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With the public interest in complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), Georgetown University Medical Center anticipated the need for scientists and physicians trained to understand the basic principles of both Western biomedicine and CAM modalities, and the need for CAM professionals to be better grounded in basic biomedical sciences. This graduate program is designed to meet those needs. At the core of the program is an academically rigorous graduate education in CAM within the context of state of the art biomedical science. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgetown_University_Complementary_and_Alternative_Medicine_Program |
The program is designed to be completed in one year: two semesters and a summer session. In addition to the traditional basic science disciplines such as Biochemistry and Metabolism, Fundamentals of Physiology, and Biostatistics, the curriculum includes CAM-related courses such as Survey of CAM, CAM in Pathophysiological States, Mind-body Medicine Skills, Physiologic Basis of Mind-body Medicine, Critical Readings in CAM, as well as a number of diverse electives including Legal Aspects of CAM, Bioethics and CAM, and Western Practice of Eastern Medicine. In order to emphasize the cross-disciplinary application of academic knowledge and develop real-time problem-solving skills, the students complete an eight-week summer practicum in a relevant professional CAM-related environment or public health field. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgetown_University_Complementary_and_Alternative_Medicine_Program |
The Georgetown University Medical Center's Complementary and Alternative Medicine program was launched by faculty in the Departments of Physiology and Biochemistry. The multi-disciplinary expertise of the faculty in the basic sciences, in healthcare, and in CAM is broad and includes a number of nationally known leaders in the field. The program includes additional faculty members from clinical departments and guest lecturers with exceptional skills and expertise who participate in the teaching of CAM graduate students and further contribute to the strength and uniqueness of the program. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgetown_University_Complementary_and_Alternative_Medicine_Program |
A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The single feature identifying even the wildest wild garden is control. The garden can incorporate both natural and artificial materials.Gardens often have design features including statuary, follies, pergolas, trellises, stumperies, dry creek beds, and water features such as fountains, ponds (with or without fish), waterfalls or creeks. Some gardens are for ornamental purposes only, while others also produce food crops, sometimes in separate areas, or sometimes intermixed with the ornamental plants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Food-producing gardens are distinguished from farms by their smaller scale, more labor-intensive methods, and their purpose (enjoyment of a hobby or self-sustenance rather than producing for sale, as in a market garden). Flower gardens combine plants of different heights, colors, textures, and fragrances to create interest and delight the senses.The most common form today is a residential or public garden, but the term garden has traditionally been a more general one. Zoos, which display wild animals in simulated natural habitats, were formerly called zoological gardens. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Western gardens are almost universally based on plants, with garden, which etymologically implies enclosure, often signifying a shortened form of botanical garden. Some traditional types of eastern gardens, such as Zen gardens, however, use plants sparsely or not at all. Landscape gardens, on the other hand, such as the English landscape gardens first developed in the 18th century, may omit flowers altogether. Landscape architecture is a related professional activity with landscape architects tending to engage in design at many scales and working on both public and private projects. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
The etymology of the word gardening refers to enclosure: it is from Middle English gardin, from Anglo-French gardin, jardin, of Germanic origin; akin to Old High German gard, gart, an enclosure or compound, as in Stuttgart. See Grad (Slavic settlement) for more complete etymology. The words yard, court, and Latin hortus (meaning "garden", hence horticulture and orchard), are cognates—all referring to an enclosed space.The term "garden" in British English refers to a small enclosed area of land, usually adjoining a building. This would be referred to as a yard in American English. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
A garden can have aesthetic, functional, and recreational uses: Cooperation with nature Plant cultivation Garden-based learning Observation of nature Bird- and insect-watching Reflection on the changing seasons Relaxation Placing down different types of garden gnomes Family dinners on the terrace Children playing in the garden Reading and relaxing in a hammock Maintaining the flowerbeds Pottering in the shed Basking in warm sunshine Escaping oppressive sunlight and heat Growing useful produce Flowers to cut and bring inside for indoor beauty Fresh herbs and vegetables for cooking | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
The earliest recorded Chinese gardens were created in the valley of the Yellow River, during the Shang Dynasty (1600–1046 BC). These gardens were large enclosed parks where the kings and nobles hunted game, or where fruit and vegetables were grown. Early inscriptions from this period, carved on tortoise shells, have three Chinese characters for garden, you, pu and yuan. You was a royal garden where birds and animals were kept, while pu was a garden for plants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
During the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), yuan became the character for all gardens. The old character for yuan is a small picture of a garden; it is enclosed in a square which can represent a wall, and has symbols which can represent the plan of a structure, a small square which can represent a pond, and a symbol for a plantation or a pomegranate tree.A famous royal garden of the late Shang dynasty was the Terrace, Pond and Park of the Spirit (Lingtai, Lingzhao Lingyou) built by King Wenwang west of his capital city, Yin. The park was described in the Classic of Poetry this way: The King makes his promenade in the Park of the Spirit, The deer are kneeling on the grass, feeding their fawns, The deer are beautiful and resplendent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
The immaculate cranes have plumes of a brilliant white. The King makes his promenade to the Pond of the Spirit, The water is full of fish, who wriggle.Another early royal garden was Shaqui, or the Dunes of Sand, built by the last Shang ruler, King Zhou (1075–1046 BC). It was composed of an earth terrace, or tai, which served as an observation platform in the center of a large square park. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
It was described in one of the early classics of Chinese literature, the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji). According to the Shiji, one of the most famous features of this garden was the Wine Pool and Meat Forest (酒池肉林). A large pool, big enough for several small boats, was constructed on the palace grounds, with inner linings of polished oval shaped stones from the seashore. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
The pool was then filled with wine. A small island was constructed in the middle of the pool, where trees were planted, which had skewers of roasted meat hanging from their branches. King Zhou and his friends and concubines drifted in their boats, drinking the wine with their hands and eating the roasted meat from the trees. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Later Chinese philosophers and historians cited this garden as an example of decadence and bad taste.During the Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), in 535 BC, the Terrace of Shanghua, with lavishly decorated palaces, was built by King Jing of the Zhou dynasty. In 505 BC, an even more elaborate garden, the Terrace of Gusu, was begun. It was located on the side of a mountain, and included a series of terraces connected by galleries, along with a lake where boats in the form of blue dragons navigated. From the highest terrace, a view extended as far as Lake Tai, the Great Lake. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Manasollasa is a twelfth century Sanskrit text that offers details on garden design and a variety of other subjects. Both public parks and woodland gardens are described, with about 40 types of trees recommended for the park in the Vana-krida chapter. Shilparatna, a text from the sixteenth century, states that flower gardens or public parks should be located in the northern portion of a town. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
The earliest recorded Japanese gardens were the pleasure gardens of the Emperors and nobles. They are mentioned in several brief passages of the Nihon Shoki, the first chronicle of Japanese history, published in 720 CE. In spring 74 CE, the chronicle recorded: "The Emperor Keikō put a few carp into a pond, and rejoiced to see them morning and evening". The following year, "The Emperor launched a double-hulled boat in the pond of Ijishi at Ihare, and went aboard with his imperial concubine, and they feasted sumptuously together". In 486, the chronicle recorded that "The Emperor Kenzō went into the garden and feasted at the edge of a winding stream". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Korean gardens are a type of garden described as being natural, informal, simple and unforced, seeking to merge with the natural world. They have a history that goes back more than two thousand years, but are little known in the west. The oldest records date to the Three Kingdoms period (57 BC – 668 AD) when architecture and palace gardens showed a development noted in the Korean History of the Three Kingdoms. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Gardening was not recognized as an art form in Europe until the mid 16th century when it entered the political discourse, as a symbol of the concept of the "ideal republic". Evoking utopian imagery of the Garden of Eden, a time of abundance and plenty where humans didn't know hunger or the conflicts that arose from property disputes. John Evelyn wrote in the early 17th century, "there is not a more laborious life then is that of a good Gard'ners; but a labour full of tranquility and satisfaction; Natural and Instructive, and such as (if any) contributes to Piety and Contemplation." During the era of Enclosures, the agrarian collectivism of the feudal age was idealized in literary "fantasies of liberating regression to garden and wilderness". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Following his campaign in Italy in 1495, where he saw the gardens and castles of Naples, King Charles VIII brought Italian craftsmen and garden designers, such as Pacello da Mercogliano, from Naples and ordered the construction of Italian-style gardens at his residence at the Château d'Amboise and at Château Gaillard, another private résidence in Amboise. His successor Henry II, who had also travelled to Italy and had met Leonardo da Vinci, created an Italian nearby at the Château de Blois. Beginning in 1528, King Francis I created new gardens at the Château de Fontainebleau, which featured fountains, parterres, a forest of pine trees brought from Provence, and the first artificial grotto in France. The Château de Chenonceau had two gardens in the new style, one created for Diane de Poitiers in 1551, and a second for Catherine de' Medici in 1560. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
In 1536, the architect Philibert de l'Orme, upon his return from Rome, created the gardens of the Château d'Anet following the Italian rules of proportion. The carefully prepared harmony of Anet, with its parterres and surfaces of water integrated with sections of greenery, became one of the earliest and most influential examples of the classic French garden.The French formal garden (French: jardin à la française) contrasted with the design principles of the English landscape garden (French: jardin à l'anglaise) namely, to "force nature" instead of leaving it undisturbed. Typical French formal gardens had "parterres, geometrical shapes and neatly clipped topiary", in contrast to the English style of garden in which "plants and shrubs seem to grow naturally without artifice." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
By the mid-17th century axial symmetry had ascended to prominence in the French gardening traditions of Andre Mollet and Jacques Boyceau, the latter who wrote: "All things, however beautiful they may be chosen, will be defective if they are not ordered and placed in proper symmetry." A good example of the French formal style are the Tuileries gardens in Paris. Originally designed during the reign of King Henry II in the mid-sixteenth century, the gardens were redesigned into the formal French style for the Sun King Louis XIV. The gardens were ordered into symmetrical lines: long rows of elm or chestnut trees, clipped hedgerows, along with parterres, "reflect the orderly triumph of man's will over nature. "The French landscape garden was influenced by the English landscape garden and gained prominence in the late eighteenth century. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Before the Grand Manner era, what few significant gardens could be found in Britain had developed under influence from the continent. Britain's homegrown domestic gardening traditions were mostly practical in purpose, rather than aesthetic, unlike the grand gardens found mostly on castle grounds, and less commonly at universities. Tudor gardens emphasized contrast rather than transitions, distinguished by color and illusion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
They were not intended as a complement to home or architecture, but conceived as independent spaces, arranged to grow and display flowers and ornamental plants. Gardeners demonstrated their artistry in knot gardens, with complex arrangements most commonly included interwoven box hedges, and less commonly fragrant herbs like rosemary. Sanded paths run between the hedgings of open knots whereas closed knots were filled with single colored flowers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
The knot and parterre gardens were always placed on level ground, and elevated areas reserved for terraces from which the intricacy of the gardens could be viewed.Jacobean gardens were described as "a delightful confusion" by Henry Wotton in 1624. Under the influence of the Italian Renaissance, Caroline gardens began to shed some of the chaos of earlier designs, marking the beginning of a trends towards symmetrical unified designs that took the building architecture into account, and featuring an elevated terrace from which home and garden could be viewed. The only surviving Caroline garden is located at Bolsover Castle in Derbyshire, but is too simple to attract much interest. During the reign of Charles II, many new Baroque style country houses were built; while in England Oliver Cromwell sought to destroy many Tudor, Jacobean and Caroline style gardens. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Garden design is the process of creating plans for the layout and planting of gardens and landscapes. Gardens may be designed by garden owners themselves, or by professionals. Professional garden designers tend to be trained in principles of design and horticulture, and have a knowledge and experience of using plants. Some professional garden designers are also landscape architects, a more formal level of training that usually requires an advanced degree and often an occupational license. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Elements of garden design include the layout of hard landscape, such as paths, rockeries, walls, water features, sitting areas and decking, as well as the plants themselves, with consideration for their horticultural requirements, their season-to-season appearance, lifespan, growth habit, size, speed of growth, and combinations with other plants and landscape features. Most gardens consist of a mix of natural and constructed elements, although even very 'natural' gardens are always an inherently artificial creation. Natural elements present in a garden principally comprise flora (such as trees and weeds), fauna (such as arthropods and birds), soil, water, air and light. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Constructed elements include paths, patios, decking, sculptures, drainage systems, lights and buildings (such as sheds, gazebos, pergolas and follies), but also living constructions such as flower beds, ponds and lawns. Consideration is also given to the maintenance needs of the garden. Including the time or funds available for regular maintenance, (this can affect the choices of plants regarding speed of growth) spreading or self-seeding of the plants (annual or perennial), bloom-time, and many other characteristics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Garden design can be roughly divided into two groups, formal and naturalistic gardens. The most important consideration in any garden design is how the garden will be used, followed closely by the desired stylistic genres, and the way the garden space will connect to the home or other structures in the surrounding areas. All of these considerations are subject to the limitations of the budget. Budget limitations can be addressed by a simpler garden style with fewer plants and less costly hard landscape materials, seeds rather than sod for lawns, and plants that grow quickly; alternatively, garden owners may choose to create their garden over time, area by area. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Gardeners may cause environmental damage by the way they garden, or they may enhance their local environment. Damage by gardeners can include direct destruction of natural habitats when houses and gardens are created; indirect habitat destruction and damage to provide garden materials such as peat, rock for rock gardens, and by the use of tapwater to irrigate gardens; the death of living beings in the garden itself, such as the killing not only of slugs and snails but also their predators such as hedgehogs and song thrushes by metaldehyde slug killer; the death of living beings outside the garden, such as local species extinction by indiscriminate plant collectors; and climate change caused by greenhouse gases produced by gardening. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Gardeners can help to prevent climate change in many ways, including the use of trees, shrubs, ground cover plants and other perennial plants in their gardens, turning garden waste into soil organic matter instead of burning it, keeping soil and compost heaps aerated, avoiding peat, switching from power tools to hand tools or changing their garden design so that power tools are not needed, and using nitrogen-fixing plants instead of nitrogen fertiliser.Climate change will have many impacts on gardens; some studies suggest most of them will be negative. Gardens also contribute to climate change. Greenhouse gases can be produced by gardeners in many ways. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
The three main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. Gardeners produce carbon dioxide directly by overcultivating soil and destroying soil carbon, by burning garden waste on bonfires, by using power tools which burn fossil fuel or use electricity generated by fossil fuels, and by using peat. Gardeners produce methane by compacting the soil and making it anaerobic, and by allowing their compost heaps to become compacted and anaerobic. Gardeners produce nitrous oxide by applying excess nitrogen fertiliser when plants are not actively growing so that the nitrogen in the fertiliser is converted by soil bacteria to nitrous oxide. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Some gardeners manage their gardens without using any water from outside the garden. Examples in Britain include Ventnor Botanic Garden on the Isle of Wight, and parts of Beth Chatto's garden in Essex, Sticky Wicket garden in Dorset, and the Royal Horticultural Society's gardens at Harlow Carr and Hyde Hall. Rain gardens absorb rainfall falling onto nearby hard surfaces, rather than sending it into stormwater drains. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
Chen, Gang (2010). Planting design illustrated (2nd ed.). Outskirts Press, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4327-4197-6. Shrigondekar, GK (1961). Manasollasa of King Somesvara (Volume 3) (in Sanskrit). Oriental Institute, Baroda. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden |
An idiosyncrasy is a particular feature of a person, though there are also other uses (see below). It usually means unique habits. The term is often used to express peculiarity. A synonym may be distinctive. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy |
The term "idiosyncrasy" originates from Greek ἰδιοσυγκρασία idiosynkrasía, "a peculiar temperament, habit of body" (from ἴδιος idios, "one's own", σύν syn, "with" and κρᾶσις krasis, "blend of the four humors" (temperament)) or literally "particular mingling". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy |
The term can also be applied to symbols or words. Idiosyncratic symbols mean one thing for a particular person, as a blade could mean war, but to someone else, it could symbolize a surgery. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy |
In phonology, an idiosyncratic property contrasts with a systematic regularity. While systematic regularities in the sound system of a language are useful for identifying phonological rules during analysis of the forms morphemes can take, idiosyncratic properties are those whose occurrence is not determined by those rules. For example, the fact that the English word cab starts with a /c/ is an idiosyncratic property; on the other hand that its vowel is longer than in the English word cap is a systematic regularity, as it arises from the fact that the final consonant is voiced rather than voiceless. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy |
Idiosyncrasy defined the way physicians conceived diseases in the 19th century. They considered each disease as a unique condition, related to each patient. This understanding began to change in the 1870s, when discoveries made by researchers in Europe permitted the advent of a "scientific medicine", a precursor to the evidence-based medicine that is the standard of practice today. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy |
The term idiosyncratic drug reaction denotes an aberrant or bizarre reaction or hypersensitivity to a substance, without connection to the pharmacology of the drug. It is what is known as a Type B reaction. Type B reactions have the following characteristics: they are usually unpredictable, might not be picked up by toxicological screening, not necessarily dose-related, incidence and morbidity low but mortality is high. Type B reactions are most commonly immunological (e.g. penicillin allergy). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy |
The word is used for the personal way a given individual reacts, perceives and experiences: a certain dish made of meat may cause nostalgic memories in one person and disgust in another. These reactions are called idiosyncratic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy |
In portfolio theory, risks of price changes due to the unique circumstances of a specific security, as opposed to the overall market, are called "idiosyncratic risks". This specific risk, also called unsystematic, can be nulled out of a portfolio through diversification. Pooling multiple securities means the specific risks cancel out. In complete markets, there is no compensation for idiosyncratic risk—that is, a security's idiosyncratic risk does not matter for its price. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy |
For instance, in a complete market in which the capital asset pricing model holds, the price of a security is determined by the amount of systematic risk in its returns. Net income received, or losses suffered, by a landlord from renting of one or two properties is subject to idiosyncratic risk due to the numerous things that can happen to real property and variable behavior of tenants.According to one macroeconomic model including a financial sector, hedging idiosyncratic risk can be self-defeating as it leads to higher systemic risk, as it takes on more leverage. This makes the system less stable. Thus, while securitisation in principle reduces the costs of idiosyncratic shocks, it ends up amplifying systemic risks in equilibrium. In econometrics, "idiosyncratic error" is used to describe error—that is, unobserved factors that impact the dependent variable—from panel data that both changes over time and across units (individuals, firms, cities, towns, etc.). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy |
The LAPOP Lab (formerly known as the Latin American Public Opinion Project) is a research institute specializing in the development, implementation, and analysis of public opinion surveys. Founded by Mitchell A. Seligson over two decades ago, its principal focus is on governance and democracy in Latin America. The AmericasBarometer is the best-known survey produced by LAPOP. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Public_Opinion_Project |
It is the most extensive survey of democratic public opinion and behavior that covers the Americas (North, Central, South, and the Caribbean). It measures democratic values and behaviors using voter surveys. Elizabeth Zechmeister is the director of LAPOP. Noam Lupu is associate director of LAPOP. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Public_Opinion_Project |
LAPOP has its origins in studies of democratic values in Costa Rica. This pioneering public opinion research took place in the 1970s, a time in which much of the rest of Latin America was under the control of authoritarian regimes, prohibiting studies of public opinion. As democratization expanded in Latin America, LAPOP grew in scope and size. Today LAPOP regularly carries out public opinion surveys in nearly every country in Latin America, Canada, the United States, and much of the Caribbean. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Public_Opinion_Project |
LAPOP is housed at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee. Vanderbilt is a research university that has been a leader in the study of Latin America and the Caribbean for over 60 years. At this host institution, a team of faculty, staff, post-doctoral researchers, graduate students, and undergraduate students designs and analyzes the public opinion surveys generated by the project. The group also edits and publishes the regular Insights Series reports, each one of which examines one facet of public opinion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Public_Opinion_Project |
LAPOP’s network extends far beyond the Vanderbilt campus, to include partner institutions throughout the Americas. LAPOP functions as a consortium, working in partnership with numerous academic and non-governmental institutions in Latin America and the Caribbean. It collaborates with these institutions, sharing ideas for survey content and working together to disseminate the results of the public opinion surveys to the citizens of participating countries. This dissemination of results takes the form of systematic country reports, comparative studies, panel presentations, and media interviews. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Public_Opinion_Project |
In 2004, LAPOP established the AmericasBarometer. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Public_Opinion_Project |
Cutting-edge methods and transparent practices ensure that data collected by LAPOP are of the highest quality. These methods and practices include the following: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Public_Opinion_Project |
Solicitation of input from a vast network of academics, practitioners, and policymakers Use of Vanderbilt University’s experimental research lab to test new items Extensive in-country pre-testing of survey items Translation of surveys into more than 15 languages spoken in the Americas Expert design of national probability samples Approval from Vanderbilt University’s Institutional Review Board for the protection of human subjects | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Public_Opinion_Project |
Rigorous training of all interviewers using guidelines published in extensive training manuals Partnerships with reputable survey organizations in the regions Widespread use of electronic handheld devices (PDAs and smartphones) and software designed by LAPOP to allow multilingual interviews and extensive validity checks | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Public_Opinion_Project |
Use of cutting-edge statistical programs and methods Presentation of results in clear, user-friendly graphs Public dissemination of results in surveyed design and methods on the LAPOP website Immediate uploading of data into LAPOP’s free interactive data analysis programLAPOP’s resources and expertise allow it to conduct special projects requested by scholars, government institutions, and agencies concerned with democratic development. These have recently included novel experiments embedded within national surveys to assess issues of ethnicity and violence. In addition, these include an extensive new focus on randomized block experiments as a means of program evaluation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_American_Public_Opinion_Project |
In the study of language, description or descriptive linguistics is the work of objectively analyzing and describing how language is actually used (or how it was used in the past) by a speech community.All academic research in linguistics is descriptive; like all other scientific disciplines, it seeks to describe reality, without the bias of preconceived ideas about how it ought to be. Modern descriptive linguistics is based on a structural approach to language, as exemplified in the work of Leonard Bloomfield and others. This type of linguistics utilizes different methods in order to describe a language such as basic data collection, and different types of elicitation methods. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description |
Linguistic description is often contrasted with linguistic prescription, which is found especially in education and in publishing.As English-linguist Larry Andrews describes it, descriptive grammar is the linguistic approach which studies what a language is like, as opposed to prescriptive, which declares what a language should be like. : 25 In other words, descriptive grammarians focus analysis on how all kinds of people in all sorts of environments, usually in more casual, everyday settings, communicate, whereas prescriptive grammarians focus on the grammatical rules and structures predetermined by linguistic registers and figures of power. An example that Andrews uses in his book is fewer than vs less than. : 26 A descriptive grammarian would state that both statements are equally valid, as long as the meaning behind the statement can be understood. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description |
A prescriptive grammarian would analyze the rules and conventions behind both statements to determine which statement is correct or otherwise preferable. Andrews also believes that, although most linguists would be descriptive grammarians, most public school teachers tend to be prescriptive. : 26 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description |
The earliest known descriptive linguistic work took place in a Sanskrit community in northern India; the most well-known scholar of that linguistic tradition was Pāṇini, whose works are commonly dated to around the 5th century BCE. Philological traditions later arose around the description of Greek, Latin, Chinese, Tamil, Hebrew, and Arabic. The description of modern European languages did not begin before the Renaissance – e.g. Spanish in 1492, French in 1532, English in 1586; the same period saw the first grammatical descriptions of Nahuatl (1547) or Quechua (1560) in the New World, followed by numerous others. : 185 Even though more and more languages were discovered, the full diversity of language was not yet fully recognized. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description |
For centuries, language descriptions tended to use grammatical categories that existed for languages considered to be more prestigious, like Latin. Linguistic description as a discipline really took off at the end of the 19th century, with the Structuralist revolution (from Ferdinand de Saussure to Leonard Bloomfield), and the notion that every language forms a unique symbolic system, different from other languages, worthy of being described “in its own terms”. : 185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description |
The first critical step of language description is to collect data. To do this a researcher does fieldwork in a speech community of their choice, and they record samples from different speakers. The data they collect often comes from different kind of speech genres that include narratives, daily conversations, poetry, songs and many others. While speech that comes naturally is preferred, researchers use elicitation, by asking speakers for translations, grammar rules, pronunciation, or by testing sentences using substitution frames. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description |
Substitution frames are pre-made sentences put together by the researcher that are like fill in the blanks. They do this with nouns and verbs to see how the structure of the sentence might change or how the noun and verb might change in structure.There are different types of elicitation used in the fieldwork for linguistic description. These include schedule controlled elicitation, and analysis controlled elicitation, each with their own sub branches. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description |
Schedule controlled elicitation is when the researcher has a questionnaire of material to elicit to individuals and asks the questions in a certain order according to a schedule. These types of schedules and questionnaires usually focus on language families, and are typically flexible and are able to be changed if need be. The other type of elicitation is analysis controlled elicitation which is elicitation that is not under a schedule. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description |
The analysis of the language here in fact controls the elicitation. There are many sub types of analysis controlled elicitation, such as target language interrogation elicitation, stimulus driven elicitation, and many other types of elicitation. Target language interrogation elicitation is when the researcher asks individuals questions in the target language, and the researcher records all the different answers from all the individuals and compares them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description |
Stimulus driven elicitation is when a researcher provides pictures, objects or video clips to the language speakers and asks them to describe the items presented to them. These types of elicitation help the researcher build a vocabulary, and basic grammatical structures. This process is long and tedious and spans over several years. This long process ends with a corpus, which is a body of reference materials, that can be used to test hypothesis regarding the language in question. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description |
Almost all linguistic theory has its origin in practical problems of descriptive linguistics. Phonology (and its theoretical developments, such as the phoneme) deals with the function and interpretation of sound in language. Syntax has developed to describe how words relate to each other in order to form sentences. Lexicology collects words as well as their derivations and transformations: it has not given rise to much generalized theory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description |
Linguistics description might aim to achieve one or more of the following goals: A description of the phonology of the language in question. A description of the morphology of words belonging to that language. A description of the syntax of well-formed sentences of that language. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description |
A description of lexical derivation. A documentation of the vocabulary, including at least one thousand entries. A reproduction of a few genuine texts. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_description |
L. Greenberg National Institute of Forensic Medicine (Hebrew: המכון הלאומי לרפואה משפטית ע"ש ל' גרינברג) also known as Abu Kabir Forensic Institute, is an Israeli forensic research laboratory located in the Abu Kabir neighborhood of Tel Aviv, Israel. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Kabir_Forensic_Institute |
Established in 1954 as part of the Israel Police Division of Criminal Identification (today the Division of Identification & Forensic Science), the Greenberg National Institute of Forensic Medicine is now a department of the Israeli Health Ministry and affiliated with the Sackler Faculty of Medicine at the University of Tel Aviv. Administratively it reports to Assaf HaRofeh Hospital.The Abu Kabir Institute is the only facility in Israel authorized to conduct autopsies in cases of unnatural death. The lab at Abu Kabir conducts forensic examination in cases of rape, homicide, suicide and suspicious death. It also identifies victims of terror attacks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Kabir_Forensic_Institute |
In 2005, the then chief pathologist Yehuda Hiss, director of Abu Kabir from 1988 to 2004, admitted, as part of a plea bargain, to the unauthorized removal of organs, bone and tissue from 125 bodies in the 1990s. Israel said that such activity stopped in 2000 .In 2009, Abu Kabir was mentioned in a controversial article in Swedish tabloid Aftonbladet by Donald Boström. Boström accused the institute of being part of a human organ trafficking ring in which Israel Defense Forces (IDF) soldiers abducted Palestinians to "harvest" their organs.Boström later admitted having no evidence. "I have a personal opinion," Boström told Israel Radio. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Kabir_Forensic_Institute |
"It concerns me to the extent that I want it to be investigated. But whether it's true or not—I have no idea, I have no clue." In an interview with an Israeli newspaper, Boström said his allegations were based on hearsay: "What I experienced during this day is many people from Israel who called me haven't read the article. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Kabir_Forensic_Institute |
So they think I'm accusing the IDF of stealing organs. That's not what I'm doing. I just recorded the Palestinian families saying that. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Kabir_Forensic_Institute |
"The Israeli Ministry of Health later acknowledged that "skin, corneas, heart valves and bones" had been removed during autopsies of Israelis, including IDF soldiers, Palestinians and foreign workers in the 1990s. The ministry says that for the past decade, procedures carried out at Abu Kabir have conformed with ethics and Jewish law, and all organ removal is done with permission.Nancy Scheper-Hughes, a professor of anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley who founded Organs Watch, an organization that monitors traffic in human organs, said she decided to publicize an interview with Hiss in the wake of the Aftonbladet affair. She described the involvement of the IDF as a "widely-known secret in Israel." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Kabir_Forensic_Institute |
However, Scheper-Hughes made it clear she does not believe Israel murdered Palestinians for organs.The Attorney General of Israel dropped criminal charges against Hiss. He was fired in 2012 and replaced by Dr. Chen Kugel. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Kabir_Forensic_Institute |
A double bind is a dilemma in communication in which an individual (or group) receives two or more reciprocally conflicting messages. In some scenarios (e.g. within families or romantic relationships) this can be emotionally distressing, creating a situation in which a successful response to one message results in a failed response to the other (and vice versa), such that the person responding will automatically be perceived as in the wrong, no matter how they respond. This double bind prevents the person from either resolving the underlying dilemma or opting out of the situation. Double bind theory was first stated by Gregory Bateson and his colleagues in the 1950s, in a theory on the origins of schizophrenia and post-traumatic stress disorder. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
Double binds are often utilized as a form of control without open coercion—the use of confusion makes them difficult both to respond to and to resist. : 271–278 A double bind generally includes different levels of abstraction in the order of messages and these messages can either be stated explicitly or implicitly within the context of the situation, or they can be conveyed by tone of voice or body language. Further complications arise when frequent double binds are part of an ongoing relationship to which the person or group is committed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
The double bind is often misunderstood to be a simple contradictory situation, where the subject is trapped by two conflicting demands. While it is true that the core of the double bind is two conflicting demands, the difference lies in how they are imposed upon the subject, what the subject's understanding of the situation is, and who (or what) imposes these demands upon the subject. Unlike the usual no-win situation, the subject has difficulty in defining the exact nature of the paradoxical situation in which they are caught. The contradiction may be unexpressed in its immediate context and therefore invisible to external observers, only becoming evident when a prior communication is considered. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
Typically, a demand is imposed upon the subject by someone whom they respect (such as a parent, teacher, or doctor) but the demand itself is inherently impossible to fulfill because some broader context forbids it. For example, this situation arises when a person in a position of authority imposes two contradictory conditions but there exists an unspoken rule that one must never question authority. Gregory Bateson and his colleagues defined the double bind as follows (paraphrased): Thus, the essence of a double bind is two conflicting demands, each on a different logical level, neither of which can be ignored or escaped. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
This leaves the subject torn both ways, so that whichever demand they try to meet, the other demand cannot be met. "I must do it, but I can't do it" is a typical description of the double-bind experience. For a double bind to be effective, the subject must be unable to confront or resolve the conflict between the demand placed by the primary injunction and that of the secondary injunction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
In this sense, the double bind differentiates itself from a simple contradiction to a more inexpressible internal conflict, where the subject really wants to meet the demands of the primary injunction, but fails each time through an inability to address the situation's incompatibility with the demands of the secondary injunction. Thus, subjects may express feelings of extreme anxiety in such a situation, as they attempt to fulfill the demands of the primary injunction albeit with obvious contradictions in their actions. This was a problem in United States legal circles prior to the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution being applied to state action. A person could be subpoenaed to testify in a federal case and given Fifth Amendment immunity for testimony in that case. However, since the immunity did not apply to a state prosecution, the person could refuse to testify at the Federal level despite being given immunity, thus subjecting the person to imprisonment for contempt of court, or the person could testify, and the information they were forced to give in the Federal proceeding could then be used to convict the person in a state proceeding. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
The term double bind was first used by the anthropologist Gregory Bateson and his colleagues (including Don D. Jackson, Jay Haley and John H. Weakland) in the mid-1950s in their discussions on complexity of communication in relation to schizophrenia. Bateson made clear that such complexities are common in normal circumstances, especially in "play, humour, poetry, ritual and fiction" (see Logical Types below). Their findings indicated that the tangles in communication often diagnosed as schizophrenia are not necessarily the result of an organic brain dysfunction. Instead, they found that destructive double binds were a frequent pattern of communication among families of patients, and they proposed that growing up amidst perpetual double binds could lead to learned patterns of confusion in thinking and communication. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
Human communication is complex, and context is an essential part of it. Communication consists of the words said, tone of voice, and body language. It also includes how these relate to what has been said in the past; what is not said, but is implied; how these are modified by other nonverbal cues, such as the environment in which it is said, and so forth. For example, if someone says "I love you", one takes into account who is saying it, their tone of voice and body language, and the context in which it is said. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
It may be a declaration of passion or a serene reaffirmation, insincere and/or manipulative, an implied demand for a response, a joke, its public or private context may affect its meaning, and so forth. Conflicts in communication are common and often individuals ask "What do you mean?" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
or seek clarification in other ways. This is called meta-communication: communication about the communication. Sometimes, asking for clarification is impossible. Communication difficulties in ordinary life often occur when meta-communication and feedback systems are lacking or inadequate or there is not enough time for clarification. Double binds can be extremely stressful and become destructive when one is trapped in a dilemma and punished for finding a way out; however, making the effort to find the way out of the trap can lead to emotional growth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
The classic example given of a negative double bind is of a mother telling her child that she loves them, while at the same time turning away in disgust, or inflicting corporal punishment as discipline: the words are socially acceptable; the body language is in conflict with it. The child does not know how to respond to the conflict between the words and the body language and, because the child is dependent on the mother for basic needs, they are in a quandary. Small children have difficulty articulating contradictions verbally and can neither ignore them nor leave the relationship. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
Another example is when one is commanded to "be spontaneous". The very command contradicts spontaneity, but it only becomes a double bind when one can neither ignore the command nor comment on the contradiction. Often, the contradiction in communication is not apparent to bystanders unfamiliar with previous communications. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
An example from Gerald M. Weinberg in a non-family situation: "I suggest you find someone who you feel is more capable in this role". This requires the recipient to either confirm that the current incumbent in the role is sufficiently capable, or accept that they choose someone else based on their feelings – not an objective assessment of whether the incumbent is capable. Mother telling her child: "You must love me". The primary injunction here is the command itself: "you must"; the secondary injunction is the unspoken reality that love is spontaneous, that for the child to love the mother genuinely, it can only be of their own accord. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
Child-abuser to child: "You should have escaped from me earlier, now it's too late—because now, nobody will believe that you didn't want what I have done", while at the same time blocking all of the child's attempts to escape.Child-abusers often start the double-bind relationship by "grooming" the child, giving little concessions, or gifts or privileges to them, thus the primary injunction is: "You should like what you are getting from me!" When the child begins to go along (i.e. begins to like what they are receiving from the person), then the interaction goes to the next level and small victimization occurs, with the secondary injunction being: "I am punishing you! (for whatever reason the child-abuser is coming up with, e.g. "because you were bad/naughty/messy", or "because you deserve it", or "because you made me do it", etc.).If child shows any resistance (or tries to escape) from the abuser, then the words: "You should have escaped from me earlier " serve as the third level or tertiary injunction. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
The loop then starts to feed on itself, allowing for ever worse victimization to occur. Mother to son: "Leave your sister alone! ", while the son knows his sister will approach and antagonize him to get him into trouble. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
The primary injunction is the command, which he will be punished for breaking. The secondary injunction is the knowledge that his sister will get into conflict with him, but his mother will not know the difference and will default to punishing him. He may be under the impression that if he argues with his mother, he may be punished.One possibility for the son to escape this double bind is to realize that his sister only antagonizes him to make him feel anxious (if indeed it is the reason behind his sister's behavior). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
If he were not bothered about punishment, his sister might not bother him. He could also leave the situation entirely, avoiding both the mother and the sister. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
The sister cannot claim to be bothered by a non-present brother, and the mother cannot punish (or scapegoat) a non-present son. Other solutions exist too, which are based on the creative application of logic and reasoning. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
An apt reply would be: "Please tell my sister the same". If mother wants to 'scapegoat' him, her response will be negative. The command has a negative undertone towards the son. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
Bateson also described positive double binds, both in relation to Zen Buddhism with its path of spiritual growth, and the use of therapeutic double binds by psychiatrists to confront their patients with the contradictions in their life in such a way that would help them heal. One of Bateson's consultants, Milton H. Erickson (5 volumes, edited by Rossi) eloquently demonstrated the productive possibilities of double binds through his own life, showing the technique in a brighter light. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
One of the causes of double binds is the loss of feedback systems. Gregory Bateson and Lawrence S. Bale describe double binds that have arisen in science that have caused decades-long delays of progress in science because the scientific community had defined something as outside of its scope (or as "not science")—see Bateson in his Introduction to Steps to an Ecology of Mind (1972, 2000), pp. xv–xxvi; and Bale in his article, Gregory Bateson, Cybernetics and the Social/Behavioral Sciences (esp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
pp. 1–8) on the paradigm of classical science vs. that of systems theory/cybernetics. (See also Bateson's description in his Forward of how the double bind hypothesis fell into place). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
The Double Bind Theory was first articulated in relationship to schizophrenia when Bateson and his colleagues hypothesized that schizophrenic thinking was not necessarily an inborn mental disorder but a pattern of learned helplessness in response to cognitive double-binds externally imposed. It is helpful to remember the context in which these ideas were developed. Bateson and his colleagues were working in the Veteran's Administration Hospital (1949–1962) with World War II veterans. As soldiers they'd been able to function well in combat, but the effects of life-threatening stress had affected them. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
At that time, 18 years before Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder was officially recognized, the veterans had been saddled with the catch-all diagnosis of schizophrenia. Bateson didn't challenge the diagnosis but he did maintain that the seeming nonsense the patients said at times did make sense within context, and he gives numerous examples in section III of Steps to an Ecology of Mind, "Pathology in Relationship". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
For example, a patient misses an appointment, and when Bateson finds him later the patient says "the judge disapproves"; Bateson responds, "You need a defense lawyer". See following (pp. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
195–6). Bateson also surmised that people habitually caught in double binds in childhood would have greater problems—that in the case of the person with schizophrenia, the double bind is presented continually and habitually within the family context from infancy on. By the time the child is old enough to have identified the double bind situation, it has already been internalized, and the child is unable to confront it. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
The solution then is to create an escape from the conflicting logical demands of the double bind, in the world of the delusional system (see in Towards a Theory of Schizophrenia – Illustrations from Clinical Data).One solution to a double bind is to place the problem in a larger context, a state Bateson identified as Learning III, a step up from Learning II (which requires only learned responses to reward/consequence situations). In Learning III, the double bind is contextualized and understood as an impossible no-win scenario so that ways around it can be found. Bateson's double bind theory has not yet been followed up with any known published research, as to whether family systems imposing systematic double binds might be a cause of schizophrenia. The current understanding of schizophrenia emphasizes the robust scientific evidence for a genetic predisposition to the disorder. Psychosocial stressors, including dysfunctional family interaction, are secondary causative factors in some instances. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
After many years of research into schizophrenia, Bateson continued to explore problems of communication and learning, first with dolphins, and then with the more abstract processes of evolution. Bateson emphasized that any communicative system characterized by different logical levels might be subject to double bind problems. Especially including the communication of characteristics from one generation to another (genetics and evolution). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
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