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Founded in 1999 at the conclusion of the International Mayors Summit, the Cities Alliance's initial members were bilateral aid agencies from the US, Japan, German, the UK, and Canada, in addition to four associations of local authorities. From its inception, the Cities Alliance has been clear in its intention to exclusively "fund partnership-efforts of multiple stakeholders", with the intention of engendering cooperation across the government, NGO, international organization, and citizen advocacy divides to support active local governance, citizenship, and economic growth These efforts implicate "regional staff members in Africa, Asia, and Latin America".The Cities Alliance has additionally "made transparency and access to information an important aspect of its decision-making process" in accordance with principle five of the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness. This is one of several ways in which the Cities Alliance is in line with current thinking on the subject. Through their country programmes, for instance, they are strengthening "a framework to enhance cooperation between urban stakeholders, and public and private investments in urban communities", echoing the Paris Declaration's themes of harmonisation, alignment, and ownership.In addition to grant distribution and monitoring efforts, the Cities Alliance also serves as "a medium for information and experience sharing between various local governments", to encourage the development of best practices in urban planning, mapping, and service delivery, with knowledge exchanges taking place in various fora. It was this same coordinating function that prompted the Cities Alliance Secretariat's location, first in Washington DC and then in Brussels, in order "to encourage close coordination between the technical assistance role to be promoted by the Cities Alliance" with the larger "urban project lending" function. This move, from Washington DC to Brussels in 2013, corresponded with the departure of the Cities Alliance from the World Bank, at which point it fell under the auspices of the UN Office for Project Services (UNOPS), following a "partnership-driven selection process" to make it their secretariat and trustee. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_Alliance |
The basic practices of the Cities Alliance were outlined in their 2003 annual report, calling for "an attack on urban poverty by focusing on two areas: city development strategy (CDS), and citywide and nationwide squatter settlement upgrading". This has since expanded to include other modalities but still forms the bedrock of Cities Alliance, which focuses on "the city and its region rather than on sectors", making it relatively unusual. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_Alliance |
City Development Strategies are positioned "as a mechanism to create a shared vision of the city's future among all stakeholders". They are "based on an assessment of each city's economic growth prospects and are aimed at enhancing its competitiveness" and focus on "improved urban governance, fiscal responsibility and the establishment for clear priorities for action and investment". One prominent example of a Cities Alliance CDS programme can be found in the Philippines. In 1999, the "World Bank/Japan, concurrent with UNDP/ UN-HABITAT" supported the development of CDS in three cities. Subsequently, "the Municipal League of the Philippines" expanded the project "to many more cities than initially included", due to the CDS’ capacity to aid leaders in understanding "the economic development of the city" and removing "constraints to its efficient functioning" to raise living standards of its citizens. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_Alliance |
Slum upgrading, or the delivering of "a package of basic services: clean water supply and adequate sewage disposal to improve the well-being of the community" and "legalizing and ‘regularizing’ the properties in situations of insecure or unclear tenure" was, and continues to be, one of the first focuses of the Cities Alliance. Prominent slum upgrading projects undertaken by the Cities Alliance include: A Community-Led Infrastructure Financing Facility in Mumbai The Shelter Finance for the Poor Initiative in Peru, India, Mexico, Ecuador, and Kenya, A National Slum Upgrading Strategy in the Philippines The Vietnam Urban Upgrading Project (VUUP) Barrio Legal Programme in São Paulo National Upgrading Support Program (NUSP) in South Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_Alliance |
Country programmes are considered the "fulcrum of its work program to longer-term, programmatic support". They are a framework, including "national and local governments, urban poor communities, Cities Alliance members, investors and other partners" and funding for projects. In their Uganda Country Programme, for instance, projects are targeted "not only where the bulk of urbanization is taking place, but also where capacity constraints, infrastructure backlogs, and affordability challenges are the most extreme". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_Alliance |
The Catalytic Fund of the Cities Alliance is a fund for small grants ($50,000 to $200,000), intended to "catalyse urban transformation processes that promote inclusive cities" and advance collective knowledge "through learning distilled from project experiences" and are issued along selected themes. The themes in question vary, but in years past, they have included "Know Your City" and "Youth and the City". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_Alliance |
The Cities Alliance has had several high-profile advocates in its history, including: Clare Short: A British politician, Short has been a member of the Cities Alliance's policy arm since 2006. Sheela Patel: The founder of the Society for the Promotion of Area Resource Centers (SPARC) is an alumna of the policy arm, stepping away from her position in 2007. Mary Houghton: The co-founder of ShoreBank, Houghten is reportedly a former member of the Policy Advisory Board from 2001 until 2004. Somsook Boonyabancha: The Cities Alliance website lists the Secretary General of the Asian Coalition for Housing Rights (ACHR) as having been active in the Policy Advisory Board from 2001 until 2004. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_Alliance |
Jean Pierre Elong Mbassi: The Secretary General of the UCLG - Africa is also a member of the Cities Alliance Policy Advisory Board. Richard Webb Duarte: The ex-president of the Peruvian Central Bank participated in the Policy Advisory Board. Juanita Amatong: The former Philippine Secretary of Finance was also a member of the Policy Advisory Board. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_Alliance |
Paulo Teixeira: This member of the Brazilian National Congress contributed to the Policy Advisory Board. Nicephore Soglo: The former president of Benin, according to the Cities Alliance's website, began his engagement with the Policy Advisory Board in 2007. Mark Hildebrand: The former Chief of the Technical Cooperation Division of UN-Habitat was also the manager of the Cities Alliance from 1999 until 2006. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_Alliance |
The Cities Alliance has been credited with several major developments in the field of urban innovation, dating from its inception. "Developed within the framework of the Cities Alliance", the "Cities Without Slums Action Plan", launched by Nelson Mandela, set an agenda and targets for improving conditions "of at least 100 million slum dwellers by 2020". This was subsequently "endorsed at the UN Millennium Summit" and is reflected in Goal 7, Target 11 of the Millennium Development Goals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_Alliance |
In 2009, based on its track record, the Cities Alliance was further awarded a grant from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation to continue its work on slum upgrading in Burkina Faso, Ghana and Uganda through its country programs. It has also created a number of notable programmes, including several urban forums and its Land, Services and Citizenship programmes. The latter "aims to support national and local policy dialogue to promote sustainable urbanisation, ensure the empowerment of local governments and reinforce the importance of active community participation" by aligning "urban development efforts at the national, city and community levels" in Ghana and Vietnam. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_Alliance |
The Cities Alliance has a broad range of members including local authorities, national governments, non-governmental organisations, multi-lateral organisations, private sectors, foundation and knowledge institutions. Current and past members include: French Development Agency (AFD) AVSI Foundation (AVSI) Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ) Brazil's Ministério Das Cidades Caixa Econômica Federal (CAIXA) Commonwealth Local Government Forum (CLGF) The Department for International Development (DFID) Ethiopian Ministry of Urban Development, Housing and Construction The German Organisation for International Cooperation (GIZ) Habitat for Humanity International Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council (HUDCC) Institute for Housing and Urban Development Studies (IHS) Local Governments for Sustainability (ICLEI) KfW (KfW) League of Cities of the Philippines (LCP) The French Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Economic Development (MAEDI) The World Association of Major Metropolises (Metropolis) Department for International Cooperation and Policy Support (MINVU) Nigeria Ministry of Works, Housing and Urban Development Royal Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Omidyar Network State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (SECO) Slum Dwellers International (SDI) Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) South African Department of Human Settlements The Ford Foundation United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG) United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF) United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat) United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing (WIEGO) World Bank | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cities_Alliance |
The International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is a numeric commercial book identifier that is intended to be unique. Publishers purchase or receive ISBNs from an affiliate of the International ISBN Agency.An ISBN is assigned to each separate edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication. For example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book will each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is ten digits long if assigned before 2007, and thirteen digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
The method of assigning an ISBN is nation-specific and varies between countries, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN identification format was devised in 1967, based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering (SBN) created in 1966. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108 (the 9-digit SBN code can be converted to a 10-digit ISBN by prefixing it with a zero). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
Privately published books sometimes appear without an ISBN. The International ISBN Agency sometimes assigns such books ISBNs on its own initiative.Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number (ISSN), identifies periodical publications such as magazines and newspapers. The International Standard Music Number (ISMN) covers musical scores. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
The Standard Book Number (SBN) is a commercial system using nine-digit code numbers to identify books. In 1965, British bookseller and stationers WHSmith announced plans to implement a standard numbering system for its books. They hired consultants to work on their behalf, and the system was devised by Gordon Foster, emeritus professor of statistics at Trinity College Dublin. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Technical Committee on Documentation sought to adapt the British SBN for international use. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
The ISBN identification format was conceived in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker (regarded as the "Father of the ISBN") and in 1968 in the United States by Emery Koltay (who later became director of the U.S. ISBN agency R. R. Bowker).The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the ISO and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO 2108. The United Kingdom continued to use the nine-digit SBN code until 1974. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
ISO has appointed the International ISBN Agency as the registration authority for ISBN worldwide and the ISBN Standard is developed under the control of ISO Technical Committee 46/Subcommittee 9 TC 46/SC 9. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978.An SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit "0". For example, the second edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has "SBN 340 01381 8", where "340" indicates the publisher, "01381" is the serial number assigned by the publisher, and "8" is the check digit. By prefixing a zero, this can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8; the check digit does not need to be re-calculated. Some publishers, such as Ballantine Books, would sometimes use 12-digit SBNs where the last three digits indicated the price of the book; for example, Woodstock Handmade Houses had a 12-digit Standard Book Number of 345-24223-8-595 (valid SBN: 345-24223-8, ISBN: 0-345-24223-8), and it cost US$5.95.Since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained thirteen digits, a format that is compatible with "Bookland" European Article Numbers, which have 13 digits. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
A separate ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation (except reprintings) of a publication. For example, an ebook, audiobook, paperback, and hardcover edition of the same book will each have a different ISBN assigned to it. : 12 The ISBN is thirteen digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, and ten digits long if assigned before 2007. An International Standard Book Number consists of four parts (if it is a 10-digit ISBN) or five parts (for a 13-digit ISBN). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
Section 5 of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual: 11 describes the structure of the 13-digit ISBN, as follows: for a 13-digit ISBN, a prefix element – a GS1 prefix: so far 978 or 979 have been made available by GS1, the registration group element (language-sharing country group, individual country or territory), the registrant element, the publication element, and a checksum character or check digit.A 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts (prefix element, registration group, registrant, publication and check digit), and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts (registration group, registrant, publication and check digit) of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces. Figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for that country or territory regardless of the publication language. The ranges of ISBNs assigned to any particular country are based on the publishing profile of the country concerned, and so the ranges will vary depending on the number of books and the number, type, and size of publishers that are active. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture and thus may receive direct funding from the government to support their services. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
In other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded.A full directory of ISBN agencies is available on the International ISBN Agency website. A list for a few countries is given below: Australia – Thorpe-Bowker Brazil – The National Library of Brazil; (Up to 28 February 2020) Brazil – Câmara Brasileira do Livro (From 1 March 2020) Canada – English Library and Archives Canada, a government agency; French Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec; Colombia – Cámara Colombiana del Libro, an NGO Hong Kong – Books Registration Office (BRO), under the Hong Kong Public Libraries Iceland – Landsbókasafn (National and University Library of Iceland) India – The Raja Rammohun Roy National Agency for ISBN (Book Promotion and Copyright Division), under Department of Higher Education, a constituent of the Ministry of Human Resource Development Israel – The Israel Center for Libraries Italy – EDISER srl, owned by Associazione Italiana Editori (Italian Publishers Association) Kenya – National Library of Kenya Lebanon – Lebanese ISBN Agency Maldives – The National Bureau of Classification (NBC) Malta – The National Book Council (Maltese: Il-Kunsill Nazzjonali tal-Ktieb) Morocco – The National Library of Morocco New Zealand – The National Library of New Zealand Nigeria – National Library of Nigeria Pakistan – National Library of Pakistan Philippines – National Library of the Philippines South Africa – National Library of South Africa Spain – Spanish ISBN Agency – Agencia del ISBN Turkey – General Directorate of Libraries and Publications, a branch of the Ministry of Culture United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland – Nielsen Book Services Ltd, part of Nielsen Holdings N.V. United States – R. R. Bowker | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
The ISBN registration group element is a 1-to-5-digit number that is valid within a single prefix element (i.e. one of 978 or 979),: 11 and can be separated between hyphens, such as "978-1-...". Registration groups have primarily been allocated within the 978 prefix element. The single-digit registration groups within the 978-prefix element are: 0 or 1 for English-speaking countries; 2 for French-speaking countries; 3 for German-speaking countries; 4 for Japan; 5 for Russian-speaking countries; and 7 for People's Republic of China. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
An example 5-digit registration group is 99936, for Bhutan. The allocated registration groups are: 0–5, 600–625, 65, 7, 80–94, 950–989, 9917–9989, and 99901–99983. Books published in rare languages typically have longer group elements.Within the 979 prefix element, the registration group 0 is reserved for compatibility with International Standard Music Numbers (ISMNs), but such material is not actually assigned an ISBN. The registration groups within prefix element 979 that have been assigned are 8 for the United States of America, 10 for France, 11 for the Republic of Korea, and 12 for Italy.The original 9-digit standard book number (SBN) had no registration group identifier, but prefixing a zero to a 9-digit SBN creates a valid 10-digit ISBN. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
The national ISBN agency assigns the registrant element (cf. Category:ISBN agencies) and an accompanying series of ISBNs within that registrant element to the publisher; the publisher then allocates one of the ISBNs to each of its books. In most countries, a book publisher is not legally required to assign an ISBN, although most large bookstores only handle publications that have ISBNs assigned to them.The International ISBN Agency maintains the details of over one million ISBN prefixes and publishers in the Global Register of Publishers. This database is freely searchable over the internet. Publishers receive blocks of ISBNs, with larger blocks allotted to publishers expecting to need them; a small publisher may receive ISBNs of one or more digits for the registration group identifier, several digits for the registrant, and a single digit for the publication element. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
Once that block of ISBNs is used, the publisher may receive another block of ISBNs, with a different registrant element. Consequently, a publisher may have different allotted registrant elements. There also may be more than one registration group identifier used in a country. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
This might occur once all the registrant elements from a particular registration group have been allocated to publishers. By using variable block lengths, registration agencies are able to customise the allocations of ISBNs that they make to publishers. For example, a large publisher may be given a block of ISBNs where fewer digits are allocated for the registrant element and many digits are allocated for the publication element; likewise, countries publishing many titles have few allocated digits for the registration group identifier and many for the registrant and publication elements. Here are some sample ISBN-10 codes, illustrating block length variations. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
English-language registration group elements are 0 and 1 (2 of more than 220 registration group elements). These two registration group elements are divided into registrant elements in a systematic pattern, which allows their length to be determined, as follows: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
A check digit is a form of redundancy check used for error detection, the decimal equivalent of a binary check bit. It consists of a single digit computed from the other digits in the number. The method for the 10-digit ISBN is an extension of that for SBNs, so the two systems are compatible; an SBN prefixed with a zero (the 10-digit ISBN) will give the same check digit as the SBN without the zero. The check digit is base eleven, and can be an integer between 0 and 9, or an 'X'. The system for 13-digit ISBNs is not compatible with SBNs and will, in general, give a different check digit from the corresponding 10-digit ISBN, so does not provide the same protection against transposition. This is because the 13-digit code was required to be compatible with the EAN format, and hence could not contain an 'X'. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
According to the 2001 edition of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual, the ISBN-10 check digit (which is the last digit of the 10-digit ISBN) must range from 0 to 10 (the symbol 'X' is used for 10), and must be such that the sum of the ten digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 1, is a multiple of 11. That is, if xi is the ith digit, then x10 must be chosen such that: For example, for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-2: Formally, using modular arithmetic, this is rendered It is also true for ISBN-10s that the sum of all ten digits, each multiplied by its weight in ascending order from 1 to 10, is a multiple of 11. For this example: Formally, this is rendered The two most common errors in handling an ISBN (e.g. when typing it or writing it down) are a single altered digit or the transposition of adjacent digits. It can be proven mathematically that all pairs of valid ISBN-10s differ in at least two digits. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
It can also be proven that there are no pairs of valid ISBN-10s with eight identical digits and two transposed digits. (These proofs are true because the ISBN is less than eleven digits long and because 11 is a prime number.) The ISBN check digit method therefore ensures that it will always be possible to detect these two most common types of error, i.e., if either of these types of error has occurred, the result will never be a valid ISBN – the sum of the digits multiplied by their weights will never be a multiple of 11. However, if the error were to occur in the publishing house and remain undetected, the book would be issued with an invalid ISBN.In contrast, it is possible for other types of error, such as two altered non-transposed digits, or three altered digits, to result in a valid ISBN (although it is still unlikely). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
Each of the first nine digits of the 10-digit ISBN – excluding the check digit itself – is multiplied by its (integer) weight, descending from 10 to 2, and the sum of these nine products found. The value of the check digit is simply the one number between 0 and 10 which, when added to this sum, means the total is a multiple of 11. For example, the check digit for an ISBN-10 of 0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: Adding 2 to 130 gives a multiple of 11 (because 132 = 12×11) – this is the only number between 0 and 10 which does so. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
Therefore, the check digit has to be 2, and the complete sequence is ISBN 0-306-40615-2. If the value of x 10 {\displaystyle x_{10}} required to satisfy this condition is 10, then an 'X' should be used. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
Alternatively, modular arithmetic is convenient for calculating the check digit using modulus 11. The remainder of this sum when it is divided by 11 (i.e. its value modulo 11), is computed. This remainder plus the check digit must equal either 0 or 11. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
Therefore, the check digit is (11 minus the remainder of the sum of the products modulo 11) modulo 11. Taking the remainder modulo 11 a second time accounts for the possibility that the first remainder is 0. Without the second modulo operation, the calculation could result in a check digit value of 11 − 0 = 11, which is invalid. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
(Strictly speaking, the first "modulo 11" is not needed, but it may be considered to simplify the calculation.) For example, the check digit for the ISBN of 0-306-40615-? | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
is calculated as follows: Thus the check digit is 2. It is possible to avoid the multiplications in a software implementation by using two accumulators. Repeatedly adding t into s computes the necessary multiples: The modular reduction can be done once at the end, as shown above (in which case s could hold a value as large as 496, for the invalid ISBN 99999-999-9-X), or s and t could be reduced by a conditional subtract after each addition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
Appendix 1 of the International ISBN Agency's official user manual: 33 describes how the 13-digit ISBN check digit is calculated. The ISBN-13 check digit, which is the last digit of the ISBN, must range from 0 to 9 and must be such that the sum of all the thirteen digits, each multiplied by its (integer) weight, alternating between 1 and 3, is a multiple of 10. As ISBN-13 is a subset of EAN-13, the algorithm for calculating the check digit is exactly the same for both. Formally, using modular arithmetic, this is rendered: The calculation of an ISBN-13 check digit begins with the first twelve digits of the 13-digit ISBN (thus excluding the check digit itself). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
Each digit, from left to right, is alternately multiplied by 1 or 3, then those products are summed modulo 10 to give a value ranging from 0 to 9. Subtracted from 10, that leaves a result from 1 to 10. A zero replaces a ten, so, in all cases, a single check digit results. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
For example, the ISBN-13 check digit of 978-0-306-40615-? is calculated as follows: s = 9×1 + 7×3 + 8×1 + 0×3 + 3×1 + 0×3 + 6×1 + 4×3 + 0×1 + 6×3 + 1×1 + 5×3 = 9 + 21 + 8 + 0 + 3 + 0 + 6 + 12 + 0 + 18 + 1 + 15 = 93 93 / 10 = 9 remainder 3 10 – 3 = 7 Thus, the check digit is 7, and the complete sequence is ISBN 978-0-306-40615-7. In general, the ISBN check digit is calculated as follows. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
Let Then This check system – similar to the UPC check digit formula – does not catch all errors of adjacent digit transposition. Specifically, if the difference between two adjacent digits is 5, the check digit will not catch their transposition. For instance, the above example allows this situation with the 6 followed by a 1. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
The correct order contributes 3 × 6 + 1 × 1 = 19 to the sum; while, if the digits are transposed (1 followed by a 6), the contribution of those two digits will be 3 × 1 + 1 × 6 = 9. However, 19 and 9 are congruent modulo 10, and so produce the same, final result: both ISBNs will have a check digit of 7. The ISBN-10 formula uses the prime modulus 11 which avoids this blind spot, but requires more than the digits 0–9 to express the check digit. Additionally, if the sum of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, and 12th digits is tripled then added to the remaining digits (1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, and 13th), the total will always be divisible by 10 (i.e., end in 0). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
A 10-digit ISBN is converted to a 13-digit ISBN by prepending "978" to the ISBN-10 and recalculating the final checksum digit using the ISBN-13 algorithm. The reverse process can also be performed, but not for numbers commencing with a prefix other than 978, which have no 10-digit equivalent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
Publishers and libraries have varied policies about the use of the ISBN check digit. Publishers sometimes fail to check the correspondence of a book title and its ISBN before publishing it; that failure causes book identification problems for libraries, booksellers, and readers. For example, ISBN 0-590-76484-5 is shared by two books – Ninja gaiden: a novel based on the best-selling game by Tecmo (1990) and Wacky laws (1997), both published by Scholastic. Most libraries and booksellers display the book record for an invalid ISBN issued by the publisher. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
The Library of Congress catalogue contains books published with invalid ISBNs, which it usually tags with the phrase "Cancelled ISBN". However, book-ordering systems will not search for a book if an invalid ISBN is entered to its search engine. The International Union Library Catalog (a.k.a., WorldCat OCLC – Online Computer Library Center system) often indexes by invalid ISBNs, if the book is indexed in that way by a member library. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
Only the term "ISBN" should be used; the terms "eISBN" and "e-ISBN" have historically been sources of confusion and should be avoided. If a book exists in one or more digital (e-book) formats, each of those formats must have its own ISBN. In other words, each of the three separate EPUB, Amazon Kindle, and PDF formats of a particular book will have its own specific ISBN. They should not share the ISBN of the paper version, and there is no generic "eISBN" which encompasses all the e-book formats for a title. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
The barcodes on a book's back cover (or inside a mass-market paperback book's front cover) are EAN-13; they may have a separate barcode encoding five digits called an EAN-5 for the currency and the recommended retail price. For 10-digit ISBNs, the number "978", the Bookland "country code", is prefixed to the ISBN in the barcode data, and the check digit is recalculated according to the EAN-13 formula (modulo 10, 1× and 3× weighting on alternating digits). Partly because of an expected shortage in certain ISBN categories, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) decided to migrate to a 13-digit ISBN (ISBN-13). The process began on 1 January 2005 and was planned to conclude on 1 January 2007. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
As of 2011, all the 13-digit ISBNs began with 978. As the 978 ISBN supply is exhausted, the 979 prefix was introduced. Part of the 979 prefix is reserved for use with the Musicland code for musical scores with an ISMN. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
The 10-digit ISMN codes differed visually as they began with an "M" letter; the bar code represents the "M" as a zero, and for checksum purposes it counted as a 3. All ISMNs are now thirteen digits commencing 979-0; 979-1 to 979-9 will be used by ISBN. Publisher identification code numbers are unlikely to be the same in the 978 and 979 ISBNs, likewise, there is no guarantee that language area code numbers will be the same. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
Moreover, the 10-digit ISBN check digit generally is not the same as the 13-digit ISBN check digit. Because the GTIN-13 is part of the Global Trade Item Number (GTIN) system (that includes the GTIN-14, the GTIN-12, and the GTIN-8), the 13-digit ISBN falls within the 14-digit data field range.Barcode format compatibility is maintained, because (aside from the group breaks) the ISBN-13 barcode format is identical to the EAN barcode format of existing 10-digit ISBNs. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
So, migration to an EAN-based system allows booksellers the use of a single numbering system for both books and non-book products that is compatible with existing ISBN based data, with only minimal changes to information technology systems. Hence, many booksellers (e.g., Barnes & Noble) migrated to EAN barcodes as early as March 2005. Although many American and Canadian booksellers were able to read EAN-13 barcodes before 2005, most general retailers could not read them. The upgrading of the UPC barcode system to full EAN-13, in 2005, eased migration to the ISBN in North America. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN |
The Canadian Heritage Information Network (CHIN; French: Réseau canadien d'information sur le patrimoine, RCIP) is a special operating agency within the federal Department of Canadian Heritage that provides a networked interface to Canada's heritage institutions. It is based in Gatineau, Quebec, and is administratively merged with the Canadian Conservation Institute (CCI), another special operating agency of Canadian Heritage.Along with providing online public access to millions of collections records, CHIN offers collections management resources to Canada's museum community; more specifically, it assists museums in documenting, managing, and sharing information about their collections, thereby ensuring the accessibility of such information. CHIN provides bilingual information for all its resources. CHIN has three core areas of activity: create and maintain an online point of entry to Canadian collections; carry out research and development on collections documentation tools and standards; and provide guidance and training to cultural institutions on managing collections information.CHIN was the first national organization to participate in the Virtual Library museums pages (VLmp) online museums directory, later supported by ICOM.Moreover, the agency oversees Artefacts Canada, a national inventory of museum collections that provides access to several million records and images from Canadian museums. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Heritage_Information_Network |
It used by national and international heritage professionals—as well as by the public—to research Canadian cultural collections. CHIN also manages the online database for Rowman & Littlefield's Nomenclature for Museum Cataloging, a structured and controlled list of object terms organized in a classification system in order to "provide a basis for indexing and cataloging collections of human-made objects." First published in 1978 (launching online in 2018), it is North America's most extensively used "museum classification and controlled vocabulary for historical and ethnological collections." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Heritage_Information_Network |
The Canadian Heritage Information Network was established in 1972 as Canada's National Inventory Programme, originally to create a data bank, accessed through a computerized national network, and to help museums construct computerized inventories of their collections.In the 1990s, CHIN began maintaining a website where the museum community of Canada could find resources to improve the online visibility of their collections.In the 2010s, Rowman & Littlefield agreed to allow CHIN to create an online version to supplement the published version of Nomenclature for Museum Cataloging 4.0. The site was launched in 2018. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Heritage_Information_Network |
Circular flow land use management, or CircUse, is a name for a particular process in which neglected land in urban areas is put to better uses. CircUse as a concept aims to be integrated with existing structures and uses, and is put into practice on a broad scale. The concept also looks to reduce the consumption of un-built land through prioritizing inner development over outer development. In Germany the approach of circular flow land use management has been developed and tested by the German Institute for Urban Affairs (Deutsches Institut für Urbanistik) on behalf of the German Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Affairs (BMVBS) and German Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning (BBR). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_flow_land_use_management |
The concept of circular flow land use management can be described with the slogan “reduce - recycle – avoid”. To create sustainable land uses, actions have to be supported to find new innovative ways to “reduce” the consumption of land by new development “recycle” or put back into use abandoned and derelict sites, and “avoid” future land use decisions that are not sustainable. The concept puts a high value upon the development of inner districts through infill measures. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_flow_land_use_management |
This approach takes into consideration issues related to urban sprawl, urban planning, brownfield land, and land use planning. The concept was developed by the German Institute for Urban Affairs (Difu) and the Federal Office for Building and Regional Planning (BBR) between 2003 and 2007 during the ExWoSt research field “circular land use management in cities and urban regions” (Kreislaufwirtschaft in der städtischen/stadtregionalen Flächennuntzung -. Fläche im Kreis) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_flow_land_use_management |
To incorporate the circular flow land use management concept into the practice of city planning in Central Europe, the project “Circular Flow Land Use Management (CircUse)” was initiated by the European Union Central Europe organization as well as co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund. The CircUse project involves 12 partner organizations and 3 associated organizations in the six countries of Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Italy, Poland and Slovakia. The lead organization is the Institute for the Ecology of Urban Areas (IETU), located in Katowice, Poland. The main core outputs of the CircUse project will be: A Circular Flow Land Use Management Strategy Position paper on existing and new instruments Separate training materials for professionals and school children Management structures (one newly formed and another modified from its previous form) that incorporate the CircUse principles Developed action plans for six pilot regions A land management data tool available as a software package A compendium summarizing the entire project | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_flow_land_use_management |
The CircUse project was initiated in March 2010 and is scheduled to run until the end of February 2013. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_flow_land_use_management |
CircUse also builds on the experiences the German "ExWoSt Research Field: Circular land use management in cities and urban regions” (ExWoSt Themafeld: Kreislaufwirtschaft in der städtischen/stadtregionalen Flächennutzung) and the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Research Programme "Research for the Reduction of Land Consumption and for Sustainable Land Management" (Forschung für die Reduzierung der Flächeninanspruchnahme und ein nachhaltiges Flächenmanagement). Similar projects carried out by other organizations include the European Union PLUREL project. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_flow_land_use_management |
Domino Park is a 5-acre (2.0 ha) public park in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York City. It spans a quarter mile along the East River near the Williamsburg Bridge, at the Domino Sugar Refinery site. Along the five-block riverside walk, various salvaged factory equipment is displayed, including four syrup collection tanks, that pay tribute to the history of the Domino Sugar Refinery.The park was designed by James Corner Field Operations, which also designed the High Line, over the course of six years. Opened to the public in 2018, it is owned and operated by Two Trees Management, which spent roughly $50 million to construct it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domino_Park |
The park features a children's playground, dog run, volleyball court, bocce court, and a playing field. The volleyball court is partially meant to pay homage to the historical Latino population of Williamsburg, with whom the sport is popular. In a move to shift the burden of upkeep to the private sector, a small restaurant will be opened, offering tacos made of locally raised beef, along with cocktails.An elevated walkway extends much of the length of the park, resembling the interior of the old refinery. The crane tracks that were used in the original refinery now houses gardens with roughly a hundred different species of plants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domino_Park |
All wooden structures and chairs in the park were built using reclaimed wood from the refinery. At the southern end of the park are water jets making an illuminated dancing fountain display, shooting eight feet (2.5m) into the air.The playground was designed by artist Mark Reigelman. Named Sweetwater Playground, it is designed to resemble the sugar refining process. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domino_Park |
Reigelman wrote, "The idea is that a child enters as raw sugar cane and exits at the last portion of the playground as molasses, or sugar cubes." It is also partially built using reclaimed materials from the old refinery.Hurricane Sandy struck New York while the park was under construction in 2012. To safeguard against future storms, the park is located on an elevation well above the Federal Emergency Management Agency's flood elevation guidelines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domino_Park |
The park opened on June 10, 2018.As of 2020 the park had seen over 2 million visitors. The park was one of eight spaces nominated for that year's Urban Space Award hosted by the Urban Land Institute. In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic in New York City, Domino Park expanded a composting program after the city's own composting initiative was downsized due to the pandemic. "Social distancing" circles were also drawn on the park's green to encourage people to stay at least 6 feet (1.8 m) from each other, to control transmission of SARS-CoV-2. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domino_Park |
Indigenous media can reference film, video, music, digital art, and sound produced and created by and for indigenous people. It refers to the use of communication tools, pathways, and outlets by indigenous peoples for their own political and cultural purposes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_media |
Indigenous media is the use of modern media techniques by indigenous peoples, also called Fourth World peoples. Indigenous media helps communities in their fight against cultural extinction, economic and ecological decline, and forced displacement. Most often in the field of indigenous media, the creators of the media are also the consumers, together with the neighboring communities. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_media |
Sometimes the media is also received by institutions and film festivals located far away from the production location, like the American Indian Film Festival. The production is usually locally based, low budget, and small scale, but it can also be sponsored by different support groups and governments. : 34–35 The concept of indigenous media could be extended to First World alternative media, like AIDS activist video. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_media |
The research of indigenous media and the international indigenous movement in the process of globalization develop in parallel. In the second half of the 20th century, United Nations agencies, including the United Nations Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP), led the movement. The United Nations General Assembly adopted a declaration aimed at protecting the rights of indigenous peoples in 2007. The theoretical development of indigenous media research first occurred in anthropology in 1980. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_media |
It was accompanied by a critical research method that diverged from post-colonialism and post-structuralism. The newer method attempted to minimize the power imbalance between the researcher and the researched. Leading up to this, ethnographic films that gave photographic techniques to locals can be traced back as far as the Navajo Project in 1960. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_media |
The project was the pioneering work of Sol Worth and John Adair, to which the origin of a new anthropological language and style of ethnography can be attributed.However, the indigenous media movement was not a significant phenomenon for another decade. The widely recognized start of the new media movement was a collaboration between American anthropologist Eric Michaels and Australia’s Warlpiri Aboriginal Broadcasting. This new type of collaborative anthropological project exemplified a change from a simple observation of the life of the indigenous people to a cultural record by the indigenous people themselves. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_media |
Following the Warlpiri project, the Brazilian Kayapó village project of Vincent Carelli and Terence Turner, and the indigenous series by Māori producer Barry Barclay in New Zealand, have been important milestones in the development of indigenous media. However, it was Faye Ginsburg, an American anthropologist, who laid the theoretical foundation for the study of indigenous media. Her research in 1991 expounded the Faustian dilemma between technology and tribal life and inspired later indigenous media researchers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_media |
The important theories of recent indigenous media studies have highlighted the dynamic relationship between local indigenous communities and their countries and globalization. Lorna Roth's research on the discourse rights of Canadian indigenous groups in 2005, Jennifer Deger's exploration of the media technology movement in the Australian Yolngu community in 2006, and Michael Robert Evans's ethnographic research on the Canadian Inuit community Igloolik in 2008, etc. are all development of high reference value since the 21st century. The idea that the media is a foreign power that affects the indigenous people is no longer accurate, now that indigenous people are working in media within all creative industries as an individual, collective or nationally which impacts the media as we know it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_media |
Fourth cinemaIt has origins in New Zealand, created by Barry Barclay, because he experienced that his films did not fit in to first, second or third cinema. The goal of fourth cinema is to give an accurate and dignified representation of an indigenous people, by having indigenous film-makers who will frame the indigenous people with an indigenous world-view. De-colonial literary theory Indigenous ontologyThis theory involves several foundational concepts, such as: 1) expansive concepts of time, 2) interdependence with all matter on earth and in the universe and 3) multiple dimensions of reality. Aboriginal TheoryAboriginal theory indicates a theory of acquiring knowledge through ethnographic methods, in which the stimulation of established goals and outputs, as well as the communication between the indigenous people and the environment in which they exist, is minimized. Indigenous Sociology Indigenous librarianshipIndigenous librarianship theoretically study how knowledge, concepts, and the organization, management and practice based on these concepts are shaped and integrated through the cultural customs, empirical conditions and political aspirations of indigenous societies or communities. Indigenous Epistemologies and Pedagogies Holism Indigenous Technological Sovereignty or Tecno-Sovereignty | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_media |
Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner Different Lenses Four Sheets to the Wind Kanehsatake: 270 Years of Resistance The Journals of Knud Rasmussen | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_media |
The fifth power is a term, apparently created by Ignacio Ramonet, that intends a continuation of the series of the three estates of the realm and the fourth power, the mass media. The term fifth power can be used to refer either to the Internet, public opinion, the Church (which is the First Estate by the original meaning), economic systems or simply money including its creation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_power_(politics) |
If, by the fifth power, what is meant is the economic system, it refers to the power that government exerts in the economic sphere through public companies and the mechanism of economic intervention, which is fundamentally financial. Historically, the relationship between power and economy has been defined within a narrow scope, primarily as the mercantilism of the Modern Age. However, since the U.S. stock market crash of 1929, four contemporary positions have emerged: Capitalism advocates a minimum or subsidiary state restricted to legislation which aids the effective function of the free market. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_power_(politics) |
This system, first proposed by Adam Smith, has gained ground in the spirit of globalization prevalent since the fall of the Berlin Wall. Social democracy advocates government regulation of private enterprise and control over private competition, fair trade, progressive taxation, and public funding for government-subsidized programs. In this system, strategic sectors such as transportation, energy, and the military, can be controlled by the public sector. Fascism advocates a central, authoritarian style of economic intervention which is commonly defined as corporatism. Socialism advocates common ownership and control of the means of production by the workers and of property in general and the construction of a planned economy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_power_(politics) |
A fifth power could refer to the influence money can have in blurring the separation of powers, influencing the decisions of a government and legislation, and misapplication of the principle of equality before law. It can also refer to monetary systems and in the processes involved in the creating of money, the way money is supplied and how the economy is financed. This aspect can be a subject of concern in considering that the processes can introduce an unfair bias. Movements and theories that propose changes to monetary systems are encompassed in the subject of monetary reform. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_power_(politics) |
A second candidate for the "Fifth Power" is the Internet, which represents a new sort of social mass medium which cannot be included within the narrower, one-way scope of the media of the fourth power. If considered as the fifth branch of power, it is the only one to be controlled by society itself without regulation by the state. According to Ramonet, Internet users collaborate to form a powerful engine of debate and democratic action. With globalization, the 21st century has the potential to finally bring communication and information to all people. The Time's "person of the year" 2006 ("You") carries the same message. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_power_(politics) |
Another strong candidate for the "Fifth Power" title is the church, because of the concept of separation of church and state. This concept has been adopted in a number of countries, to varying degrees depending on the applicable legal structures and prevalent views toward the proper role of religion in society. This concept of separating the power of the Church from the other three powers of the state is much older than the concepts of power of Economy or power of the Internet. Note that the church was one of the original three estates of the realm. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_power_(politics) |
Microparticles are particles between 0.1 and 100 μm in size. Commercially available microparticles are available in a wide variety of materials, including ceramics, glass, polymers, and metals. Microparticles encountered in daily life include pollen, sand, dust, flour, and powdered sugar. Microparticles have a much larger surface-to-volume ratio than at the macroscale, and thus their behavior can be quite different. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
For example, metal microparticles can be explosive in air. Microspheres are spherical microparticles, and are used where consistent and predictable particle surface area is important. In biological systems, a microparticle is synonymous with a microvesicle, a type of extracellular vesicle (EV). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Mathematical: as the term "micro" refers to 10 − 6 {\displaystyle 10^{-6}} , the range for micro would then be 10 − 7.5 {\displaystyle 10^{-7.5}} to 10 − 4.5 {\displaystyle 10^{-4.5}} , or roughly 31.6 nm to 31.6 micrometers. However, general acceptance considers particles smaller than 100 nm nanoparticles. Rounding: rules of rounding in mathematics provide an alternative for the definition. Anything larger than 0.5 μm and anything smaller than 0.5 mm is considered microparticles. Convenient/popular: Very often particles with dimensions more than 100 nm are still called nanoparticles. The upper range may be between 300 and 700 nm, so this would give a size definition for microparticles of 0.3 to 300 μm or 0.7 to 700 micrometers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Home pregnancy tests make use of gold microparticles. Many applications are also listed in the microsphere article. A recent study showed that infused, negatively charged, immune-modifying microparticles could have therapeutic use in diseases caused or potentiated by inflammatory monocytes. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Microspheres are small spherical particles, with diameters in the micrometer range (typically 1 μm to 1000 μm (1 mm). Microspheres are sometimes referred to as spherical microparticles. In general microspheres are solid or hollow and do not have a fluid inside, as opposed to microcapsules. Microspheres can be made from various natural and synthetic materials. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Glass microspheres, polymer microspheres, metal microspheres, and ceramic microspheres are commercially available. Solid and hollow microspheres vary widely in density and, therefore, are used for different applications. Hollow microspheres are typically used as additives to lower the density of a material. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Solid microspheres have numerous applications depending on what material they are constructed of and what size they are. Polyethylene, polystyrene and expandable microspheres are the most common types of polymer microspheres. Polystyrene microspheres are typically used in biomedical applications due to their ability to facilitate procedures such as cell sorting and immunoprecipitation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Proteins and ligands adsorb onto polystyrene readily and permanently, which makes polystyrene microspheres suitable for medical research and biological laboratory experiments. Polyethylene microspheres are commonly used as a permanent or temporary filler. Lower melting temperature enables polyethylene microspheres to create porous structures in ceramics and other materials. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
High sphericity of polyethylene microspheres, as well as availability of colored and fluorescent microspheres, makes them highly desirable for flow visualization and fluid flow analysis, microscopy techniques, health sciences, process troubleshooting and numerous research applications. Charged polyethylene microspheres are also used in electronic paper digital displays.Expandable microspheres are polymer microspheres that are used as a blowing agent in e.g. puff ink, automotive underbody coatings and injection molding of thermoplastics. They can also be used as a lightweight filler in e.g. cultured marble, waterborne paints and crack fillers/joint compound. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Expandable polymer microspheres can expand to more than 50 times their original size when heat is applied to them. The exterior wall of each sphere is a thermoplastic shell that encapsulates a low boiling point hydrocarbon. When heated, this outside shell softens and expands as the hydrocarbon exerts a pressure on the internal shell wall. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Glass microspheres are primarily used as a filler and volumizer for weight reduction, retro-reflector for highway safety, additive for cosmetics and adhesives, with limited applications in medical technology. Microspheres made from highly transparent glass can perform as very high quality optical microcavities or optical microresonators. Ceramic microspheres are used primarily as grinding media. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Hollow microspheres loaded with drug in their outer polymer shell were prepared by a novel emulsion solvent diffusion method and spray drying technique. Microspheres vary widely in quality, sphericity, uniformity, particle size and particle size distribution. The appropriate microsphere needs to be chosen for each unique application. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
New applications for microspheres are discovered every day. Below are just a few: Assay - Coated microspheres provide measuring tool in biology and drug research Buoyancy - Hollow microspheres are used to decrease material density in plastics (glass and polymer), neutrally-buoyant microspheres are frequently used for fluid flow visualization. Particle image velocimetry - Solid or hollow microspheres used for flow visualization, density of the particle has to match that of the fluid. Ceramics - Used to create porous ceramics used for filters (microspheres melt out during firing, Polyethylene Microspheres) or used to prepare highstrength lightweight concrete. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Cosmetics - Opaque microspheres used to hide wrinkles and give color, Clear microspheres provide "smooth ball bearing" texture during application (Polyethylene Microspheres) Deconvolution - Small fluorescent microspheres (<200 nanometers) are required to obtain an experimental Point spread function to characterise microscopes and perform image deconvolution Drug delivery - As miniature time release drug capsule made of, for example, polymers. A similar use is as outer shells of microbubble contrast agents used in contrast-enhanced ultrasound. Electronic paper - Dual Functional microspheres used in Gyricon electronic paper Insulation – expandable polymer microspheres are used for thermal insulation and sound dampening. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Personal Care - Added to Scrubs as an exfoliating agent (Polyethylene Microspheres) Spacers - Used in LCD screens to provide a precision spacing between glass panels (glass) Standards - monodispere microspheres are used to calibrate particle sieves, and particle counting apparatus. Retroreflective - added on top of paint used on roads and signs to increase night visibility of road stripes and signs (glass) Thickening Agent - Added to paints and epoxies to modify viscosity and buoyancy Drugs can be formulated as HBS floating microsphere. Following are list of drugs which can formulated as microsphere: Repaglinide, Cimetidine, Rosiglitazone, Nitrendipine, Acyclovir, Ranitidine HCl, Misoprostol, Metformin, Aceclofenac, Diltiazem, L-Dopa and beneseragide, Fluorouracil. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Some refer to microspheres or protein protocells as small spherical units postulated by some scientists as a key stage in the origin of life. In 1953, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey demonstrated that many simple biomolecules could be formed spontaneously from inorganic precursor compounds under laboratory conditions designed to mimic those found on Earth before the evolution of life. Of particular interest was the substantial yield of amino acids obtained, since amino acids are the building blocks for proteins. In 1957, Sidney Fox demonstrated that dry mixtures of amino acids could be encouraged to polymerize upon exposure to moderate heat. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
When the resulting polypeptides, or proteinoids, were dissolved in hot water and the solution allowed to cool, they formed small spherical shells about 2 μm in diameter—microspheres. Under appropriate conditions, microspheres will bud new spheres at their surfaces. Although roughly cellular in appearance, microspheres in and of themselves are not alive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Although they do reproduce asexually by budding, they do not pass on any type of genetic material. However they may have been important in the development of life, providing a membrane-enclosed volume which is similar to that of a cell. Microspheres, like cells, can grow and contain a double membrane which undergoes diffusion of materials and osmosis. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
Sidney Fox postulated that as these microspheres became more complex, they would carry on more lifelike functions. They would become heterotrophs, organisms with the ability to absorb nutrients from the environment for energy and growth. As the amount of nutrients in the environment decreased at that period, competition for those precious resources increased. Heterotrophs with more complex biochemical reactions would have an advantage in this competition. Over time, organisms would evolve that used photosynthesis to produce energy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle |
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