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"...evolution always followed the pathways of viability. As Lewis Carroll has pointed out, the theory explains quite satisfactorily why there are no bread-and-butter-flies today. "Bateson used the fictional Bread and Butter Fly (from Through the Looking Glass, and What Alice Found There) to illustrate the double bind in terms of natural selection. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
The gnat points out that the insect would be doomed if he found his food (which would dissolve his own head, since this insect's head is made of sugar, and his only food is tea), and starve if he did not. Alice suggests that this must happen quite often, to which the gnat replies: "It always happens." The pressures that drive evolution therefore represent a genuine double bind. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
And there is truly no escape: "It always happens." No species can escape natural selection, including our own. Bateson suggested that all evolution is driven by the double bind, whenever circumstances change: If any environment becomes toxic to any species, that species will die out unless it transforms into another species, in which case, the species becomes extinct anyway. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
Most significant here is Bateson's exploration of what he later came to call "the pattern that connects"—that problems of communication which span more than one level (e.g., the relationship between the individual and the family) should also be expected to be found spanning other pairs of levels in the hierarchy (e.g. the relationship between the genotype and the phenotype): "We are very far, then, from being able to pose specific questions for the geneticist; but I believe that the wider implications of what I have been saying modify somewhat the philosophy of genetics. Our approach to the problems of schizophrenia by way of a theory of levels or logical types has disclosed first that the problems of adaptation and learning and their pathologies must be considered in terms of a hierarchic system in which stochastic change occurs at the boundary points between the segments of the hierarchy. We have considered three such regions of stochastic change—the level of genetic mutation, the level of learning, and the level of change in family organization. We have disclosed the possibility of a relationship of these levels which orthodox genetics would deny, and we have disclosed that at least in human societies the evolutionary system consists not merely in the selective survival of those persons who happen to select appropriate environments but also in the modification of family environment in a direction which might enhance the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of the individual members." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
René Girard, in his literary theory of mimetic desire, proposes what he calls a "model-obstacle", a role model who demonstrates an object of desire and yet, in possessing that object, becomes a rival who obstructs fulfillment of the desire. According to Girard, the "internal mediation" of this mimetic dynamic "operates along the same lines as what Gregory Bateson called the 'double bind'." Girard found in Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory, a precursor to mimetic desire. "The individual who 'adjusts' has managed to relegate the two contradictory injunctions of the double bind—to imitate and not to imitate—to two different domains of application. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
This is, he divides reality in such a way as to neutralize the double bind." While critical of Freud's doctrine of the unconscious mind, Girard sees the ancient Greek tragedy, Oedipus Rex, and key elements of Freud's Oedipus complex, patricidal and incestuous desire, to serve as prototypes for his own analysis of the mimetic double bind. Far from being restricted to a limited number of pathological cases, as American theoreticians suggest, the double bind—a contradictory double imperative, or rather a whole network of contradictory imperatives—is an extremely common phenomenon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
In fact, it is so common that it might be said to form the basis of all human relationships. Bateson is undoubtedly correct in believing that the effects of the double bind on the child are particularly devastating. All the grown-up voices around him, beginning with those of the father and mother (voices which, in our society at least, speak for the culture with the force of established authority) exclaim in a variety of accents, "Imitate us!" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
"Imitate me!" "I bear the secret of life, of true being!" | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
The more attentive the child is to these seductive words, and the more earnestly he responds to the suggestions emanating from all sides, the more devastating will be the eventual conflicts. The child possesses no perspective that will allow him to see things as they are. He has no basis for reasoned judgements, no means of foreseeing the metamorphosis of his model into a rival. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
This model's opposition reverberates in his mind like a terrible condemnation; he can only regard it as an act of excommunication. The future orientation of his desires—that is, the choice of his future models—will be significantly affected by the dichotomies of his childhood. In fact, these models will determine the shape of his personality. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
If desire is allowed its own bent, its mimetic nature will almost always lead it into a double bind. The unchanneled mimetic impulse hurls itself blindly against the obstacle of a conflicting desire. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
It invites its own rebuffs and these rebuffs will in turn strengthen the mimetic inclination. We have, then, a self-perpetuating process, constantly increasing in simplicity and fervor. Whenever the disciple borrows from his model what he believes to be the "true" object, he tries to possess that truth by desiring precisely what this model desires. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
Whenever he sees himself closest to the supreme goal, he comes into violent conflict with a rival. By a mental shortcut that is both eminently logical and self-defeating, he convinces himself that the violence itself is the most distinctive attribute of this supreme goal! Ever afterward, violence will invariably awaken desire... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
Neuro-linguistic programming, a pseudoscientific approach to communication, also makes use of the expression "double bind". Grinder and Bandler (both of whom had personal contact with Bateson and Erickson) asserted that a message could be constructed with multiple messages, whereby the recipient of the message is given the impression of choice—although both options have the same outcome at a higher level of intention. This is called a "double bind" in NLP terminology, and has applications in both sales and therapy. In therapy, the practitioner may seek to challenge destructive double binds that limit the client in some way and may also construct double binds in which both options have therapeutic consequences. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
In a sales context, the speaker may give the respondent the illusion of choice between two possibilities. For example, a salesperson might ask: "Would you like to pay cash or by credit card? ", with both outcomes presupposing that the person will make the purchase; whereas the third option (that of not buying) is intentionally excluded from the spoken choices. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
Note that in the NLP context, the use of the phrase "double bind" does not carry the primary definition of two conflicting messages; it is about creating a false sense of choice which ultimately binds to the intended outcome. In the "cash or credit card?" example, this is not a "Bateson double bind" since there is no contradiction, although it still is an "NLP double bind". Similarly if a salesman were selling a book about the evils of commerce, it could perhaps be a "Bateson double bind" if the buyer happened to believe that commerce was evil, yet felt compelled or obliged to buy the book. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bind |
National Standards for United States History was the controversial 1994 publication by the National Center for History in the Schools unit of the University of Southern California, that resulted in a robust debate—sometimes referred to as the culture or history wars. The administration of then United States President George H. W. Bush had funded the three-year $2M research project, and "several thousand teachers, educators, officials, and scholars" had participated in its preparation. While some scholars called it a "remarkable achievement in the history of the humanities", there were numerous vocal reform skeptics. These debates over state-school history curricula in the United States in the mid-1990s were influenced by the culture wars, in which education reform skeptics, including prominent public figures as Lynne Cheney, Rush Limbaugh, and American Enterprise Institute fellows responded to the "Standards" in numerous scathing publications and interviews, starting in October 1994, before its official publication. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Standards_for_United_States_History |
The 3-year $2M government-sponsored project was led by Gary Nash, then Director of the National Center for History in the Schools unit of the University of Southern California, and co-chaired by Charlotte Crabtree, "an expert on K-12 social studies". The National Center for History in the Schools was mandated to develop standards on how American students would be taught both world history and American history in American schools. This was part of a wider response to the 1989 decision by fifty governors of American states to adopt National Education Goals for "science, civics, geography, and the arts". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Standards_for_United_States_History |
The 32-month long process included five draft publications produced as a result of the contributions of "several thousand teachers, educators, officials, and scholars". Funding included a 1992 $525,000 grant from National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH) then chaired by Lynn Cheney, and $525,000 from the Department of Education, then under Lamar Alexander.The first three publications in November 1994 included National Standards for United States History, National Standards for World History, and National Standards for Grades K-4. : 189 Considered an historical achievement by some, it was disparaged by education reform skeptics. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Standards_for_United_States_History |
These debates over state-school history curricula in the United States in the mid-1990s were influenced by the culture wars, in which education reform skeptics, including prominent public figures as Lynne Cheney, Rush Limbaugh, and American Enterprise Institute fellows responded to the "Standards" in numerous publications and interviews, starting in October 1994, before its official publication. They said that American history should be a "celebratory" and traditional, while the report called for a more "critical" revisiting of the past as reflected in the Standards project under the direction of historian Gary Nash. Cheney—who was a signatory of the National Center's NEH grant and the Department of Education grant—wrote a scathing October 24 Wall Street Journal editorial entitled "The End of History"—which is also the title of Francis Fukuyama's 1989 talk and 1992 book. Cheney said saying that the new Standards included too much Harriet Tubman and not enough Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee.During a two-week period in November, Rush Limbaugh, among others, including John Fonte, an education consultant, who directed the committee to Review National Standards under Cheney at the American Enterprise Institute, wrote strongly-worded critiques in opinion pieces in Wall Street Journal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Standards_for_United_States_History |
Fonte had completed his PhD in world history at the University of Chicago—a department that had earned prominence for world history with William H. McNeill (1917–2016) as chair in the 1960s. McNeill's award-winning book, The Rise of the West, traced 5,000 years of civilizations' recorded history. Fonte was cited in the media as saying that while it is important to include "previously neglected groups and individuals"—Harriet Tubman, for example—and admitting that we should acknowledge the "our countries tragedies and triumphs" he called their inclusion in the Standards as "proof" the Standards were steeped in political correctness. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Standards_for_United_States_History |
": 191 In a 1995, AEI article, Cheney said that Fonte had worked with Robert Lerner and Althea Nagai—two social scientists—to review the Standards. Lerner and Nagai found that there were numerous "occurrences of the race, ethnicity and gender theme" and very few on "the theme of political freedom." One of the stated goals of the AEI is to defend the expansion of freedom and to strengthen "free enterprise system in America and around the world" against perceived threats. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Standards_for_United_States_History |
The meridian 93° east of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, Asia, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole. The 93rd meridian east forms a great circle with the 87th meridian west. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/93rd_meridian_east |
Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 93rd meridian east passes through: | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/93rd_meridian_east |
Sharjah Sustainable City is the first sustainably built city in Sharjah, United Arab Emirates. It currently spans 7.2 million square feet in Sharjah's Al Rahmaniya Area. The city was developed by Sharjah Investment and Development Authority (Shurooq) in partnership with Diamond Developers. It is divided into blocks of properties ranging from 2,035 square feet to 3,818 square feet, with a total of 1,250 sustainable properties.The city is powered by renewable energy generated by rooftop solar panels and is constructed with sustainable materials. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharjah_Sustainable_City |
The designs are made to have low operating costs. It reuses 100% of its wastewater for landscape irrigation and maximizes recycling to divert waste from landfills. The city also produces chemical-free leafy greens and vegetables. With an emphasis on food security, the city hosts indoor farming facilities and partially solar-powered greenhouses that produce approximately 10,000 kg of chemical-free leafy greens and vegetables annually.The city is managed by a team led by the chief executive officer, Yousif Ahmed Al-Mutawa. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharjah_Sustainable_City |
The city was developed by Sharjah Investment and Development Authority (Shurooq) in partnership with Diamond Developers and is modelled after the ‘The Sustainable City’ in Dubai. It aims to become a fully sustainable and functioning city. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharjah_Sustainable_City |
Winner of the ‘ Sustainable Community’ award at the Smart Built Environment Awards 2022. Winner of the ‘Customer Happiness and Customer Experience Initiative’ award at the Gulf Real Estate Awards 2022. == References == | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharjah_Sustainable_City |
The term information need is often understood as an individual or group's desire to locate and obtain information to satisfy a conscious or unconscious need. Rarely mentioned in general literature about needs, it is a common term in information science. According to Hjørland (1997) it is closely related to the concept of relevance: If something is relevant for a person in relation to a given task, we might say that the person needs the information for that task. Information needs are related to, but distinct from information requirements. They are studied for: The explanation of observed phenomena of information use or expressed need; The prediction of instances of information uses; The control and thereby improvement of the utilization of information manipulation of essential conditions. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_needs |
The concept of information needs was coined by an American information journalist Robert S. Taylor in his 1962 article "The Process of Asking Questions" published in American Documentation (renamed Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology). In this paper, Taylor attempted to describe how an inquirer obtains an answer from an information system, by performing the process consciously or unconsciously; also he studied the reciprocal influence between the inquirer and a given system. According to Taylor, information need has four levels: The conscious and unconscious need for information not existing in the remembered experience of the investigator. In terms of the query range, this level might be called the “ideal question” — the question which would bring from the ideal system exactly what the inquirer, if he could state his need. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_needs |
It is the actual, but unexpressed, need for information The conscious mental description of an ill-defined question. In this level, the inquirer has a conscious information need in the mind and might talk to someone else in the field to get an answer. A researcher forms a rational statement of his question. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_needs |
This statement is a rational and unambiguous description of the inquirer’s doubts. The question as presented to the information system.There are variables within a system that influence the question and its formation. Taylor divided them into five groups: general aspects (physical and geographical factors); system input (What type of material is put into the system, and what is the unit item? | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_needs |
); internal organization (classification, indexing, subject heading, and similar access schemes); question input (what part do human operators play in the total system? ); output (interim feedback). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_needs |
Herbert Menzel preferred demand studies to preference studies. Requests for information or documents that were actually made by scientists in the course of their activities form the data for demand studies. Data may be in the form of records of orders placed for bibliographics, calls for books from an interlibrary loan system, or inquires addressed to an information center or service. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_needs |
Menzel also investigated user study and defined information seeking behaviour from three angles: When approached from the point of view of the scientist or technologists, these are studies of scientists’ communication behaviour; When approached from the point of view of any communication medium, they are use studies; When approached from the science communication system, they are studies in the flow of information among scientists and technologists.William J. Paisley moved from information needs/uses toward strong guidelines for information system. He studied the theories of information-processing behavior that will generate propositions concerning channel selection; amount of seeking; effects on productivity of information quality, quantity, currency, and diversity; the role of motivational and personality factors, etc. He investigated a concentric conceptual framework for user research. In the framework, he places the information users at the centre of ten systems, which are: The scientist within his culture. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_needs |
The scientist within a political system. The scientist within a membership group. The scientist within a reference group. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_needs |
The scientist within an invisible college. The scientist within a formal organization. The scientist within a work team. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_needs |
The scientist within his own head. The scientist within a legal/economical system. The scientist within a formal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_needs |
"In 2012, the University of Southern California was funded by the Federal Communications Commission to examine a wide range of social sciences from multiple disciplines to propose a set of critical information needs," according to Friedland. He continued, "USC reached out to a team of scholars collectively identified as the Communications Policy Research Network (CPRN). ... CPRN found that communities need access to eight categories of critical information ...: Emergencies and risks, both immediate and long-term; Health and welfare, including specifically local health information as well as group-specific health information where it exists. Education, including the quality of local schools and choices available to parents; Transportation, including available alternatives, costs, and schedules; Economic opportunities, including job information, job training, and small business assistance; The environment, including information about air and water quality; environmental threats to health; and access to restoration and recreation; Civic information, including information on civic institutions and opportunities to associate with others; Political information, including information about candidates at all relevant levels of local governance, and about relevant public policy initiatives affecting communities and neighborhoods." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_needs |
A planned economy is a type of economic system where the distribution of goods and services or the investment, production and the allocation of capital goods takes place according to economic plans that are either economy-wide or limited to a category of goods and services. A planned economy may use centralized, decentralized, participatory or Soviet-type forms of economic planning. The level of centralization or decentralization in decision-making and participation depends on the specific type of planning mechanism employed.Socialist states based on the Soviet model have used central planning, although a minority such as the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia have adopted some degree of market socialism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
Market abolitionist socialism replaces factor markets with direct calculation as the means to coordinate the activities of the various socially owned economic enterprises that make up the economy. More recent approaches to socialist planning and allocation have come from some economists and computer scientists proposing planning mechanisms based on advances in computer science and information technology.Planned economies contrast with unplanned economies, specifically market economies, where autonomous firms operating in markets make decisions about production, distribution, pricing and investment. Market economies that use indicative planning are variously referred to as planned market economies, mixed economies and mixed market economies. A command economy follows an administrative-command system and uses Soviet-type economic planning which was characteristic of the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc before most of these countries converted to market economies. This highlights the central role of hierarchical administration and public ownership of production in guiding the allocation of resources in these economic systems. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
In the Hellenistic and post-Hellenistic world, "compulsory state planning was the most characteristic trade condition for the Egyptian countryside, for Hellenistic India, and to a lesser degree the more barbaric regions of the Seleucid, the Pergamenian, the southern Arabian, and the Parthian empires". Scholars have argued that the Incan economy was a flexible type of command economy, centered around the movement and utilization of labor instead of goods. One view of mercantilism sees it as involving planned economies.The Soviet-style planned economy in Soviet Russia evolved in the wake of a continuing existing World War I war-economy as well as other policies, known as war communism (1918–1921), shaped to the requirements of the Russian Civil War of 1917–1923. These policies began their formal consolidation under an official organ of government in 1921, when the Soviet government founded Gosplan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
However, the period of the New Economic Policy (c. 1921 to c. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
1928 intervened before the planned system of regular five-year plans started in 1928. After World War II (1939–1945) France and Great Britain practised dirigisme - government direction of the economy through non-coercive means. The Swedish government planned public-housing models in a similar fashion as urban planning in a project called Million Programme, implemented from 1965 to 1974. Some decentralized participation in economic planning occurred across Revolutionary Spain, most notably in Catalonia, during the Spanish Revolution of 1936. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
While socialism is not equivalent to economic planning or to the concept of a planned economy, an influential conception of socialism involves the replacement of capital markets with some form of economic planning in order to achieve ex-ante coordination of the economy. The goal of such an economic system would be to achieve conscious control over the economy by the population, specifically so that the use of the surplus product is controlled by the producers. The specific forms of planning proposed for socialism and their feasibility are subjects of the socialist calculation debate. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
In 1959 Anatoly Kitov proposed a distributed computing system (Project "Red Book", Russian: Красная книга) with a focus on the management of the Soviet economy. Opposition from the Defence Ministry killed Kitov's plan.In 1971 the socialist Allende administration of Chile launched Project Cybersyn to install a telex machine in every corporation and organisation in the economy for the communication of economic data between firms and the government. The data was also fed into a computer-simulated economy for forecasting. A control room was built for real-time observation and management of the overall economy. The prototype-stage of the project showed promise when it was used to redirect supplies around a trucker's strike, but after CIA-backed Augusto Pinochet led a coup in 1973 that established a military dictatorship under his rule the program was abolished and Pinochet moved Chile towards a more liberalized market economy. In their book Towards a New Socialism (1993), the computer scientist Paul Cockshott from the University of Glasgow and the economist Allin Cottrell from the Wake Forest University claim to demonstrate how a democratically planned economy built on modern computer technology is possible and drives the thesis that it would be both economically more stable than the free-market economies and also morally desirable. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
The use of computers to coordinate production in an optimal fashion has been variously proposed for socialist economies. The Polish economist Oskar Lange (1904–1965) argued that the computer is more efficient than the market process at solving the multitude of simultaneous equations required for allocating economic inputs efficiently (either in terms of physical quantities or monetary prices).Salvador Allende's socialist government pioneered the 1970 Chilean distributed decision support system Project Cybersyn in an attempt to move towards a decentralized planned economy with the experimental viable system model of computed organisational structure of autonomous operative units through an algedonic feedback setting and bottom-up participative decision-making in the form of participative democracy by the Cyberfolk component. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
The 1888 novel Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy depicts a fictional planned economy in a United States around the year 2000 which has become a socialist utopia. The World State in Aldous Huxley's Brave New World (1932) and Airstrip One in George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) provide fictional depictions of command economies, albeit with diametrically opposed aims. The former is a consumer economy designed to engender productivity while the latter is a shortage economy designed as an agent of totalitarian social control. Airstrip One is organized by the euphemistically named Ministry of Plenty. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
Other literary portrayals of planned economies include Yevgeny Zamyatin's We (1924), which influenced Orwell's work. Like Nineteen Eighty-Four, Ayn Rand's dystopian 1938 story Anthem offered an artistic portrayal of a command economy that was influenced by We. The difference is that it was a primitivist planned economy as opposed to the advanced technology of We or Brave New World. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
The government can harness land, labor, and capital to serve the economic objectives of the state. Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital investment for economic development in a desired pattern. In international comparisons, state-socialist nations compared favorably with capitalist nations in health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
However, the reality of this, at least regarding infant mortality, varied depending on whether official Soviet statistics or WHO definitions were used.The state can begin building massive heavy industries at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry and without reliance on external financing. This is what happened in the Soviet Union during the 1930s when the government forced the share of gross national income dedicated to private consumption down from 80% to 50%. As a result of this development, the Soviet Union experienced massive growth in heavy industry, with a concurrent massive contraction of its agricultural sector due to the labor shortage. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
Studies of command economies of the Eastern Bloc in the 1950s and 1960s by both American and Eastern European economists found that contrary to the expectations of both groups they showed greater fluctuations in output than market economies during the same period. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
Critics of planned economies argue that planners cannot detect consumer preferences, shortages and surpluses with sufficient accuracy and therefore cannot efficiently co-ordinate production (in a market economy, a free price system is intended to serve this purpose). This difficulty was notably written about by economists Ludwig von Mises and Friedrich Hayek, who referred to subtly distinct aspects of the problem as the economic calculation problem and local knowledge problem, respectively. These distinct aspects were also present in the economic thought of Michael Polanyi.Whereas the former stressed the theoretical underpinnings of a market economy to subjective value theory while attacking the labor theory of value, the latter argued that the only way to satisfy individuals who have a constantly changing hierarchy of needs and are the only ones to possess their particular individual's circumstances is by allowing those with the most knowledge of their needs to have it in their power to use their resources in a competing marketplace to meet the needs of the most consumers most efficiently. This phenomenon is recognized as spontaneous order. Additionally, misallocation of resources would naturally ensue by redirecting capital away from individuals with direct knowledge and circumventing it into markets where a coercive monopoly influences behavior, ignoring market signals. According to Tibor Machan, "ithout a market in which allocations can be made in obedience to the law of supply and demand, it is difficult or impossible to funnel resources with respect to actual human preferences and goals". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
Economist Robin Hahnel, who supports participatory economics, a form of socialist decentralized planned economy, notes that even if central planning overcame its inherent inhibitions of incentives and innovation, it would nevertheless be unable to maximize economic democracy and self-management, which he believes are concepts that are more intellectually coherent, consistent and just than mainstream notions of economic freedom. Furthermore, Hahnel states: Combined with a more democratic political system, and redone to closer approximate a best case version, centrally planned economies no doubt would have performed better. But they could never have delivered economic self-management, they would always have been slow to innovate as apathy and frustration took their inevitable toll, and they would always have been susceptible to growing inequities and inefficiencies as the effects of differential economic power grew. Under central planning neither planners, managers, nor workers had incentives to promote the social economic interest. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
Nor did impeding markets for final goods to the planning system enfranchise consumers in meaningful ways. But central planning would have been incompatible with economic democracy even if it had overcome its information and incentive liabilities. And the truth is that it survived as long as it did only because it was propped up by unprecedented totalitarian political power. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
Planned economies contrast with command economies in that a planned economy is "an economic system in which the government controls and regulates production, distribution, prices, etc." whereas a command economy necessarily has substantial public ownership of industry while also having this type of regulation. In command economies, important allocation decisions are made by government authorities and are imposed by law.This is contested by some Marxists. Decentralized planning has been proposed as a basis for socialism and has been variously advocated by anarchists, council communists, libertarian Marxists and other democratic and libertarian socialists who advocate a non-market form of socialism, in total rejection of the type of planning adopted in the economy of the Soviet Union.Most of a command economy is organized in a top-down administrative model by a central authority, where decisions regarding investment and production output requirements are decided upon at the top in the chain of command, with little input from lower levels. Advocates of economic planning have sometimes been staunch critics of these command economies. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
Leon Trotsky believed that those at the top of the chain of command, regardless of their intellectual capacity, operated without the input and participation of the millions of people who participate in the economy and who understand/respond to local conditions and changes in the economy. Therefore, they would be unable to effectively coordinate all economic activity.Historians have associated planned economies with Marxist–Leninist states and the Soviet economic model. Since the 1980s, it has been contested that the Soviet economic model did not actually constitute a planned economy in that a comprehensive and binding plan did not guide production and investment. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
The further distinction of an administrative-command system emerged as a new designation in some academic circles for the economic system that existed in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, highlighting the role of centralized hierarchical decision-making in the absence of popular control over the economy. The possibility of a digital planned economy was explored in Chile between 1971 and 1973 with the development of Project Cybersyn and by Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Kharkevich, head of the Department of Technical Physics in Kiev in 1962.While both economic planning and a planned economy can be either authoritarian or democratic and participatory, democratic socialist critics argue that command economies are necessarily authoritarian or undemocratic in practice. Indicative planning is a form of economic planning in market economies that directs the economy through incentive-based methods. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
Economic planning can be practiced in a decentralized manner through different government authorities. In some predominantly market-oriented and Western mixed economies, the state utilizes economic planning in strategic industries such as the aerospace industry. Mixed economies usually employ macroeconomic planning while micro-economic affairs are left to the market and price system. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
A decentralized-planned economy, occasionally called horizontally planned economy due to its horizontalism, is a type of planned economy in which the investment and allocation of consumer and capital goods is explicated accordingly to an economy-wide plan built and operatively coordinated through a distributed network of disparate economic agents or even production units itself. Decentralized planning is usually held in contrast to centralized planning, in particular the Soviet-type economic planning of the Soviet Union's command economy, where economic information is aggregated and used to formulate a plan for production, investment and resource allocation by a single central authority. Decentralized planning can take shape both in the context of a mixed economy as well as in a post-capitalist economic system. This form of economic planning implies some process of democratic and participatory decision-making within the economy and within firms itself in the form of industrial democracy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
Computer-based forms of democratic economic planning and coordination between economic enterprises have also been proposed by various computer scientists and radical economists. Proponents present decentralized and participatory economic planning as an alternative to market socialism for a post-capitalist society.Decentralized planning has been a feature of anarchist and socialist economics. Variations of decentralized planning such as economic democracy, industrial democracy and participatory economics have been promoted by various political groups, most notably anarchists, democratic socialists, guild socialists, libertarian Marxists, libertarian socialists, revolutionary syndicalists and Trotskyists. During the Spanish Revolution, some areas where anarchist and libertarian socialist influence through the CNT and UGT was extensive, particularly rural regions, were run on the basis of decentralized planning resembling the principles laid out by anarcho-syndicalist Diego Abad de Santillan in the book After the Revolution. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
Economist Pat Devine has created a model of decentralized economic planning called "negotiated coordination" which is based upon social ownership of the means of production by those affected by the use of the assets involved, with the allocation of consumer and capital goods made through a participatory form of decision-making by those at the most localized level of production. Moreover, organizations that utilize modularity in their production processes may distribute problem solving and decision making. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
The planning structure of a decentralized planned economy is generally based on a consumers council and producer council (or jointly, a distributive cooperative) which is sometimes called a consumers' cooperative. Producers and consumers, or their representatives, negotiate the quality and quantity of what is to be produced. This structure is central to guild socialism, participatory economics and the economic theories related to anarchism. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
Some decentralized participation in economic planning has been implemented in various regions and states in India, most notably in Kerala. Local level planning agencies assess the needs of people who are able to give their direct input through the Gram Sabhas (village-based institutions) and the planners subsequently seek to plan accordingly. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
Some decentralized participation in economic planning has been implemented across Revolutionary Spain, most notably in Catalonia, during the Spanish Revolution of 1936. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
The United Nations has developed local projects that promote participatory planning on a community level. Members of communities take decisions regarding community development directly. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_economy |
The International Standard Identifier for Libraries and Related Organisations (ISIL), ISO 15511, assigns unique identifiers to libraries and related organisations, such as archives and museums.The Danish Agency for Culture and Palaces is the international authority for maintaining the standard and its registry.An ISIL is alphanumeric, with a maximum of 16 characters. Valid symbols are A-Z, 0-9, solidus, hyphen-minus and colon. An ISIL consists of a prefix identifying the authority which issued the ISIL, a dash, and then an identifier issued by that authority. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Identifier_for_Libraries_and_Related_Organizations |
All two letter prefixes are reserved for the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code, followed by an identifier assigned by that country's national library authority. Global-level identifiers can also be assigned, which are not associated with a particular country, e.g. 'oclc-' for the OCLC. The suffix is generally a pre-existing system of identifying libraries; thus, ISIL unifies existing systems around the world rather than instituting an entire system from scratch. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Identifier_for_Libraries_and_Related_Organizations |
A cordial is any invigorating and stimulating preparation that is intended for a medicinal purpose. The term derives from an obsolete usage. Various concoctions were formerly created that were believed to be beneficial to one's health, especially for the heart (cor in Latin).Some cordials, with their flecks of gold leaf and bright yellow hue, took their name from the "cordial vertues" of the rays of the sun, which some alchemists thought they contained. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordial_(medicine) |
Most cordials were of European origin, first produced in Italian apothecaries during the Renaissance, where the art of distilling was refined during the 15th and 16th centuries. It is from this origin that cordials are frequently referred to in French as Liqueurs d'ltalie, it is also from this that we have liqueurs. From the Renaissance onwards, cordials were usually based on alcohol in which certain herbs, spices or other ingredients were allowed to steep. The first cordials arrived in England in the late 15th century and were called distilled cordial waters. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordial_(medicine) |
These were strictly used as alcoholic medicines, prescribed in small doses to invigorate and revitalise the heart, body and spirit as well as cure diseases. By the 18th century cordials were being imbibed for their intoxicating effects and medicinal virtues, and were fast becoming recreational drinks, eventually evolving into liqueurs. Though cordials originated on the continent, a number of British "sweet drams" achieved popularity in Europe. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordial_(medicine) |
Cordials were used to renew the natural heat, recreate and revive the spirits, and free the whole body from the malignity of diseases. Many cordials were also considered aphrodisiacs, a view which encouraged their consumption in a social as opposed to a medical context. Other early varieties of alcoholic cordials were flavoured with spices and herbal ingredients which were thought to settle the stomach after excessive eating. These cordials were called Surfeit Waters, which were specifically created for treating overindulgence. Precious ingredients like gold, pearls and coral were sometimes added. These were believed to revive the spirit and to preclude disease. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordial_(medicine) |
Lucy Pevensie, a pivotal character in C. S. Lewis's Chronicles of Narnia, was, as Queen Lucy in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, gifted a bottle of magical cordial by Father Christmas along with her dagger, prior to the Battle of Berunia. The cordial was said to be made from the juice of Fire-Flowers that grew in the mountains of the sun, with a single drop curing almost any illness or injury, bringing people back from the brink of death in some cases. The use of the word "cordial" by the author was archaic even at the time. Miruvor (cordial of Imladris) J.R.R. Tolkien, Fellowship of the Ring. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordial_(medicine) |
Rosa Solis or Rosolio, probably originating in Renaissance Turin was derived from the carnivorous sundew plant. It was believed to not only invigorate the heart, but to be an aphrodisiac as well; according to the 17th century medical writer William Salmon, sundew "stirs up lust". Royal Usquebaugh was a spicy concoction containing flecks of gold leaf thought to capture the sun's golden radiance. It was usually flavoured with aniseed, liquorice and saffron and sweetened with fruit sugar extracted from figs and raisins by maceration. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordial_(medicine) |
The name derives from the Irish uisce beatha, which is literally the Gaelic translation of Latin aqua vitae, 'the water of life'). The word whisky is also derived from the Irish uisce beatha, but this was not the same as the cordial consumed in 17th and 18th century England and France, and bore no resemblance to the spirit we now call whisky. Escubac d'Angleterre, a more down-market relative of Royal Usquebaugh without the flecks of gold leaf, but was nevertheless a popular drink. Vespetrò, another popular liqueur of Italy (speciality of the town of Canzo), flavoured with anise, angelica and lemon. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordial_(medicine) |
An alcohol-free zone is a geographic area, location or establishment where the public consumption and sale of alcoholic beverages is prohibited. Alcohol-free zones have been established in some areas to address problems with drinking- and binge drinking-related crime, antisocial behavior, assaults and disorderly behavior. Alcohol-free zones have been opposed in some communities, such as in Bath, England, which has "a tradition of open-air bars and restaurants." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol-free_zone |
In New South Wales, Australia, some streets are designated as alcohol-free zones, which is demarcated with signage stating such. Police may issue a warning to violators, and those who continue to drink can be fined and have their alcoholic beverages seized. Many parks in New South Wales are designated as alcohol-free zones. Bondi in New South Wales, Australia established an alcohol-free zone in the city in 2004 in efforts to reduce assaults and antisocial behavior influenced by street drinking.As of April 2016, Sydney, Australia has over 60 alcohol-free zones. The City Council of Sydney proposed to eliminate the alcohol-free zones in April 2016. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol-free_zone |
Alcohol-free zone networks have been established in areas of Azerbaijan since at least 1996. These zones are located in areas such as cafes, tea shops and recreation centers. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol-free_zone |
The first alcohol-free zone established in the United Kingdom was in Coventry, England in 1988. Initially, the entire city center was declared to be an alcohol-free zone. The zone was later expanded to include the entire city.Boston, Lincolnshire established a street drinking ban in January 2015 to address concerns with the antisocial problems associated with public alcohol consumption. The street drinking ban includes the town center and other areas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol-free_zone |
Under rules of the ban, those caught drinking in these areas can be fined £100 for a first offense. A second offense within six months after having committed a first one can be fined up to £500. Additionally, those that are requested to stop drinking and continue to do so can receive a fine of up to £500. In January 2015 to commemorate the event, various town council members and city police attended an event where cans of beer were poured down a city street drain.In 2009, Knowsley, Merseyside established alcohol-free zones in some of its parks to address problems with binge drinking-related crime and antisocial behavior. Drinking in licensed drinking establishments was not affected by the zones.Liverpool, England has some alcohol-free zones in areas of the city. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol-free_zone |
The entire region of Attappadi, Kerala, India was established as an alcohol-free zone in 1996 by Chief Minister AK Antony. Despite the ban, alcohol has been illegally brought into the region by community residents who travel to Annaikatti to purchase liquor from TASMAC stores. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol-free_zone |
Some parks and recreation areas in the United States are alcohol-free zones, such as in Johnson County, Iowa, where alcohol consumption is allowed in some park and recreation areas but not others. For example, alcoholic beverages may be consumed in some day use areas and campgrounds in parks, but not in beach areas within some parks.The riverfront at Covington, Ohio was established as an alcohol-free zone circa 1989 by Covington police. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol-free_zone |
Surya Majapahit (Kawi: ꦯꦸꦂꦪꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀, Sanskrit: मजपहितस्य सूर्य) (Surya of the Majapahit) is the emblem commonly found in ruins dated from the Majapahit era. The emblem commonly took the form of an eight-pointed sun ray with the rounded part in the center depicting Hindu deities. The emblem might have taken the form of a cosmological diagram haloed by typical sun rays, or a simple circle with typical sun rays. Because of the popularity of the Surya emblem during the Majapahit era, it has been suggested that may have served as the imperial symbol of the Majapahit empire. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya_Majapahit |
The most common depiction of Surya Majapahit consists of the images of nine deities and eight sun rays. The round center of the sun depicting nine Hindu Gods called Dewata Nawa Sanga. The major gods in the center is arranged in eight cardinal points around Shiva in the center. The arrangements are: Center: Shiva East: Isvara West: Mahadeva North: Vishnu South: Brahma Northeast: Sambhu Northwest: Sangkara/shankara Southeast: Mahesora Southwest: RudraEight other deities are located at the outer rim of the sun, symbolized by eight shining sun rays: East: Indra West: Varuna North: Kubera South: Yama Northeast: Isana Northwest: Vayu Southeast: Agni Southwest: NirṛtiThe emblem is rendered in many forms; sometimes it took the form of the circle of deities and sun rays, or just a simple eight-pointed sun ray such as the emblematic Surya Majapahit set into the ceiling of Candi Penataran. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya_Majapahit |
The deities in the sun arranged as cosmological diagram in the form of a mandala. Another variation of Surya Majapahit is the eight pointed sun rays with the god of sun Surya in the center riding celestial horse or chariot. The carving of Surya Majapahit usually can be found on the center ceiling of the Garbhagriha (inner sanctum) of the temple such as Bangkal, Sawentar, and Jawi temple. Surya Majapahit also can be found on the Stella, carving of halo or aura at the back of the statue's head. The carving of Surya Majapahit also commonly found in gravestone dating from Majapahit era, such as the Troloyo cemetery in Trowulan. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya_Majapahit |
Exhibit of "Kejayaan Kerajaan-kerajaan Kuno Indonesia" (The Glory of Ancient Indonesian Kingdoms) at Istana Anak-anak Indonesia, Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, displayed Majapahit artifacts the collection of Trowulan Museum, East Java. April 2009. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya_Majapahit |
CRM197 is a non-toxic mutant of diphtheria toxin, currently used as a carrier protein for polysaccharides and haptens to make them immunogenic. There is some dispute about the toxicity of CRM197, with evidence that it is toxic to yeast cells and some mammalian cell lines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRM197 |
CRM197 is a genetically detoxified form of diphtheria toxin. A single mutation at position 52, substituting glutamic acid for glycine, causes the ADP-ribosyltransferase activity of the native toxin to be lost. The structural basis for the lack of CRM197 toxicity has recently been elucidated. CRM197 is widely used as a carrier protein for conjugate vaccines. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRM197 |
A potential advantage of CRM197 over toxoided proteins is that, because it is genetically detoxified, it retains its full complement of lysine amines for conjugation. There is also evidence suggesting that, compared with tetanus toxoid, there is less carrier-induced suppression of the immune response, especially when there are many individual polysaccharides linked to the same carrier protein. A summary of the uses and properties of CRM197 has been published. CRM197, like diphtheria toxin, is a single polypeptide chain of 535 amino acids (58.4 kD) consisting of two subunits (linked by disulfide bridges). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRM197 |
The gene for CRM197 has been cloned into Corynebacterium diphtheriae, the bacteria that produces the native toxin. Like the wild type toxin, CRM197 is expressed as a secreted protein at relatively low yields (typically <100 mg/L). Corynebacterium expressed CRM197 is available from several sources, including List Laboratories and Sigma-Aldrich. The low yield and high cost of commercially available native CRM197 has led to efforts to produce CRM197 in other bacteria but this has proven a difficult task until recently. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRM197 |
Three companies have succeeded at manufacturing CRM197 as a recombinant protein. Ligand's wholly-owned subsidiary, Pelican (previously Pfenex), a San Diego-based developer of the Pelican Expression Technology™ production platform, produces the protein ("PeliCRM™") in India at Serum Institute of India Pune using Pseudomonas fluorescens and various proprietary expression technologies for high yield. Fina BioSolutions LLC of Rockville, Maryland has achieved multi-gram/L expression of CRM197 in E. coli (“EcoCRMTM”) as an intracellular, properly folded soluble protein. Fina Biosolutions currently provides the protein for pre-clinical use. Recombinant CRM197 is also made in low-mutation Clean Genome® E. coli by Scarab Genomics LLC where transport of CRM197 into the bacterial cell periplasm enhances its stability and proper folding. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRM197 |
CRM197 is used as a carrier protein in a number of approved conjugate vaccines. HibtiterTM, a vaccine to protect against Haemophius influenzae type b, approved by the FDA in 1990, was the first conjugate vaccine to use CRM197 (the vaccine was discontinued in 2007). Pfizer's Prevnar, which in 2000 became the first pneumococcal conjugate vaccine to gain FDA approval, comprises polysaccharides from pneumococcal serotypes conjugated to CRM197. A larger number of clinical and pre-clinical conjugate vaccines using CRM197 as the carrier protein are being evaluated. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRM197 |
A further example of a vaccine currently in use that is a CRM197 conjugate is the meningitis ACWY vaccine, Menveo, produced by GlaxoSmithKline. In addition, CRM197 made in the Pelican Expression Technology™ platform is used in Merck's VAXNEUVANCE and Serum Institute's Pneumosil. CRM197 possess a binding site for EGF receptor heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor (HB-EGF), a member of the EGF family. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRM197 |
As this receptor is overexpressed on cancer cells, there have been efforts to use CRM197 as an anti-cancer therapy. The cancer immunotherapy company Imugene reported dramatic improvements in antibody titers from its B cell peptide cancer immunotherapy targeting HER2 when it used CRM197 as a carrier protein. CRM197 is being evaluated as a potential drug delivery fusion protein. The Swiss-based Turing Pharmaceuticals is working on CRM197 fusion constructs with therapeutic proteins of up to 1,000 amino acids in length. Preclinical studies have shown that CRM197 is also suitable for conjugation and presentation of peptide epitopes, a vaccinal approach that could have applications in Streptococcal infection, cancer, or Alzheimer's disease therapy. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRM197 |
In 1971 Tsuyoshi Uchida, in the laboratory of Alwin Pappenheimer at Harvard, used nitroguanidine to create mutants of diphtheria toxin, which were called Cross Reacting Materials, or CRMs. One of these mutants, called CRM197, interested researchers because its lack of toxicity suggested a better starting material for diphtheria vaccine than the wild-type protein, and the protein was found to enhance the immunogenicity of bacterial polysaccharides. The pharmaceutical company Wyeth took advantage of this immunogenicity in the 1990s when it conjugated seven polysaccharides from Streptococcus pneumoniae to CRM197 to create the original Prevnar vaccine which was FDA approved in February 2000. A 13-polysaccharides Prevnar was FDA-approved in 2010. The meningococcal vaccine Menveo, from Novartis, is four Neisseria meningitidis polysaccharides plus CRM197. This vaccine gained FDA approval in 2010. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRM197 |
Bolton Analysis is a tooth analysis developed by Wayne A. Bolton to determine the discrepancy between size of maxillary and mandibular teeth. This analysis helps to determine the optimum interarch relationship. This analysis measures the Mesio-distal width of each tooth and is divided into two analyses. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolton_analysis |
Wayne A Bolton presented this analysis in the year 1958. In 1962, he published another paper which talked about clinical applications of using Bolton Analysis in Orthodontics. He graduated from Washington University in St. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolton_analysis |
Louis dental school in 1950. A boley gauge is usually the instrument of choice to measure the widths of each teeth. However, in 1995, Shellhart et al. showed during their study that Vernier caliper can also be used as an alternative for Bolton Analysis. Many other investigation models have been developed, such as measurement from photocopies and traveling microscope but the studies have produced no results.Recently, digital calipers from companies such as OrthoCad, are being used to measure the mesiodistal widths of the teeth. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolton_analysis |
An Overall Analysis measures the sum of mesio-distal width of all 12 (first molar to first molar) mandibular teeth and compares them to the 12 maxillary teeth. The overall ratio known to be 91.3%. The anterior analysis measures the sum of Mesio-distal width of front 6 mandibular teeth and compares them to maxillary teeth. The anterior ratio is known to be 77.2%. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolton_analysis |
An overall ratio of more than 91.3% means that the mandibular teeth are bigger when compared to normal. A ratio smaller than 91.3% would mean the mandibular teeth are smaller than normal. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolton_analysis |
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