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The authenticity of part of the anecdote involving the caliph Umar is questioned because it was recorded only in the 10th century. The Persian geographer Estakhri reported windmills being operated in Khorasan (Eastern Iran and Western Afghanistan) already in the 9th century. Such windmills were in widespread use across the Middle East and Central Asia and later spread to Europe, China, and India from there. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
By the 11th century, the vertical-axle windmill had reached parts of Southern Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula (via Al-Andalus) and the Aegean Sea (in the Balkans). A similar type of horizontal windmill with rectangular blades, used for irrigation, can also be found in thirteenth-century China (during the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the north), introduced by the travels of Yelü Chucai to Turkestan in 1219.Vertical-axle windmills were built, in small numbers, in Europe during the 18th and nineteenth centuries, for example Fowler's Mill at Battersea in London, and Hooper's Mill at Margate in Kent. These early modern examples seem not to have been directly influenced by the vertical-axle windmills of the medieval period, but to have been independent inventions by 18th-century engineers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The horizontal-axis or vertical windmill (so called due to the plane of the movement of its sails) is a development of the 12th century, first used in northwestern Europe, in the triangle of northern France, eastern England and Flanders. It is unclear whether the vertical windmill was influenced by the introduction of the horizontal windmill from Persia-Middle East to Southern Europe in the preceding century.The earliest certain reference to a windmill in Northern Europe (assumed to have been of the vertical type) dates from 1185, in the former village of Weedley in Yorkshire which was located at the southern tip of the Wold overlooking the Humber Estuary. Several earlier, but less certainly dated, 12th-century European sources referring to windmills have also been found. These earliest mills were used to grind cereals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The evidence at present is that the earliest type of European windmill was the post mill, so named because of the large upright post on which the mill's main structure (the "body" or "buck") is balanced. By mounting the body this way, the mill can rotate to face the wind direction; an essential requirement for windmills to operate economically in north-western Europe, where wind directions are variable. The body contains all the milling machinery. The first post mills were of the sunken type, where the post was buried in an earth mound to support it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Later, a wooden support was developed called the trestle. This was often covered over or surrounded by a roundhouse to protect the trestle from the weather and to provide storage space. This type of windmill was the most common in Europe until the 19th century when more powerful tower and smock mills replaced them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
In a hollow-post mill, the post on which the body is mounted is hollowed out, to accommodate the drive shaft. This makes it possible to drive machinery below or outside the body while still being able to rotate the body into the wind. Hollow-post mills driving scoop wheels were used in the Netherlands to drain wetlands from the 14th century onwards. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
By the end of the 13th century, the masonry tower mill, on which only the cap is rotated rather than the whole body of the mill, had been introduced. The spread of tower mills came with a growing economy that called for larger and more stable sources of power, though they were more expensive to build. In contrast to the post mill, only the cap of the tower mill needs to be turned into the wind, so the main structure can be made much taller, allowing the sails to be made longer, which enables them to provide useful work even in low winds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The cap can be turned into the wind either by winches or gearing inside the cap or from a winch on the tail pole outside the mill. A method of keeping the cap and sails into the wind automatically is by using a fantail, a small windmill mounted at right angles to the sails, at the rear of the windmill. These are also fitted to tail poles of post mills and are common in Great Britain and English-speaking countries of the former British Empire, Denmark, and Germany but rare in other places. Around some parts of the Mediterranean Sea, tower mills with fixed caps were built because the wind's direction varied little most of the time. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The smock mill is a later development of the tower mill, where the masonry tower is replaced by a wooden framework, called the "smock", which is thatched, boarded, or covered by other materials, such as slate, sheet metal, or tar paper. The smock is commonly of octagonal plan, though there are examples with different numbers of sides. Smock windmills were introduced by the Dutch in the 17th century to overcome the limitations of tower windmills, which were expensive to build and could not be erected on wet surfaces. The lower half of the smock windmill was made of brick, while the upper half was made of wood, with a sloping tower shape that added structural strength to the design. This made them lightweight and able to be erected on unstable ground. The smock windmill design included a small turbine in the back that helped the main mill to face the direction of the wind. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Common sails consist of a lattice framework on which the sailcloth is spread. The miller can adjust the amount of cloth spread according to the wind and the power needed. In medieval mills, the sailcloth was wound in and out of a ladder-type arrangement of sails. Later mill sails had a lattice framework over which the sailcloth was spread, while in colder climates, the cloth was replaced by wooden slats, which were easier to handle in freezing conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The jib sail is commonly found in Mediterranean countries and consists of a simple triangle of cloth wound round a spar.In all cases, the mill needs to be stopped to adjust the sails. Inventions in Great Britain in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries led to sails that automatically adjust to the wind speed without the need for the miller to intervene, culminating in patent sails invented by William Cubitt in 1807. In these sails, the cloth is replaced by a mechanism of connected shutters.In France, Pierre-Théophile Berton invented a system consisting of longitudinal wooden slats connected by a mechanism that lets the miller open them while the mill is turning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
In the twentieth century, increased knowledge of aerodynamics from the development of the airplane led to further improvements in efficiency by German engineer Bilau and several Dutch millwrights. The majority of windmills have four sails. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Multiple-sailed mills, with five, six, or eight sails, were built in Great Britain (especially in and around the counties of Lincolnshire and Yorkshire), Germany, and less commonly elsewhere. Earlier multiple-sailed mills are found in Spain, Portugal, Greece, parts of Romania, Bulgaria, and Russia. A mill with an even number of sails has the advantage of being able to run with a damaged sail by removing both the damaged sail and the one opposite, which does not unbalance the mill. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
In the Netherlands, the stationary position of the sails, i.e. when the mill is not working, has long been used to give signals. If the blades are stopped in a "+" sign (3-6-9-12 o'clock), the windmill is open for business. When the blades are stopped in an "X" configuration, the windmill is closed or not functional. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
A slight tilt of the sails (top blade at 1 o'clock) signals joy, such as the birth of a healthy baby. A tilt of the blades to 11-2-5-8 o'clock signals mourning, or warning. It was used to signal the local region during Nazi operations in World War II, such as searches for Jews. Across the Netherlands, windmills were placed in mourning positions in honor of the Dutch victims of the 2014 Malaysian Airlines Flight 17 shootdown. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Gears inside a windmill convey power from the rotary motion of the sails to a mechanical device. The sails are carried on the horizontal windshaft. Windshafts can be wholly made of wood, wood with a cast iron pole end (where the sails are mounted), or entirely of cast iron. The brake wheel is fitted onto the windshaft between the front and rear bearings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
It has the brake around the outside of the rim and teeth in the side of the rim which drives the horizontal gearwheel called wallower on the top end of the vertical upright shaft. In grist mills, the great spur wheel, lower down the upright shaft, drives one or more stone nuts on the shafts driving each millstone. Post mills sometimes have a head and/or tail wheel driving the stone nuts directly, instead of the spur gear arrangement. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Additional gear wheels drive a sack hoist or other machinery. The machinery differs if the windmill is used for other applications than milling grain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
A drainage mill uses another set of gear wheels on the bottom end of the upright shaft to drive a scoop wheel or Archimedes' screw. Sawmills uses a crankshaft to provide a reciprocating motion to the saws. Windmills have been used to power many other industrial processes, including papermills, threshing mills, and to process oil seeds, wool, paints, and stone products. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
In the 14th century, windmills became popular in Europe; the total number of wind-powered mills is estimated to have been around 200,000 at the peak in 1850, which is close to half of the some 500,000 water wheels. Windmills were applied in regions where there was too little water, where rivers freeze in winter and in flat lands where the flow of the river was too slow to provide the required power. With the coming of the industrial revolution, the importance of wind and water as primary industrial energy sources declined, and they were eventually replaced by steam (in steam mills) and internal combustion engines, although windmills continued to be built in large numbers until late in the nineteenth century. More recently, windmills have been preserved for their historic value, in some cases as static exhibits when the antique machinery is too fragile to be put in motion, and other cases as fully working mills.Of the 10,000 windmills in use in the Netherlands around 1850, about 1,000 are still standing. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Most of these are being run by volunteers, though some grist mills are still operating commercially. Many of the drainage mills have been appointed as a backup to the modern pumping stations. The Zaan district has been said to have been the first industrialized region of the world with around 600 operating wind-powered industries by the end of the eighteenth century. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Economic fluctuations and the industrial revolution had a much greater impact on these industries than on grain and drainage mills, so only very few are left. Construction of mills spread to the Cape Colony in the seventeenth century. The early tower mills did not survive the gales of the Cape Peninsula, so in 1717 the Heeren XVII sent carpenters, masons, and materials to construct a durable mill. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The mill, completed in 1718, became known as the Oude Molen and was located between Pinelands Station and the Black River. Long since demolished, its name lives on as that of a Technical school in Pinelands. By 1863, Cape Town had 11 mills stretching from Paarden Eiland to Mowbray. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
A wind turbine is a windmill-like structure specifically developed to generate electricity. They can be seen as the next step in the development of the windmill. The first wind turbines were built by the end of the nineteenth century by James Blyth in Scotland (1887), Charles F. Brush in Cleveland, Ohio (1887–1888) and Poul la Cour in Denmark (1890s). La Cour's mill from 1896 later became the local power of the village of Askov. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
By 1908 there were 72 wind-driven electric generators in Denmark, ranging from 5 to 25 kW. By the 1930s, windmills were widely used to generate electricity on farms in the United States where distribution systems had not yet been installed, built by companies such as Jacobs Wind, Wincharger, Miller Airlite, Universal Aeroelectric, Paris-Dunn, Airline, and Winpower. The Dunlite Corporation produced turbines for similar locations in Australia.Forerunners of modern horizontal-axis utility-scale wind generators were the WIME-3D in service in Balaklava USSR from 1931 until 1942, a 100-kW generator on a 30-m (100-ft) tower, the Smith–Putnam wind turbine built in 1941 on the mountain known as Grandpa's Knob in Castleton, Vermont, United States of 1.25 MW and the NASA wind turbines developed from 1974 through the mid-1980s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The development of these 13 experimental wind turbines pioneered many of the wind turbine design technologies in use today, including steel tube towers, variable-speed generators, composite blade materials, and partial-span pitch control, as well as aerodynamic, structural, and acoustic engineering design capabilities. The modern wind power industry began in 1979 with the serial production of wind turbines by Danish manufacturers Kuriant, Vestas, Nordtank, and Bonus. These early turbines were small by today's standards, with capacities of 20–30 kW each. Since then, commercial turbines have increased greatly in size, with the Enercon E-126 capable of delivering up to 7 MW, while wind turbine production has expanded to many countries.As the 21st century began, rising concerns over energy security, global warming, and eventual fossil fuel depletion led to an expansion of interest in all available forms of renewable energy. Worldwide, many thousands of wind turbines are now operating, with a total nameplate capacity of 591 GW as of 2018. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
In an attempt to make wind turbines more efficient and increase their energy output, they are being built bigger, with taller towers and longer blades, and being increasingly deployed in offshore locations. While such changes increase their power output, they subject the components of the windmills to stronger forces and consequently put them at a greater risk of failure. Taller towers and longer blades suffer from higher fatigue, and offshore windfarms are subject to greater forces due to winds of higher wind speeds and accelerated corrosion due to the proximity to seawater. To ensure a long enough lifetime to make the return on the investment viable, the materials for the components must be chosen appropriately. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The blade of a wind turbine consists of 4 main elements: the root, spar, aerodynamic fairing, and surfacing. The fairing is composed of two shells (one on the pressure side, and one on the suction side), connected by one or more webs linking the upper and lower shells. The webs connect to the spar laminates, which are enclosed within the skins (surfacing) of the blade, and together, the system of the webs and spars resist the flapwise loading. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Flapwise loading, one of the two different types of loading that blades are subject to, is caused by the wind pressure, and edgewise loading (the second type of loading), is caused by the gravitational force and torque load. The former loading subjects the spar laminate on the pressure (upwind) side of the blade to cyclic tension-tension loading, while the suction (downwind) side of the blade is subject to cyclic compression-compression loading. Edgewise bending subjects the leading edge to a tensile load, and the trailing edge to a compressive load. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The remainder of the shell, not supported by the spars or laminated at the leading and trailing edges, is designed as a sandwiched structure, consisting of multiple layers to prevent elastic buckling.In addition to meeting the stiffness, strength, and toughness requirements determined by the loading, the blade needs to be lightweight, and the weight of the blade scales with the cube of its radius. To determine which materials fit the criteria described above, a parameter known as the beam merit index is defined: Mb = E^1/2 / rho, where E is Young's modulus and rho is the density. The best blade materials are carbon fiber and glass fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP and GFRP). Currently, GFRP materials are chosen for their lower cost, despite the much greater figure of merit of CFRP. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
When the Vindeby Offshore Wind Farm was taken down in Denmark in 2017, 99% of the not-degradable fiberglass from 33 wind turbine blades ended as cut up at the Rærup Controlled Landfill near Aalborg, and in 2020 with considerably larger fiberglass quantities, even though it is the least environmentally friendly way of handling waste. Scrapped wind turbine blades are set to become a huge waste problem in Denmark and countries Denmark, to a greater and greater extent, export its many produced wind turbines. "The reason why many wings end up in landfill is that they are incredibly difficult to separate from each other, which you will have to do if you hope to be able to recycle the fiberglass", says Lykke Margot Ricard, Associate Professor in Innovation and Technological Foresight and education leader for civil engineering in Product Development and Innovation at the University of Southern Denmark (SDU). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
According to Dakofa, the Danish Competence Center for Waste and Resources, there is nothing specific in the Danish waste order about how to handle discarded fiberglass.Several scrap dealers tell Ingeniøren, that they have handled wind turbine blades (wings) that have been pulverized after being taken to a recycling station. One of them is the recycling company H.J. Hansen, where the product manager informed, that they have transported approximately half of the wings they have received since 2012 to Reno Nord's landfill in Aalborg. A total of around 1,000 wings have ended up there, he estimates - and today up to 99 percent of the wings the company receives end up in a landfill.Since 1996, according to an estimate made by Lykke Margot Ricard (SDU) in 2020, at least 8,810 tonnes of the wing scrap have been disposed of in Denmark, and the waste problem will grow significantly in the coming years when more and more wind turbines have reached their end of life. According to the SDU lecturer's calculations, the waste sector in Denmark will have to receive 46,400 tonnes of fiberglass from wind turbine blades over the next 20–25 years.As so, at the island, Lolland, in Denmark, 250 tonnes of fiberglass from wind turbine waste also pours up on a landfill at Gerringe in the middle of Lolland in 2020.In the United States, a scrap of, and worn-out wind turbine blades made of fiberglass, go to the handful of landfills that accept them, like in Lake Mills, Iowa; Sioux Falls, South Dakota; and Casper. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Windpumps were used to pump water since at least the 9th century in what is now Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan. The use of wind pumps became widespread across the Muslim world and later spread to East Asia (China) and South Asia (India). Windmills were later used extensively in Europe, particularly in the Netherlands and the East Anglia area of Great Britain, from the late Middle Ages onwards, to drain land for agricultural or building purposes. The "American windmill", or "wind engine", was invented by Daniel Halladay in 1854 and was used mostly for lifting water from wells. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Larger versions were also used for tasks such as sawing wood, chopping hay, and shelling and grinding grain. In early California and some other states, the windmill was part of a self-contained domestic water system which included a hand-dug well and a wooden water tower supporting a redwood tank enclosed by wooden siding known as a tankhouse. During the late 19th century, steel blades and steel towers replaced wooden construction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
At their peak in 1930, an estimated 600,000 units were in use. Firms such as U.S. Wind Engine and Pump Company, Challenge Wind Mill and Feed Mill Company, Appleton Manufacturing Company, Star, Eclipse, Fairbanks-Morse, Dempster Mill Manufacturing Company and Aermotor became the main suppliers in North and South America. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
These windpumps are used extensively on farms and ranches in the United States, Canada, Southern Africa, and Australia. They feature a large number of blades, so they turn slowly with considerable torque in low winds and are self-regulating in high winds. A tower-top gearbox and crankshaft convert the rotary motion into reciprocating strokes carried downward through a rod to the pump cylinder below. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Such mills pumped water and powered feed mills, sawmills, and agricultural machinery. In Australia, the Griffiths Brothers at Toowoomba manufactured windmills of the American pattern from 1876, with the trade name Southern Cross Windmills in use from 1903. These became an icon of the Australian rural sector by utilizing the water of the Great Artesian Basin. Another well-known maker was Metters Ltd. of Adelaide, Perth and Sydney. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Human female sexuality encompasses a broad range of behaviors and processes, including female sexual identity and sexual behavior, the physiological, psychological, social, cultural, political, and spiritual or religious aspects of sexual activity. Various aspects and dimensions of female sexuality, as a part of human sexuality, have also been addressed by principles of ethics, morality, and theology. In almost any historical era and culture, the arts, including literary and visual arts, as well as popular culture, present a substantial portion of a given society's views on human sexuality, which includes both implicit (covert) and explicit (overt) aspects and manifestations of feminine sexuality and behavior. In most societies and legal jurisdictions, there are legal bounds on what sexual behavior is permitted. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Sexuality varies across the cultures and regions of the world, and has continually changed throughout history, and this also applies to female sexuality. Aspects of female sexuality include issues pertaining to biological sex, body image, self-esteem, personality, sexual orientation, values and attitudes, gender roles, relationships, activity options, and communication. While most women are heterosexual, significant minorities are homosexual or varying degrees of bisexual. Bisexual females are more common than bisexual males. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Sexual activity can encompass various sexually stimulating factors (physiological stimulation or psychological stimulation), including sexual fantasies and different sex positions, or the use of sex toys. Foreplay may precede some sexual activities, often leading to sexual arousal of the partners. It is also common for people to be sexually satisfied by being kissed, touched erotically, or held. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Orgasm, or sexual climax, is the sudden discharge of accumulated sexual tension during the sexual response cycle, resulting in rhythmic muscular contractions in the pelvic region characterized by an intense sensation of pleasure. Women commonly find it difficult to experience orgasms during vaginal intercourse. Mayo Clinic states: "Orgasms vary in intensity, and women vary in the frequency of their orgasms and the amount of stimulation necessary to trigger an orgasm." Additionally, some women may require more than one type of sexual stimulation in order to achieve orgasm. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Clitoral stimulation in normal copulation happens when the thrusting of the penis moves the clitoral hood and labia minora, extending from the clitoris.Orgasm in women has typically been divided into two categories: clitoral and vaginal (or G-spot) orgasms. 70–80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve orgasm, though indirect clitoral stimulation may also be sufficient. Clitoral orgasms are easier to achieve because the glans of the clitoris, or clitoris as a whole, has more than 8,000 sensory nerve endings, which is as many (or more in some cases) nerve endings as are present in the human penis or glans penis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
As the clitoris is homologous to the penis, it is the equivalent in its capacity to receive sexual stimulation.Although orgasms by vaginal stimulation are more difficult to achieve, the G-spot area may produce an orgasm if properly stimulated. The G-spot's existence, and existence as a distinct structure, is still under dispute, as its reported location can vary from woman to woman, appears to be nonexistent in some women, and it is hypothesized to be an extension of the clitoris and therefore the reason for orgasms experienced vaginally.Women are able to achieve multiple orgasms due to the fact that they generally do not require a refractory period like men do after the first orgasm. Although it is reported that women do not experience a refractory period and thus can experience an additional orgasm, or multiple orgasms, soon after the first orgasm, some sources state that both men and women experience a refractory period because, due to clitoral hypersensitivity or sexual satisfaction, women may experience a very small period after orgasm in which further sexual stimulation does not produce excitement.Nipples can be sensitive to touch, and nipple stimulation can incite sexual arousal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Few women report experiencing orgasm from nipple stimulation. Before Komisaruk et al.'s functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) research on nipple stimulation in 2011, reports of women achieving orgasm from nipple stimulation relied solely on anecdotal evidence. Komisaruk's study was the first to map the female genitals onto the sensory portion of the brain; it indicates that sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the brain as sensations from the vagina, clitoris and cervix, and that these reported orgasms are genital orgasms caused by nipple stimulation, and may be directly linked to the genital sensory cortex ("the genital area of the brain"). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Women, on average, tend to be more attracted to men who have a relatively narrow waist, a V-shaped torso, and broad shoulders. Women also tend to be more attracted to men who are taller than they are, and display a high degree of facial symmetry, as well as relatively masculine facial dimorphism. Based on contemporary research and surveys, women, regardless of sexual orientation, are just as interested in a partner's physical attractiveness as men are. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Historically, many cultures have viewed female sexuality as being subordinate to male sexuality, and as something to be controlled through restrictions on female behavior. Traditional cultural practices, such as enforced modesty and chastity, have tended to place restrictions principally on women, without imposing similar restrictions on men.According to psychoanalytic literature, the "Madonna–whore complex" is said to occur when a male desires sexual encounters only with women whom he sees as degraded ("whores") while he cannot desire sexually a respectable woman ("the Madonna"). This was first described by Sigmund Freud.The interpretation of female sexuality is significantly different according to C.G. Jung's psychological research. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
He explained the female libido as a precursor of cultural expression and personal creativity. He identified Freud's theories as the source of this significant misunderstanding, and theorized that the "rhythmic factor" is not merely a principle in the "nutritive phase" and later in sexuality, but that it is at the base of all emotional processes.Some controversial traditional cultural practices, such as female genital mutilation (FGM), have been described as attempts at nullifying women's sexuality altogether. FGM continues to be practised in some parts of Africa and the Middle East, as well as in some immigrant communities in Western countries, though it is widely outlawed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
The procedure is typically carried out on young girls, before the age of 15.Methods employed to control female sexuality and behavior include the threat of death, such as honor killings. The reason for such a killing may include refusing to enter an arranged marriage, being in a relationship that is disapproved by their relatives, having sex outside marriage, becoming the victim of rape, or dressing in ways which are deemed inappropriate.Another historical device used to control female sexual behavior was the chastity belt, which is a locking item of clothing designed to prevent sexual intercourse. The belts were worn by women to protect their chastity, which included preventing masturbation (such as by fingering) or sexual access by unauthorized males.Prior to the European colonization of North America, Native American attitudes regarding female sexuality were generally open-minded, particularly for younger, un-married women. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
However, when Europeans arrived, more rigid views were enforced. These rigid views were especially restrictive for women, predominantly in Puritan colonies.Following the European colonization of North America, there was the creation of the African American archetypes of the Jezebel and mammy. The Jezebel was characterized as a woman who was lewd, tempting and seductive. Mammies, also called Aunt Jemima, were maternal figures who were portrayed as content within the institution of slavery – always with a smile on her face as the white family took up her life and her entire world. These stereotyping frameworks not only justified slavery but also justified the rape and abuse of African American women as being sexually driven, sexual beings in the case of the Jezebel, or a being where sex and sexuality are the last things on a woman's mind because her world is taken up by the lives of her white masters in the case of the mammy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
In the modern age, psychologists and physiologists explored female sexuality. Sigmund Freud propounded the theory of two kinds of female orgasms, "the vaginal kind, and the clitoral orgasm." However, Masters and Johnson (1966) and Helen O'Connell (2005) reject this distinction.Ernst Gräfenberg was famous for his studies of female genitalia and human female sexual physiology. He published, among other studies, the pioneering The Role of Urethra in Female Orgasm (1950), which describes female ejaculation, as well as an erogenous zone where the urethra is closest to the vaginal wall. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
In 1981, sexologists John D. Perry and Beverly Whipple named that area the Gräfenberg spot, or G-spot, in his honor. While the medical community generally has not embraced the complete concept of the G-spot,Several studies establish that women are generally aroused by sexual stimuli of both sexes, while men are substantially aroused by stimuli of their preferred sex, and not of their non-preferred sex. This difference is consistent across different measures of arousal, such as genital response, pupil dilation, and viewing time. Significant sexual arousal in response to both male and female sexual cues can be characterized as typical for females, while significant sexual arousal exclusively to one's preferred gender can be considered typical for males. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
In the 1970s and 1980s, long-held Western traditional views on female sexuality came to be challenged and reassessed as part of the sexual revolution. The feminist movement and numerous feminist writers addressed female sexuality from a female perspective, rather than allowing female sexuality to be defined in terms of male sexuality. One of the first such popular non-fiction books was Nancy Friday's My Secret Garden. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Other writers, such as Germaine Greer, Simone de Beauvoir and Camille Paglia, were particularly influential, although their views were not universally or placidly accepted. Toward the end of the 20th century the most significant European contributions to understanding female sexuality came from psychoanalytical French feminism, with the work of Luce Irigaray and Julia Kristeva. Lesbianism and female bisexuality also emerged as topics of interest within feminism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
The concept of political lesbianism, associated particularly with second wave feminism and radical feminism, includes, but is not limited to, lesbian separatism, notable proponents being Sheila Jeffreys and Julie Bindel. Feminist attitudes to female sexuality have varied in scope throughout the movement's history. Generally, modern feminists advocate for all women to have access to sexual healthcare and education, and agree on the importance of reproductive health freedoms, particularly regarding issues such as birth control and family planning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Bodily autonomy and consent are also concepts of high importance in modern feminist views of female sexuality. Matters such as the sex industry, sexual representation in the media, and issues regarding consent to sex under conditions of male dominance have been more controversial topics among feminists. These debates culminated in the late 1970s and the 1980s, in what came to be known as the feminist sex wars, which pitted anti-pornography feminism against sex-positive feminism. Parts of the feminist movement were deeply divided on these issues. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Laws around the world affect the expression of female sexuality, and the circumstances under which an individual may not engage sexually with a woman or girl. Forced sexual encounters are usually prohibited, though some countries may sanction rape in marriage. Age of consent laws, which differ between jurisdictions, set the minimum age at which a minor girl may engage in sex. In recent years, the age of consent has risen in some jurisdictions and has been lowered in others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
In some countries there are laws against pornography and prostitution (or certain aspects of those). Laws in some jurisdictions prohibit sex outside of marriage, such as premarital sex or adultery, with critics arguing that, in practice, these laws are used to control women's and not men's behavior. The virginity and family honor of women still play an important role in some legal systems: in some jurisdictions, the punishment for rape is more severe if the woman was a virgin at the time of the crime, and under some legal systems a man who rapes a woman can escape punishment if he marries her. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
With regard to the responsibility for safe sexual activity in heterosexual relationships, the commonly held definition of safe sex may be examined; it has been argued that there are three facets to the common perception of safe sex: emotional safety (trusting one's partner), psychological safety (feeling safe), and biomedical safety (the barrier of fluids which may cause pregnancy or transmit disease). The phrase "safe sex" is commonly known to refer to biomedical safety.Since the sexual revolution, health officials have launched campaigns to bring awareness to the risks of unprotected sexual intercourse. While the dangers of unprotected sex include unintended pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections (STIs/STDs), with HIV/AIDS being the deadliest, the use of contraceptive devices (the most reliable being condoms) remain inconsistent.The social construction of masculinity and femininity play a lead role in understanding why women are commonly held responsible for the outcome of sexual encounters. Often, societies create different sexual norms and assumptions for women and men, with female and male sexuality often seen as being the opposite of one another: for example, females are commonly taught that they "should not want sexual activity or find it pleasurable, or have sexual relations outside of marriage," while males are commonly taught to "feel entitled to have sexual relations and pleasure and that their self-worth is demonstrated through their sexual prowess and notions of authority and power". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Sexual interactions often take place in unequal structural circumstances in the context of imbalance of power between men and women. Feminists, such as Catharine Mackinnon, have stated that the inequality in which heterosexual intercourse takes place should not be ignored and should play a crucial role in policies; Mackinnon has argued: "The assumption is that women can be unequal to men economically, socially, culturally, politically, and in religion, but the moment they have sexual interactions, they are free and equal. That's the assumption – and I think it ought to be thought about, and in particular what consent then means. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
"Socially constructed masculinity might suggest that men are constantly interested in sex, and that once men are sexually aroused, they must be satisfied through orgasm. This drive is intertwined with the male identity and consequently creates a momentum that, once started, is difficult to stop. Socially constructed femininity might suggest the connotation of passivity, which has affected the cultural importance of female desire. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
This is a factor that contributes to women's sexual desires being largely ignored; because men are seen as unable to control their sexuality, this can make women responsible for enforcing condom use instead of the "uncontrollable" male. Some scholars argue that a contributing factor in this division of responsibility for safe sex factors is the privileged status of male desire in Western culture, as indicated by the commonly held belief that the female sexual experience is not adversely affected by condom use but that the male sexual experience is diminished with the addition of this barrier. They believe that this is problematic, as the use of condoms is symbolically linked to casual sex and promiscuity, which goes against the social norms of femininity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
This link is considered something that cannot be underestimated as "discontinuation of condom use becomes a test or a marker which signifies the existence of a committed and exclusive relationship," and demonstrates trust.Others speculate that the responsibility for condom use falling on women is not so much imposed by society, but is instead resultant of the possible consequences of unprotected sex being generally more serious for women than men (pregnancy, greater likelihood of STI transmission, etc.). Bacterial STIs, such as chlamydia and gonorrhea, show that rates among women can be three times higher than men in high prevalence areas of the United States, and one-fourth of pregnancies in developing countries and one-half of pregnancies in the United States are unintended.Another social idea of sexuality is the coital imperative. The coital imperative is the idea that for sex to be real, there must be penile-vaginal intercourse. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
For many women, this imposes limitations to the sexual possibilities and a condom is seen as a symbol of the end of the sexual experience. Public acceptance of penis-vagina penetration as central to a sexual relationship is reinforced by the focus on condom use. These ideas, male sex drive and coital imperative, paired with the social construction of femininity, may lead to an imbalance of the power in making the decision to use a condom. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
The Burma Research Society (Burmese: မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ သုတေသန အသင်း) was an academic society devoted to historical research of Burma (Myanmar). Its aims were "the investigation and encouragement of Art, Science and Literature in relation to Burma and the neighbouring countries".The society was founded on 29 March 1910 at a meeting held at the Bernard Free Library in Yangon by J S Furnivall, J A Stewart, Gordon H Luce, Pe Maung Tin and Charles Duroiselle. It published original research which appeared in the Journal of the Burma Research Society. The Journal of the Burma Research Society (1911–1977) consists of 59 volumes, being 136 journals comprising more than 1,300 articles. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Research_Society |
Since 1962, publication has been subject to government regulation. The society also published its Fiftieth Anniversary Publications (Rangoon: Burma Research Society, 1960–61. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Research_Society |
2 vols). The first volume consisted of papers read at the society's fiftieth anniversary conference, and the second, 524 pages, reprinted a selection of articles from earlier issues of the journal. As well as publishing the journal, the Burma Research Society also published Burmese historical and literary manuscript texts and prescribed school textbooks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Research_Society |
Archimedes Muzenda (; born 23 August 1991) is a senior partner at Glensburg and director of Glensburg Cities Institute. Previously, he served as the secretary-general of the African Planning Society in 2019. Archimedes Muzenda was the inaugural holder of the office after it was established following the merger of African Planning Association with African Urban Community of Practice (AUCoP) an initiative of African Urban Institute to form African Planning Society. His mandate as inaugural secretary-general was outlined at the conference of Association of African Planning Schools in Tanzania. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes_Muzenda |
Muzenda was born in Harare in 1991. He attended local schools in Zimbabwe and received his undergraduate degree in Regional and Urban planning from University of Zimbabwe in 2014 where he began his career as an urban planning researcher. After working for about a year at African Capacity Building Foundation in Harare, Muzenda pursued graduate studies in Hungary, graduating with a Master of Public Administration from Central European University in 2017. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes_Muzenda |
Muzenda, Archimedes (2020). Dystopia: How the Tyranny of Specialists Fragment African Cities. Harare: African Urban Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-77906-887-3 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes_Muzenda |
A subject matter expert Turing test is a variation of the Turing test where a computer system attempts to replicate an expert in a given field such as chemistry or marketing. It is also known, as a Feigenbaum test and was proposed by Edward Feigenbaum in a 2003 paper.The concept is also described by Ray Kurzweil in his 2005 book The Singularity is Near. Kurzweil argues that machines who pass this test are an inevitable consequence of Moore's Law. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject-matter_expert_Turing_test |
The paleoethnobotany of the Mapuche focuses on archaeological evidence supporting plant use by past and present Mapuche populations collected from multiple sites in southern Chile and the Patagonia region of Argentina. Paleoethnobotany is the study of fossil and material remains from plants, mostly seeds and residues that can be analyzed from material remains. Data can be collected from archaeological sites with a particular interest in learning about the history of agriculture in a region or the use of plants for either subsistence or medicinal use. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
The Mapuche are an indigenous culture native to South America. The archaeological record has revealed that the Mapuche were present in modern-day south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina from at least 500-600 BC. It is also noteworthy, that while collectively the Mapuche (Picunche, Huilliche and Moluche or Nguluche) use this endonym, there are often subsets of the culture that have more specific names based on geographic location as well as different ecological niches (See Mapuche: Etymology). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
The Promaucaes, a Mapuche group, were the last group of indigenous peoples to occupy this site in modern-day Chile in the Cachapoal Valley. Archeobotanical analysis was conducted at these sites in relation to pre-Hispanic cultures dominated by the Incan civilization. This site serves as a point of resistance to both Incan occupation as well as Spanish colonization. Analysis of seeds and macromaterials from soil reveal the following plants were present at this site. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
Culitivated plants included: Maize (Zea mays), Madi (Madia chilensis), Quinoa (Chenopodium quinua), Sunflower (Helianthus sp. cf. tuberosum), Gourd (Lagenaria sp.). Fruiting bushes and trees included: Guillave (Echinopsis chilensis) Michay (Berberis sp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
), Boldo (Peumus boldus), Quilo (Muehlenbeckia hastulata) Grape (Vitis sp. ), Blackberry (Rubus sp. ), Cocito, Palm Nut (Jubaea chilensis). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
Legumes included: Unidentified, small (Astragalus sp.?) Unidentified, large, Lupine (Lupinus sp.). Medicinal herbs included: Pata de Guanaco (Cistanthe grandiflora) along with some wilds plants: Various Grasses (Poaceae), Colliguay (Colliguaja odifera), Espino (Acacia caven), Lengua de Gato (Galium sp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
), Sedge (Cyperus sp. ), and Chenopod (Chenopodium sp. ). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
There are a series of 5 sites (1,3,5, La Lomita) located in the La Pampa region of Argentina that demonstrate the historical presence of pre-Hispanic hunter-gatherers and farming cultures in west-central Argentina in the period of the Upper Holocene to the Lower Holocene. Food residues were analyzed from 23 sherds from pottery obtained from these sites. The following food and plant materials were found on the internal and external surface of the sherds: Zea mays (corn), Prosopis, Poaceae phytoliths, and Fungal zoospores and hyphae. These findings suggest that there was some trading between agricultural groups of Andean region, in South-central Chile, with and the hunter-gathers of La Pampa. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
There are two sites of interest for studying hunter gatherers in the Holocene in West-central Patagonia; these sites include the cave sites of El Chueco 1 (11,500–180 cal BP) and Baño Nuevo 1 (10,800–3,000 cal BP). The El Chueco 1 cave is located at 44°29′36′′S; 71°11′13′′W. The Baño Nuevo is located at 45º17′ S, 71º32′ W. The west-central Patagonia region where these sites are located typically have a dry climate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
The average rainfall for this area is 400 mm and the average temperature is 7 °C. With regard to the stability of the region, "palaeoenvironmental reconstructions for the region indicate no major changes in the distribution of vegetation since approximately 8,000 calBP." Samples for these two sites gathered information about plant micro-remains from the Pleistocene-Holocene transition to the Late Holocene. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
The number of different types of plants from the stratigraphy sampled varied between the two sites, with EC1 exhibiting fewer plant micro-remains in the Early Holocene with a fairly steady increase into the Late Holocene, while BN1 exhibited a greater range of plant micro-remains in the Early Holocene and there was a steady decline in percentage of plant micro-remains in the sample. The micro-remains of the plants suggest that the following plants were in use at these sites: Alstroemeriaceae, Apiaceae, Apiaceae, Berberis, Brassicaceae, Brassicaceae, Calceolariaceae, Carex sp., Chenopodiaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cyperus sp., Cyperaceae, Eleocharis sp., Ericaceae, Fabaceae, Fragaria chiloensis, Galium sp., Lamiaceae, Libertia sp., Malvaceae, Phacelia sp., Poaceae, Polygonaceae, Portulaceae, Rubus sp., Scirpus sp., and Uncinia sp. with a large number of the plants samples unable to be identified. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
In Central Argentina, there is some evidence of agriculture in the region by 1000 BP. The Sierras de Córdoba, in Central Argentina, are west of the modern city of Córdoba and east of the Andean range separating Argentina from Chile. In one study, 15 sites in the Sierras de Córdoba were analyzed for plant macroremains and microremains. The following results were obtained from the Late Holocene and into the Pre-Columbian period. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
Quebrada Norte 7: Sracomphalus mistol, Lithraea molloides, Zea mays, Condalia sp., Prosopis sp., Schinua cf. areria, Phaseolus sp., Chenopodium quinoa var. quinoa, C. quinoa cf. var. melanospermum, Amaranthus sp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
; Pozancón 1: Solanum cf. tuberosum, cf. Ipomea/Manihot. ; Casa del Sol 8: Zea mays. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
; El Alto 3: Polylepis autralis, Maytenus boaria. ; Quebrada del Real 1: Chenopodium sp., Zea mays. ; Cruz Chiquita 3: Zea mays. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
; Río Yuspe 11: Sarcomphalus mistol. ; Boyo Paso 2: Sarcomphalus mistol, Zea mays, Phaseolus vulgaris, Prosopis sp., Oxalis sp. ; Yaco Pampa 1: Zea mays, cf. Prosopis sp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
; Arroyo Tala Cañada 1: Zea mays, Cucurbita sp., Phaseolus vulgaris, P. lunatus. ; Arroyo Talainín 2: cf. Lithraea molloides. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
; C.Pun.39: Prosopis sp., Chenopodium/Amaranthus sp., Zea mays, P. vulgaris, P. lunatis, Cucurbita sp. ; Río Yuspe 14: Sarcomphalus mistol. ; Puesto la Esquina 1: Zea mays, P. vulgaris var. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
vulgaris, P vulgaris var. aborigineus, P. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
lunatus. ; Cerco de la Cueva Pintada: cf. Prosopis sp. ; Arroyo Tala Huasi: Zea mays. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
Plant use from modern ethnographic data: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
Plant use from Tierra del Fuego based on modern ethnographic data: == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
A phonemic orthography is an orthography (system for writing a language) in which the graphemes (written symbols) correspond to the phonemes (significant spoken sounds) of the language. Natural languages rarely have perfectly phonemic orthographies; a high degree of grapheme–phoneme correspondence can be expected in orthographies based on alphabetic writing systems, but they differ in how complete this correspondence is. English orthography, for example, is alphabetic but highly nonphonemic; it was once mostly phonemic during the Middle English stage, when the modern spellings originated, but spoken English changed rapidly while the orthography was much more stable, resulting in the modern nonphonemic situation. On the contrary the Albanian, Serbian/Croatian/Bosnian/Montenegrin, Romanian, Italian, Turkish, Spanish, Finnish, Czech, Latvian, Esperanto, Korean and Swahili orthographic systems come much closer to being consistent phonemic representations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
In less formal terms, a language with a highly phonemic orthography may be described as having regular spelling. Another terminology is that of deep and shallow orthographies, in which the depth of an orthography is the degree to which it diverges from being truly phonemic. The concept can also be applied to nonalphabetic writing systems like syllabaries. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
In an ideal phonemic orthography, there would be a complete one-to-one correspondence (bijection) between the graphemes (letters) and the phonemes of the language, and each phoneme would invariably be represented by its corresponding grapheme. So the spelling of a word would unambiguously and transparently indicate its pronunciation, and conversely, a speaker knowing the pronunciation of a word would be able to infer its spelling without any doubt. That ideal situation is rare but exists in a few languages. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
A disputed example of an ideally phonemic orthography is the Serbo-Croatian language. In its alphabet (Latin as well as Serbian Cyrillic alphabet), there are 30 graphemes, each uniquely corresponding to one of the phonemes. This seemingly perfect yet simple phonemic orthography was achieved in the 19th century—the Cyrillic alphabet first in 1814 by Serbian linguist Vuk Karadžić, and the Latin alphabet in 1830 by Croatian linguist Ljudevit Gaj. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
However, both Gaj's Latin alphabet and Serbian Cyrillic do not distinguish short and long vowels, and non-tonic (the short one is written), rising, and falling tones that Serbo-Croatian has. In Serbo-Croatian, the tones and vowel lengths were optionally written as (in Latin) ⟨e⟩, ⟨ē⟩, ⟨è⟩, ⟨é⟩, ⟨ȅ⟩, and ⟨ȇ⟩, especially in dictionaries. Another such ideal phonemic orthography is native to Esperanto, employing the language creator L. L. Zamenhof's then-pronounced principle “one letter, one sound”.There are two distinct types of deviation from this phonemic ideal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
In the first case, the exact one-to-one correspondence may be lost (for example, some phoneme may be represented by a digraph instead of a single letter), but the "regularity" is retained: there is still an algorithm (but a more complex one) for predicting the spelling from the pronunciation and vice versa. In the second case, true irregularity is introduced, as certain words come to be spelled and pronounced according to different rules from others, and prediction of spelling from pronunciation and vice versa is no longer possible. Common cases of both types of deviation from the ideal are discussed in the following section. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
Some ways in which orthographies may deviate from the ideal of one-to-one grapheme-phoneme correspondence are listed below. The first list contains deviations that tend only to make the relation between spelling and pronunciation more complex, without affecting its predictability (see above paragraph). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
Pronunciation and spelling still correspond in a predictable way A phoneme may be represented by a sequence of letters, called a multigraph, rather than by a single letter (as in the case of the digraph ch in French and the trigraph sch in German). That only retains predictability if the multigraph cannot be broken down into smaller units. Some languages use diacritics to distinguish between a digraph and a sequence of individual letters, and others require knowledge of the language to distinguish them; compare goatherd and loather in English.Examples: sch versus s-ch in Romansch ng versus n + g in Welsh ch versus çh in Manx Gaelic: this is a slightly different case where the same digraph is used for two different single phonemes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
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