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Anterior analysis follows the same principle. Having a different ratio than normal is referred to as Bolton Discrepancy. A standard deviation of more than 2 yields a significant discrepancy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolton_analysis |
One of the drawbacks of this analysis, is that the sample that Bolton measured in his paper in 1958, consisted of only Caucasian population. Therefore, Bolton's Overall Ratio and Anterior Ratio Mean and Standard Deviations are not representative of samples from other race and population. In addition, because the samples that were measured had perfect malocclusion, any samples after performing Bolton Analysis, will yield a high discrepancy compared to Bolton ratios. It is seen that majority of the populations when studied and compared to Bolton's ratios, are usually not ideal compared to his ratios. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolton_analysis |
Abba Isa Tijani is a Nigerian professor of museology and anthropology. In 2020 he was appointed director general of Nigeria's National Commission for Museums and Monuments (NCMM).From 2005 to 2008 Tijani worked for the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London on a research project funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council. He then joined the University of Maiduguri, where he was an Associate Professor of Museology and Anthropology, the Acting Director of the Centre for the Study and Promotion of Cultural Sustainability, the Head of the Department of Fine and Creative Arts and the Deputy Director of the university's Archive and Records Unit.Tijani was appointed director general of the NCCM in September 2020. He helped negotiate the return of Benin bronzes from two British universities, the University of Aberdeen and Jesus College, Cambridge, in October 2021. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abba_Isa_Tijani |
Borrowing time: ethnoarchaeology at the Institute: exhibition catalogue. London: Museum Studies Department, Institute of Archaeology, University College, 1994. (with Mala M. Daura and Waziri A. Gazali) Access to land under derived rights arrangement in Lake Alau, north eastern Nigeria. Maiduguri, Nigeria: Faculty of Social and Management Sciences, University of Maiduguri, 2000. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abba_Isa_Tijani |
The economy of the Haudenosaunee (also known as Iroquois) historically was based on communal production and combined elements of both horticulture and hunter-gatherer systems. Some have described the Iroquois economy as primitive communism. The tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy and other Northern Huron had their traditional territory in what is now New York State and the southern areas bordering the Great Lakes. The confederacy was originally composed of five tribes; the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca, who had created an alliance long before European contact. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The Tuscarora were added as a sixth nation in the early eighteenth century after they migrated from North Carolina. The Huron peoples, located mostly in what is now Canada, were also Iroquoian-speaking and shared some culture, but were never part of the Iroquois. The Iroquoian people were predominantly agricultural, harvesting the "Three Sisters" commonly grown by Native American groups: corn, beans, and squash. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
They developed certain cultural customs. Among these developments were ideas concerning the nature and management of property. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The Iroquois developed a system very different from the now-dominant Western variety. This system was characterized by such components as common ownership of land, division of labor by gender, and trade mostly based on gift economy. Contact with Europeans in the early 17th century had a profound impact on the economy of the Iroquoians. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
At first, they became important trading partners, but the expansion of European settlement upset the balance of the Iroquois economy. By 1800, following the American Revolutionary War, in which most of the nations supported the British and had to share their defeat, the Iroquois were reduced to reservations, primarily in New York in the United States, and Quebec and Ontario in Canada. They had to adapt their traditional economic system to dramatic changes. In the 20th century, some of the Iroquois nations in the United States have benefited from their sovereign status by founding gambling and recreation facilities, which have yielded greater revenues than some other enterprises. Individually, Iroquois has also become part of the larger economies in cities off the reservation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The Iroquois had an essentially communal system of land ownership. The French Catholic missionary Gabriel Sagard described the fundamentals. The Huron had "as much land as they need." As a result, the Huron could give families their own land and still have a large amount of excess land owned communally. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
Any Huron was free to clear the land and farm on the basis of usufruct. He maintained possession of the land as long as he continued to actively cultivate and tend the fields. Once he abandoned the land, it reverted to communal ownership, and anyone could take it up for themselves. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
While the Huron did seem to have lands designated for the individual, the significance of this possession may be of little relevance; the placement of corn storage vessels in the longhouses, which contained multiple families in one kinship group, suggests the occupants of a given longhouse held all production in common.The Iroquois had a similar communal system of land distribution. The tribe owned all lands but gave out tracts to the different clans for further distribution among households for cultivation. The land would be redistributed among the households every few years, and a clan could request a redistribution of tracts when the Clan Mothers' Council gathered. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
Those clans that abused their allocated land or otherwise did not take care of it would be warned and eventually punished by the Clan Mothers' Council by having the land redistributed to another clan. Land property was really only the concern of the women, since it was the women's job to cultivate food and not the men's.The Clan Mothers' Council also reserved certain areas of land to be worked by the women of all the different clans. Food from such lands, called kěndiǔ"gwǎ'ge' hodi'yěn'tho, would be used at festivals and large council gatherings. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The division of labor reflected the complementary aspects common in Iroquois culture: The twin gods Sapling (East) and Flint (West) embodied the two complementary halves. Each gender had defined roles in labor to support the people, which complemented each other. Women did all work involving the field, including planting, cultivating and harvesting the crops; while men did all work involving the forest, including the manufacture of anything involving wood. The Iroquois men carried out hunting and fishing, trading, and fighting, while the women took care of farming, food gathering and processing, rearing of children, and housekeeping. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
This gendered division of labor was the predominant means of dividing work in Iroquois society. At the time of contact with Europeans, Iroquois women produced about 65% of the goods and the men 35%. The combined production of food made famine and hunger extremely rare; early Europeans settlers often envied the success of Iroquois food production.The Iroquois system of work reflected their communal land system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
Since the Iroquois owned property together, they worked together as well. The women performed difficult work in large groups, going from field to field helping one another work each other's land. Together they would sow the fields as a "mistress of the field" distributed a set amount of seeds to each of the women. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The Iroquois women of each agricultural group would select an old but active member of their group to act as their leader for that year and agree to follow her directions. The women performed other work cooperatively as well. The women individually cut wood for family use, but their leader would oversee the collective carrying of the wood back to the village. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The women's clans performed other work. According to Mary Jemison, a white woman who assimilated with the Seneca while young, the collective effort averted "every jealousy of one having done more or less work than another." The Iroquois men also organized in a cooperative fashion. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The men acted collectively during military actions. The other jobs of men, such as hunting and fishing, also involved cooperative elements. The men more often organized as a whole village rather than as a clan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The men organized hunting parties where they used extensive cooperation to kill a large amount of game. One firsthand account told of a hunting party that built a large brush fence in a forest to form a V. The hunters set a fire across from the open side of the V, forcing the animals to run towards the point where the hunters awaited them. They could kill one hundred deer at a time by such a plan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The men also fished in large groups. Fishing expeditions included men in canoes using weirs and nets to cover entire streams and harvest large amounts of fish, sometimes a thousand in half of a day. A hunting or fishing party's takings were considered common property; they were divided among the party by the leader or taken to the village for a feast. Hunting and fishing were not always cooperative efforts, but the Iroquois generally did better in parties than as individuals. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The Iroquois traded excess corn and tobacco for the pelts from the tribes to the north and the wampum from the tribes to the east. The Iroquois used present-giving more often than any other mode of exchange. Present-giving reflected the reciprocity in Iroquois society. The exchange would begin with one clan giving another tribe or clan a present with the expectation of some sort of needed commodity being given in return. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
This form of trade ties to the Iroquois culture's tendency to share property and cooperate in labor. In all cases no explicit agreement is made, but one service is performed for the community or another member of the community's good with the expectation that the community or another individual would give back. External trade offered one of the few opportunities for individual enterprise in Iroquois society. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
A person who discovered a new trading route had the exclusive right to trade along the same route in the future. Often clans collectivized trading routes to gain a monopoly on a certain type of trade. The arrival of Europeans created the opportunity for greatly expanded trade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
Furs were in demand in Europe, and they could be acquired cheaply from Indigenous Peoples in exchange for manufactured goods the Indigenous Peoples could not make themselves. Trade did not always benefit the Natives. The British took advantage of the gift-giving culture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
They showered the Iroquois with European goods, making them dependent on such items as rifles and metal axes. For a time, the access to guns gave the Mohawk and other Iroquois advantages over other tribes, and they entered trading seriously. The British primarily used these gifts to gain support among the Iroquois for fighting against the French.The Iroquois also traded for alcohol, which the Europeans introduced. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
Eventually, this would have a very negative influence on their society, as they suffered a high rate of alcoholism. By 1753 Scarouady, an Oneida chief, petitioned the Governor of Pennsylvania to intervene in trade: "Your Traders now bring scarce anything but Rum and Flour; they bring little powder and lead, or other valuable goods . . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
. and get all the skins that should go to pay the debts we have contracted for goods bought of the Fair Traders; by this means we not only ruin ourselves but them too. These wicked Whiskey Sellers, when they have once got the Indians in liquor, make them sell their very clothes from their backs. In short, if this practice be continued, we must be inevitably ruined." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The structure of the Iroquois economy created a unique property and work ethic. The threat of theft was almost nonexistent, since little was held by the individual except basic tools and implements that were so prevalent they had little value. The only goods worth stealing would have been wampum. In order for the Iroquois to succeed without an individual incentive, they had to develop a communal work ethic. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
Virtue became synonymous with productivity. The idealized Iroquois man was a good warrior and productive hunter while the perfect woman excelled in agriculture and housekeeping. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
By emphasizing an individual's usefulness to society, the Iroquois created a mindset that encouraged their members to contribute even though they received similar benefits no matter how hard they worked. As a result of their communal system, the Iroquois had a strong tradition of autonomous responsibility. Iroquois men were taught to be self-disciplined, self-reliant, and responsible as well as stoic. The Iroquois attempted to eliminate any feelings of dependency during childhood and foster a desire for responsibility. At the same time, the child would have to participate in a communal culture, children were taught to think as individuals but work for the community. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The Iroquois system of land management changed somewhat after encounter with the Europeans. The Mohawk were the first to deal with them and "sold" some land to settlers, although it is unlikely either side understood the other's conception of property. After the American Revolutionary War, the victorious Americans forced the nations into reservations much reduced in size from their former territories, even those two, the Oneida and Onondaga, that had supported them. Most of the other Iroquois nations were forced to give up their territory and retreated to Canada, where they received some land in compensation from the Crown, in addition to existing settlements along the St. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
Lawrence River. The Iroquois had a system of collectively owned land free to be used as needed by their members. While this system was not wholly collective, as land was distributed for use to individual family groups, the Iroquois lacked the Western conception of property as a commodity. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
Despite the influence of Western culture, the Iroquois have maintained a unique view of property over the years. The contemporary Mohawk Doug George-Kanentiio sums up his perception of the Iroquois property view: The Iroquois have "no absolute right to claim territory for purely monetary purposes. Our Creator gave us our aboriginal lands in trust with very specific rules regarding its uses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
We are caretakers of our Mother Earth, not lords of the land. Our claims are valid only so far as we dwell in peace and harmony upon her." In 1981 the Iroquois Council of Chiefs (or Haudenosaunee) expressed similar ideas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The Council distinguished the "Western European concepts of land ownership" from the Iroquois view that "the earth is sacred" and "was created for all to use forever—not to be exploited merely for this present generation." Land is not just a commodity and "In no event is land for sale." The statement continues, "Under Haudenosaunee law, 'Gayanerkowa,' the land is held by the women of each clan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
It is principally the women who are responsible for the land, who farm it, and who care for it for the future generations. When the Confederacy was formed, the separate nations formed one union. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The territory of each nation became Confederacy land even though each nation continued to have a special interest in its historic territory." The Council's statement reflects its unique view of property among the Iroquois. The system of the Grand River Iroquois (two Iroquois reservations in Canada) integrated the traditional Iroquois property structure with the new way of life after being confined to a reservation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The reservation was established under two deeds by the Crown in the 18th century following the American Revolutionary War. These deeds gave corporate ownership of the lands to the Six Nations of the Iroquois. Individuals were granted leases for a specific plot by the Confederacy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The Iroquois idea that land came into one's possession if cared for and reverted to public control if left alone was used in reservation property law. In one property dispute case, the Iroquois Council sided with a claimant who had made improvements and cultivated the land over one who had left it alone.The natural resources of the land are considered to belong to the tribe as a whole and not to those who possessed the particular parcel. The Iroquois leased the right to extract stone from the lands in one instance and fixed royalties on all the production. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
After natural gas had been discovered on the reservation, the Six Nations took direct ownership of the natural gas wells. They paid persons who had wells on their land compensation only for damages done by gas extraction. This setup closely resembled the precontact land distribution system where the tribes owned the land and distributed it for use, but not unconditional ownership. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
Many Iroquois have been fully integrated into the surrounding Western economy of the United States and Canada. For others, their economic involvement is more isolated in the reservation. Whether directly involved in the outside economy or not, most of the Iroquois economy is now greatly influenced by national and world economies. The Iroquois have been involved in the steel construction industry for over a hundred years, with many men from the Mohawk nations working on such high-steel projects as the Empire State Building and the World Trade Center.Inside the reservations, which are sometimes isolated from larger cities, the economic situation has often been bleak. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
For instance, the U.S. side of the Mohawk St. Regis reservation in northern New York has had unemployment as high as 46 percent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
However, in April of 1999, the St Regis Mohawks opened the Akwesasne Mohawk Casino. It was renovated in 2011 and 2012 to enlarge the hotel, amenities and gaming floor. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The casino also employs tribal members and local community members. But many reservations have successful businesses. The Seneca reservation contains the City of Salamanca, New York, a center of the hardwoods industry. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The Seneca make use of their sovereignty to sell gasoline and cigarettes tax-free and run high-stakes bingo operations. The Senecas have also opened several Indian casinos, the Seneca Niagara Casino in Niagara Falls, New York and one in Salamanca. In 2007 the Seneca opened a third in Buffalo, the Seneca Buffalo Creek Casino.The Oneida also operate casinos on their reservations in New York and Wisconsin. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
The Oneida are one of the largest employers in northeastern Wisconsin with over 3,000 employees, including 975 people in tribal government. The Tribe manages more than $16 million in federal and private grants, and a wide range of programs, including those authorized by the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act. The Oneida business ventures have brought millions of dollars into the community and improved the standard of living in the region. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
Oneida Enterprises – businesses owned by the Oneida nation Turning Stone Casino – run by the Oneida in Verona, NY. Seneca Niagara Casino & Hotel – run by the Seneca in Niagara Falls, NY Seneca Allegany Casino – run by the Seneca in Salamanca, NY. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_the_Iroquois |
Cancer is one of the underlying diseases that increases the risk of COVID-19 developing to a serious illness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_and_cancer |
The NHS of the United Kingdom has warned that those undergoing active chemotherapy or radiotherapy for lung cancer and those with bone marrow cancers are vulnerable to serious illness if they become infected with COVID-19. In Sweden, individuals who recently got chemotherapy were found to be at a higher risk for developing severe illness following COVID-19. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_and_cancer |
The European Society of Medical Oncology (ESMO) recommends that oncologists should remain ready to adjust their clinical routines in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. Recommendations for using telemedicine services, reducing clinic visits, switching intravenous therapies to subcutaneous or oral therapies, when possible. ESMO also recommends advising patients on infection control.The NHS in England stresses that individual patient decisions have to be made by multidisciplinary teams. NHS has also established priority groups for those receiving anticancer treatments such that those with higher chances of success get prioritized for treatment over others.The European Society of Surgical Oncology advises against seeing patients with cancer who are over 70 years of age in clinic, unless it is urgent. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_and_cancer |
Even though many COVID-19 patients recover within 2–6 weeks of the onset of symptoms, some develop symptoms that come and go for months. The possibility has been raised, but needs to be investigated further, that patients with long COVID-19 may be predisposed to the development of lung cancer. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_and_cancer |
The mismatch negativity (MMN) or mismatch field (MMF) is a component of the event-related potential (ERP) to an odd stimulus in a sequence of stimuli. It arises from electrical activity in the brain and is studied within the field of cognitive neuroscience and psychology. It can occur in any sensory system, but has most frequently been studied for hearing and for vision, in which case it is abbreviated to vMMN. The (v)MMN occurs after an infrequent change in a repetitive sequence of stimuli (sometimes the entire sequence is called an oddball sequence.) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
For example, a rare deviant (d) stimulus can be interspersed among a series of frequent standard (s) stimuli (e.g., s s s s s s s s s d s s s s s s d s s s d s s s s...). In hearing, a deviant sound can differ from the standards in one or more perceptual features such as pitch, duration, loudness, or location. The MMN can be elicited regardless of whether someone is paying attention to the sequence. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
During auditory sequences, a person can be reading or watching a silent subtitled movie, yet still show a clear MMN. In the case of visual stimuli, the MMN occurs after an infrequent change in a repetitive sequence of images. MMN refers to the mismatch response in electroencephalography (EEG); MMF or MMNM refer to the mismatch response in magnetoencephalography (MEG). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
The auditory MMN was discovered in 1978 by Risto Näätänen, A. W. K. Gaillard, and S. Mäntysalo at the Institute for Perception, TNO in The Netherlands.The first report of a visual MMN was in 1990 by Rainer Cammer. For a history of the development of the visual MMN, see Pazo-Alvarez et al. (2003). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
The MMN is a response to a deviant within a sequence of otherwise regular stimuli; thus, in an experimental setting, it is produced when stimuli are presented in a many-to-one ratio; for example, in a sequence of sounds s s s s s s s d s s s s d s s s..., the d is the deviant or oddball stimulus, and will elicit an MMN response. The mismatch negativity occurs even if the subject is not consciously paying attention to the stimuli. Processing of sensory stimulus features is essential for humans in determining their responses and actions. If behaviourally relevant aspects of the environment are not correctly represented in the brain, then the organism's behaviour cannot be appropriate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
Without these representations our ability to understand spoken language, for example, would be seriously impaired. Cognitive neuroscience has consequently emphasised the importance of understanding brain mechanisms of sensory information processing, that is, the sensory prerequisites of cognition. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
Most of the data obtained, unfortunately, do not allow the objective measurement of the accuracy of these stimulus representations. In addition, recent cognitive neuroscience seems to have succeeded in extracting such a measure, however. This is the mismatch negativity (MMN), a component of the event-related potential (ERP), first reported by Näätänen, Gaillard, and Mäntysalo (1978). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
An in-depth review of MMN research can be found in Näätänen (1992) while other recent reviews also provide information on the generator mechanisms of MMN, its magnetic counterpart, MMNm (Näätänen, Ilmoniemi & Alho, 1994), and its clinical applicability.The auditory MMN can occur in response to deviance in pitch, intensity, or duration. The auditory MMN is a fronto-central negative potential with sources in the primary and non-primary auditory cortex and a typical latency of 150-250 ms after the onset of the deviant stimulus. Sources could also include the inferior frontal gyrus, and the insular cortex. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
The amplitude and latency of the MMN is related to how different the deviant stimulus is from the standard. Large deviances elicit MMN at earlier latencies. For very large deviances, the MMN can even overlap the N100.The visual MMN can occur in response to deviance in such aspects as color, size, or duration. The visual MMN is an occipital negative potential with sources in the primary visual cortex and a typical latency of 150-250 ms after the onset of the deviant stimulus. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
As kindred phenomena have been elicited with speech stimuli, under passive conditions that require very little active attention to the sound, a version of MMN has been frequently used in studies of neurolinguistic perception, to test whether or not these participants neurologically distinguish between certain kinds of sounds. The MMN response has been used to study how fetuses and newborns discriminate speech sounds. In addition to these kinds of studies focusing on phonological processing, some research has implicated the MMN in syntactic processing. Some of these studies have attempted to directly test the automaticity of the MMN, providing converging evidence for the understanding of the MMN as a task-independent and automatic response. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
MMN is evoked by an infrequently presented stimulus ("deviant"), differing from the frequently-occurring stimuli ("standards") in one or several physical parameters like duration, intensity, or frequency. In addition, it is generated by a change in spectrally complex stimuli like phonemes, in synthesised instrumental tones, or in the spectral component of tone timbre. Also the temporal order reversals elicit an MMN when successive sound elements differ either in frequency, intensity, or duration. The MMN is not elicited by stimuli with deviant stimulus parameters when they are presented without the intervening standards. Thus, the MMN has been suggested to reflect change detection when a memory trace representing the constant standard stimulus and the neural code of the stimulus with deviant parameter(s) are discrepant. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
The MMN data can be understood as providing evidence that stimulus features are separately analysed and stored in the vicinity of auditory cortex (for a discussion, please see the theory section below). The close resemblance of the behaviour of the MMN to that of the previously behaviourally observed "echoic" memory system strongly suggests that the MMN provides a non-invasive, objective, task-independently measurable physiological correlate of stimulus-feature representations in auditory sensory memory. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
The experimental evidence suggests that the auditory sensory memory index MMN provides sensory data for attentional processes, and, in essence, governs certain aspects of attentive information processing. This is evident in the finding that the latency of the MMN determines the timing of behavioural responses to changes in the auditory environment. Furthermore, even individual differences in discrimination ability can be probed with the MMN. The MMN is a component of the chain of brain events causing attention switches to changes in the environment. Attentional instructions also affect MMN. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
The MMN has been documented in a number of studies to disclose neuropathological changes. Presently, the accumulated body of evidence suggests that while the MMN offers unique opportunities to basic research of the information processing of a healthy brain, it might be useful in tapping neurodegenerative changes as well. MMN, which is elicited irrespective of attention, provides an objective means for evaluating possible auditory discrimination and sensory-memory anomalies in such clinical groups as dyslexics and patients with aphasia, who have a multitude of symptoms including attentional problems. Recent results suggest that a major problem underlying the reading deficit in dyslexia might be an inability of the dyslexics' auditory cortex to adequately model complex sound patterns with fast temporal variation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
According to the results of an ongoing study, MMN might also be used in the evaluation of auditory perception deficits in aphasia. Alzheimer's patients demonstrate decreased amplitude of MMN, especially with long inter-stimulus intervals; this is thought to reflect reduced span of auditory sensory memory. Parkinsonian patients do demonstrate a similar deficit pattern, whereas alcoholism would appear to enhance the MMN response. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
This latter, seemingly contradictory, finding could be explained by hyperexcitability of CNS neurones resulting from neuroadaptive changes taking place during a heavy drinking bout. While the results obtained thus far seem encouraging, several steps need to be taken before the MMN can be used as a clinical tool in patient treatment. A focus of research in the late 1990s aimed to tackle some of the key signal-analysis problems encountered in development of clinical use of MMN and challenges still remain. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
Nevertheless, as it stands, clinical research employing the MMN has already produced significant knowledge on the CNS functional changes related to cognitive decline in the aforementioned clinical disorders. A 2010 study found that MMN durations were reduced in a group of schizophrenia patients who later went on to have psychotic episodes, suggesting that MMN durations may predict future psychosis. Recent research advocates for the use of MMN in clinical intervention, because MMN can predict treatment response for patients with schizophrenia in the context of pro-cognitive therapeutics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
The mainstream "memory trace" interpretation of MMN is that it is elicited in response to violations of simple rules governing the properties of information. It is thought to arise from violation of an automatically formed, short-term neural model or memory trace of physical or abstract environmental regularities. However, other than MMN, there is no other neurophysiological evidence for the formation of the memory representation of those regularities.Integral to this memory trace view is that there are: i) a population of sensory afferent neuronal elements that respond to sound, and; ii) a separate population of memory neuronal elements that build a neural model of standard stimulation and respond more vigorously when the incoming stimulation violates that neural model, eliciting an MMN. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
An alternative "fresh afferent" interpretation is that there are no memory neuronal elements, but the sensory afferent neuronal elements that are tuned to properties of the standard stimulation respond less vigorously upon repeated stimulation. Thus when a deviant activates a distinct new population of neuronal elements that is tuned to the different properties of the deviant rather than the standard, these fresh afferents respond more vigorously, eliciting an MMN. A third view is that the sensory afferents are the memory neurons. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mismatch_negativity |
Sociological Association of Aotearoa (New Zealand) (SAANZ, or SAA(NZ)) was established in February 1988 from the transformation of the New Zealand Sociological Association, a branch of the Sociological Association of Australia and New Zealand (SAANZ). SAANZ holds an annual conference and publishes an academic journal, the Journal of the Sociological Association of Aotearoa New Zealand. Membership of SAA(NZ) stood at about 170 in the early 1990s. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociological_Association_of_Aotearoa_(New_Zealand) |
In Dutch politics and media, the "long arm of Ankara" (Dutch: lange arm van Ankara) is a metaphorical reference to the soft power the government of Turkey allegedly exerts in various European countries (notably ones with significant Turkish minorities) by using European Turks as proxies; and in the same manner it denotes the influence the Turkish government holds or attempts to hold over the Turkish diaspora. As it is seen as a recent development that has occasionally been attributed to Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, it is also less commonly known as "Erdogan's long arm" (lange arm van Erdogan). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_arm_of_Ankara |
The term long arm typically signifies a far-reaching influence of something, as is the case in the idiom "long arm of the law". Ankara is a metonym for the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (Turkish parliament) which is housed in the capital city of Ankara. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_arm_of_Ankara |
Internationally, some of the earliest mentions of the term that caught on were regarding Turkish President Erdogan calling for the prosecution of a German and a Dutch comedian over their satirical portrayals of him. Voice of America referred to it as the "long arm of the Turkish State. "Several outlets reported that the parliamentary faction run by two Turkish-Dutch people, DENK, had been accused of this due to controversy regarding their approach to Israel and anti-Semitism, the Armenian genocide, and the Turkish regime in general (especially after its arrest of Dutch journalist Ebru Umar).Balkan Insight also used the term "long arm of Ankara" when referring to the Bulgarian party Democrats for Responsibility, Solidarity and Tolerance, who had been accused of having links to the Turkish government.When the German police raided the homes of several Muslim imams suspected of spying for Turkey, Minister of Justice Heiko Maas stated: "If the suspicion that some Ditib imams were spying is confirmed, the organisation must be seen, at least in parts, as a long arm of the Turkish government.” | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_arm_of_Ankara |
With the anti-Gülen purges in Turkey starting in 2016, some media have applied the term to the Turkish government's ability to arrest Turkish nationals living in other countries. On 30 March 2018, Ahval, an independent London-based media source founded by dissident Turkish journalists, reported that six Turkish nationals were detained in Kosovo and deported to Turkey. They were accused of being part of the Gülen movement. The move was condemned by Kosovar officials that included Prime Minister Ramush Haradinaj and President Hashim Thaci. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_arm_of_Ankara |
According to author Nick Ashdown, Kosovo was especially susceptible to "Ankara’s long arm" because its rule of law is still "very shaky". Haaretz also interviewed the wives of Turkish Kosovars who were being detained in Turkey for alleged involvement, writing that "Erdogan's Long Arm" had "snatched over 100 alleged members of the Gülen movement from other countries in recent years. "In 2017, Politico wrote about a Turkish man being arrested in Tbilisi, Georgia, despite having already remained in the Caucasus for a decade. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_arm_of_Ankara |
While most Western nations have refused Turkish demands for extradition, other countries like Malaysia and Saudi Arabia have generally complied. Several other countries shut down schools linked to the movement due to Turkish pressure, and Turkey has cancelled passports of people sympathetic with the Gülen movement, such as NBA player Enes Kanter. In a few cases, its government has been accused of abduction and torture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_arm_of_Ankara |
Cuteness is a type of attractiveness commonly associated with youth and appearance, as well as a scientific concept and analytical model in ethology, first introduced by Austrian ethologist Konrad Lorenz. Lorenz proposed the concept of baby schema (Kindchenschema), a set of facial and body features that make a creature appear "cute" and activate ("release") in others the motivation to care for it. Cuteness may be ascribed to people as well as things that are regarded as attractive or charming. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
Doug Jones, a visiting scholar in anthropology at Cornell University, said that the proportions of facial features change with age due to changes in hard tissue and soft tissue, and Jones said that these "age-related changes" cause juvenile animals to have the "characteristic 'cute' appearance" of proportionately smaller snouts, higher foreheads and larger eyes than their adult counterparts. In terms of hard tissue, Jones said that the neurocranium grows a lot in juveniles while the bones for the nose and the parts of the skull involved in chewing food only reach maximum growth later. In terms of soft tissue, Jones said that the cartilaginous tissues of the ears and nose continue to grow throughout a person's lifetime, starting at age twenty-five the eyebrows descend on the "supraorbital rim" from a position above the supraorbital rim to a position below it, the "lateral aspect of the eyebrows" sags with age, making the eyes appear smaller, and the red part of the lips gets thinner with age due to loss of connective tissue.A study found that the faces of "attractive" Northern Italian Caucasian children have "characteristics of babyness" such as a "larger forehead", a smaller jaw, "a proportionately larger and more prominent maxilla", a wider face, a flatter face and larger "anteroposterior" facial dimensions than the Northern Italian Caucasian children used as a reference. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
Konrad Lorenz argued in 1949 that infantile features triggered nurturing responses in adults and that this was an evolutionary adaptation which helped ensure that adults cared for their children, ultimately securing the survival of the species. Some later scientific studies have provided further evidence for Lorenz's theory. For example, it has been shown that human adults react positively to infants who are stereotypically cute. Studies have also shown that responses to cuteness—and to facial attractiveness in general—seem to be similar across and within cultures. In a study conducted by Stephan Hamann of Emory University, he found using an fMRI, that cute pictures increased brain activity in the orbital frontal cortex. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
Desmond Collins, who was an Extension Lecturer of Archaeology at London University, said that the lengthened youth period of humans is part of neoteny.Physical anthropologist Barry Bogin said that the pattern of children's growth may intentionally increase the duration of their cuteness. Bogin said that the human brain reaches adult size when the body is only 40 percent complete, when "dental maturation is only 58 percent complete" and when "reproductive maturation is only 10 percent complete". Bogin said that this allometry of human growth allows children to have a "superficially infantile" appearance (large skull, small face, small body and sexual underdevelopment) longer than in other "mammalian species". Bogin said that this cute appearance causes a "nurturing" and "care-giving" response in "older individuals". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
The perceived cuteness of an infant is influenced by the gender and behavior of the infant. In the Koyama et al. (2006) research, female infants are seen as cute for the physical attraction that female infants display more than male infants; whereas research by Karraker (1990) demonstrates that a caregiver's attention and involvement in the male infant's protection could be solely based on the perception of happiness and attractiveness of the child.The gender of an observer can determine their perception of the difference in cuteness. In a study by Sprengelmeyer et al. (2009) it was suggested that women were more sensitive to small differences in cuteness than the same aged men. This suggests that reproductive hormones in women are important for determining cuteness.This finding has also been demonstrated in a study conducted by T.R. Alley in which he had 25 undergraduate students (consisting of 7 men and 18 women) rate cuteness of infants depending on different characteristics such as age, behavioral traits, and physical characteristics such as head shape, and facial feature configuration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
Borgi et al. stated that young children demonstrate a preference for faces with a more "infantile facial" arrangement i.e. a rounder face, a higher forehead, bigger eyes, a smaller nose and a smaller mouth. In a study that used three- to six-year-old children, Borgi et al. (2014) asserted that the children showed a viewing time preference toward the eyes of "high infantile" faces of dogs, cats and humans as opposed to "low infantile" faces of those three species. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
There are suggestions that hormone levels can affect a person's perception of cuteness. Konrad Lorenz suggests that "caretaking behaviour and affective orientation" towards infants as an innate mechanism, and this is triggered by cute characteristics such as "chubby cheeks" and large eyes. The Sprengelmeyer et al. (2009) study expands on this claim by manipulating baby pictures to test groups on their ability to detect differences in cuteness. The studies show that premenopausal women detected cuteness better than same aged postmenopausal women. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
Furthermore, to support this claim, women taking birth control pills that raise levels of reproductive hormones detect cuteness better than same aged women not taking the pill.Sprengelmeyer gathered 24 young women, 24 young men, and 24 older women to participate in his study. He ran three studies in which images of white European babies were shown, and the participants were asked to rate them on a cuteness scale of one to seven. The study found differences among the groups in cuteness discrimination, which ruled out cohort and social influences on perceived cuteness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
In the second study it was found that premenopausal women discriminated cuteness at a higher level than their postmenopausal female peers. This finding suggested a biological factor, which was then investigated further in the third study. Here, Sprengelmeyer compared cuteness sensitivity between premenopausal women who were, and were not taking oral contraceptives. The study concluded that post-perceptual processes were impacted by hormone levels (progesterone and estrogen specifically) in females, and thus impacted sensitivity to cuteness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
A study by Konrad Lorenz in the early 1940s found that the shape of an infant's head positively correlated with adult caregiving and an increased perception of "cute". However a study by Thomas Alley found no such correlation and pointed out faulty procedures in that study. Alley's study found that cephalic head shape of an infant did induce a positive response from adults, and these children were considered to be more "cute". In his study, Alley had 25 undergraduate students rate line drawings of an infant's face. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
The same drawing was used each time, however the cephalic head shape was changed using a cardioidal transformation (a transformation that models cephalic growth in relation to ageing process) to adjust the perceived age; other features of the face were not changed. The study concluded that a large head shape increased perceived cuteness, which then elicited a positive response in adult caretaking. The study also noted that perceived cuteness was also dependent on other physical and behavioural characteristics of the child, including age.In a study by McCabe (1984) of children whose ages ranged from toddlers to teenagers, the children with more "adult-like" facial proportions were more likely to have experienced physical abuse than children of the same age who had less "adult-like" facial proportions.A study by Karraker (1990) suggested that "an adult's beliefs about the personality and expected behavior of an infant can influence the adult's interaction with the infant", and gave evidence that in this way "basic cuteness effects may occasionally be obscured in particular infants". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
Koyama (2006) said that an adult caregiver's perception of an infant's cuteness can motivate the amount of care and protection the caregiver provides, and the admiration demonstrated toward the infant, and concluded that "the adults' protective feeling for children appeared to be a more important criterion for the judgment of a boy's cuteness. "Melanie Glocker (2009) provided experimental evidence that infants' cuteness motivates caretaking in adults, even if they are not related to the infant. Glocker asked individuals to rate the level of cuteness of pictured infants and noted the motivation that these participants had to care for the infants. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
The research suggested that individuals' rating of the perceived cuteness of an infant corresponded to the level of motivation an individual had to care for this infant. Glocker and colleagues then used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), to demonstrate that baby faces with higher content of baby schema features, generated more activation in the nucleus accumbens, a small brain area central to motivation and reward. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
This work elucidated the neural mechanism through which baby schema (Kindchenschema) may motivate ("release") caretaking behavior. Furthermore, cute infants were more likely to be adopted and rated as more "likeable, friendly, healthy and competent" than infants who were less cute. There is an implication that baby schema response is crucial to human development because it lays the foundation for caregiving and the relationship between child and caretaker.Sherman, Haidt, & Coan (2009), in two experiments, found that exposure to high cuteness stimuli increased performance when playing the Operation game, a task that requires extreme carefulness. The study said that the shift in behavior toward greater carefulness is consistent with the viewpoint that cuteness is something that releases the human caregiving system. The study said that the shift in behavior toward greater carefulness also makes sense as an adaptation for caring for small children. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
Doug Jones, a visiting scholar in anthropology at Cornell University, said that the faces of monkeys, dogs, birds and even the fronts of cars can be made to appear cuter by morphing them with a "cardioidal" (heart-shaped) mathematical transformation. Jones said that negative cardioidal strain results in faces appearing less mature and cuter by causing facial features at the top of the face to expand outward and upward while causing features at the bottom of the face to contract inward and upward.Stephen Jay Gould said that over time Mickey Mouse had been drawn to resemble a juvenile more with a relatively larger head, larger eyes, a larger and more bulging cranium, a less sloping and more rounded forehead, shorter, thicker and "pudgier" legs, thicker arms and a thicker snout which gave the appearance of being less protrusive. Gould suggested that this change in Mickey's image was intended to increase his popularity by making him appear cuter and "inoffensive". Gould said that the neotenous changes to Mickey's form were similar to the neotenous changes that occurred in human evolution.Nancy Etcoff, Ph.D. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
in psychology from Boston University, said "cartoonists capitalize on our innate preferences for juvenile features", and she mentioned Mickey Mouse and Bambi as examples of this trend. She said Mickey Mouse's bodily proportions "aged in reverse" since his inception, because "is eyes and head kept getting bigger while his limbs kept getting shorter and thicker", culminating in him resembling a "human infant". She further mentioned the "exaggerated high forehead" and the "doe eyes" of Bambi as another example of this trend.Mark J. Estren, Ph.D. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
in psychology from the University at Buffalo, said cute animals get more public attention and scientific study due to having physical characteristics that would be considered neotenous from the perspective of human development. Estren said that humans should be mindful of their bias for cute animals, so animals that would not be considered cute are also valued in addition to cute animals.The perception of cuteness is culturally diverse. The differences across cultures can be significantly associated to the need to be socially accepted. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
Sherman, Haidt, & Coan (2009) used images of puppies and kittens for the study's "high cuteness" stimuli in two experiments.William R. Miller, assistant professor of biology at Baker University in Kansas, said that most people, upon seeing tardigrades, say that they are the cutest invertebrates.Kenta Takada (2016) said that Miyanoshita (2008) said that the design of chocolates made to look like rhinoceros beetle larvae is a design that is both cute and disgusting.Evolutionary biologists suspect that "puppy dog eyes", a trait absent from wild wolves, were unintentionally selected for by humans during the domestication of dogs. In order to obtain pets with particularly cute faces, some breeds of dogs have been bred with increasingly severe cranial deformities called brachycephaly, for example, the French bulldog who consequently suffer from Brachycephalic airway obstructive syndrome. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuteness |
The Cleveland Public Parks District is a division of the city's Department of Public Works, which is responsible for park maintenance in the City of Cleveland, Ohio. The following is a comprehensive list of the city's more than 150 public parks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_Public_Parks_District |
Gordon Park (E. 72nd, S. of Shoreway 46.00 acres (18.62 ha) - Located on the lakefront, a section of Gordon Park is part of the Cleveland Lakefront State Park system. The Mall - Part of the 1903 Group Plan, which was part of an architectural collaboration headed by Daniel Burnham, the Mall is an historic site divided into three sections, and is located north of Public Square. Mall A (Memorial Plaza, West Mall Dr. at St. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_Public_Parks_District |
Clair Av. 2.75 acres (1.11 ha) Mall B (Hanna Plaza, F.Pastorius Blvd. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_Public_Parks_District |
@ Lakeside Av.5.45 acres (2.21 ha) Mall C (Strawbridge Plaza, 301 Lakeside Av. 5.46 acres (2.21 ha) Rockefeller Park (9601 Wade Park Ave 130.00 acres (52.61 ha) - The city's largest park, built on land that was donated to the city by local Cleveland philanthropist and industrialist, John D. Rockefeller.Rockefeller Park Greenhouse 750 E. 88th St. Rockefeller Park Lagoon | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleveland_Public_Parks_District |
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