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In January 1846, they returned to Brussels to establish the Communist Correspondence Committee.In 1847, they began writing The Communist Manifesto (1848), based on Engels' The Principles of Communism. Six weeks later, they published the 12,000-word pamphlet in February 1848. In March, Belgium expelled them, and they mo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
By 1849, they had to leave Cologne for London. The Prussian authorities pressured the British government to expel Marx and Engels, but Prime Minister Lord John Russell refused.After Marx died in 1883, Engels became the editor and translator of Marx's writings. With his Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the S... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
With the October Revolution in 1917, the Bolsheviks took power from the Russian Provisional Government. The Bolsheviks established the first socialist state based on the ideas of soviet democracy and Leninism. Their newly formed federal state promised to end Russian involvement in World War I and establish a revolution... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
This period is marked by the establishment of many socialist policies and the development of new socialist ideas, mainly in the form of Marxism–Leninism.In 1919, the nascent Soviet Government established the Communist Academy and the Marx–Engels–Lenin Institute for doctrinal Marxist study and to publish official ideolo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
At the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War and, more widely, World War II, the Chinese Communist Revolution occurred within the context of the Chinese Civil War. The Chinese Communist Party, founded in 1921, conflicted with the Kuomintang over the country's future. Throughout the Civil War, Mao Zedong developed a theor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
Mao found a large base of support in the peasantry as opposed to the Russian Revolution, which found its primary support in the urban centres of the Russian Empire. Some significant ideas contributed by Mao were the ideas of New Democracy, mass line and people's war. The People's Republic of China (PRC) was declared in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
The new socialist state was to be founded on the ideas of Marx, Engels, Lenin and Stalin.From Stalin's death until the late 1960s, there was increased conflict between China and the Soviet Union. De-Stalinization, which first began under Nikita Khrushchev, and the policy of detente, were seen as revisionist and insuffi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
In 1959, the Cuban Revolution led to the victory of Fidel Castro and his July 26 Movement. Although the revolution was not explicitly socialist, upon victory, Castro ascended to the position of prime minister and adopted the Leninist model of socialist development, allying with the Soviet Union. One of the leaders of t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
Upon Mao Zedong's death, his rivals seized political power, and under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, many of Mao's Cultural Revolution era policies were revised or abandoned, and much of the state sector was privatised.The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the collapse of most of those socialist states that had professe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
At the turn of the 21st century, China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam remained the only officially Marxist–Leninist states remaining, although a Maoist government led by Prachanda was elected into power in Nepal in 2008 following a long guerrilla struggle.The early 21st century also saw the election of socialist... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
Venezuelan Trotskyist organizations do not regard Chávez as a Trotskyist, with some describing him as a bourgeois nationalist, while others consider him an honest revolutionary leader who made significant mistakes due to him lacking a Marxist analysis.For Italian Marxist Gianni Vattimo and Santiago Zabala in their 2011... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
At an event celebrating the 200th anniversary of Marx's birth, Xi said, "We must win the advantages, win the initiative, and win the future. We must continuously improve the ability to use Marxism to analyse and solve practical problems", adding that Marxism is a "powerful ideological weapon for us to understand the wo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
Criticism of Marxism has come from various political ideologies and academic disciplines. This includes general criticism about lack of internal consistency, criticisms related to historical materialism, that it is a type of historical determinism, the necessity of suppression of individual rights, issues with the impl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
... Sometimes it is necessary to devote time to clarifying and developing the concepts that we use, but indeed for Western Marxists this has become an end in itself. The result is a body of writings incomprehensible to all but a tiny minority of highly qualified scholars. "Additionally, some intellectual critiques of M... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
Philosopher and historian of ideas Leszek Kołakowski pointed out that "Marx's theory is incomplete or ambiguous in many places, and could be 'applied' in many contradictory ways without manifestly infringing its principles." Specifically, he considers "the laws of dialectics" as fundamentally erroneous, stating that so... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
Critics of Marxism claim that Marx's predictions have failed, with some pointing towards the GDP per capita generally increasing in capitalist economies compared to less market-oriented economics, the capitalist economies not suffering worsening economic crises leading to the overthrow of the capitalist system and comm... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
Democratic socialists and social democrats reject the idea that socialism can be accomplished only through extra-legal class conflict and a proletarian revolution. The relationship between Marx and other socialist thinkers and organizations—rooted in Marxism's "scientific" and anti-utopian socialism, among other factor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
Anarchism has had a strained relationship with Marxism. Anarchists and many non-Marxist libertarian socialists reject the need for a transitory state phase, claiming that socialism can only be established through decentralized, non-coercive organization. Anarchist Mikhail Bakunin criticized Marx for his authoritarian b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
Other critiques come from an economic standpoint. Vladimir Karpovich Dmitriev writing in 1898, Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz writing in 1906–1907, and subsequent critics have alleged that Marx's value theory and the law of the tendency of the rate of profit to fall are internally inconsistent. In other words, the critics a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
This result calls into question his theory that exploiting workers is the sole source of profit.Marxism and socialism have received considerable critical analysis from multiple generations of Austrian economists regarding scientific methodology, economic theory and political implications. During the marginal revolution... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
Second-generation Austrian economist Eugen Böhm von Bawerk used praxeological and subjectivist methodology to fundamentally attack the law of value. Gottfried Haberler has regarded his criticism as "definitive", arguing that Böhm-Bawerk's critique of Marx's economics was so "thorough and devastating" that he believes t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
This led him to declare that "rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth. "Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson argue that Marx's economic theory was fundamentally flawed because it attempted to simplify the economy into a few general laws that ignored the impact of institutions on the economy... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism |
Marumakkathayam was a system of matrilineal inheritance prevalent in regions what now form part of the southern Indian state Kerala. Descent and the inheritance of property was passed from maternal uncle to nephews or nieces. It was followed by Nair, Ambalavasi and a few other communities. The eldest male was considere... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marumakkathayam |
The properties were not inherited by his sons, but the children of his sisters. It has to be noted that this system was not matriarchal as is sometimes misinterpreted, and was strongly patriarchal with only a male allowed to be the head of the family.The word literally means inheritance by sisters' children, as opposed... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marumakkathayam |
The joint family under the matrilineal system is known as Tharavad and formed the nucleus of the society in Malabar. The customary law of inheritance was codified by the Madras Marumakkathayam Act 1932, Madras Act No. 22 of 1933, published in the Fort St. George Gazette on 1 August 1933. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marumakkathayam |
Malabar was part of the Madras Presidency in British India. In the Madras Marumakkathayam Act 1932, 'Marumakkathayam' is defined as the system of inheritance in which descent is traced by females, and 'Marumakkathayee' means a person governed by the Marumakkathayam law of inheritance. The system of inheritance is now a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marumakkathayam |
By the beginning of the 20th century, marumakkathayam was increasingly seen as an undesirable remnant of a feudal past, and discontented groups including Nair men sought to bring reform. The reforms were pushed through in spite of opposition from conservative factions led by Kesava Pillai of Kandamath in the Travancore... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marumakkathayam |
The International Semiotics Institute (abbreviated as ISI) is an international research institute, devoted to the study and dissemination of semiotics and interdisciplinary studies. Activities include research, publications, academic events, teaching, consultations, training and supervision, but also extra-academic pro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Semiotics_Institute |
The institute was created in order to promote international teaching of semiotics and to facilitate the mobility of students in the field. After few years, the project turned into a center for research and events. Since the beginning of its activities and until 2014, Prof. Eero Tarasti has been the director and leading... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Semiotics_Institute |
ISI served as the meeting place for nearly one hundred events, ranging from seminars to summer congresses, plus periodical or occasional meetings of organizations like the Finnish Society of Semiotics, the Musical Signification Project, the International Association for Semiotic Studies and other Nordic and Finno-Ugria... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Semiotics_Institute |
International Woodworkers of America, Local 2-69 v Consolidated-Bathurst Packaging Ltd, 1 SCR 282 is a leading Canadian administrative law case on the issue of procedural fairness and bias. The Supreme Court of Canada held that full board meetings of the Ontario Labour Relations Board to discuss matters of policy in r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Woodworkers_of_America,_Local_2-69_v_Consolidated-Bathurst_Packaging_Ltd |
This action arose from a labour dispute resulting from the closure of a corrugated container plant in Hamilton operated by Consolidated-Bathurst Packaging Ltd. on April 26, 1983. Prior to this closure, the union and the management had been engaged in collective bargaining, which resulted in an agreement dated April 22,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Woodworkers_of_America,_Local_2-69_v_Consolidated-Bathurst_Packaging_Ltd |
The International Woodworkers of America filed an application with the Ontario Labour Relations Board for relief, arguing that the management had not bargained in good faith as they did not disclose information relevant to the negotiations during the process. The Board had previously decided a similar issue in United E... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Woodworkers_of_America,_Local_2-69_v_Consolidated-Bathurst_Packaging_Ltd |
Management argued that speculative information did not need to be disclosed (and on the facts of the case the decision regarding the plant closure could not be definitively established). The union argued that there is a duty disclose if the employer was "seriously considering an action which if carried out will have a ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Woodworkers_of_America,_Local_2-69_v_Consolidated-Bathurst_Packaging_Ltd |
According to the Board, the purpose of the full Board meeting was to discuss issues of policy that affect future cases. It had been the custom of the Board to hold such meetings in order to discuss decisions in order to create certainty and uniformity in their decisions, although the full Board meeting did not have pow... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Woodworkers_of_America,_Local_2-69_v_Consolidated-Bathurst_Packaging_Ltd |
A majority of the Court held that the full Board meetings were justified in order for individual members of the Board to benefit from the collective experience of all its members, and to ensure uniformity of decisions rendered by the Board.The Court considered "whether the disadvantages involved in this practice are su... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Woodworkers_of_America,_Local_2-69_v_Consolidated-Bathurst_Packaging_Ltd |
A discussion does not prevent a decision maker from adjudicating in accordance with his own conscience and opinions nor does it constitute an obstacle to this freedom. Whatever discussion may take place, the ultimate decision will be that of the decision maker for which he assumes full responsibility. Nonetheless, the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Woodworkers_of_America,_Local_2-69_v_Consolidated-Bathurst_Packaging_Ltd |
The rules of natural justice must have the flexibility required to take into account the institutional pressures faced by modern administrative tribunals as well as the risks inherent in such a practice. ... The consultation process adopted by the Board formally recognizes the disadvantages inherent in full board meeti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Woodworkers_of_America,_Local_2-69_v_Consolidated-Bathurst_Packaging_Ltd |
The Supreme Court of Canada re-affirmed its decision in Tremblay v. Quebec (Commission des affaires sociales) and Ellis-Don Ltd. v. Ontario (Labour Relations Board). They further clarified that meetings involving members not on the panel hearing the case could constitute inappropriate influence if the applicant could s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Woodworkers_of_America,_Local_2-69_v_Consolidated-Bathurst_Packaging_Ltd |
People's democracy is a theoretical concept within Marxism–Leninism and a form of government which developed after World War II and allows in theory for a multi-class and multi-party democracy on the pathway to socialism. People's democracy was established in a number of European and Asian countries as a result of the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
György Lukács was one of the first to suggest the possibility of communists working for a democratic republic in his Blum Thesis of 1929. Lukacs recounted in 1967: It is hard for most people to imagine how paradoxical this sounded then. Although the Sixth Congress of the Third International did mention this as a possib... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
Many Old Bolsheviks had thought at the time that these revolutions were the vanguard of the world revolution, but the latter never materialized. It was this very reality that had driven the development of the idea of socialism in one country as the Soviet Union's own path. With such historical lessons in mind, Stalin s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
After the defeat of Nazi Germany and its allies in Eastern Europe, Marxist–Leninist theoreticians first began expanding on the idea of a possible peaceful transition to socialism, given the presence of the Soviet Red Army. In most areas of Eastern Europe, the Communist Parties did not immediately take power directly bu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
Many of the ruling Marxist–Leninist parties no longer called themselves Communist in their official title as they had in the 1930s. The Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED) for instance was ostensibly a union of the SPD and the Communist Party of Germany. Many of the other European states were ruled by Worker's or So... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
In the Eastern Bloc, people's democracy was a synonym for socialist state. The origins of the idea of people's democracy can be traced back to both the idea of popular front governments, which were coalitions of anti-fascist parties, such as the one that existed in Spain. The theory was perhaps first articulated by Bul... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
For one, the Soviet Union had to justify the creation of Soviet-aligned governments to the existing, non-Communist, political movements within Eastern European countries. The theory of people's democracy allowed the Soviet Union to assuage the concerns of such movements, as people's democracies were to be governed by a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
For example, Ruth Amende Rosa stated: the U.S.S.R. apparently felt obliged to establish its own position of ideological "leadership" in eastern Europe and, simultaneously, to fit the concept of "people's democracy" into the body of orthodox Marxist-Leninist doctrine. — Ruth Amende Rosa, World Politics , Jul., 1949, Vol... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
1, No. 4, The Soviet Theory of "People's Democracy" The work of Marxian economist Eugen Varga was of particular importance to the development of the theory of people's democracy. His work entitled Changes in the Economy of Capitalism Resulting from the Second World War gave an explanation as to why newly emerging State... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
This reflected the changed view within the Soviet Union that the character of the people's democracies was identical to that of the USSR itself.The theory of people's democracy underwent a considerable change. In its initial conception, the theory stated that the newly emerging Soviet-aligned states were totally differ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
While Richard F. Staar argues that the initial instance of the theory was used to conceal the true intentions of establishing a one-party dictatorship in the model of the Soviet Union, other scholars have suggested that the uncertain nature of the time when the original theory was formulated help to account for why the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
While people's democracies were considered a form of the dictatorship of the proletariat, classes such as the peasantry, petite bourgeoisie and progressive bourgeoisie were allowed to participate. Nikita Khrushchev explicitly stated that the possibility of peaceful transition to people's democracy was predicated on the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
The common features characteristic of people's democracy as a form of the dictatorship of the proletariat were determined by the broad social base underlying the socialist revolutions that occurred in the European and Asian countries after World War II, their relatively peaceful development and the assistance and suppo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
The parties united in the Popular Front to fight fascism and imperialism; under these conditions, the multi-party system helped to expand the social base of the revolution and better fulfil the tasks facing it. Leading positions were held by Communist and Workers' Parties (this was the case in the East Germany, Hungary... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
merged with Social-Democratic parties on the basis of Marxism-Leninism (q. v. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
), while in Hungary and Romania the multi-party system was replaced by a single-party one. Trotskyists and other dissident anti-Stalinist Communists were against the idea of people's democracy which they saw as denying the Leninist insistence on the class essence of all state power. The Marxists Internet Archive dictio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
It was quite explicitly envisaged that capitalist property would be protected. When no bourgeois party could be found with whom to form a 'popular front' the Communist Party created their own. Artificial 'parties' were created to represent the various social classes who were 'invited' to form coalition governments. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
The presence of 'deputies' representing absolutely impotent 'parties' in rubber-stamp 'parliaments' does not make a two-class or three-class state. The 'Peoples Democracy' program proved unworkable however. The combination of the pressure of the working class and peasantry in favour of expropriation of the capitalists ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
In Soviet-occupied Europe, the Red Army was the State. The social relations of production upon which the Red Army rested, i.e. the political-economy of the Soviet Union, imposed themselves upon the countries it occupied. Stalin's diplomacy could not eradicate the fundamental antagonism between the workers' state and in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_democracy_(Marxism–Leninism) |
The Scholia Sinaitica are fragments of a work of Roman law written in Greek, dating between 438 and 529 AD, containing comments to the books 35-38 of Ulpian's ad Sabinum treatise. The papyrus fragments that show parts of the work were discovered by the Greek scholar Gregorios Bernardakis in the 19th century in a Mount ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholia_Sinaitica |
Conservation and restoration of metals is the activity devoted to the protection and preservation of historical (religious, artistic, technical and ethnographic) and archaeological objects made partly or entirely of metal. In it are included all activities aimed at preventing or slowing deterioration of items, as well ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
An essential cause of deterioration is corrosion of metal objects or object deterioration by interaction with the environment. As the most influential factors of deterioration of historical objects should be pointed out as the relative humidity and air pollution while in archaeological objects a crucial role has compos... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Organic materials usually fail in a relatively short period of time, primarily due to biodegradation. With inorganic materials are these processes considerably longer and more complex. Amount of gases, humidity, depth and composition of soil are very important. In case of salty and sweet water finds essential are amoun... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Physical force is one of the most common means of damage to metal objects, which "are considered to be strong and resilient though exhibit weakness and brittleness under certain conditions." This includes breakage, dents, and scratches which occur in accidents, improper storage and mounting, mishandling, and over-polis... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Low melting point alloys, such as pewter or lead-tin, are at risk of damage due to fire, though other metals are not at risk from the fire itself, but the pollutants caused by smoke. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Contact with water, or a complete immersion in water, will lead to some degree of corrosion. The more oxygenated the water is, or the higher quantity of salt present in the water, will cause a more rapid and aggressive corrosion to metal. Short term exposure to water "can result in rapid surface corrosion, such as when... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Atmospheric pollutants are one of the more common agents of deterioration for metals, with tin and tin alloys most affected and resulting in corrosion. Most common pollutants include dirt, soot, dust, and chemicals. Fingerprints, salts, fatty acids, and polish residues can also cause corrosion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Higher temperatures increase the rate of chemical reactions and corrosion. Temperature also affects relative humidity, thus should be monitored and controlled. The higher the relative humidity (65% and above), the higher the risk of corrosion. Lead is the least affected by high humidity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
As with the conservation and restoration works on any other material, here are the basic tenets of conservation-restoration based on the quality of execution and the best possible preservation of cultural, historical and technological identity and integrity of objects. Minimal intervention, reversibility and repeatabil... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Nowadays, scientific research is an integral part of conservation treatment of metals, in which different scientific methods and techniques help in determining what should be done in the preservation and care of the object. Conservators investigate the materials and techniques used in the creation of an object to bette... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
In preparing the strategy of a metals conservation project, an interdisciplinary approach is essential. This implies the participation and close collaboration between as many experts as is possible. At minimum, the curator (archaeologist, historian, or art historian), a scientist specialized in the corrosion of metalli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Systematic and well-managed documentation is an essential prerequisite for quality conservation and restoration treatment as "it is no longer considered acceptable to undertake a conservation treatment without recording the object and the intervention." Conservation documentation should include the state of the object'... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
The ethical concept of conservation of metal objects in principle is the same as those in other fields of conservation-restoration of cultural heritage. However, there are several specific problems that can only be found in the conservation of metals; problems of heat treatment of archaeological objects, and the proble... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Preventive conservation, also known as collections care or risk management, encompasses all actions taken to prolong the life of an object." and is an important element of museum policy. Members of the museum profession are entrusted to create and maintain a protective environment for the collections in their care. A g... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Emergency planning, environmental safeguards and monitoring are all types of preventive conservation. Scientific research continues to discover new ways of safeguarding collections. Today various monitoring devices assist in the observation of changes in the Agents of Deterioration and other changes that may assist in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
In the image to the right a device is being attached to the Liberty Bell to monitor any changes in the crack. Metallic heritage objects are sensitive to environmental conditions such as exposure to light and ultraviolet light, temperature, relative humidity, water and moisture, and various pollutants especially chlorid... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Whether in storage, on display, or in transit metals are best preserved in a "moderate climate that avoids extreme temperature and RH fluctuations and that excludes daylight and/or filters out ultraviolet light and infrared radiation and air pollution provides the appropriate environment for collection preservation." A... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Particularly valuable items can be placed in sealed micro-climate containers with an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon. Metals with active corrosion fare better with lower relative humidity: copper or copper alloy objects up to 35% RH and iron objects 12–15% RH. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Clean and well organized storage areas are important but materials in the environment are also considered. Wood and wood-based products (particle board, plywood) can off-gas and cause metals to deteriorate. Shelves in the storerooms are best when made of stainless steel or chlorine and acetate free plastic or powder co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Metals can be damaged by the use of rubber, felt, wool or the oil on our skin, so it is recommended to wear cotton gloves when handling metal objects. Other materials stored with or a part of a metal object, may impact or be impacted by the environment. Organic materials for instance may hold moisture or be more suscep... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
This could impact the metals' stability. Lighting levels for metal preservation is best kept below 300 lux (up to 150 lux in case of lacquered or painted objects, up to 50 lux in case of objects with light sensitive materials). There are many lighting options available, including LED lights and filters that block harmf... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Interventive conservation or treatment is an intrusion and a deliberate attempt to alter the physical and/or chemical aspects of an object in an attempt to preserve and/or restore object. "In accordance with NPS Management Policies, conservation treatments are done as a last resort, kept to a minimum, and should be rev... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Preserving the original materials and minimizing invasive treatments reduces "the chances of compromising the aesthetic, archaeological, cultural, historical, physical, religious, or scientific integrity of objects." Interventive treatments are needed when an object is disintegrating or fragile and the treatment will p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Planning will assist in making the best decision in a restorative, interventive treatment for the object and the situation. Similar to many other bronze statues, the statue of Joseph of Portugal had an interventive conservation treatment. The conservation decision made to remove the patina most likely happened for two ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
There are many nameless people associated with metal conservation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Ancient civilizations used seven metals: Iron, Tin, Lead, Copper, Mercury, Silver, and Gold as objects of adornment, religious artifacts, and weaponry. Metals were important, and protective conservation measures taken as a copper pendant from northern Iraq dating 8,700 BCE and the 4450 BCE gold artifacts from Bulgarian... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Prior to the late 1800s treatments consisted of reconstruction and repair by craftsmen, familiar with the object materials and corrosion was thought to be a type of bacteria. In the late 1800s, scientists began looking into understanding the causes of deterioration and corrosion. In 1888: Flinders Petrie (1853-1942) pu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
At the turn of the century French chemist, Marcellin Berthelot(1827-1907), presented several papers before the French Academy of Sciences stating the deterioration of bronze and silver artifacts were due to a cyclic process of corrosive chloride salts. Rathgen continued scientific research on Bronze disease to understa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Rathgen applied a scientific method to museum artifact preservation and by continuing to research, develop, apply and publish his findings on his physical and chemical methods and formulating guidelines for application, he became a principle force in the standard's acceptance. He is considered the founder of modern che... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
During World War I (WWI) bombings, museums protected their collections by moving them to various locations. Many went into the damp London tunnels. After the war, the British Museum, lucky enough not to be bombed, reassembled the collection. After two years stored in high humidity, the objects were severely damaged wit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
The UK Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) hired Scottish Alexander Scott (1853–1947), as director of scientific research in what became the British Research Laboratory in 1920. In 1922, conservator and archaeologist, Harold Plenderleith (1898–1997), became the first full time chemist affiliated wit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
In 1934, Harold Plenderleith published The Preservation of Antiquities, which contains vital information on the conservation preservation of metals and the Agents of Deterioration we know today.In the 1930s and 1940s, institutions in western Europe and the United States recognized the need for prevention of artifacts b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Foreshadowing the International Council of Museums (ICOM) in 1946 with its first general conference held in Paris in 1948. In preparation of WWII the museums again put the art into the underground tube tunnels but this time crates were stacked to allow air circulation. The British Museum commissioned a secret climate-c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Moving and re-moving art and artifacts to stable and healthy environmental conditions permitted the deterioration to be minimal compared to WWI. Plenderleith who treated the artifacts after WWI, found no damage to the British Museum's collection when they returned from the controlled tunnel environment.The United State... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
George L. Stout, founder of the first conservation laboratory in the United States and one of the Monuments Men in Europe, was determined to create a standard of long-term preservation conservation. In 1949, his lecture for the American Association of Museums conference in Chicago, "Long-range Conservation" raised the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
do we conserve. This began the spread of a collective consciousness. As a result, in 1950, the International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC) was formed and Stout became its first president. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
In 1958, the ICC published an updated edition of H.J. Plenderlief's "The Conservation of Antiquities and Works of Art". One of the first systematic explanation of the mechanisms of deterioration including metals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
In 1951, at the Sixth Session of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) general conference, the Swiss government proposed establishment of a global institution to encourage research and awareness of conservation. In 1959, Plenderleith became the first director of the International Cen... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
As a result of the scientific research in well over the last 100 years, conservation has become more focused on: the preservation of a collection, the control of the environment and the agents of deterioration. ICOM -CC Metals working group Conferences in 1995, 1998, 2001 , 2004, 2007, 2010, 2013, 2016, and 2019 are al... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Providing information on the newest research innovations of preservation and conservation treatments of metals and the interactions with their surroundings. The last thirty plus years have also stressed minimalist conservation measures, but these methods of treatment can often come into conflict with visitor and someti... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
Corrosion and metal artifacts: a dialogue between conservators and archaeologists and corrosion scientists, Washington 1977. (online) Conservation & restoration of metals: proceedings of the symposium held in Edinburgh, 30–31 March 1979., Edinburgh 1979. Stambolov, T. The corrosion and conservation of metallic antiquit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_metals |
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