representation Ο ( A ) = A {\displaystyle \rho (A)=A} for all A β G . {\displaystyle A\in G.} | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_jh7m9o3zvj89 | The subspace C e 1 {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} e_{1}} is a G {\displaystyle G} -invariant subspace. However, there exists no G {\displaystyle G} -invariant complement to this subspace. The assumption that such a complement exists would entail that every matrix is diagonalizable over C . | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_b589jg7qqr3n | {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} .} This is known to be wrong and thus yields a contradiction. The moral of the story is that if we consider infinite groups, it is possible that a representation - even one that is not irreducible - can not be decomposed into a direct sum of irreducible subrepresentations. | Representation theory of finite groups |
c_7x7h0v6cjg7m | In order to understand social capital as a subject in geography, one must look at it in a sense of space, place, and territory. In its relationship, the tenets of geography relate to the ideas of social capital in the family, community, and in the use of social networks. The biggest advocate for seeing social capital a... | Social capital |
c_4p3tpfs5nysr | In 1984, Anthony Giddens developed a theory in which he relates social structures and the actions that they produce. In his studies, he does not look at the individual participants of these structures, but how the structures and the social connections that stem from them are diffused over space. If this is the case, th... | Social capital |
c_hm00a6vdk0o5 | If an area is plagued by social organizations whose goals are to revolt against social norms, such as gangs, it can cause a negative social capital for the area causing those who disagreed with these organizations to relocate thus taking their positive social capital to a different space than the negative. Another area... | Social capital |
c_nxnuvu1wmus8 | People that participate are of different races, ages, and economic status. With these in mind, variances of the space in which these different demographics may vary, causing a difference in involvement among areas. Secondly, there are different social programs for different areas based on economic situation. | Social capital |
c_zrx0sw3w47k6 | A governmental organization would not place a welfare center in a wealthier neighborhood where it would have very limited support to the community, as it is not needed. Thirdly, social capital can be affected by the participation of individuals of a certain area based on the type of institutions that are placed there. ... | Social capital |
c_4mbautv9o474 | In order to understand the cause of post-traumatic wrist osteoarthritis it is important to know and understand the anatomy of the wrist. The hand is subdivided into three parts: Wrist Metacarpus DigitsThe wrist consists of eight small carpal bones. Each of these carpal bones has a different size and shape. They contrib... | Wrist osteoarthritis |
c_1mckxhce2v0d | In order to understand the construction of Exal, the notion of square-zero extensions must be defined. Fix a topos T {\displaystyle T} and let all algebras be algebras over it. Note that the topos of a point gives the special case of commutative rings, so ignoring the topos hypothesis can be ignored on a first reading. | Exalcomm |
c_bsmx5lkdr4n6 | In order to understand the effect of roughness on SPPs, it is beneficial to first understand how a SPP is coupled by a grating Figure2. When a photon is incident on a surface, the wave vector of the photon in the dielectric material is smaller than that of the SPP. In order for the photon to couple into a SPP, the wave... | Surface plasmon polariton |
c_5du5kik3r1um | k S P P = k x , photon Β± n k grating = Ο c sin β‘ ΞΈ 0 Β± n 2 Ο a , {\displaystyle k_{SPP}=k_{x,{\text{photon}}}\pm n\ k_{\text{grating}}={\frac {\omega }{c}}\sin {\theta _{0}}\pm n{\frac {2\pi }{a}},} where k grating {\displaystyle k_{\text{grating}}} is the wave vector of the grating, ΞΈ 0 {\displaystyle \theta _{0}} is ... | Surface plasmon polariton |
c_byrxj4sht44m | Assuming that the statistical correlation function is Gaussian of the form G ( x , y ) = Ξ΄ 2 exp β‘ ( β r 2 Ο 2 ) {\displaystyle G(x,y)=\delta ^{2}\exp \left(-{\frac {r^{2}}{\sigma ^{2}}}\right)} where Ξ΄ {\displaystyle \delta } is the root mean square height, r {\displaystyle r} is the distance from the point ( x , y ) ... | Surface plasmon polariton |
c_x6mm5l0ue3iw | For a random surface, s {\displaystyle s} becomes continuous and the range of coupling angles broadens. As stated earlier, SPPs are non-radiative. When a SPP travels along a rough surface, it usually becomes radiative due to scattering. | Surface plasmon polariton |
c_0446ybw0x2p1 | The Surface Scattering Theory of light suggests that the scattered intensity d I {\displaystyle dI} per solid angle d Ξ© {\displaystyle d\Omega } per incident intensity I 0 {\displaystyle I_{0}} is d I d Ξ© I 0 = 4 Ξ΅ 0 cos β‘ ΞΈ 0 Ο 4 Ξ» 4 | t 012 p | 2 | W | 2 | s ( k surf ) | 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {dI}{d\Omega \ I_{0}}}... | Surface plasmon polariton |
c_sciahqjvkouo | The first is that if Ο = 0 {\displaystyle \psi =0} (s-polarization), then | W | 2 = 0 {\displaystyle |W|^{2}=0} and the scattered light d I d Ξ© I 0 = 0 {\displaystyle {\frac {dI}{d\Omega \ I_{0}}}=0} . Secondly, the scattered light has a measurable profile which is readily correlated to the roughness. This topic is tre... | Surface plasmon polariton |
c_rk7vlr9ziq61 | In order to understand the effects that changes in biodiversity will have on ecosystem functioning, it is important to define some terms. Biodiversity is not easily defined, but may be thought of as the number and/or evenness of genes, species, and ecosystems in a region. This definition includes genetic diversity, or ... | Ecological effects of biodiversity |
c_coqm9wlk2mo6 | Two things commonly measured in relation to changes in diversity are productivity and stability. Productivity is a measure of ecosystem function. It is generally measured by taking the total aboveground biomass of all plants in an area. | Ecological effects of biodiversity |
c_dxxyhnc53715 | Many assume that it can be used as a general indicator of ecosystem function and that total resource use and other indicators of ecosystem function are correlated with productivity. Stability is much more difficult to define, but can be generally thought of in two ways. General stability of a population is a measure th... | Ecological effects of biodiversity |
c_ovoxhb1m3fh0 | In order to understand the impact and creation of institutions during early state formation, economic historians Stanley Engerman and Kenneth Sokoloff examined the economic development of the Americas during colonization. They found that the beginnings of the success or failure of American colonies were based on the sp... | Climatic determinism |
c_r0wy80k9inst | Those that were most successful developed an ability to change and adapt to new circumstances over time. For example, the development of economic institutions, such as plantations, was caused by the need for a large property and labor force to harvest sugar and tobacco, while smallholder farms thrived in areas where sc... | Climatic determinism |
c_frmb5gkn4m22 | This is demonstrated by the plantation owning elite using their power to secure long lasting government institutions and pass legislation that leads to the persistence of inequality in society. Engerman and Sokoloff found smallholder economies to be more equitable since they discouraged an elite class from forming, and... | Climatic determinism |
c_ofuu9i4kryb3 | Over time these institutional advantages had exponential effects, as colonies with educated and free populations were better suited to take advantage of technological change during the industrial revolution, granting country wide participation into the booming free-market economy.Engerman and Sokoloff conclude that whi... | Climatic determinism |
c_rvzz0j9wa9ic | The authors also argue that while not the only means for success, institutional development has long lasting-economic and social effects on the state.Other prominent scholars contest the extent to which factor endowments determine economic and political institutions.American economists William Easterly and Ross Levine ... | Climatic determinism |
c_nxui6hlgql8q | Other states like Canada with fewer endowments are more stable and have higher per capita incomes.Easterly and Levine further observe that studies of how the environment directly influences land and labor were tarred by racist theories of underdevelopment, but that does not mean that such theories can be automatically ... | Climatic determinism |
c_3ughiotfr6kb | However, Easterly and Levine's findings most support the view that long-lasting institutions most shape economic development outcomes. Relevant institutions include private property rights and the rule of law.Jeffrey B. Nugent and James A. Robinson similarly challenge scholars like Barrington Moore who hold that certai... | Climatic determinism |
c_pj4h4po8mo4x | Nugent and Robinson show that coffee economies in South America pursued radically different paths of political and economic development during the nineteenth century.Some coffee states, like Costa Rica and Colombia, passed laws like the Homestead Act of 1862. They favored smallholders, held elections, maintained small ... | Climatic determinism |
c_6sv3bwbghv0g | Smallholder arrangements prompted widespread government investment in education. Other states like El Salvador and Guatemala produced coffee on plantations, where individuals were more disenfranchised. Whether a state became a smallholder or plantation state depended not on factor endowments but on norms established un... | Climatic determinism |
c_hqr1vmiu3p2r | In order to understand the importance of production support, one needs to take a few factors into account. Studies have found that the maintenance cost of software is more than 90% of the total cost. We also know that software spends much more time in production than development because it needs to verify the propertie... | Production support |
c_2v65goy3xc1e | In order to understand the individual references on learning a language on individual adults Morgan-Short et al (2014) designed a study that included seven test sessions in which βcognitive, measures of declarative and procedural learning, intelligence, language training, practice (grammar), artificial language practic... | Implicit memory |
c_b9j6i5uaqk4l | In order to understand the links between the innate immune response and the adaptive immune response to help substantiate an adjuvant function in enhancing adaptive immune responses to the specific antigen of a vaccine, the following points should be considered: Innate immune response cells such as dendritic cells engu... | Vaccine adjuvant |
c_09i3qsqbsp81 | Ξ³Ξ΄ T cells possess characteristics of both the innate and adaptive immune responses. Macrophages can also activate T cells in a similar approach (but do not do so naturally).This process carried out by both dendritic cells and macrophages is termed antigen presentation and represents a physical link between the innate ... | Vaccine adjuvant |
c_70kedt4n0jqf | In addition, mast cells also release chemokines which result in the positive chemotaxis of other immune cells of both the innate and adaptive immune responses to the infected area.Due to the variety of mechanisms and links between the innate and adaptive immune response, an adjuvant-enhanced innate immune response resu... | Vaccine adjuvant |
c_5645v0pw2ymu | First, adjuvants may help in the translocation of antigens to the lymph nodes where they can be recognized by T cells. This will ultimately lead to greater T cell activity resulting in a heightened clearance of pathogen throughout the organism. Second, adjuvants may provide physical protection to antigens which grants ... | Vaccine adjuvant |
c_ssvjiphr4mfa | This means the organism will be exposed to the antigen for a longer duration, making the immune system more robust as it makes use of the additional time by upregulating the production of B and T cells needed for greater immunological memory in the adaptive immune response. Third, adjuvants may help to increase the cap... | Vaccine adjuvant |
c_jnjla0m29hzj | In order to understand the movement of the MBCTV inside its hosts, experiments have been conducted using PCR analysis which allow for the detection and quantification of MBCTV particles inside leafhoppers. One such study measured the amounts of MBCTV found in the gut, hemocoel and salivary glands of beet leafhoppers an... | Beet leafhopper |
c_dc26yk1i5wh4 | This mechanism is similar to the transmission mechanism used by "Spiroplasma citri" in transmitting the Stubborn citrus disease which also uses the beet leafhopper as a vector. In the same study, researchers were able to detect viral particles of MBCTV in beet leafhopper guts after as soon as an hour of feeding on infe... | Beet leafhopper |
c_soqf5g2z457z | These findings suggest that the insects become virulent very shortly after feeding on infected plants. The study also found that as time of feeding on infected plants increased, the numbers of viral particles in the gut, hemocoel and salivary glands of the insects also increased, even though there were individual diffe... | Beet leafhopper |
c_8a4dt9e35b27 | The authors propose that this indicates that MBCTV is unable to replicate within its vector. It was also found that the virus is not transmitted between generations of beet leafhoppers from adults to nymphs, proposing that the virus does not use transovarial transmission.In another study, waveforms from electrical pene... | Beet leafhopper |
c_6p8eva06va61 | As insects feed on different parts of the plant, they produce different EPG waves which can be measured using probes wired to the insects. Researchers found that D waveforms were most likely to coincide with successful inoculation of the plant with BCTV. This waveform is also the same waveform which is produced during ... | Beet leafhopper |
c_hxp312qolrrr | In order to understand the nature of memristor function, some knowledge of fundamental circuit theoretic concepts is useful, starting with the concept of device modeling.Engineers and scientists seldom analyze a physical system in its original form. Instead, they construct a model which approximates the behaviour of th... | Lithium-oxide memristor |
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