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Chandler Burr is an American journalist, author, and museum curator. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_Burr |
Born in Chicago and raised in Washington, D.C., Burr graduated from Principia College in Elsah, Illinois. He began his journalism career in 1987 as a stringer in The Christian Science Monitor's Southeast Asia bureau, and later became a Contributing Editor to U.S. News & World Report. Burr has also written for The Atlantic on epidemiology and public health. Burr earned a master's degree in international economics and Japan studies from the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) at Johns Hopkins. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_Burr |
In 1993, Burr wrote a cover story, "Homosexuality and Biology", for The Atlantic. The story became the basis for his first book A Separate Creation: The Search for the Biological Origins of Sexual Orientation (1996), which investigated sexual orientation research. A Separate Creation was published by Hyperion, a subsidiary of the Walt Disney Company, and its argument that sexual orientation is inborn prompted a call by Southern Baptists to boycott Disney films and theme parks.In 1996 The Weekly Standard published Burr's article "Why Conservatives Should Embrace the Gay Gene", in which he argued that scientific research demonstrating that sexual orientation is biologically determined supports a conservative view of human nature.Burr's The Emperor of Scent, published in 2003, tells how the French-Italian scientist Luca Turin originated the theory about the functioning of the sense of smell. As a result, The New Yorker proposed that Burr describe the creation of a perfume. Burr's March 2005 New Yorker article recounted Jean-Claude Ellena's year-long creation, in Paris and Grasse, of Hermès' Un Jardin sur le Nil.Burr's The Perfect Scent: A Year Inside the Perfume Industry in Paris & New York, published in 2008, describes Ellena's creation of Un Jardin sur le Nil in Paris, and Sarah Jessica Parker's creation of Lovely in New York City under the license aegis of the perfume corporation Coty.Burr's novel, You Or Someone Like You, was published by Ecco in summer 2009.From August 2006 until the end of 2010, Burr was perfume critic of The New York Times. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_Burr |
In December 2010 he founded the Department of Olfactory Art at the Museum of Arts and Design in New York City. In December 2010, Burr left The New York Times to curate the exhibition "The Art of Scent: 1889-2011" at the Museum of Arts and Design in New York City, which allowed visitors to experience seminal works by some of the greatest scent artists of the late-19th, 20th and early-21st centuries such as Jean-Claude Ellena, Ernest Beaux, and Jacques Cavallier. The New York Times reported that when asked about his refusal to display packaging or bottles, Burr replied "he smell the work of art. I’m opposed to the photon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_Burr |
If you have to see it, I’m not interested. "In 2014 Burr established the Department of Scent Art as an independent 501c3 non-profit arts organization based in New York. The DSA produces exhibitions such as Hyper-Natural: Scent from Art to Design at the National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne.” | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_Burr |
The Bogotá newspaper El Tiempo in its edition of 2 December 2011 carried an article on how Burr reportedly had failed to disclose his sexual orientation in petitioning to adopt two Colombian orphans. As a result, the Instituto Colombiano de Bienestar Familiar halted the adoption proceedings, claiming a lack of candor on Burr's part; Burr responded that the children knew about his sexual orientation and "they didn't care". On 13 December 2011 it was reported that the adoptions were made official and that Burr and his adopted sons were reunited.Burr is an atheist. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_Burr |
In Marxian economics, economic reproduction refers to recurrent (or cyclical) processes. Michel Aglietta views economic reproduction as the process whereby the initial conditions necessary for economic activity to occur are constantly re-created. Marx viewed reproduction as the process by which society re-created itself, both materially and socially. Economic reproduction involves: the physical production and distribution of goods and services, the trade (the circulation via exchanges and transactions) of goods and services, the consumption of goods and services (both productive or intermediate consumption and final consumption), the reproduction of voluntary and involuntary social relations, involving competition and cooperation (including the social relations of the class hierarchy).Karl Marx developed the original insights of Quesnay to model the circulation of capital, money, and commodities in the second volume of Das Kapital to show how the reproduction process that must occur in any type of society can take place in capitalist society by means of the circulation of capital.Marx distinguishes between "simple reproduction" and "expanded (or enlarged) reproduction". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
In the former case, no economic growth occurs, while in the latter case, more is produced than is needed to maintain the economy at the given level, making economic growth possible. In the capitalist mode of production, the difference is that in the former case, the new surplus value created by wage-labour is spent by the employer on consumption (or hoarded), whereas in the latter case, part of it is reinvested in production. Ernest Mandel additionally refers in his two-volume Marxist Economic Theory to contracted reproduction, meaning production on a smaller and smaller scale, in which case business operating at a loss outnumbers growing business (e.g., in wars, depressions, or disasters). Reproduction in this case continues to occur, but investment, employment, and output fall absolutely, so that the national income falls. In the Great Depression of the 1930s, for example, about one-quarter of the workers became unemployed; as a result of the 2008–9 slump, the unemployed labour force increased by about 30 million workers (a number approximately equal to the total workforce of France, or Britain). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
As an approach to studying economic activity, economic reproduction contrasts with equilibrium economics, because economic reproduction is concerned not with statics or with how economic development gravitates towards an equilibrium, but rather with dynamics—that is, the motion of an economy. It is not concerned with the conditions of a perfect match between supply and demand under ideal conditions but rather with the quantitative proportions between different economic activities or sectors that are necessary in any real economy so that economic activity can continue and grow. It is concerned with all the conditions for that, including the social and technical conditions necessary for the economic process. Reproduction economics does not assume that society is kept in balance by market mechanisms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Wassily Leontief developed Marx's idea further in his input-output economics (see also input-output model). However, there is a major difference between Leontief and Marx. By treating gross profit as a "factor input" as well as a factor output, the respective total values of the input and output in Leontief's model are always exactly equal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
In Marx's model, the output in an accounting period is normally always higher in value than the input. This is what Marx believed capitalists to be in business for: to produce a product sold at a higher value than the sum of input costs, thus generating profit. The profit in Marx's theory is not an "input" (it is not part of the capital advanced), but a business result, the yield of capital on an investment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
In Marx's view, economic reproduction in any society has five main features: the production of reproducible products (goods or services) replacing, maintaining, or adding to the stock of society's physical assets the physical maintenance of the (working) population and their dependents through household consumption the reproduction and growth of the total population, including procreation and childrearing the reproduction, enforcement, and maintenance of social relations, in particular the relations of production that characterize the social hierarchy, and property rights the maintenance and reproduction of trading and distribution relations (the systems, institutions, and organizations enabling market trade and non-market allocation of resources)What is specific to capitalist society is that these reproduction processes are accomplished primarily via the intermediary of commercial trade; that is, they are mediated by the market. Reproduction on a larger and larger scale becomes conditional on successfully making money. It means that these processes tend to be increasingly reorganized to bring them in line with the requirements of the accumulation of capital. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Marx's argument is that by producing an output value the equivalent to their own labor cost plus a surplus value (or gross profit) appropriated by capitalists, waged workers accomplish many of the processes involved at the same time. Part of the role of the state is to secure those general (collective) conditions for the reproduction and maintenance of society that individuals and private enterprise cannot secure by themselves for one reason or another (e.g., because they transcend competing interests, because they are too costly for private agencies, because it is technically not possible to privatize them, or because they are not sufficiently profitable or too risky). Ecologists would nowadays probably add as a "reproduction condition" good stewardship for the physical environment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Sustainable development cannot occur if the natural environment is constantly depleted without being restored. The recycling of wastes and waste materials can be considered as a necessary and integral part of society's reproduction process. Each of these six features is the subject of much political controversy in society. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Many different opinions exist about their relative importance and their effects on each other. Economists and businesspeople are often primarily concerned with the economic effects, but other intellectuals and workers are often more concerned with the non-economic effects for the health, security, and well-being of citizens. Thus, governments usually have both economic policies and social policies, population policies, environmental policies, and so on. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
According to Marx, in a capitalist society, economic reproduction is conditional on capital accumulation. If workers fail to produce more capital, economic reproduction begins to break down. Therefore, economic reproduction in capitalist society is necessarily expanded reproduction and requires market growth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Capital must grow, otherwise the whole process breaks down. Thus, economic growth is not simply desirable but also necessary in capitalism, not just because of population growth, but for commercial reasons.In this light, the ecological vision of a "zero-growth society" appears rather utopian; or, at the very least, its achievement would require the abolition of capitalism. Some would argue that population growth makes economic growth absolutely necessary. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Others argue that population growth must be restricted with birth control methods because otherwise there will be too many people for the available resources. The real argument, though, is not about growth or the lack thereof, but rather about the kind of growth that is best for the (enlarged) reproduction of the human species as such. Ecologists may validly argue that some types of growth undermine important conditions for human survival in the longer term without invalidating other kinds of growth that are beneficial. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
However, there is much dispute about which kinds of economic growth are beneficial or harmful. Capital accumulation (the amassing of wealth in the form of capital assets) can occur either by producing a net addition to the stock of capital assets or by transferring wealth from one owner to another. In the former case, the total stock of capital grows. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
In the latter case, the accumulation of one owner occurs at the expense of the other, there is no net growth. These two ways are usually combined, meaning that all or most owners make gains, but in unequal amounts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
In considering the economic reproduction process as a whole, one therefore has to consider both the production of new resources and the transfer (distribution) of resources. As a corollary, supposing that there is no net growth of output and capital, capital accumulation can continue only if some people and organizations get richer while other people and organizations get poorer. Typically, if output growth slows down, socio-economic inequality (as measured, e.g., by the Gini coefficient) increases. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
There were nine main factors that Marx disregarded in his construction of reproduction schemes when he modelled the circulation of capital (through the constant transformations of money-capital into production-capital and commodity-capital and vice versa). These omissions have been noted by various Marxist and non-Marxist authors. The sphere of consumption. Marx did not go into detail about how capitalist business reshapes, reorganizes, and restructures the mode of consumption so that it becomes more profitable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
He concerned himself primarily with the capitalist mode of production, not with the capitalist mode of consumption.Unproductive accumulation. Through successive cycles of economic reproduction, more and more capital assets are created that exist outside the sphere of capitalist production. These capital assets include residential housing; improved and unimproved land; publicly owned physical assets including offices, hospitals, schools, roads, installations, parks, vehicles, equipment, and infrastructural works; consumer durables; and all kinds of financial assets. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
These assets can also yield profits, income gains, or capital gains insofar as they are tradeable goods or rented out. For example, there is nowadays a large trade in used cars, second-hand equipment, and housing, as well as in financial assets. In fact, in developed capitalist countries, the capital directly tied up in private-sector means of production (i.e., the productive investment capital of private enterprises) is nowadays only the minor part of the total physical capital assets of society (i.e., a quarter or one-fifth); if financial assets are included, the proportion of this part shrinks even more (to one-sixth to one-eighth of the total capital).Human capital and labour markets. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Marx did not analyze the effects of human capital—that is, the skills and knowledge lodged in the physical bodies of workers, and the very large sums of money invested into education systems. He was aware of the idea of human capital, but he regarded it as a fictitious, reified notion that, he argued, would imply that workers were really capitalists. Nevertheless, the stock of skills and knowledge in the economy can represent a very large tradable value, which can profoundly influence economic relationships, insofar as workers can increase their income because they possess specialized skills and knowledge. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Considerable money is spent on education and research and development in developed capitalist countries. Marx intended to write a separate study about the labour market, considering the different forms that wages could take, but he never did.Rent seeking. Marx did not analyze the effects of "rent-seeking" for economic reproduction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
In conventional economics, the term "rent-seeking" was coined in 1974, and refers mainly to a form of parasitism or economic opportunism by government bureaucrats in a privileged position (though sometimes it is applied to firms and business managers). Definitions of "economic rent" are much disputed in economic theory, but in radical theory they refer to an unearned income (which may be conceptualized as being not a true "factor-income" but rather an income in excess of factor-income) that derives from a favorable trading position or from the monopolization of a resource. Marx only considered the special case of land rent ("ground rent"), but modern theorists argue that the scope of economic rents has become much larger. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
If investors can earn rents simply by capitalizing on the ownership or use of a resource (and make money simply by trading in the ownership of assets, which may themselves be borrowed assets), then, if this sort of activity makes more profit faster, with less risk and lower tax than investing in production, capital will shift more and more to trade in already existing assets. If there exist plenty of such assets, a very large trade in such assets can develop, causing speculative bubbles. The result is that output growth is curbed and may even turn negative. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Thus, the relative proportions of industry profits, interest, and rent income in total surplus value have a decisive effect on the ability of the economy to grow. The more the interest and rent that must be paid for production to occur, the more this becomes a constraint for expanding production. If the population increases, output, investments, and jobs necessarily have to grow to keep up with it; but in a complex system of financial intermediation involving rent seeking, economic growth may fail to occur on a sufficient scale, and in that case, some groups can only improve their economic position at the expense of others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
This argument, however, is also disputed by many theorists; the objection is simply that well-developed capital and money markets ensure that the finance exists to develop production, and that without a strong financial sector, production would be starved of funds.Non-capitalist economic areas. In his theory of capital, Marx failed to consider the importance and weight of the non-capitalist production activities that must occur to sustain capitalist production (a significant component of which is household labour; see below). He was primarily concerned to show that the reproduction of society as a whole could in principle be accomplished by means of the accumulation of capital. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
All the activities of economic production can, Marx argued, in principle be organized in a capitalist way (according to commercial logic). It supplied proof that the capitalist mode of production could exist as an historically distinctive world system, completely dominated by the requirements of capital, without quickly breaking down. But this idea was strongly criticized, especially by German Marxist authors such as Rosa Luxemburg and Fritz Sternberg. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
They argued that capital accumulation proceeds only by constantly drawing upon a non-capitalist "hinterland" or region. That is, markets can expand only if there are new, non-capitalist areas to expand into; but inversely, these non-capitalist areas could actually support the capitalist economy well in advance of becoming thoroughly organized according to commercial principles. Many Marxists have demonstrated the mistake(s) of Luxemburg in misunderstanding Marx's reproduction Schema. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
In Limits to Capital and In Nature, Difference and the Geography of Justice, David Harvey finds that a closed capitalist system could balance the various factors of production and successful expanded reproduction (without recourse to non-capitalist, or other "outside" factors)is possible. Whilst rejecting the necessity of expanding into non-capitalist areas for successful accumulation to take place, Harvey does recognize that in neoliberalism the privatization of the public sector, including partial privatization via P3s, as well as outsourcing, subcontracting, giving away new science to private firms etc. constitutes a new kind of "accumulation by dispossession" . Lewis in his Nobel prize winning Theory of Economic Growth and model of economic development argued the opposite – that the capitalist sector raises wages, drawing unproductive labour out of the non-capitalist sector, creating a self-sustaining process of economic development.Population growth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Marx failed to systematically theorize the impact of demographic effects on economic reproduction, except that he studied the reserve army of labour and criticized the "overpopulation" theories of Thomas Malthus. Malthus was anxious that population growth would outstrip the capacity of the economy to sustain all the new people. Marx replied that the very idea of "overpopulation" was an anti-human ideological fiction, since it really meant "overpopulation" only relative to the requirements of capital accumulation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
If resources were appropriately allocated, there was enough for everybody to have a decent life. The real point was that capital could not achieve that goal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Capital accumulation necessitated a "relative surplus population", which tended to grow in size. Nevertheless, since population trends are not simply determined by economic factors, population movements can exert an important independent effect on economic reproduction. In China population growth has been curbed by deliberate government policy to restrict the number of births per couple, using birth control methods. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Another aspect about which there is much controversy is the emigration of workers and refugee populations, whether they are an asset for, or a drain on, economic growth. Capitalists are generally in favor of the free international movement of capital, but they are much more cautious about freedom of movement for workers, depending on whether that movement is profitable to them or whether it is a cost or a political threat.Public finance. Marx did not analyze in any detail the effect of taxation and state expenditures on the reproduction process. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
In his time, state taxes and expenditures were comparatively small (5%–10% of gross product), but since that time they have risen to 30%–40% or more of gross product in many countries. They enable the state to intervene directly in the process of social and economic reproduction, and to alter its course within certain limits. Because of the size of state funds and the fact that taxes must be paid irrespective of productive performance, the state can borrow large sums and use them, together with legislation, to influence economic growth and social relations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
In addition, the state nowadays also employs a very large number of people earning incomes from activity that is often or mostly not oriented to profit making, analogous to a non-profit sector sustained by subsidies, grants, and donations, as well as some income-generating activity. The state is the largest sponsor and purchaser of the military industry supplying the armed forces.Ecology. Although he did refer to it, Marx did not analyze in detail the depletion of natural resources by capitalist production, where the depletion involves non-reproducible goods, or living organisms that are wiped out. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
If land is exhausted or becomes infertile, or if it is devastated by a natural disaster, or if the yield of mines, forests, and fisheries becomes too low, production can no longer continue. After a series of cycles of capitalist reproduction, environments may emerge that are no longer inhabitable by human beings because they are incapable any longer of sustaining life.International division of labor. Through mechanization and productivity increases achieved by capitalist production, the allocation of human labour between agriculture, manufacturing industries, and services (the so-called primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors of the economy) is altered nationally and internationally. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
In developed capitalist countries, the agricultural labour force has shrunk to only a tiny fraction of the total workforce, and manufacturing industries remain only as a minor part of total production; the large majority of workers are employed in service industries. This contrasts with less-developed countries, which retain a large agricultural workforce, and newly industrializing countries, which feature a large manufacturing workforce. Marx did not analyze the implications of these long-term effects of the expansion of production by means of capital accumulation.In assessing the effect of these "omissions", one ought to keep in mind that when Marx discussed the intertwining of the circulation of capital with the reproduction processes that occur in any kind of society, he was primarily concerned with the functional requirements of the capitalist mode of production and not with the reproduction of the whole of society. At any time, a fraction of the population is not working or "economically active" (children, students, the sick and disabled, the unemployed, volunteer workers, housewives, pensioners, idlers, etc.), and assets are maintained or accumulated that are unrelated to the sphere of production. These were generally outside the scope of Marx's analysis, even if he occasionally mentioned them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Marx's models of economic reproduction in capitalism have often been interpreted as stating the conditions for economic equilibrium, or balanced economic growth. After all, there are certain "necessary proportions" between different branches of production, which have to adjust their output levels to each other. If those proportions do not reach a minimum acceptable level, then products remain unsold or producers cannot obtain the inputs they require, in which case production begins to slow down or break down. So there are necessary proportions between production, distribution, and consumption that must be maintained if society is to survive and grow. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
In this sense, Marx distinguishes between the production of means of production, consumer goods, and luxury goods, and he considers the commercial interactions between the sectors producing them. If the growth of different sectors of production occurs very unevenly, bottlenecks can occur, so that a supply or demand cannot be met. In the worst case, an interruption in the normal reproduction process triggers a sequence of disturbances, a chain reaction, which spreads from some branches of production to the whole economy, meaning that products are left unsold and that producers receive insufficient income to pay their bills. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
The result is rising unemployment, idle productive capacity, and a drop in output and productive investment. This in turn means lower economic growth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Disproportionality theories. This idea was the basis for numerous Marxist crisis theories devised in the first three decades of the 20th century, most famously by Rudolf Hilferding, Rosa Luxemburg, Nikolai Bukharin, Otto Bauer, and Henryk Grossmann. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
The argument is that balanced economic growth is only a temporary phenomenon, because a private enterprise economy is incapable of sustaining the necessary proportionalities required. It cannot do so because there is no overall, conscious coordination of production activities in an economic system in which producers compete to cut costs, increase sales, and increase profits. There has been much dispute about which disproportionalities exactly are of decisive importance and why those specific disproportionalities would occur and recur, but all these theorists agree that some disproportionalities must necessarily occur, making recurrent crises inevitable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Uneven development theories. Other theorists such as Ernest Mandel and Roman Rosdolsky argued that capitalist economic development is always an "imbalanced" rather than "balanced" development in space and time. At most, an approximate balance of supply and demand is achieved in particular areas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
In that case, an economic equilibrium never exists in reality; it is only a theoretical abstraction. There are constant market fluctuations as producers adjust to each other without being able to determine how much others will produce for sale. At most, one could say that in times of strong economic growth, when markets strongly expand, all producers can make gains from increasing output, even if the gains are unequal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
But after a certain time, productive investment will "overshoot" a now saturated market demand, causing the economy to spiral into crisis again.The basis for this alternative interpretation is that as long as simple reproduction is at least accomplished, expanded reproduction permits considerable variations, possibilities, and flexibilities (elasticities); the gross profit income of enterprises can, within certain limits, be used or reinvested in many different ways without causing any critical disturbance of the economic reproduction process as a whole. The higher labor productivity is and the larger the surplus product, the more discretionary wealth exists. The less that basic necessities (food, clothing, housing, cellphones, etc.) cost as a fraction of the disposable household budget, the more funds are available to be spent optionally or saved. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
In addition, the extension of credit can compensate for temporary supply-demand imbalances. So while certain minimal quantitative conditions do exist for the proportionalities of outputs among different branches of production, these proportionalities can be maintained, even if the output growth rate per year drops, say from 4% to 2%. Provided that the capitalist relations of production are stable and secure, capital accumulation will continue, despite constant market fluctuations, at a slower or faster pace. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Society will reproduce itself anyway, but at a lower or higher standard of living.In this case, models of economic reproduction are not a useful guide to understanding economic crises because, it is argued, Marx only intended them to show how it was possible for the whole economic reproduction process to be accomplished on the basis of the circulation of capital, by stating the minimum requirements (not the equilibrium conditions) for it. If certain quantitative assumptions are made about the growth rates of different sectors and about capital compositions, it can be proved that certain disproportions must necessarily develop. But in reality, the economic reproduction process could be interrupted or break down for all kinds of reasons (including non-economic causes, such as wars or disasters). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
And if disproportions occur, the economic system can also adjust to them, within certain limits. If vastly more capital assets are created than are invested in production, one cannot explain economic crises simply in terms of disproportionalities in the sphere of production; one has to look at the process of capital accumulation as a whole, which includes the financial system, non-productive assets, and real estate. This becomes particularly important when large debt crises occur. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
These debt crises signal that serious misallocations of capital have occurred, which impact negatively on economic reproduction. Financialization theories. A third, more recent interpretation is that the reproduction process (both the material reproduction processes and the reproduction of capital) has become completely dominated by capital finance. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Hence, to explain economic crises, critical disproportions between the developments of branches of production, or unutilized capacity ought to be viewed as emerging out of specific financial and monetary regimes pursued by financial institutions and the state. The large funds commanded by these organizations are thought to shape the whole character of the reproduction process. As analysts like Michael Hudson like to point out, ordinary consumers in developed countries today have little in common anymore with how economists portray them in their models, because in reality consumers are using the majority of what they earn to pay interest, premiums, rent and debt principal to the financial industry (finance, insurance and real estate). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Consumers spend less than a quarter or less than 20% of their earnings on actual goods and services. Just as Marx noted a progression from natural economy to a "money-economy" and then a "credit economy", it is argued that the reproduction process has now become dominated by the supply, demand, or withdrawal of credit-money. However, there is much theoretical controversy about exactly how the relationship between the "real economy" (the direct involvement with the production and consumption of goods and services) and the "financial economy" (the circuit of trade in financial claims) should be understood. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
There is not much consensus about the effects of different financial policies by government and business on the economy, or how one could prove what the effects are.Arguably, much of the confusion in the debates about economic reproduction is attributable to two basic errors: Definition of capitalism. Scholars often confuse Marx's idea about what is required for the reproduction of the capitalist mode of production (bringing together the factors of production to make money) with what is required for the reproduction of capitalist society as a whole. Abstractly, it is assumed that the economy consists only of capitalist production and that the capitalist economy is equal to capitalist society. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
But in reality this is not the case. Capitalist society contains all sorts of non-economic processes and non-capitalist processes as well. It remains a society of human beings, who have certain requirements or needs that cannot easily be met through a commercial business. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
And the majority of capital assets in developed capitalist countries are, even though they attract profit, not physical means of production, but financial assets or non-productive physical assets such as real estate or durables. This can be easily verified from national capital stock and asset inventory data (provided in national accounts or flow of funds tables). Physical/social distinction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Scholars often conflate the (expanded) physical reproduction of goods and services necessary for human survival with the (expanded) reproduction of capital. They assume that a certain market balance or market proportionality is essential for an equilibrium growth path. In fact, Marx never argued that capitalist society is "held together" or "balanced out" by the market itself, and he denied that equilibrium ever existed anywhere, other than as a momentary coincidence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Instead, "what held society together" was the compulsion to produce and reproduce for a living, given a system of property rights enforced by the state. Marxists call this viewpoint Marx's historical materialism.Once the basic needs of all could be met and organized capitalistically, the further development of capital accumulation could take directions quite unrelated to the direct requirements of economic reproduction. Indeed, this was also part of Marx's critique of capitalism: significant funds could be invested in ways that did not benefit society at all, with the effect that activities and assets essential to maintain society's well-being might be starved of funds. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
That is, within certain absolute limits, the requirements for physical reproduction and for capital accumulation might not be the same at all. Capital would be invested for profit, but basic necessities might be ignored. An example might be the 2007–2008 world food price crisis, which indicates that insufficient capital has been invested in food production. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
This might seem strange, since food is a basic requirement of human life. But, as Marx would presumably argue, what makes a profit is not necessarily what people really need, and therefore the possibility exists that profit making may undermine the most basic conditions for economic reproduction, including the supply of food and clean water, sanitation, adequate shelter, schooling, health care, and the like. These conditions are undermined not because capitalists dislike investing in these things—they might love to invest in them, if they could—but rather because it is difficult to make a secure profit from doing so. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
The required investments may be very large and long term, tying up capital for many years, but either there is no possibility for profit or it is uncertain whether a sufficient profit can and will be made. If, for example, foreign investors invested in a country's essential infrastructure, a falling currency exchange rate some years later might wipe out the profits they could get. Therefore, such investments could occur only if foreign or local government authorities (and ultimately taxpayers) subsidized them (or at any rate, if they acted as a guarantor for the investments), or if financial institutions could find sufficient financial insurance to protect the value of investment capital through terms that reduce financial risk to investors. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Reproduction can also refer to the worker's daily reproduction of his or her own labor power. This consists of the tasks of everyday existence—food preparation, laundry, and so forth—that maintain the worker and his or her ability to work. Since roughly the 16th century, much of this domestic labor has been made the responsibility of women, through various developments put in motion by powerful institutions in the transition period from feudalism to capitalism. Adding to the process of social degradation of women in that period was the devaluation of the reproduction of labor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
As Silvia Federici notes, "In the new monetary regime, only production-for-market was defined as value-creating activity, whereas the reproduction of the worker began to be considered as valueless from an economic viewpoint and even ceased to be considered as work". Thus it is of particular interest in feminist economics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
For example, it was reported in 1988 that the paid work done by both men and women outside the home in West Germany totalled 55,000 million hours a year, earning them a total of $335 billion; but housework done by women inside the home totalled 53,000 million hours a year, which earned them no salary at all.One of the principal inventors of modern national accounts, Simon Kuznets, did at one time suggest that the value of household labour should be estimated as a standard measure, even just for the sake of objectivity about the economy, but that argument was rejected. He stated: "The productive activities of housewives and other family members, rendered within the family circle…are an important complement to the market-eventuating process in supplying goods to ultimate consumers, and should be considered in any attempt to evaluate the net product of the social system in terms of satisfying wants with scarce means." Later, the economist Robert Eisner tried to estimate the value of "non-market outputs". His calculations suggested that in the United States, the value of unpaid household work declined from about 45% of conventional Gross National Product in 1945 to about 33% in 1981. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction_(economics) |
Pacific studies is the study of the Pacific region (Oceania) across academic disciplines such as anthropology, archeology, art, economics, geography, history, linguistics, literature, music, politics, or sociology. In the fields of anthropology and linguistics, Oceania is often subdivided into Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, while also including Australasia. In archeology and prehistory, Oceania extends into the southern Pacific Rim of Asia, especially the islands now comprising Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Taiwan. Study of the history, economics, and politics from the colonial period on is inextricably bound to that of the major colonial powers: Britain, France, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, Spain, Russia, the United States, and later Australia, New Zealand, and Indonesia. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_studies |
The field is sometimes seen as including Hawaiian studies and Māori studies. : 116 For many Pacific Islanders, Pacific studies involves projects of cultural renaissance, the reclamation and reassertion of cultural identity, while for many others, Pacific studies tends to focus more on modernization and development, on how to understand the region in ways that will improve people's lives. Wesley-Smith observed that a third rationale for Pacific Studies, particularly amongst outsiders to the Pacific, was driven by geopolitical considerations evident in Area Studies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_studies |
The Australian National University established its Research School of Pacific Studies in 1946. The University of Hawaii at Manoa in 1950 began offering the first graduate-level course in Pacific Studies in 1950.: 116 Both of these early establishments were driven by a desire of their funding countries for better understanding of the Pacific region, with ANU having a particular focus on Papua New Guinea. : 117–118 In 1976 the newly formed University of the South Pacific established the Institute of Pacific Studies under Professor Ron Crocombe. Unlike its Australian and American counterparts, this was driven by a desire to deepen students' awareness of Pacific identity and the region. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_studies |
: 63 A foundation course in Pacific studies is still included in every USP undergraduate programme. In New Zealand, the University of Auckland's Pacific Studies programme was established in the 1990s and driven by the needs and concerns of New Zealand Pacific islanders. : 116 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_studies |
Australian National University Brigham Young University–Hawaii CNRS EHESS National Museum of Ethnology, Japan SOAS San Diego State University San Francisco State University Tokyo University of Foreign Studies University of Auckland University of Canterbury University of California, San Diego University of Hawaii at Manoa University of Oregon University of Otago University of the South Pacific Victoria University of Wellington University of Victoria, Canada City College of San Francisco College of San Mateo | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_studies |
The Association for Social Anthropology in Oceania (ASAO) was established in 1967 and focuses on comparative studies of Pacific topics. The European Society for Oceanists (ESFO) was established in 1992. The Australian Association for Pacific Studies (AAPS) was formed in 2004. Journals include: Asian Perspectives: The Journal of Archaeology for Asia and the Pacific Oceanic Linguistics Manoa: A Pacific Journal of International Writing Pacific Science Pacific Studies (journal) The Contemporary Pacific The Journal of Pacific History MATAMAI: An Anthology of Poems, Short stories, songs, and art by students of Pacific Islands Studies | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_studies |
A culminating project (also known as a senior project, grad project or exit project), is a project that challenges high school seniors to demonstrate their academic knowledge in an experiential way (in most cases). According to the United States Department of Education State Education Boards typically allow individual school districts to customize the project, based on basic state guidelines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culminating_project |
People reporting on the culminating project sometimes confuse the terminology with the state high school exit exam. The state exit exam is a written exam that usually tests student’s math, reading, writing, and science skills, whereas the culminating project is a required project that is usually a learning experience based on a topic chosen by the student. The project is mandatory in order to graduate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culminating_project |
The purpose of the project is to increase both teaching and learning. High school graduation standards have declined for several decades. School reform or the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 is a way to bring value back to the high school diploma as well as support students as they go out into the world prepared for college, a job, the military, entrepreneurship, internship, or whatever path students decide to follow once they graduate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culminating_project |
The requirement is an effort to increase the education standards. As college admissions and the workplace require more from their recruits, nationwide high schools must also. In an effort to be clear, it is restated that the culminating project is not required by all schools. Again, parents and guardians would have to check with the student’s school official website for graduation requirements. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culminating_project |
However, for students that are required to complete a culminating project, this is a chance for the student to explore a topic of personal interest. The project provides an opportunity that student may not have otherwise. By completing the project, students have a real life experience that can help them in their next adventure in life (college, job, entrepreneurship, military, internship, etc.). Students gain a number of important skills by participating in the process such as, Leadership Communication Project management Time management Group skills Negotiation skills Meeting deadlines Conflict management Public speaking Presentation skills Self motivation | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culminating_project |
The high school graduation culminating project format varies from state to state and even school to school within the same state. Parents and guardians will have to check with their students specific school for their requirements. Typically the project consists of choosing a topic of interest, writing a research paper on that topic, having an experience directly related to the topic, keeping a journal of artifacts demonstrating your work, followed by the final step which is a presentation (US Dept of Education). The student usually presents the project to a panel consisting of 2-5 people typically made up of teachers, community members, faculty, and staff. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culminating_project |
However, some schools have student present to a panel of their peers. Schools and school districts have total discretion to format the process in a way that works best for their students and their school culture. In some cases, students complete a project on their own with the support of a mentor from their community. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culminating_project |
Some schools allow group projects and group presentation. For example, it would not be uncommon for the leadership class of a school to raise funds to build a school in Africa. Other requirements include a mandatory social/community aspect related to the project which means the high school graduation project has to benefit someone other than the student. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culminating_project |
Parallel Intelligence in distributed AI systems allows multiple agents to work concurrently on a problem, enhancing the speed and efficacy of the solution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Intelligence |
Parallel Intelligence (PI) is constructed from the interactions and entanglement between actual systems and artificial systems. This chapter summarizes the research on PI and CPHS over the past 20 years. After a brief description of the history and framework, various applications are presented along eight aspects: parallel control and intelligent control, parallel robotics and parallel manufacturing, parallel management and intelligent organizations, parallel medicine and smart healthcare, parallel ecology and parallel societies, parallel economic systems and social computing, parallel military systems, and parallel cognition and parallel philosophy. Finally, the technical support and future direction for CPHS development are addressed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Intelligence |
The origin of artificial intelligence is investigated, based on which the concepts of hybrid intelligence and parallel intelligence are presented. The paradigm shift in Intelligence indicates the "new normal" of cyber-social-physical systems (CPSS), in which the system behaviors are guided by Merton's Laws. Thus, the ACP-based parallel intelligence consisting of Artificial societies, Computational experiments and Parallel execution are introduced to bridge the big modeling gap in CPSS. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Intelligence |
While Parallel Intelligence holds significant promise, it also poses challenges and raises ethical considerations. One challenge is the effective coordination and integration of different intelligent entities, as each may have its own goals, biases, and limitations. Ensuring seamless collaboration and avoiding conflicts among these entities requires careful design and engineering. Ethical considerations in Parallel Intelligence include issues related to accountability, transparency, and fairness. When human and AI systems collaborate, questions arise regarding who bears responsibility for the decisions made and the consequences that follow. It is crucial to establish clear frameworks for accountability and to ensure that decisions made are explainable and fair. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_Intelligence |
Coloniality of knowledge is a concept that Peruvian sociologist Anibal Quijano developed and adapted to contemporary decolonial thinking. The concept critiques what proponents call the Eurocentric system of knowledge, arguing the legacy of colonialism survives within the domains of knowledge. For decolonial scholars, the coloniality of knowledge is central to the functioning of the coloniality of power and is responsible for turning colonial subjects into victims of the coloniality of being, a term that refers to the lived experiences of colonized peoples. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
According to Fregoso Bailón and De Lissovoy, Hatuey, a Taíno indigenous warrior from the colonial island La Española, which contains Haiti and the Dominican Republic, was among the first to perceive "Western knowledge as a colonial discourse". Inspired by Hatuey, Antonio de Montesinos began his career as an educator in 1511, teaching critical thinking to Bartolomé de las Casas. In the contemporary era, Frantz Fanon is considered an influential figure who critiqued the intellectual aspects of colonialism. For Fanon, "colonialism is a psychic and epistemological process as much as a material one". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
Quijano expanded on this insight and advanced the critique of intellectual dimensions of colonialism.The concept of coloniality of knowledge is derived from the theories of coloniality. The idea of coloniality or "global coloniality" consists of coloniality of power, coloniality of being, and coloniality of knowledge. The concept of coloniality of knowledge originated in an article written in 1992 by Peruvian sociologist Anibal Quijano, who developed the concept as part of a wider discussion on global systems of power, knowledge, racial hierarchy, and capitalism in the context of Latin American historical and cultural events from the fourteenth century to the present. Decolonial thinkers including Walter Mignolo, Enrique Dussel, and Santiago Castro-Gómez later expanded the concept. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
According to Quijano, colonialism has had a particular influence on colonized cultures' modes of knowing, knowledge production, perspectives, visions; and systems of images, symbols, and modes of signification; along with their resources, patterns, and instruments of formalized and objectivised expression. For Quijano, this suppression of knowledge accompanied the annihilation of indigenous populations throughout the continent, as well as indigenous societies and traditions. Quijano said the patterns of suppression, expropriation, and imposition of knowledge created during the colonial period, as refracted through conceptions of race and racial hierarchy, persisted after colonialism was overturned as "an explicit political order". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
This persists in numerous "colonial situations" in which individuals and groups in historically colonized regions are excluded and exploited. Decolonial scholars refer to this ongoing legacy of colonialism as "coloniality", which describes colonialism's perceived legacy of oppression and exploitation across many inter-related domains, including knowledge. Ndlovu-Gatsheni cites Quijano, referring to "control of economy; control of authority, control of gender and sexuality; and, control of subjectivity and knowledge". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
For Nelson Maldonado-Torres, coloniality denotes the long-standing power structures that developed as a result of colonialism but continue to have an impact on culture, labor, interpersonal relations, and knowledge production that extends far beyond the formal boundaries of colonial administrations. It lives on in literature, academic achievement standards, cultural trends, common sense, people's self-images, personal goals, and other aspects of modern life. Anibal Quijano described this power structure as "coloniality of power" that is predicated on the idea of "coloniality of knowledge", which is "central to the operation of the coloniality of power". While the term coloniality of power refers to the inter-relationship between "modern forms of exploitation and domination", the term coloniality of knowledge concerns the influence of colonialism on domains of knowledge production. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
Karen Tucker identifies the "coloniality of knowledge" as "one of multiple, intersecting forms of oppression" within a system of "global coloniality". The coloniality of knowledge "appropriates meaning" in the same manner as coloniality of power "takes authority, appropriates land, and exploits labor".The coloniality of knowledge raises epistemological concerns such as who creates what knowledge and for what purpose, the relevance and irrelevance of knowledge, and how specific knowledges disempower or empower certain peoples and communities. The thesis directly or implicitly questions fundamental epistemological categories and attitudes such as belief and the pursuit of objective truth, the concept of the rational subject, the epistemological distinction between the knowing subject and the known object, the assumption of "the universal validity of scientific knowledge, and the universality of human nature". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
According to this theory, these categories and attitudes are "Eurocentric constructions" that are intrinsically infused with what may be called the "colonial will to dominate". Decolonial theorists refer to "Eurocentric knowledge system", which they believe had assigned the creation of knowledge to Europeans and prioritized the use of European methods of knowledge production. According to Quijano, the hegemony of Europe over the new paradigm of global power consolidated all forms of control over subjectivity, culture and, in particular, knowledge and the creation of knowledge under its hegemony. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
This resulted in the denial of knowledge creation to conquered peoples on the one hand, and the repression of traditional forms of knowledge production on the other, based on the hierarchical structure's superiority/inferiority relationship.Quijano characterizes Eurocentric knowledge as a "specific rationality or perspective of knowledge that was made globally hegemonic" through the intertwined operation of colonialism and capitalism. It works by constructing binary hierarchical relationships between "the categories of object" and symbolizes a specific secular, instrumental, and "technocratic rationality" that Quijano contextualizes in reference to the mid-seventeen century West European thought and the demands of nineteenth-century global capitalist expansion. For Quijano, it codifies relations between Western Europe and the rest of the world using categories such as "primitive-civilized", "irrational-rational", and "traditional-modern"; and creates distinctions and hierarchies between them so "non-Europe" is aligned with the past and is thus "inferior, if not always primitive". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
Similarly, it codifies the relationship between Western Europe and "non-Europe" as one between subject and object, perpetuating the myth that Western Europe is the only source of reliable knowledge. For Quijano, the "Western epistemological paradigm" suggests: only European culture is rational, it can contain "subjects" – the rest are not rational, they cannot be or harbor "subjects". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
As a consequence, the other cultures are different in the sense that they are unequal, in fact inferior, by nature. They only can be "objects" of knowledge or/and of domination practices. From that perspective, the relation between European culture and the other cultures was established and has been maintained, as a relation between "subject" and "object". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
It blocked, therefore, every relation of communication, of interchange of knowledge and of modes of producing knowledge between the cultures, since the paradigm implies that between "subject" and "object" there can be but a relation of externality. The subject-object dualism proposed by Quijano and other decolonial thinkers such as Enrique Dussel is based on a particular reading of René Descartes' idea of cogito. The "I" in the iconic expression "I think, therefore I am" is an imperial "I" that, according to Quijano, "made it possible to omit every reference to any other 'subject' outside the European context". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
Before Lyotard, Vattimo and Derrida in Europe, the Argentine Enrique Dussel signalled the consequences of Heidegger's critique of Western metaphysics and drew attention to the intrinsic relation between the modern subject of the Enlightenment and European colonial power. Behind the Cartesian ego cogito, which inaugurates modernity, there is a hidden logocentrism through which the enlightened subject divinizes itself and becomes a kind of demiurge capable of constituting and dominating the world of objects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
The modern ego cogito thus becomes the will to power: "I think" is equivalent to "I conquer", the epistemic foundation upon which European domination has been based since the 16th century. According to the decolonial perspective, coloniality of knowledge thus refers to historically entrenched and racially driven intellectual practices that continuously elevate the forms of knowledge and "knowledge-generating principles" of colonizing civilizations while downgrading those of colonized societies. It stresses the role of knowledge in the "violences" that defined colonial rule, as well as the function of knowledge in sustaining the perceived racial hierarchization and oppression that were created over this time period. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
Sarah Lucia Hoagland identified four aspects of the coloniality of "Anglo-European knowledge practice": The coloniality of knowledge entails Anglo-Eurocentric practices, in which "the only discourse for articulating Third World women's lives is a norming and normative Anglo-European one". For Hoagland, Western researchers evaluate their non-Western subjects through the lens of the Western conception of "woman". In so doing, Western feminists interpret their subjects through Western categories and ideals by interpolating them into Western semiotics and practices. Many Western feminist researchers, she said, perceive their subjects through cultural constructs that only see them as deficient to Western notions of womanhood and hence in desperate "need of enlightened rescue". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
The research subject is analyzed solely through the perspective of rationality as defined by modern epistemology. Hoagland cites Anibal Quijano, who argues the coloniality of knowledge practices began with the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the fifteenth century, making it "unthinkable to accept the idea that a knowing subject was possible beyond the subject of knowledge postulated by the very concept of rationality" enshrined in modern epistemology. Research methodologies assume "knowing (authorized) subjects" are the sole agents in research activities, and it is their "prerogative" to interpret and package information inside authorizing institutions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coloniality_of_knowledge |
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