text stringlengths 9 3.55k | source stringlengths 31 280 |
|---|---|
forces. The October 2000 USS Cole bombing proved a pivotal moment for private military companies at sea and directly led to the first contract between Blackwater and the U.S. military. Blackwater, and private military contractors in general, became notorious in the 21st century after their usage by the United States go... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Since the late 2000s, PMCs have become increasingly involved in anti-piracy measures in Somalia and other regions. PMCs remain active in this region, mainly providing security for private shipping through the Gulf of Aden and at times contracting to aid UN efforts. PMCs were hired to deter pirates from attacking vessel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Due to their decentralized nature, it can be difficult for the UN or other international organizations to provide effective oversight over what happens on the seas. Whereas the UN showed that between 2010 and 2015 there were over fifty encounters between the national sovereign navies that participated in the missions, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
On April 5, 2005, Jamie Smith, CEO of SCG International Risk announced the expansion of services from the traditional roles of PMCs of protection and intelligence to military aviation support. SCG International Air would provide air support, medevac (medical evacuation), rotary and fixed-wing transportation, heavy-lift... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In 2007, the American Uniform Code of Military Justice was amended to allow for prosecution of military contractors deployed in a "declared war or a contingency operation." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In 2008, the International Committee of the Red Cross, the Swiss government, and contributors from private security companies and the civil society/NGO sector developed and proposed the Montreux Document on Private Military and Security Companies, detailing international legal obligations and specific recommendations r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
As revealed in 2009 by Stoddard et al., the use of private security contractors by NGOs in dangerous regions is a highly sensitive subject. Quite often the contractors hired are local companies and mostly are unarmed personnel guarding facilities; only rarely are international contractors or mobile armed security perso... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Perceived association of PSPs with state security, police or military services in turn compromises the ability of NGOs to claim neutrality, leading to increased risk. Moreover, outsourcing may not necessarily lead to lower costs, and the cost of middlemen may result in more poorly paid and poorly trained personnel, who... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Finally, NGOs have obligations beyond strictly legal liability that include political, ethical and reputational implications: If the organisation's responsibility to prevent and mitigate any possible negative outcomes is better achieved through in-house security, it is argued, this should be their choice. The result is... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In 2012 were published the ISO/PAS 28007:2012 Guidelines for Private Maritime Security Companies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In December 2009, the Congressional Research Service, which provides background information to members of the United States Congress, announced that the deployment of 30,000 extra US troops into Afghanistan could be accompanied by a surge of "26,000 to 56,000" contractors. This would expand the presence of personnel fr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Also in December 2009, a US House of Representatives oversight subcommittee stated that it had begun a wide-ranging investigation into allegations that American private security companies that were hired to protect Defense Department convoys in Afghanistan would be paying off warlords and the Taliban to ensure safe pas... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In 1994 and 1995, the South African-based PMC Executive Outcomes was involved in two military actions in Africa. In the first conflict, Executive Outcomes fought on behalf of the Angolan government against UNITA after a UN-brokered peace settlement broke down. In the second action, Executive Outcomes was tasked with co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In 2000, ABC Television's international affairs program "Foreign Correspondent" broadcast a special report, "Sierra Leone: Soldiers of Fortune", focusing on the exploits of South African pilot Neall Ellis and his MI-24 Hind gunship. The report also investigated the failures of the UN Peacekeeping Force and the involvem... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Half of them worked for the South African company Omega Security Solutions, and the Americans worked for AQMI Strategy Corp. The men were accused of plotting to overthrow the government, but charges were not pressed. The men were deported to their home countries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Due to strain of United States Armed Forces, the U.S. State Department and The Pentagon has also outsourced the expanded military training in Africa to three companies: Military Professional Resources Inc., DFI International, and Logicon (now owned by Northrop Grumman). In 2015, STTEP International, (Specialised Tasks,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
The chairman of STTEP, Eeben Barlow, is the former CEO and founder of Executive Outcomes. The Central African-based park-ranger organization African Wildlife Defence Force contracts former servicemen and law enforcement personnel to protect national parks and private game ranches in Africa. Candidates must undergo addi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
They are also referred to as Private Ranger Contractors or PRC. According to the United States Institute of Peace (USIP), since 2017, the Russian-based PMC, Wagner Group, has been operating continuously in Sudan, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mozambique, as well as in other African countries. Under the guise of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
and African government sources, to be responsible for significant crimes against humanity. It is report that hundreds of contractors from the Russian PMC enter these countries each year. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
The Wagner Group has been accused of extreme violence against African civilians and human rights violations by the U.S. State Department and most European governments. According to the Washington Post, the South African PMC, Executive Outcomes (Founded in 1989), was committing atrocities in Sierra Leone up until the ea... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In the mid-2000s, a group of self-proclaimed former ANC freedom-fighters, known as the TRAKboys, began to emerge in fringe political circles within Johannesburg and Cape Town. They gained national attention in South Africa when they began calling upon leaders to demand an investigation by the Department of Justice and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In 1995, both Croatia and Bosnia hired Military Professional Resources Inc. (MPRI) to equip, train, and professionalize their armed forces. In 1999, an incident involving DynCorp in Bosnia was followed by a Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO) lawsuit being filed against DynCorp employees stationed... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In December 2006, there were estimated to be at least 100,000 contractors working directly for the United States Department of Defense in Iraq which was a tenfold increase in the use of private contractors for military operations since the Persian Gulf War, just over a decade earlier. The prevalence of PMCs led to the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
On 5 December 2005 U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld justified the use of PMCs in Iraq on the basis that they were cost effective and useful on the ground. He also affirmed that they were not subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice.Two days before he left Iraq, L. Paul Bremer signed "Order 17" giving al... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
A July 2007 report from the American Congressional Research Service indicates that the Iraqi government still had no authority over private security firms contracted by the U.S. government.In 2007, the Uniform Code of Military Justice was amended to allow for prosecution of military contractors who are deployed in a "d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
troops from Iraq, the U.S. State Department is reportedly planning to more than double the number of its private security guards, up to as many as 7,000. Defending five fortified compounds across the country, the security contractors would operate radars to warn of enemy rocket attacks, search for roadside bombs, fly r... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Its helicopter fleet, which will be piloted by contractors, will grow from 17 to 29.PMCs supplied support to U.S. military bases throughout the Persian Gulf, from operating mess halls to providing security. They supplied armed guards at a U.S. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Army base in Qatar, and they used live ammunition to train soldiers at Camp Doha in Kuwait. They maintained an array of weapons systems vital to the invasion of Iraq. They also provided bodyguards for VIPs, guard installations, and escort supply convoys from Kuwait. All these resources were called upon constantly.In 20... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Employees of private military company CACI and Titan Corp. were involved in the Iraq Abu Ghraib prison scandal in 2003, and 2004. The U.S. Army "found that contractors were involved in 36 percent of the proven incidents and identified 6 employees as individually culpable", although none have faced prosecution unlike U... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
On March 31, 2004, four American private contractors belonging to the company Blackwater USA were killed by insurgents in Fallujah as they drove through the town. They were dragged from their car in one of the most violent attacks on U.S. contractors in the conflict. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Following the attack, an angry mob mutilated and burned the bodies, dragging them through the streets before they were hung on a bridge. (See also: 31 March 2004 Fallujah ambush, Operation Vigilant Resolve) On March 28, 2005, 16 American contractors and three Iraqi aides from Zapata Engineering, under contract to the U... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Marine checkpoint. While later released, the contractors have levied complaints of mistreatment against the Marines who detained them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
On June 5, 2005, Colonel Theodore S. Westhusing committed suicide, after writing a report exonerating US Investigations Services of allegations of fraud, waste and abuse he received in an anonymous letter in May. On October 27, 2005, a "trophy" video, complete with post-production Elvis Presley music, appearing to show... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
According to the posters, the man who is seen shooting vehicles on this video in Iraq was a South African employee of Aegis Victory team named Danny Heydenreycher. He served in the British military for six years. After the incident the regional director for Victory ROC tried to fire Heydenreycher, but the team threaten... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Aegis, the U.S. Army, and the U.S. State Department each conducted a formal inquiry into the issue. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
The Army determined that there was no "probable cause to believe that a crime was committed." On September 17, 2007, the Iraqi government announced that it was revoking the license of the American security firm Blackwater USA over the firm's involvement in the deaths of seventeen Iraqis in a firefight that followed a c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Blackwater was one of the most high-profile firms operating in Iraq, with around 1,000 employees as well as a fleet of helicopters in the country. In 2014, four Blackwater employees were tried and convicted in U.S. federal court over the incident; one of murder, and the other three of manslaughter and firearms charges.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
On March 27, 2006, J. Cofer Black, the vice chairman of Blackwater USA, announced to attendees of a special operations exhibition in Jordan that his company could now provide a brigade-size force for low intensity conflicts. According to Black, "There is clear potential to conduct security operations at a fraction of t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In 2006, a US congressional report listed a number of PMCs and other enterprises that have signed contracts to carry out anti-narcotics operations and related activities as part of Plan Colombia. DynCorp was among those contracted by the State Department, and others signed contracts with the Defense Department. Other c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
The Russian Wagner Group have been deployed in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, fighting alongside the Russian Armed Forces since early 2022. In February 2023 it was reported that Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin signed a decree which allowed Gazprom to launch "a mercenary army". Several other mercenary gr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Since 2015, the United Arab Emirates hired an estimated 1,800 Latin American contractors and 400 Eritrean troops for training and combat to support the Yemeni government's efforts against the Houthi rebels during the Yemeni Civil War. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Contractors from the Hong Kong-incorporated Frontier Services Group (FSG) like Erik Prince have established close ties with Chinese state-owned firms since 2014 by providing security, logistics, and aviation for Chinese companies in dozens of countries across Asia, Africa, and Europe in connection with China's Belt and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
The Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted by national referendum on 12 December 1993, and entered into force on 25 December 1993. Article 13.5 reads: "The establishment and activities of public associations whose goals and activities are aimed at the forcible changing of the basis of the constitutional ord... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Petersburg International Economic Forum, as well as presented the PMC concept to representatives of the General Staff of the AFRF. At the time he proposed forming PMCs from retired military personnel and contractors.The existence of Russian PMCs seems to go as far back as 2011, when the Syrian Civil War kicked off and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
State-owned enterprise Rostec and its subsidiaries Rosboronexport and Technopromexport, as well as privately-owned StroyTransGaz (STG) and Tatneft have billions of dollars invested in international affairs and like to hire from the Russian PMC sector.In 2012 Vladimir Putin suggested to the State Duma to consider the le... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
It contracted employees through the Slavonic Corps shell company owned by Vadim Gusev and based in Hong Kong, to work for the régime of Bashar al-Assad but the latter failed "to fulfill their financial obligations, which caused problems with the housing and feeding of the fighters from Slavonic Corps." Meanwhile, 100 o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
They faced up to eight years imprisonment but were convicted for three. Regular squad members were reportedly unpaid and faced no prosecution in Russia.Not long after the Slavonic Corps fiasco, the Wagner Group PMC made its appearance on the scene. Near the end of 2014, Wagner was given the instructional role of local ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Prior to September 2015, the PMCs were Russia's only pseudo-military presence in Syria.Wagner and Moran both contributed in 2014 to the Russian War in Donbass; Wagner is known to have fought in Syria since late 2015. One manner of payment to the group is from 25% of the proceeds from captured and secured oil and gas in... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
The law "On the Security of Fuel and Energy Facilities" appears now to state that companies in this field "may be granted the right to establish a private security organisation".The organisation Molfar has investigated 37 private military companies in Russia, and found that all of them are or have been connected to Kre... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
By the end of 2012, the number of contractors who had died in Iraq, Afghanistan and Kuwait had reached 3,000. Scholars have studied whether contractor deaths have an effect on the public's "casualty sensitivity" when substituted for military fatalities. Casualty sensitivity refers to the inverse relationship between mi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In October 2007, the United Nations released a two-year study that reported that, although hired as "security guards", private contractors performed military duties. A spokesman for the American mission to the U.N. office in Geneva (UNOG) said that "Accusations that U.S. government-contracted security guards, of whatev... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
An observer noted that the difficulty in separating private from public troops means that legal proceedings against these violent non-state actors can be complicated, and stated that contracted combatants carry the legitimacy of the state that hires them.Demands for specific PSC services have grown to record levels in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Founded in 1955, American Society for Industrial Security (ASIS) is a society of individual security professionals dedicated to increasing the effectiveness and productivity of security professionals by developing educational programs and materials. ASIS is an ANSI-accredited Standards Developing Organization, and with... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In Marvel Television's The Punisher on Netflix, a PMC by the name of "ANVIL" is heavily featured. ANVIL's founder, Billy Russo, being one of the primary antagonists of the series. Much like real PMCs, ANVIL provides training spaces for U.S. forces on American and foreign soil. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In Rockstar North's 2013 title Grand Theft Auto V, Merryweather Security, a fictional PMC operating within the US, plays an antagonists role in the main plot. In the series of videogames Metal Gear, PMCs appear frequently both as enemies and allies. Metal Gear Solid: Peace Walker sees recurring main character Big Boss ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Raiden himself works for a PMC called Maverick. In Battlestate Games' 2017 title Escape From Tarkov, two fictional PMC groups USEC and BEAR appear as opposing factions. In Call of Duty series, PMCs appear as factions in the multiplayer mode and in the main campaign storylines, such as the Shadow Company PMC which is an... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
In Girls' Frontline the main character, the Commander is part of a PMC known as Griffin and Kryuger which operates in Eastern Europe, Central Europe, and the Balkans. In Saints Row a PMC known as Marshall Defense Industries is featured as antagonists. The player then becomes one of the board members after a scheme to d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Arnold, Guy. Mercenaries: The Scourge of the Third World. Palgrave Macmillan, 1999. ISBN 978-0-312-22203-1 Deborah D. Avant. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
The Market for Force: The Consequences of Privatizing Security. George Washington University, August 2005. ISBN 0-521-61535-6 Deborah D. Avant and Kara Kingma Neu. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
2019. "The Private Security Events Database." Journal of Conflict Resolution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Brillstein, Arik: Antiterrorsystem. Engel Publishing 2005 Brooks, Doug/ Rathgeber, Shawn Lee: The Industry Role in Regulating Private Security Companies, in: Canadian Consortium on Human Security - Security Privatization: Challenges and Opportunities, Vol. 6.3, University of British Columbia, March 2008. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Simon Chesterman & Chia Lehnardt, eds. From Mercenaries to Market: The Rise and Regulation of Private Military Companies. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2009. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Niccolò Machiavelli. The Prince. 1532. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
See ch. 12. Amy E. Eckert, Outsourcing War: The Just War Tradition in the Age of Military Privatization, Cornell University Press, 2016. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Robert Mandel. Armies Without States: The Privatization of Security. Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Phelps, Martha Lizabeth (2014). "Doppelgangers of the State: Private Security and Transferable Legitimacy". Politics & Policy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
42 (6): 824–849. doi:10.1111/polp.12100. Fred Schreier & Marina Caparini. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
"Privatising Security: Law, Practice and Governance of Private Military and Security Companies", DCAF Occasional Paper 6, The Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, March 2005. Filipa Guinote. "Private Military Firms and the State: Sharing Responsibility for Violations of Human Rights and Humanitaria... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
7, Venice: Marsilio Editori, 2006. David Shearer. Private Armies and Military Intervention, April 1998. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
ISBN 0-19-829440-9 P. W. Singer. Corporate Warriors: The Rise of the Privatized Military Industry. Cornell University Press, March 2004. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
ISBN 0-8014-8915-6 Stephan Maninger. "Soldiers of Misfortune – Is the Demise of National Armies a Core Contributing Factor in the Rise of Private Security Companies? ", Private Security and Military Companies: Chances, Problems, Pitfalls and Prospects, eds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Gerhard Kümmel & Thomas Jäger. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2007. ISBN 978-3-531-14901-1 Hin-Yan Liu. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
"Leashing the Corporate Dogs of War: The Legal Implications of the Modern Private Military Company", Journal of Conflict and Security Law 15(1) 2010: 141–168. doi:10.1093/jcsl/krp025 Woolley, Peter J. "Soldiers of Fortune," The Common Review, v. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
5, no. 4 (2007), pp. 46–48. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Petrovic Predrag, Milosevic Marko, Unijat Jelena & Stojanovic Sonja. Private Security Companies – a Friend or a foe? | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
. Centre for Civil-Military Relations, 2008. ISBN 978-86-83543-51-9 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Making A Killing, James Ashcroft. Virgin Books. ISBN 1-85227-311-9 Licensed to Kill: Privatizing the War on Terror, Robert Young Pelton ISBN 1-4000-9781-9 Three Worlds Gone Mad: Dangerous Journeys through the War Zones of Africa, Asia, and the South Pacific, Robert Young Pelton, August 2006. ISBN 1-59228-100-1 An Unort... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
ISBN 1-84018-349-7 Blackwater: The Rise of the World's Most Powerful Mercenary Army, Jeremy Scahill, Nation Books. February 2007. ISBN 978-1-56025-979-4 Contractor, Giampiero Spinelli Mursia Editore 2009 ISBN 978-88-425-4390-9 Guns For Hire: The Inside Story of Freelance Soldiering, Tony Geraghty, Portrait. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
2007. ISBN 978-0-7499-5145-0 Private Security Contractors in Iraq and Afghanistan: Legal Issues, Jennifer K. Elsea, Congressional Research Service, January 7, 2010 Irak, terre mercenaire: les armées privées remplacent les troupes américaines , by Georges-Henri Bricet des Vallons, Favre (Lausanne:Switzerland), January 2... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Only in French. Dirty Deeds Done Cheap: The Incredible Story of My Life from the SBS to a Hired Gun in Iraq, by Mike Mercer, John Blake. 2009. ISBN 978-1-84454-765-4 == External links == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_military_company |
Laser beam machining (LBM) is a form of machining that uses heat directed from a laser beam. This process uses thermal energy to remove material from metallic or nonmetallic surfaces. The high frequency of monochromatic light will fall on the surface, thus heating, melting and vaporizing the material due to the impinge... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_beam_machining |
Laser beam machining is best suited for brittle materials with low conductivity, but can be used on most materials.Laser beam machining can be done on glass without melting the surface. With photosensitive glass, the laser alters the chemical structure of the glass allowing it to be selectively etched. The glass is als... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_beam_machining |
There are many different types of lasers including gas, solid states lasers, and excimer.Some of the most commonly used gases consist of; He-Ne, Ar, and Carbon dioxide laser. Solid-state lasers are designed by doping a rare element into various host materials. Unlike in gas lasers, solid state lasers are pumped optical... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_beam_machining |
A ruby laser is a type of the solid state laser whose laser medium is a synthetic ruby crystal. The synthetic ruby rod is optically pumped using a xenon flashtube before it is used as an active laser medium.YAG is an abbreviation for yttrium aluminum garnet which are crystals that are used for solid-state lasers while ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_beam_machining |
The cutting depth of a laser is directly proportional to the quotient obtained by dividing the power of the laser beam by the product of the cutting velocity and the diameter of the laser beam spot. t ∝ P v d , {\displaystyle t\propto {\frac {P}{vd}},} where t is the depth of cut, P is the laser beam power, v is the cu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_beam_machining |
Lasers can be used for welding, cladding, marking, surface treatment, drilling, and cutting among other manufacturing processes. It is used in the automobile, shipbuilding, aerospace, steel, electronics, and medical industries for precision machining of complex parts. Laser welding is advantageous in that it can weld a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_beam_machining |
Drilling and cutting with lasers is advantageous in that there is little to no wear on the cutting tool as there is no contact to cause damage. Milling with a laser is a three dimensional process that requires two lasers, but drastically cuts costs of machining parts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_beam_machining |
Lasers can be used to change the surface properties of a workpiece. The appliance of laser beam machining varies depending on the industry. In light manufacturing the machine is used to engrave and to drill other metals. In the electronic industry laser beam machining is used for wire stripping and skiving of circuits.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_beam_machining |
Since the rays of a laser beam are monochromatic and parallel (i.e. zero etendue) it can be focused to a small diameter and can produce as much as 100 MW of power for a square millimeter of area. Laser beam machining has the ability to engrave or cut nearly all materials, where traditional cutting methods may fall shor... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_beam_machining |
The cost of maintaining lasers is moderately low due to the low rate of wear and tear, as there is no physical contact between the tool and the workpiece. The machining provided by laser beams is high precision, and most of these processes do not require additional finishing. Laser beams can be paired with gases to hel... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_beam_machining |
The initial cost of acquiring a laser beam is moderately high. There are many accessories that aid in the machining process, and as most of these accessories are as important as the laser beam itself the startup cost of machining is raised further. Handling and maintaining the machining requires highly trained individu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_beam_machining |
Laser beams are not designed to produce mass metal processes. Laser beam machining consumes a lot of energy. Deep cuts are difficult with workpieces with high melting points and usually cause a taper. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser_beam_machining |
The Four-Step Impact Assessment is an academic framework initiated and published by Jonathan Mann and colleagues at the François-Xavier Bagnoud Center for Health and Human Rights at the Harvard School of Public Health. The assessment takes into account the negotiation of objectives between human rights and public healt... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-step_impact_assessment |
The Four-Step Impact Assessment: To what extent does the proposed policy or program represent “good public health”? Is the proposed policy or program respectful and protective of human rights? How can we achieve the best possible combination of public health and human rights quality? How serious is the public health pr... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-step_impact_assessment |
Is the proposed response likely to be effective? What are the severity, scope and duration of the burdens on human rights resulting from the proposed policy or program? To what extent is the proposed policy or program restrictive and intrusive? | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-step_impact_assessment |
Is the proposed policy or program over inclusive or under inclusive? What procedural safeguards are included in the proposed policy or program? Will the proposed policy or program be periodically reviewed to assess both its public health effectiveness and its impact on human rights? | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-step_impact_assessment |
Identify specific changes to the proposed policy or program that increase its human rights and/or public health quality while maintaining (or even strengthening) its public health effectiveness. Finally, does the proposed policy or program (as revised) still appear to be the optimal approach to the public health proble... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-step_impact_assessment |
Mann was a central advocate of combining the synergistic forces of public health, ethics and human rights. He theorized and actively promoted the idea that human health and human rights are integrally and inextricably connected, arguing that these fields overlap in their respective philosophies and objectives to improv... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-step_impact_assessment |
Human rights violations result in adverse health effects. Thirdly, linkages exist between health and human rights (a hypothesis to be rigorously tested). Literature substantiates the effects of the first two points, but Mann and colleagues proceeded to call for the validation of the third point and challenged the world... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-step_impact_assessment |
With this framework, Mann attempted to bridge a perceived gap of philosophies, correspondence and vocabulary, education and training, recruitment, and work methods between the disciplines of bioethics, jurisprudence, public health law and epidemiology. Furthermore, Mann knew that the history of “conflictual relationshi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-step_impact_assessment |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.