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Newcomers to the state machine formalism often confuse state diagrams with flowcharts. The figure below shows a comparison of a state diagram with a flowchart. A state machine (panel (a)) performs actions in response to explicit events. In contrast, the flowchart (panel (b)) does not need explicit events but rather tra... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_diagram |
Nodes of flowcharts are edges in the induced graph of states. The reason is that each node in a flowchart represents a program command. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_diagram |
A program command is an action to be executed. So it is not a state, but when applied to the program's state, it results in a transition to another state. In more detail, the source code listing represents a program graph. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_diagram |
Executing the program graph (parsing and interpreting) results in a state graph. So each program graph induces a state graph. Conversion of the program graph to its associated state graph is called "unfolding" of the program graph. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_diagram |
The program graph is a sequence of commands. If no variables exist, then the state consists only of the program counter, which keeps track of where in the program we are during execution (what is the next command to be applied). In this case before executing a command the program counter is at some position (state befo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_diagram |
Executing the command moves the program counter to the next command. Since the program counter is the whole state, it follows that executing the command changed the state. So the command itself corresponds to a transition between the two states. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_diagram |
Now consider the full case, when variables exist and are affected by the program commands being executed. Then between different program counter locations, not only does the program counter change, but variables might also change values, due to the commands executed. Consequently, even if we revisit some program comman... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_diagram |
In the previous case, the program would be in the same state, because the whole state is just the program counter, so if the program counterpoints to the same position (next command) it suffices to specify that we are in the same state. However, if the state includes variables, then if those change value, we can be at ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_diagram |
A self transition is a transition where the initial and the final state are the same. A representative example is a do loop incrementing some counter until it overflows and becomes 0 again. Although the do loop executes the same increment command iteratively, so the program graph executes a cycle, in its state space is... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_diagram |
This results from the state being the program location (here cycling) combined with the counter value, which is strictly increasing (until the overflow), so different states are visited in sequence, until the overflow. After the overflow the counter becomes 0 again, so the initial state is revisited in the state space,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_diagram |
You can compare a flowchart to an assembly line in manufacturing because the flowchart describes the progression of some task from beginning to end (e.g., transforming source code input into object code output by a compiler). A state machine generally has no notion of such a progression. The door state machine shown at... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_diagram |
An interesting extension is to allow arcs to flow from any number of states to any number of states. This only makes sense if the system is allowed to be in multiple states at once, which implies that an individual state only describes a condition or other partial aspect of the overall, global state. The resulting form... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_diagram |
The Nederlandse Centrale Catalogus (NCC) is the official Dutch bibliographic catalog and metadata index system that links to and consolidates the catalogs of over 400 libraries in the Netherlands. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederlandse_Centrale_Catalogus |
The NCC contains bibliographic data and locations of more than 14 million books and 500,000 magazines operating in more than 400 Netherlands libraries are found. The database is updated by the libraries that participate in the Gemeenschappelijk Geautomatiseerd Catalogussysteem (GGC; Shared Automated Cataloguing System)... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederlandse_Centrale_Catalogus |
The catalog data has been digitized and is openly accessible online, in multiple languages, via the Dutch website, PiCarta. A GGC identifier is synonymous with PPN (PICA Production Number), which derives its name from PICA, makers of PiCarta, the main producer of library systems in the Netherlands that was acquired in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederlandse_Centrale_Catalogus |
The NCC was founded in 1919 through the initiative of Philipp Christiaan Molhuysen, PhD (1870–1944), librarian and biographer of the Dutch Royal Library and notable pioneer of library science, who, among other things, spearheaded the first effort on record to centralize a catalog for all books in Dutch libraries. The i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederlandse_Centrale_Catalogus |
Even though intimacy has been broadly defined in terms of romantic love and sexual desire, the neuroanatomy of intimacy needs further explanation in order to fully understand their neurological functions in different components within intimate relationships, which are romantic love, lust, attachment, and rejection in l... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
Pair bonding, or intense social attachment, normally initiates partner preference in sexual situations and monogamy in many mammalian species. Monogamous species generally exhibit an exclusive responsibility to each other as well as co-parenting to their offspring. Studies using monogamous prairie voles (Microtus ochro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
Two important neuropeptides that mediated pair bond formation were oxytocin and arginine vasopressin (AVP). Even though both males and females have both molecules, oxytocin was shown to be predominantly in females and vasopressin predominantly promoted pair bonding in males. Receptor specificity was shown essential for... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
Romantic love is described as involving an individual who pays closer attention to another individual in special ways, involving attention on traits worthy to pursue. Through functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), studies have shown that the right ventral tegmental area (VTA) is stimulated when subjects are show... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
These functional components of the limbic system are important components of emotional processing, motivation, and memory. Specifically, current research also suggests components, such as the hypothalamus, as playing a role in romantic love because it possesses the penchant for bonding in mammals by secreting the neuro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
Lust, also known as libido, is defined as pursuing sexual gratification. It is primarily driven by the endocrine system, but the brain is also involved in neural processing. Specifically, the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) and hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axes play primary roles in the priming for sex as ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
Dopamine is then released when an individual is aroused, which associates lust as a product of the dopaminergic reward system. However, interactions of sex and romantic love do not have the same goal orientation, which helps to confirm the difference in brain activation patterns. Contrasting with the primary goal of ro... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
Rejection in love is considered unrequited or unreciprocated love. Separation from a loved one can cause grief and sometimes lead to an individual expressing characteristics of depression. In a study, symptoms seen in nine women who had experienced a recent breakup suggested involvement of certain neuroanatomy. Eating,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
Other neuroanatomy that registered unrequited love included the cerebellum, insular cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and prefrontal cortex. All of the areas that were activated showed decreased activity when subjects emotionally reflected about the beloved rejecter.In contrast, another study observed significant incr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
Results from this study suggest that rejected lovers have same stimulation of brain regions because they are still "in love" with their rejecters. Since romantic love follows the dopaminergic reward system, the anticipatory nature of receiving a reward as well as deciding on losses and gains in decision making, allows ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
The first is the "protest" stage where they try to win back the rejecter. The second stage or the "rejection" stage is where they feel resignation and despair, eventually leading to continuing life without the rejecter. On the other hand, the involvement of the reward gain/loss pathways intrinsic to survival provides i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
An attachment between a mother and child arises from behavioral changes during birth, which includes lactation. Release of oxytocin is important in the birthing process for the mother–child pair bond to occur in both individuals. Lactation relies on the constant release of oxytocin for the release of milk in the breast... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
However, the only regions that were specific to maternal love were the orbitofrontal and lateral prefrontal cortex as well as the occipital and lateral fusiform cortex. Moreover, oxytocin is important between the mother and her offspring, so it is suggested that oxytocin deficiency can influence how successfully the of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
Love activates the same neural circuitry as maladaptive drugs, such as cocaine. Dopaminergic reward pathways are involved to elicit a response of gaining a reward and reinforcement, thereby leading some researchers to believe that love is addictive. Love and drugs of abuse stimulate similar levels of dopamine for rewar... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
The amygdala, a key player in emotional processing, is suggested different between men and women. In males, emotions are considered to be primarily directed from the right hemisphere; on the other hand, it is primarily directed from the left hemisphere in females. One study that tested positively and negatively valence... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
In males, positively valenced words activated the left sensorimotor cortex, angular gyrus, left hippocampus, left frontal eye field and the right cerebellum, while females had activations in the right putamen, right superior temporal gyrus, left supramarginal gyrus, left inferior frontal gyrus and the left sensorimotor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
Known as the insecure feeling of a partner in regards to losing their loved one to another, jealousy can result in extreme situations such as violence and abuse from the insecure partner to their beloved. In one study, men and women were shown sentences that suggested sexual and emotional infidelity and rated the inten... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
In males, activation of brain areas that were induced by sexual infidelity laden statements included the visual cortex, middle temporal gyrus, amygdala, hippocampus, and claustrum. In females, the visual cortex, middle frontal gyrus, thalamus, and cerebellum were activated. It was found that males showed more stimulati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
In males, the visual cortex, medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, precentral gyrus, cingulate cortex, insula, hippocampus, thalamus, caudate, hypothalamus, and cerebellum were shown to be activated. In females, activations in the visual cortex, medial frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus, angular gyrus, thalamus,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroanatomy_of_intimacy |
In the history of artificial intelligence, neat and scruffy are two contrasting approaches to artificial intelligence (AI) research. The distinction was made in the 70s and was a subject of discussion until the middle 80s. "Neats" use algorithms based on a single formal paradigms, such as logic, mathematical optimizati... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
Neats verify their programs are correct with theorems and mathematical rigor. Neat researchers and analysts tend to express the hope that this single formal paradigm can be extended and improved to achieve general intelligence and superintelligence. "Scruffies" use any number of different algorithms and methods to achi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
Scruffies rely on incremental testing to verify their programs and scruffy programming requires large amounts of hand coding or knowledge engineering. Scruffies have argued that general intelligence can only be implemented by solving a large number of essentially unrelated problems, and that there is no magic bullet th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
The scruffy approach is more like biology, where much of the work involves studying and categorizing diverse phenomena.Modern AI has elements of both scruffy and neat approaches. In the 1990s AI research applied mathematical rigor to their programs, as the neats did. They also express the hope that there is a single pa... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
The distinction between neat and scruffy originated in the mid-1970s, by Roger Schank. Schank used the terms to characterize the difference between his work on natural language processing (which represented commonsense knowledge in the form of large amorphous semantic networks) from the work of John McCarthy, Allen New... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
The laboratory was famously "freewheeling" and researchers often developed AI programs by spending long hours fine-tuning programs until they showed the required behavior. Important and influential "scruffy" programs developed at MIT included Joseph Weizenbaum's ELIZA, which behaved as if it spoke English, without any ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
Maintaining a larger version of the program proved to be impossible, i.e. it was too scruffy to be extended. Other AI laboratories (of which the largest were Stanford, Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Edinburgh) focused on logic and formal problem solving as a basis for AI. These institutions supported ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
The contrast between MIT's approach and other laboratories was also described as a "procedural/declarative distinction". Programs like SHRDLU were designed as agents that carried out actions. They executed "procedures". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
Other programs were designed as inference engines that manipulated formal statements (or "declarations") about the world and translated these manipulations into actions. In his 1983 presidential address to Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence, Nils Nilsson discussed the issue, arguing that "the fi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
The scruffy approach was applied to robotics by Rodney Brooks in the mid-1980s. He advocated building robots that were, as he put it, Fast, Cheap and Out of Control, the title of a 1989 paper co-authored with Anita Flynn. Unlike earlier robots such as Shakey or the Stanford cart, they did not build up representations o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
The Cyc database contains millions of facts about all the complexities of the world, each of which must be entered one at a time, by knowledge engineers. Each of these entries is an ad hoc addition to the intelligence of the system. While there may be a "neat" solution to the problem of commonsense knowledge (such as m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
In 1986 Marvin Minsky published The Society of Mind which advocated a view of intelligence and the mind as an interacting community of modules or agents that each handled different aspects of cognition, where some modules were specialized for very specific tasks (e.g. edge detection in the visual cortex) and other modu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
The trick is that there is no trick. The power of intelligence stems from our vast diversity, not from any single, perfect principle. As of 1991, Minsky was still publishing papers evaluating the relative advantages of the neat versus scruffy approaches, e.g. “Logical Versus Analogical or Symbolic Versus Connectionist ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
New statistical and mathematical approaches to AI were developed in the 1990s, using highly developed formalisms such as mathematical optimization and neural networks. Pamela McCorduck wrote that "As I write, AI enjoys a Neat hegemony, people who believe that machine intelligence, at least, is best expressed in logical... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
Neats John McCarthy Allen Newell Herbert A. Simon Edward Feigenbaum Robert Kowalski Judea PearlScruffies Rodney Brooks Terry Winograd Marvin Minsky Roger Schank Doug Lenat | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neats_and_scruffies |
The Perruchet effect is a psychological phenomenon in which a dissociation is shown between conscious expectation of an event and the strength or speed of a response to the event. This can be demonstrated by sequential analyses of consecutive trials such as eye blinking conditioning, electrodermal shocks and cued go/no... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perruchet_effect |
The propositional reasoning on the relationship between two events, in which inferences drawn from the sequential presentation of events would cast a conscious expectancy on the next event.Thus, it contrasts traditional strength theory in associative learning and expectancy theory in propositional learning.The Perruche... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perruchet_effect |
In 1985, Perruchet conducted an eyeblink conditioning paradigm to evaluate the expectancy theory in human conditioning. A neutral conditioned stimulus (CS) - a musical tone was paired with an unconditioned stimulus – an air-puff of nitrogen gas (US) to participants’ eyes. Based on classical conditioning, after repeated... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perruchet_effect |
During the experiment, trial sequences were generated in randomised intermittent - in each trial, presentations of CS-alone and CS-US pairs had equal chances of 50%. The participants were fully informed of such randomisation. The strength of conditioned responses in different lengths of trial runs (i.e., sequences with... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perruchet_effect |
Research has shown that in electrodermal conditionings i.e., skin conductance paradigms, the conscious expectancy of stimuli is essential towards generating conditioned responses. Reaction time paradigms were also developed to examine the Perruchet effect in other conditioning formats, e.g., in cued go/no-go and simple... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perruchet_effect |
The Perruchet paradigm was designed with the foundation of two contrasting theories, strength theory and expectancy theory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perruchet_effect |
The strength theory is based on the traditional model of associative learning and concerns automatic link formations via event contingencies. For example, in classical conditioning, the theory suggests that repeated enhancement in association between CS and US (i.e., presentation of CS-US pairs) strengthens the unconsc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perruchet_effect |
Many literatures support the importance of conscious awareness in conditioning. In particular, the propositional model of associative learning suggests that the inference from CS to US brings a conscious expectancy of US based on CS. The propositional knowledge (inference) then generates conditioned response. In Perruc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perruchet_effect |
This is an incorrect perception as the likelihood of each event happening is always constant (if given), and the probabilities of events are independent from each other, i.e., the outcome of next event should have no relation with any previous event. Such a cognitive bias can be partially explained by representative he... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perruchet_effect |
The dual-processing model of associative learning accounts for both primitive, implicit system of automatic link formations and conscious, effortful system of contingency inferences in associative learning. The Perruchet effect supports the dual-processing theory with the dissociation of conscious expectancy from condi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perruchet_effect |
An alternative view is the single-processing model of learning, which proposes that associative learning only depends on the non-automatic, conscious processing system of propositional evaluations. For instance, conditioned responses are completely attributed to conscious expectancy of events.Based on recent reviews, m... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perruchet_effect |
Possible confounding factors such as potential non-associative influences and unconditioned stimuli sensitizations are identified. For instance, in the eye blinking conditioning, the generation of conditioned responses, blinking can be solely due to the recency of unconditioned stimuli, air-puff, still being in effect.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perruchet_effect |
Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any or all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on language and the ways it is used. It can overlap with the sociology of language, which focuses on the effect of language on society. Sociolinguistics overlaps considerably wi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Sociolinguistics' historical interrelation with anthropology can be observed in studies of how language varieties differ between groups separated by social variables (e.g., ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc.) and/or geographical barriers (a mountain range, a desert, a river, etc.). Such ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
The social aspects of language were in the modern sense first studied by Indian and Japanese linguists in the 1930s, and also by Louis Gauchat in Switzerland in the early 1900s, but none received much attention in the West until much later. The study of the social motivation of language change, on the other hand, has i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
The study of sociolinguistics in the West was pioneered by linguists such as William Labov in the US and Basil Bernstein in the UK. In the 1960s, William Stewart and Heinz Kloss introduced the basic concepts for the sociolinguistic theory of pluricentric languages, which describes how standard language varieties differ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
A sociolinguist might study how social attitudes determine what is considered appropriate language use or inappropriate language use in a particular setting. Sociolinguists might also study the grammar, phonetics, vocabulary, and other aspects of various sociolects. Sociolinguists also study language on a national leve... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
He focuses on the quantitative analysis of variation and change within languages, making sociolinguistics a scientific discipline.Studies in the field of sociolinguistics typically take a sample population and interview them, assessing the realization of certain sociolinguistic variables. A commonly studied source of v... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Sociolinguists concerned with grammatical and phonological features that correspond to regional areas are often called dialectologists. Another Method is the Matched-guise test. This technique has the listener listen to a pair of words and evaluate them based on personality and dialect, as some groups have shared views... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
The sociolinguistic interview is the foundational method of collecting data for sociolinguistic studies, allowing the researcher to collect large amounts of speech from speakers of the language or dialect being studied. The interview takes the form of a long, loosely-structured conversation between the researcher and t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
For example, the researcher may attempt to elicit narratives of memorable events from the subject's life, such as fights or near-death experiences; the subject's emotional involvement in telling the story is thought to distract their attention from the formality of the context. Some researchers interview multiple subje... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
The correlations of demographic features such as age, gender, and ethnicity with speech behavior may be studied by comparing the speech of different interview subjects. Interviews with native language speakers can be used in an attempt to study dying languages as well. This is depicted in the documentary The Linguists. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
While the study of sociolinguistics is very broad, there are a few fundamental concepts on which many sociolinguistic inquiries depend. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Speech community is a concept in sociolinguistics that describes a distinct group of people who use language in a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves. This is sometimes referred to as a Sprechbund. To be considered part of a speech community, one must have a communicative competence. That is, the speaker ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
It is possible for a speaker to be communicatively competent in more than one language.Demographic characteristics such as areas or locations have helped to create speech community boundaries in speech community concept. Those characteristics can assist exact descriptions of specific groups' communication patterns. Spe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Members of speech communities will often develop slang or specialized jargon to serve the group's special purposes and priorities. This is evident in the use of lingo within sports teams. Community of Practice allows for sociolinguistics to examine the relationship between socialization, competence, and identity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Since identity is a very complex structure, studying language socialization is a means to examine the micro-interactional level of practical activity (everyday activities). The learning of a language is greatly influenced by family, but it is supported by the larger local surroundings, such as school, sports teams, or ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Crucial to sociolinguistic analysis is the concept of prestige; certain speech habits are assigned a positive or a negative value, which is then applied to the speaker. This can operate on many levels. It can be realized on the level of the individual sound/phoneme, as Labov discovered in investigating pronunciation of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
An important implication of the sociolinguistic theory is that speakers 'choose' a variety when making a speech act, whether consciously or subconsciously. The terms acrolectal (high) and basilectal (low) are also used to distinguish between a more standard dialect and a dialect of less prestige.It is generally assumed... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
This is because the working class dialect is generally considered a powerful in-group marker. Historically, humans tend to favor those who look and sound like them, and the use of non-standard varieties (even exaggeratedly so) expresses neighborhood pride and group and class solidarity. There will thus be a considerabl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Understanding language in society means that one also has to understand the social networks in which language is embedded. A social network is another way of describing a particular speech community in terms of relations between individual members in a community. A network could be loose or tight depending on how membe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
A large course with 100+ students would be a looser community because students may only interact with the instructor and maybe 1–2 other students. A multiplex community is one in which members have multiple relationships with each other. For instance, in some neighborhoods, members may live on the same street, work for... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
The looseness or tightness of a social network may affect speech patterns adopted by a speaker. For instance, Sylvie Dubois and Barbara Horvath found that speakers in one Cajun Louisiana community were more likely to pronounce English "th" as (or as ) if they participated in a relatively dense social network (i.e. h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Sociolinguistics as a field distinct from dialectology was pioneered through the study of language variation in urban areas. Whereas dialectology studies the geographic distribution of language variation, sociolinguistics focuses on other sources of variation, among them class. Class and occupation are among the most i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Members of the working class tend to speak less of what is deemed standard language, while the lower, middle, and upper middle class will, in turn, speak closer to the standard. However, the upper class, even members of the upper middle class, may often speak 'less' standard than the middle class. This is because not o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Studies, such as those by William Labov in the 1960s, have shown that social aspirations influence speech patterns. This is also true of class aspirations. In the process of wishing to be associated with a certain class (usually the upper class and upper middle class) people who are moving in that direction socio-econo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
The same is true for individuals moving down in socio-economic status. In any contact situation, there is a power dynamic, be it a teacher-student or employee-customer situation. This power dynamic results in a hierarchical differentiation between languages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Basil Bernstein, a well-known British socio-linguist, devised in his book, 'Elaborated and restricted codes: their social origins and some consequences,' a method for categorizing language codes according to variable emphases on verbal and extraverbal communication. He claimed that factors like family orientation, soci... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
According to Basil Bernstein, the restricted code exemplified the predominance of extraverbal communication, with an emphasis on interpersonal connection over individual expression. His theory places this code within environments that operate according to established social structures that predetermine the roles of the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
However, simplification is not a sign of a lack of intelligence or complexity within the code; rather, communication is performed more through extraverbal means (facial expression, touch, etc.) in order to affirm the speakers' bond. Bernstein notes the example of a young man asking a stranger to dance: there is an esta... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Basil Bernstein defined 'elaborated code' according to its emphasis on verbal communication over extraverbal. This code is typical in environments where a variety of social roles are available to the individual, to be chosen based upon disposition and temperament. Most of the time, speakers of elaborated code utilize a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Bernstein explains language development according to the two codes in light of their fundamentally different values. For instance, a child exposed solely to restricted code learns extraverbal communication over verbal, and therefore may have a less extensive vocabulary than a child raised with exposure to both codes. W... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Additionally, Bernstein notes several studies in language development according to social class. In 1963, the Committee for Higher Education conducted a study on verbal IQ that showed a deterioration in individuals from lower working classes ages 8–11 and 11–15 years in comparison to those from middle classes (having b... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
The idea of these social language codes from Bernstein contrast with famous linguist Noam Chomsky's ideas. Chomsky, deemed the "father of modern linguistics", argues that there is a universal grammar, meaning that humans are born with an innate capacity for linguistic skills like sentence-building. This theory has been... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
The study of language variation is concerned with social constraints determining language in its contextual environment. The variations will determine some of the aspects of language like the sound, grammar, and tone in which people speak, and even non-verbal cues. Code-switching is the term given to the use of differe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
There are several different types of age-based variation one may see within a population as well such as age range, age-graded variation, and indications of linguistic change in progress. The use of slang can be a variation based on age. Younger people are more likely to recognize and use today's slang while older gene... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
Variation may also be associated with gender. Men and women, on average, tend to use slightly different language styles. These differences tend to be quantitative rather than qualitative. That is, to say that women use a particular speaking style more than men do is akin to saying that men are taller than women (i.e., ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociolinguistics |
A peasant is a pre-industrial agricultural laborer or a farmer with limited land-ownership, especially one living in the Middle Ages under feudalism and paying rent, tax, fees, or services to a landlord. In Europe, three classes of peasants existed: non-free slaves, semi-free serfs, and free tenants. Peasants might hol... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasant |
In 21st-century English, the word "peasant" can mean "an ignorant, rude, or unsophisticated person". The word rose to renewed popularity in the 1940s–1960s as a collective term, often referring to rural populations of developing countries in general, as the "semantic successor to 'native', incorporating all its condesc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasant |
The word "peasant" is derived from the 15th-century French word païsant, meaning one from the pays, or countryside; ultimately from the Latin pagus, or outlying administrative district. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peasant |
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