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The authenticity of part of the anecdote involving the caliph Umar is questioned because it was recorded only in the 10th century. The Persian geographer Estakhri reported windmills being operated in Khorasan (Eastern Iran and Western Afghanistan) already in the 9th century. Such windmills were in widespread use across... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
By the 11th century, the vertical-axle windmill had reached parts of Southern Europe, including the Iberian Peninsula (via Al-Andalus) and the Aegean Sea (in the Balkans). A similar type of horizontal windmill with rectangular blades, used for irrigation, can also be found in thirteenth-century China (during the Jurche... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The horizontal-axis or vertical windmill (so called due to the plane of the movement of its sails) is a development of the 12th century, first used in northwestern Europe, in the triangle of northern France, eastern England and Flanders. It is unclear whether the vertical windmill was influenced by the introduction of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The evidence at present is that the earliest type of European windmill was the post mill, so named because of the large upright post on which the mill's main structure (the "body" or "buck") is balanced. By mounting the body this way, the mill can rotate to face the wind direction; an essential requirement for windmill... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Later, a wooden support was developed called the trestle. This was often covered over or surrounded by a roundhouse to protect the trestle from the weather and to provide storage space. This type of windmill was the most common in Europe until the 19th century when more powerful tower and smock mills replaced them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
In a hollow-post mill, the post on which the body is mounted is hollowed out, to accommodate the drive shaft. This makes it possible to drive machinery below or outside the body while still being able to rotate the body into the wind. Hollow-post mills driving scoop wheels were used in the Netherlands to drain wetlands... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
By the end of the 13th century, the masonry tower mill, on which only the cap is rotated rather than the whole body of the mill, had been introduced. The spread of tower mills came with a growing economy that called for larger and more stable sources of power, though they were more expensive to build. In contrast to th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The cap can be turned into the wind either by winches or gearing inside the cap or from a winch on the tail pole outside the mill. A method of keeping the cap and sails into the wind automatically is by using a fantail, a small windmill mounted at right angles to the sails, at the rear of the windmill. These are also f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The smock mill is a later development of the tower mill, where the masonry tower is replaced by a wooden framework, called the "smock", which is thatched, boarded, or covered by other materials, such as slate, sheet metal, or tar paper. The smock is commonly of octagonal plan, though there are examples with different n... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Common sails consist of a lattice framework on which the sailcloth is spread. The miller can adjust the amount of cloth spread according to the wind and the power needed. In medieval mills, the sailcloth was wound in and out of a ladder-type arrangement of sails. Later mill sails had a lattice framework over which the ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The jib sail is commonly found in Mediterranean countries and consists of a simple triangle of cloth wound round a spar.In all cases, the mill needs to be stopped to adjust the sails. Inventions in Great Britain in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries led to sails that automatically adjust to the wind speed wit... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
In the twentieth century, increased knowledge of aerodynamics from the development of the airplane led to further improvements in efficiency by German engineer Bilau and several Dutch millwrights. The majority of windmills have four sails. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Multiple-sailed mills, with five, six, or eight sails, were built in Great Britain (especially in and around the counties of Lincolnshire and Yorkshire), Germany, and less commonly elsewhere. Earlier multiple-sailed mills are found in Spain, Portugal, Greece, parts of Romania, Bulgaria, and Russia. A mill with an even ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
In the Netherlands, the stationary position of the sails, i.e. when the mill is not working, has long been used to give signals. If the blades are stopped in a "+" sign (3-6-9-12 o'clock), the windmill is open for business. When the blades are stopped in an "X" configuration, the windmill is closed or not functional. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
A slight tilt of the sails (top blade at 1 o'clock) signals joy, such as the birth of a healthy baby. A tilt of the blades to 11-2-5-8 o'clock signals mourning, or warning. It was used to signal the local region during Nazi operations in World War II, such as searches for Jews. Across the Netherlands, windmills were pl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Gears inside a windmill convey power from the rotary motion of the sails to a mechanical device. The sails are carried on the horizontal windshaft. Windshafts can be wholly made of wood, wood with a cast iron pole end (where the sails are mounted), or entirely of cast iron. The brake wheel is fitted onto the windshaft ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
It has the brake around the outside of the rim and teeth in the side of the rim which drives the horizontal gearwheel called wallower on the top end of the vertical upright shaft. In grist mills, the great spur wheel, lower down the upright shaft, drives one or more stone nuts on the shafts driving each millstone. Post... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Additional gear wheels drive a sack hoist or other machinery. The machinery differs if the windmill is used for other applications than milling grain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
A drainage mill uses another set of gear wheels on the bottom end of the upright shaft to drive a scoop wheel or Archimedes' screw. Sawmills uses a crankshaft to provide a reciprocating motion to the saws. Windmills have been used to power many other industrial processes, including papermills, threshing mills, and to p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
In the 14th century, windmills became popular in Europe; the total number of wind-powered mills is estimated to have been around 200,000 at the peak in 1850, which is close to half of the some 500,000 water wheels. Windmills were applied in regions where there was too little water, where rivers freeze in winter and in ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Most of these are being run by volunteers, though some grist mills are still operating commercially. Many of the drainage mills have been appointed as a backup to the modern pumping stations. The Zaan district has been said to have been the first industrialized region of the world with around 600 operating wind-powered... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Economic fluctuations and the industrial revolution had a much greater impact on these industries than on grain and drainage mills, so only very few are left. Construction of mills spread to the Cape Colony in the seventeenth century. The early tower mills did not survive the gales of the Cape Peninsula, so in 1717 the... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The mill, completed in 1718, became known as the Oude Molen and was located between Pinelands Station and the Black River. Long since demolished, its name lives on as that of a Technical school in Pinelands. By 1863, Cape Town had 11 mills stretching from Paarden Eiland to Mowbray. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
A wind turbine is a windmill-like structure specifically developed to generate electricity. They can be seen as the next step in the development of the windmill. The first wind turbines were built by the end of the nineteenth century by James Blyth in Scotland (1887), Charles F. Brush in Cleveland, Ohio (1887–1888) and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
By 1908 there were 72 wind-driven electric generators in Denmark, ranging from 5 to 25 kW. By the 1930s, windmills were widely used to generate electricity on farms in the United States where distribution systems had not yet been installed, built by companies such as Jacobs Wind, Wincharger, Miller Airlite, Universal A... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The development of these 13 experimental wind turbines pioneered many of the wind turbine design technologies in use today, including steel tube towers, variable-speed generators, composite blade materials, and partial-span pitch control, as well as aerodynamic, structural, and acoustic engineering design capabilities.... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
In an attempt to make wind turbines more efficient and increase their energy output, they are being built bigger, with taller towers and longer blades, and being increasingly deployed in offshore locations. While such changes increase their power output, they subject the components of the windmills to stronger forces a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The blade of a wind turbine consists of 4 main elements: the root, spar, aerodynamic fairing, and surfacing. The fairing is composed of two shells (one on the pressure side, and one on the suction side), connected by one or more webs linking the upper and lower shells. The webs connect to the spar laminates, which are ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Flapwise loading, one of the two different types of loading that blades are subject to, is caused by the wind pressure, and edgewise loading (the second type of loading), is caused by the gravitational force and torque load. The former loading subjects the spar laminate on the pressure (upwind) side of the blade to cyc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
The remainder of the shell, not supported by the spars or laminated at the leading and trailing edges, is designed as a sandwiched structure, consisting of multiple layers to prevent elastic buckling.In addition to meeting the stiffness, strength, and toughness requirements determined by the loading, the blade needs to... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
When the Vindeby Offshore Wind Farm was taken down in Denmark in 2017, 99% of the not-degradable fiberglass from 33 wind turbine blades ended as cut up at the Rærup Controlled Landfill near Aalborg, and in 2020 with considerably larger fiberglass quantities, even though it is the least environmentally friendly way of h... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
According to Dakofa, the Danish Competence Center for Waste and Resources, there is nothing specific in the Danish waste order about how to handle discarded fiberglass.Several scrap dealers tell Ingeniøren, that they have handled wind turbine blades (wings) that have been pulverized after being taken to a recycling sta... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Windpumps were used to pump water since at least the 9th century in what is now Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan. The use of wind pumps became widespread across the Muslim world and later spread to East Asia (China) and South Asia (India). Windmills were later used extensively in Europe, particularly in the Netherlands a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Larger versions were also used for tasks such as sawing wood, chopping hay, and shelling and grinding grain. In early California and some other states, the windmill was part of a self-contained domestic water system which included a hand-dug well and a wooden water tower supporting a redwood tank enclosed by wooden sid... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
At their peak in 1930, an estimated 600,000 units were in use. Firms such as U.S. Wind Engine and Pump Company, Challenge Wind Mill and Feed Mill Company, Appleton Manufacturing Company, Star, Eclipse, Fairbanks-Morse, Dempster Mill Manufacturing Company and Aermotor became the main suppliers in North and South America... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
These windpumps are used extensively on farms and ranches in the United States, Canada, Southern Africa, and Australia. They feature a large number of blades, so they turn slowly with considerable torque in low winds and are self-regulating in high winds. A tower-top gearbox and crankshaft convert the rotary motion int... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Such mills pumped water and powered feed mills, sawmills, and agricultural machinery. In Australia, the Griffiths Brothers at Toowoomba manufactured windmills of the American pattern from 1876, with the trade name Southern Cross Windmills in use from 1903. These became an icon of the Australian rural sector by utilizin... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windmill |
Human female sexuality encompasses a broad range of behaviors and processes, including female sexual identity and sexual behavior, the physiological, psychological, social, cultural, political, and spiritual or religious aspects of sexual activity. Various aspects and dimensions of female sexuality, as a part of human ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Sexuality varies across the cultures and regions of the world, and has continually changed throughout history, and this also applies to female sexuality. Aspects of female sexuality include issues pertaining to biological sex, body image, self-esteem, personality, sexual orientation, values and attitudes, gender roles,... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Sexual activity can encompass various sexually stimulating factors (physiological stimulation or psychological stimulation), including sexual fantasies and different sex positions, or the use of sex toys. Foreplay may precede some sexual activities, often leading to sexual arousal of the partners. It is also common for... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Orgasm, or sexual climax, is the sudden discharge of accumulated sexual tension during the sexual response cycle, resulting in rhythmic muscular contractions in the pelvic region characterized by an intense sensation of pleasure. Women commonly find it difficult to experience orgasms during vaginal intercourse. Mayo Cl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Clitoral stimulation in normal copulation happens when the thrusting of the penis moves the clitoral hood and labia minora, extending from the clitoris.Orgasm in women has typically been divided into two categories: clitoral and vaginal (or G-spot) orgasms. 70–80% of women require direct clitoral stimulation to achieve... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
As the clitoris is homologous to the penis, it is the equivalent in its capacity to receive sexual stimulation.Although orgasms by vaginal stimulation are more difficult to achieve, the G-spot area may produce an orgasm if properly stimulated. The G-spot's existence, and existence as a distinct structure, is still unde... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Few women report experiencing orgasm from nipple stimulation. Before Komisaruk et al.'s functional magnetic resonance (fMRI) research on nipple stimulation in 2011, reports of women achieving orgasm from nipple stimulation relied solely on anecdotal evidence. Komisaruk's study was the first to map the female genitals o... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Women, on average, tend to be more attracted to men who have a relatively narrow waist, a V-shaped torso, and broad shoulders. Women also tend to be more attracted to men who are taller than they are, and display a high degree of facial symmetry, as well as relatively masculine facial dimorphism. Based on contemporary ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Historically, many cultures have viewed female sexuality as being subordinate to male sexuality, and as something to be controlled through restrictions on female behavior. Traditional cultural practices, such as enforced modesty and chastity, have tended to place restrictions principally on women, without imposing simi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
He explained the female libido as a precursor of cultural expression and personal creativity. He identified Freud's theories as the source of this significant misunderstanding, and theorized that the "rhythmic factor" is not merely a principle in the "nutritive phase" and later in sexuality, but that it is at the base ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
The procedure is typically carried out on young girls, before the age of 15.Methods employed to control female sexuality and behavior include the threat of death, such as honor killings. The reason for such a killing may include refusing to enter an arranged marriage, being in a relationship that is disapproved by thei... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
However, when Europeans arrived, more rigid views were enforced. These rigid views were especially restrictive for women, predominantly in Puritan colonies.Following the European colonization of North America, there was the creation of the African American archetypes of the Jezebel and mammy. The Jezebel was characteri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
In the modern age, psychologists and physiologists explored female sexuality. Sigmund Freud propounded the theory of two kinds of female orgasms, "the vaginal kind, and the clitoral orgasm." However, Masters and Johnson (1966) and Helen O'Connell (2005) reject this distinction.Ernst Gräfenberg was famous for his studie... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
In 1981, sexologists John D. Perry and Beverly Whipple named that area the Gräfenberg spot, or G-spot, in his honor. While the medical community generally has not embraced the complete concept of the G-spot,Several studies establish that women are generally aroused by sexual stimuli of both sexes, while men are substan... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
In the 1970s and 1980s, long-held Western traditional views on female sexuality came to be challenged and reassessed as part of the sexual revolution. The feminist movement and numerous feminist writers addressed female sexuality from a female perspective, rather than allowing female sexuality to be defined in terms of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Other writers, such as Germaine Greer, Simone de Beauvoir and Camille Paglia, were particularly influential, although their views were not universally or placidly accepted. Toward the end of the 20th century the most significant European contributions to understanding female sexuality came from psychoanalytical French ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
The concept of political lesbianism, associated particularly with second wave feminism and radical feminism, includes, but is not limited to, lesbian separatism, notable proponents being Sheila Jeffreys and Julie Bindel. Feminist attitudes to female sexuality have varied in scope throughout the movement's history. Gene... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Bodily autonomy and consent are also concepts of high importance in modern feminist views of female sexuality. Matters such as the sex industry, sexual representation in the media, and issues regarding consent to sex under conditions of male dominance have been more controversial topics among feminists. These debates c... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Laws around the world affect the expression of female sexuality, and the circumstances under which an individual may not engage sexually with a woman or girl. Forced sexual encounters are usually prohibited, though some countries may sanction rape in marriage. Age of consent laws, which differ between jurisdictions, se... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
In some countries there are laws against pornography and prostitution (or certain aspects of those). Laws in some jurisdictions prohibit sex outside of marriage, such as premarital sex or adultery, with critics arguing that, in practice, these laws are used to control women's and not men's behavior. The virginity and f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
With regard to the responsibility for safe sexual activity in heterosexual relationships, the commonly held definition of safe sex may be examined; it has been argued that there are three facets to the common perception of safe sex: emotional safety (trusting one's partner), psychological safety (feeling safe), and bio... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
Sexual interactions often take place in unequal structural circumstances in the context of imbalance of power between men and women. Feminists, such as Catharine Mackinnon, have stated that the inequality in which heterosexual intercourse takes place should not be ignored and should play a crucial role in policies; Mac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
"Socially constructed masculinity might suggest that men are constantly interested in sex, and that once men are sexually aroused, they must be satisfied through orgasm. This drive is intertwined with the male identity and consequently creates a momentum that, once started, is difficult to stop. Socially constructed fe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
This is a factor that contributes to women's sexual desires being largely ignored; because men are seen as unable to control their sexuality, this can make women responsible for enforcing condom use instead of the "uncontrollable" male. Some scholars argue that a contributing factor in this division of responsibility f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
This link is considered something that cannot be underestimated as "discontinuation of condom use becomes a test or a marker which signifies the existence of a committed and exclusive relationship," and demonstrates trust.Others speculate that the responsibility for condom use falling on women is not so much imposed by... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
For many women, this imposes limitations to the sexual possibilities and a condom is seen as a symbol of the end of the sexual experience. Public acceptance of penis-vagina penetration as central to a sexual relationship is reinforced by the focus on condom use. These ideas, male sex drive and coital imperative, paired... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_female_sexuality |
The Burma Research Society (Burmese: မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ သုတေသန အသင်း) was an academic society devoted to historical research of Burma (Myanmar). Its aims were "the investigation and encouragement of Art, Science and Literature in relation to Burma and the neighbouring countries".The society was founded on 29 March 1910 at a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Research_Society |
Since 1962, publication has been subject to government regulation. The society also published its Fiftieth Anniversary Publications (Rangoon: Burma Research Society, 1960–61. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Research_Society |
2 vols). The first volume consisted of papers read at the society's fiftieth anniversary conference, and the second, 524 pages, reprinted a selection of articles from earlier issues of the journal. As well as publishing the journal, the Burma Research Society also published Burmese historical and literary manuscript te... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Research_Society |
Archimedes Muzenda (; born 23 August 1991) is a senior partner at Glensburg and director of Glensburg Cities Institute. Previously, he served as the secretary-general of the African Planning Society in 2019. Archimedes Muzenda was the inaugural holder of the office after it was established following the merger of Afric... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes_Muzenda |
Muzenda was born in Harare in 1991. He attended local schools in Zimbabwe and received his undergraduate degree in Regional and Urban planning from University of Zimbabwe in 2014 where he began his career as an urban planning researcher. After working for about a year at African Capacity Building Foundation in Harare, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes_Muzenda |
Muzenda, Archimedes (2020). Dystopia: How the Tyranny of Specialists Fragment African Cities. Harare: African Urban Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-77906-887-3 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes_Muzenda |
A subject matter expert Turing test is a variation of the Turing test where a computer system attempts to replicate an expert in a given field such as chemistry or marketing. It is also known, as a Feigenbaum test and was proposed by Edward Feigenbaum in a 2003 paper.The concept is also described by Ray Kurzweil in his... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject-matter_expert_Turing_test |
The paleoethnobotany of the Mapuche focuses on archaeological evidence supporting plant use by past and present Mapuche populations collected from multiple sites in southern Chile and the Patagonia region of Argentina. Paleoethnobotany is the study of fossil and material remains from plants, mostly seeds and residues t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
The Mapuche are an indigenous culture native to South America. The archaeological record has revealed that the Mapuche were present in modern-day south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina from at least 500-600 BC. It is also noteworthy, that while collectively the Mapuche (Picunche, Huilliche and Moluche or Nguluc... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
The Promaucaes, a Mapuche group, were the last group of indigenous peoples to occupy this site in modern-day Chile in the Cachapoal Valley. Archeobotanical analysis was conducted at these sites in relation to pre-Hispanic cultures dominated by the Incan civilization. This site serves as a point of resistance to both In... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
Culitivated plants included: Maize (Zea mays), Madi (Madia chilensis), Quinoa (Chenopodium quinua), Sunflower (Helianthus sp. cf. tuberosum), Gourd (Lagenaria sp.). Fruiting bushes and trees included: Guillave (Echinopsis chilensis) Michay (Berberis sp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
), Boldo (Peumus boldus), Quilo (Muehlenbeckia hastulata) Grape (Vitis sp. ), Blackberry (Rubus sp. ), Cocito, Palm Nut (Jubaea chilensis). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
Legumes included: Unidentified, small (Astragalus sp.?) Unidentified, large, Lupine (Lupinus sp.). Medicinal herbs included: Pata de Guanaco (Cistanthe grandiflora) along with some wilds plants: Various Grasses (Poaceae), Colliguay (Colliguaja odifera), Espino (Acacia caven), Lengua de Gato (Galium sp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
), Sedge (Cyperus sp. ), and Chenopod (Chenopodium sp. ). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
There are a series of 5 sites (1,3,5, La Lomita) located in the La Pampa region of Argentina that demonstrate the historical presence of pre-Hispanic hunter-gatherers and farming cultures in west-central Argentina in the period of the Upper Holocene to the Lower Holocene. Food residues were analyzed from 23 sherds from... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
There are two sites of interest for studying hunter gatherers in the Holocene in West-central Patagonia; these sites include the cave sites of El Chueco 1 (11,500–180 cal BP) and Baño Nuevo 1 (10,800–3,000 cal BP). The El Chueco 1 cave is located at 44°29′36′′S; 71°11′13′′W. The Baño Nuevo is located at 45º17′ S, 71º32... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
The average rainfall for this area is 400 mm and the average temperature is 7 °C. With regard to the stability of the region, "palaeoenvironmental reconstructions for the region indicate no major changes in the distribution of vegetation since approximately 8,000 calBP." Samples for these two sites gathered information... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
The number of different types of plants from the stratigraphy sampled varied between the two sites, with EC1 exhibiting fewer plant micro-remains in the Early Holocene with a fairly steady increase into the Late Holocene, while BN1 exhibited a greater range of plant micro-remains in the Early Holocene and there was a s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
In Central Argentina, there is some evidence of agriculture in the region by 1000 BP. The Sierras de Córdoba, in Central Argentina, are west of the modern city of Córdoba and east of the Andean range separating Argentina from Chile. In one study, 15 sites in the Sierras de Córdoba were analyzed for plant macroremains a... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
Quebrada Norte 7: Sracomphalus mistol, Lithraea molloides, Zea mays, Condalia sp., Prosopis sp., Schinua cf. areria, Phaseolus sp., Chenopodium quinoa var. quinoa, C. quinoa cf. var. melanospermum, Amaranthus sp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
; Pozancón 1: Solanum cf. tuberosum, cf. Ipomea/Manihot. ; Casa del Sol 8: Zea mays. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
; El Alto 3: Polylepis autralis, Maytenus boaria. ; Quebrada del Real 1: Chenopodium sp., Zea mays. ; Cruz Chiquita 3: Zea mays. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
; Río Yuspe 11: Sarcomphalus mistol. ; Boyo Paso 2: Sarcomphalus mistol, Zea mays, Phaseolus vulgaris, Prosopis sp., Oxalis sp. ; Yaco Pampa 1: Zea mays, cf. Prosopis sp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
; Arroyo Tala Cañada 1: Zea mays, Cucurbita sp., Phaseolus vulgaris, P. lunatus. ; Arroyo Talainín 2: cf. Lithraea molloides. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
; C.Pun.39: Prosopis sp., Chenopodium/Amaranthus sp., Zea mays, P. vulgaris, P. lunatis, Cucurbita sp. ; Río Yuspe 14: Sarcomphalus mistol. ; Puesto la Esquina 1: Zea mays, P. vulgaris var. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
vulgaris, P vulgaris var. aborigineus, P. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
lunatus. ; Cerco de la Cueva Pintada: cf. Prosopis sp. ; Arroyo Tala Huasi: Zea mays. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
Plant use from modern ethnographic data: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
Plant use from Tierra del Fuego based on modern ethnographic data: == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleoethnobotany_of_the_Mapuche |
A phonemic orthography is an orthography (system for writing a language) in which the graphemes (written symbols) correspond to the phonemes (significant spoken sounds) of the language. Natural languages rarely have perfectly phonemic orthographies; a high degree of grapheme–phoneme correspondence can be expected in or... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
In less formal terms, a language with a highly phonemic orthography may be described as having regular spelling. Another terminology is that of deep and shallow orthographies, in which the depth of an orthography is the degree to which it diverges from being truly phonemic. The concept can also be applied to nonalphabe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
In an ideal phonemic orthography, there would be a complete one-to-one correspondence (bijection) between the graphemes (letters) and the phonemes of the language, and each phoneme would invariably be represented by its corresponding grapheme. So the spelling of a word would unambiguously and transparently indicate its... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
A disputed example of an ideally phonemic orthography is the Serbo-Croatian language. In its alphabet (Latin as well as Serbian Cyrillic alphabet), there are 30 graphemes, each uniquely corresponding to one of the phonemes. This seemingly perfect yet simple phonemic orthography was achieved in the 19th century—the Cyri... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
However, both Gaj's Latin alphabet and Serbian Cyrillic do not distinguish short and long vowels, and non-tonic (the short one is written), rising, and falling tones that Serbo-Croatian has. In Serbo-Croatian, the tones and vowel lengths were optionally written as (in Latin) ⟨e⟩, ⟨ē⟩, ⟨è⟩, ⟨é⟩, ⟨ȅ⟩, and ⟨ȇ⟩, especially... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
In the first case, the exact one-to-one correspondence may be lost (for example, some phoneme may be represented by a digraph instead of a single letter), but the "regularity" is retained: there is still an algorithm (but a more complex one) for predicting the spelling from the pronunciation and vice versa. In the seco... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
Some ways in which orthographies may deviate from the ideal of one-to-one grapheme-phoneme correspondence are listed below. The first list contains deviations that tend only to make the relation between spelling and pronunciation more complex, without affecting its predictability (see above paragraph). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
Pronunciation and spelling still correspond in a predictable way A phoneme may be represented by a sequence of letters, called a multigraph, rather than by a single letter (as in the case of the digraph ch in French and the trigraph sch in German). That only retains predictability if the multigraph cannot be broken dow... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_orthography |
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