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Dr Mahendra Kumar Mishra started the MLE programme in Chhattisgarh adopting Durua language in MLE programme. Dr Mishra conducted 2 NAtional Seminars and one international Seminar on MLE during 2006-2019. Dr Tove Skutnabb Kangas, Prof Ofelia Gracia, Dr David Haugh, Dr Sitakanta Mahapatra, Dr KHageswar Mohapatra were some of the linguists and multilingual educators attended these conferences.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilingual_education
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The meridian 31° west of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, Greenland, the Atlantic Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole. The 31st meridian west forms a great circle with the 149th meridian east.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/31st_meridian_west
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Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 31st meridian west passes through:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/31st_meridian_west
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The Dover test is an informal test and a journalistic phrase to describe whether the general population of the United States is supporting the participation of the United States in a war or other military action by the public reaction to returning war casualties. The test is usually used to support a partisan position concerning the United States government's actions rather than to actually determine the level of public support for the war.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover_test
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The test's name refers to Dover Air Force Base in Dover, Delaware in the United States. The base is home to the Department of Defense's Charles C. Carson Center for Mortuary Affairs. 50,000 U.S.
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casualties have arrived at this airport since 1955. An early use of the term "Dover test" was uttered by Senator John Glenn (D-Ohio) in 1994. The Dover test was also explicitly mentioned by Gen.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover_test
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Hugh Shelton in 1999, and again on January 19, 2000 when he said: ...(M)ust be subjected to what I call the 'Dover test.' Is the American public prepared for the sight of our most precious resource coming home in flag-draped caskets into Dover Air Force Base in Delaware – which is a point entry for our Armed Forces? The Dover test is not a formal test, and the consequences are difficult to measure.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover_test
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Some say that certain deduction from the tests can be attained, though. If the United States population continues to support the war after the news coverage, then the U.S. government has passed the Dover test, and continued warfare probably does not reduce the popularity of the government.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover_test
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If the American population does not continue to support the war, then the government has failed the test, and continued warfare may reduce the popularity of the government. Differing factions may use reactions to the results to further their own motives. Subsequently, the test is used more often to support someone's opinion or to question government actions than to actually determine the level of public support for the war.
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The return of American war casualties created difficulties for the U.S. government for the first time during the Vietnam War, where the public opinion changed against the war during the conflict. On December 21, 1989, during the invasion of Panama, President George Herbert Walker Bush prohibited media coverage of returning casualties, apparently angered by a split screen, showing him giving a news briefing on one half of the screen, and returning caskets on the other half.In the first Iraq War, the government banned media outlets from showing any returning deceased at Dover.
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Operation Restore Hope in Mogadishu, Somalia, could be said to have failed the Dover test after the Battle of Mogadishu on October 3, 1993, when the mutilated bodies of US soldiers were shown on the news. Public support quickly fell and U.S. forces were soon withdrawn. During November 2000, the Clinton administration established a rule prohibiting any press coverage of returning US war casualties.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover_test
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However, this rule was rarely enforced. During the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, photos of returning war casualties were frequently shown on the news.
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The Dover test was most recently mentioned by the press in regard to the invasion and occupation of Iraq. The Bush administration tried to avoid having to pass the Dover test by enforcing the rule from the end of the Clinton administration. Tami Silicio, a worker for a military contractor in Kuwait took photos of the coffins of returning casualties, which made their way to the front pages.
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Subsequently she and her husband were terminated by the contractor. Shortly thereafter a journalist from The Memory Hole requested casualty photos under the Freedom of Information Act, and received a number of pictures. Some photographs at the site were later identified as the coffins of Space Shuttle Columbia crewmembers, not military casualties. The Bush administration was displeased, and prohibited the further release of photos to the media.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover_test
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Dunnage bags, also known as airbags, and inflatable bags, are used to secure and stabilize cargo. Introduced around 1970, dunnage bags provide convenient and cost-effective cargo stabilization in ISO sea containers, closed railcars, trucks, and oceangoing vessels. As improperly secured cargo is a safety hazard, dunnage bags improve road safety. According to the European Commission's Directorate-General for Mobility and Transport, "up to 25% of accidents involving trucks can be attributable to inadequate cargo securing".
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Dunnage airbags consist of closed chambers made from an elastic film filled with air. These are placed in the void between the cargo to stabilize, secure, and protect it during transportation. The quantity of inflation air may be varied in accordance with the particular properties and requirements of the package contents. Dunnage bags are commercially available in various sizes and designs, including spheres, rectangles, corner and edge cushions, and tubular cushions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunnage_bag
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Therefore, almost any type of cargo can be secured with them, including break bulk and palletized cargo, coils, barrels, cases, and crates. Dunnage bags are very safe to use for both the shipping and receiving end of transportation, and are waterproof. They inflate rapidly with compressed air, and are easy to install; compressed air is often available through an outlet in the truck's compressed air system.
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Important in the use of dunnage bags is that the size of the bag is determined by the void. If this does not match, the bags will not do their work properly, with potential large damage to cargo and people. For air cushions, it is important to avoid damage as a result of wear and tear. Air cushions should never be used as fillers against doors or any non-rigid surfaces or partitions.
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Some bags can be reused, and are ultimately recyclable. To reuse the dunnage bag, it needs to be undamaged and equipped with a screw-on quick fill valve. For single use, the bag is equipped with a quick-fill one-way safety valve. Inflatable air cushions are available both as disposable items and as recyclable products.
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Paper dunnage bags are made out of two components, an inner component that consists of a polyethylene inner bag, the outer component is a paper bag. The outer bag is made of the highest quality, light weight kraft paper of high tensile strength. The bags come in different strengths and varieties and can be made in any special size.
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The inner component provides optimum pressure, and the outer component provides optimum strength. For use in the chemical industry, paper bags can be polycoated. A polycoat will make the bag resistant to specific chemicals.
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Woven polypropylene bags are extremely durable and can be used in dry and wet conditions. These bags are best for extreme heavy loads. Poly woven airbags have greater elasticity than paper dunnage airbags for more surface contact with the pallets. The woven material provides greater tear strength and superior moisture resistance than most other dunnage bag materials. Poly woven airbags typically have greater reusability due to their durability and are recyclable.
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The paper used on the outside of the bag is laminated on the inside with a woven polypropylene layer, which allows higher resistance to punctures and moisture.
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Dunnage bags are susceptible to pointed and sharp articles such as nails.
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The higher education bubble in the United States is the possibility that excessive investment in higher education could have negative repercussions in the broader economy. Although college tuition payments are rising, the supply of college graduates in many fields of study is exceeding the demand for their skills, which aggravates graduate unemployment and underemployment while increasing the burden of student loan defaults on financial institutions and taxpayers. Moreover, the higher education bubble might be even more serious than load of student debts. Without safeguards in place for funding and loans, the government risks creating a moral hazard in which schools charge students expensive tuition fees without offering them marketable skills in return.
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The claim has generally been used to justify cuts to public higher education spending, tax cuts, or a shift of government spending towards law enforcement and national security. There is a further concern that having an excess supply of college graduates exacerbates political instability, historically linked to having a bulge in the number of young degree holders.Some economists reject the notion of a higher education bubble, noting that the returns on higher education vastly outweigh the cost, while others believe that the number of institutions of higher education in the United States will fall in the 2020s and beyond, citing reasons of demographic decline, poor outcomes, economic problems, and changing public interests and attitudes. According to the U.S.
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Department of Education, by the late 2010s, people with technical or vocational trainings are slightly more likely to be employed than those with a bachelor's degree and significantly more likely to be employed in their fields of specialty. The United States currently suffers from a shortage of skilled tradespeople. The Federal Reserve Bank of St.
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Louis noted in 2019 that investment in higher education has reached a point of diminishing marginal returns. Undergraduate and graduate enrollments have both been in decline, while trade schools continue to attract growing numbers of students. White men are a major group opting for alternatives to higher education.
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Many faculty members are leaving academia, especially those from the humanities. At the same time, university graduates are likely to regret having studied the humanities and liberal arts. While academics maintain that certain subjects are worth studying for their own sake, students are more concerned with increasing their earning potential. So far this century, numerous institutions of higher learning have permanently closed, especially community colleges, and for-profit institutions.It is possible that the bubble will not burst, but rather deflate.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education_bubble_in_the_United_States
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Thanks to the GI Bill and the population boom after World War II, demand for higher education grew significantly during the late twentieth century, making it one of the major sectors of growth in the economy of the United States. Historically, high schools separated students on career tracks, but all this changed in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when the mission of high schools became preparing students for college. In 1987, U.S. Secretary of Education William Bennett suggested that the availability of loans may be fueling an increase in tuition prices and an education bubble.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education_bubble_in_the_United_States
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This "Bennett hypothesis" claims that readily available loans allow schools to increase tuition without regard to demand elasticity. College rankings are partially driven by spending levels, and higher tuition is also correlated with increased public perceptions of prestige. From the 1980s to the 2010s, demand has increased despite the business cycle as institutions improved facilities and provided more resources to students.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education_bubble_in_the_United_States
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In the aftermath of the Great Recession of 2007-2009, Americans flocked back to school in order to adapt to the new economy. A 2011 study from the Labor Department found that a bachelor's degree "represents a significant advantage in the job market." In 2011, The Chronicle of Higher Education ran an article saying that the future is bright for college graduates.
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The data also suggests that, notwithstanding a slight increase in 2008–09, student loan default rates have declined between the mid-1980s and 1990s and early 2010s. The management consulting firm McKinsey & Company projected in 2011 that a shortage of college-educated workers and a surplus of workers without college degrees, which would cause the wage premium to increase and cause differences in unemployment rates to become even more dramatic.As of the early 2010s, however, whether or not the "higher-education bubble" existed became a topic of debate among economists. Data shows that the wage premium, the difference in incomes between those with a four-year college degree and those with only a high school diploma, has increased dramatically since the 1970s, but so has the 'debt load' incurred by students due to the tuition inflation.
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By 2019, the total college debt exceeded US$1.5 trillion, and two out of three college graduates were saddled with debt. Glenn Reynolds argued in his book, The Higher Education Bubble (2012), that higher education as a "product grows more and more elaborate—and more expensive—but the expense is offset by cheap credit provided by sellers who are eager to encourage buyers to buy." Reynolds called university degrees a marker of socioeconomic status.
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Economists Michael Spence and Joe Stiglitz suggest that much of the worth of a university degree lies not in the skills acquired, but rather market signaling. Because a university degree still had considerable value despite its cost, higher education might be an example of a Veblen good, albeit a subtle rather than a conspicuous one. Research from the Center for Household Financial Stability of the Federal Reserve Bank of St.
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Louis presented in 2018 predicts a declining but still positive income premium for completing college but a declining wealth premium, which is almost indistinguishable from zero for the most recent cohort. Those with college degrees are much less likely than those without to be unemployed, even though they are more expensive to employ (they earn higher wages).
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By the 2010s, as institutions of higher education came under heightened skepticism due to high costs and disappointing results. People became increasingly concerned about debts and deficits, forcing institutions to prove their worth by clarifying how much money from which industry and company funded research, and how much it would cost to attend. By the 2020s, graduating from a prestigious university no longer guarantees gainful employment immediately after graduation.
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According to Gallup, public confidence in higher education has declined "sharply" between 2015 and 2023; even those with bachelor's or advanced degrees were less approving than before. An alternative proposal suggests that there is no general bubble in higher education because, on average, higher education really does boost income and employment by more than enough to make it a good investment, but that degrees in some specific fields may be overvalued because they do little to boost income or improve job prospects, and degrees in other fields may in fact be undervalued because students do not appreciate the extent to which these degrees could benefit their employment prospects and future income. Proponents of this hypothesis have noted that schools charge equal prices for tuition regardless of what students study, but the interest rate on federal student loans is not adjusted according to risk, and there is evidence that undergraduate students in their first three years of college are not very good at predicting future wages by major.
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Indeed, student interest has shifted away from low-paying programs towards those of greater value in the job market. (See chart above.)
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Among graduates of the early 2020s, the most regretted majors are journalism, sociology, liberal arts/general studies, communications, and education; the least regretted majors are computer science and information technology, criminology, engineering, nursing, and health. Music and the visual arts are the most likely to offer a negative return on investment. At the same time, graduates with the highest expected income studied chemical engineering, aerospace engineering, chemistry, economics, and the life sciences.
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Prospective employers and state governments have gotten pickier in the collegiate programs they are willing to finance. As of 2023, seven states have passed legislation requiring the disclosure of data on the worth of a university, such as students' loan payment and post-graduation employment. Another reason for the decline of interest in the humanities and liberal arts is the fact that many prospective students avoid them for fear of loss of parental support, and the perceived intolerance towards conservatives on college campuses, which tend to be dominated by left-wing faculty members, though the details are not as simple as they first appear.
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On the other hand, in the life sciences, the number of students or researchers interested in a postdoctoral fellowship has plummeted thanks to a boom in the biotechnology industry, which has an insatiable appetite for talents and is willing to pay much higher than universities. In physics and engineering, which are traditionally male-dominated fields, enrollments have also fallen since 2020, as white men lose their interest in higher education.Due to popular demand, the cost of higher education has grown at a rate faster than inflation between the late 20th and early 21st centuries. From the 1990s to the 2010s, tuition and fees rose 440%, as federal loans for students became more generous, and student debt increased as costs went up.
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As of 2012, 29% of student debtors never graduated, and those who did could take decades to pay back the money they owed. The 2010s were a turbulent period for higher education in the United States, as small private colleges from across the country face deep financial trouble due to higher tuition discounts in order to attract students at a time of expensive higher education costs, tougher regulation, and the fact that the college-aged population in many regions has declined, even if the percentage of young people attending colleges and universities did not change significantly. By the early 2020s, enrollments are declining at a growing rate as the number of high-school graduates continues to fall.
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Pew Trusts projected in 2022 that most U.S. states will see a decline in grade-school enrollments during the 2020s, which would help curb of the cost of higher education going forward. A 2019 analysis by Moody's Investor Services estimated that about 20% of all small private liberal arts colleges in the United States were in serious financial trouble.
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Between the early 2000s and early 2020s, hundreds of institutions permanently closed their doors. In fact, they were closing at an accelerating rate, and for-profit institutions were the hardest hit, as they were targeted by stricter regulations from the Obama administration. Public universities had to downsize or to merge.
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Rural ones have closed majors across the board, from the humanities to the sciences. More than half of the colleges and universities that remained saw substantial reductions in the number of students attending. Such institutions have adapted to the new reality by dropping programs with low student interest, including many in the liberal arts and the humanities, like gender studies and critical race theory, creating majors for emerging fields, such as artificial intelligence, and professional programs, like law enforcement, investing in online learning programs, and addressing untapped demands, such as mid-career training or continuing education.
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By the early 2020s, the rate of growth of tuition fees has dropped, and some schools are even freezing to cutting theirs. If affordable or free online learning continues to grow, then non-elite institutions would struggle to justify their physical infrastructure. On the other hand, prestigious universities continue to see growth in the number of applicants and as such are in no danger of closing.
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This is due partly to students sending their applications to more schools for a chance of getting admitted and because (elite) institutions have not significantly expanded their capacities.The arrival of COVID-19 in the United States in 2020 merely accelerated the process. The novel coronavirus not only wrought havoc on the nation but also caused a severe economic downturn. Consequently, families chose to either delay or avoid sending their children to institutions of higher education altogether.
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Undergraduate enrollments dropped even after the return of in-person classes. Worse still for colleges and universities, they have become dependent on foreign students for revenue because they pay full tuition fees and the international restrictions imposed to alleviate the spread of the pandemic mean that this stream of revenue will shrink substantially. Several permanently closed their doors by the end of the 2019–20 academic year.
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Numerous institutions, including elite ones, have suspended graduate programs in the humanities and liberal arts due to low student interest and dim employment prospects. Various polls indicate that growing numbers of Americans have become skeptical of the value of higher education relative to the cost and would like to see K-12 education being less focused on college preparation. Having witnessed the Millennials accumulating large amounts of student debts, members of Generation Z tend to be more skeptical of the value of higher education and more open to alternative educational routes and career options.
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Young men, especially whites, are increasingly looking elsewhere due to the hostility of identity politics on campus towards them, viewing them as a "privileged" group. Meanwhile, the number of women's colleges continues to fall, following a decades-long trend. But community colleges have fared the worst of all, losing 37% of enrollments between 2010 and 2023.
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Prospective students have been shunning them in large numbers due to the low quality of education and student services.Some employers are now hiring fresh graduates from high school, offering them generous bonuses, high wages, and apprenticeship programs in order to offset the ongoing labor shortage. Trade schools and apprenticeship programs have seen significant increases in enrollment while about a third of college graduates, including 38% of recent graduates, work in jobs that do not require a university degree, according to data from the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Although the previous Democratic administrations of Bill Clinton and Barack Obama had focused on higher education and high-skilled jobs, the Joe Biden government has been emphasizing blue-collar jobs that do not require a college degree, as part of Biden's infrastructure initiative and efforts to boost domestic manufacturing.
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Before Biden, President Donald Trump signed an executive order to expand federal funding for apprenticeship programs with bipartisan support in 2017. In 2022, President Biden announced an initiative aimed at expanding apprenticeship and work-based training programs in K-12 public schools in order to create a competitive and skilled workforce. On the other hand, Biden's student loan relief plan worth $400 billion was struck down by the Supreme Court of the United States.In 2019, a report from the Federal Reserve Bank of St.
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Louis using data from the 2016 Survey of Consumer Finances demonstrated that after controlling for race and age cohort, families with heads of household with post-secondary education who were born before 1980 have benefited from wealth and income premiums, while for families with heads of household with post-secondary education but born after 1980 the wealth premium has weakened to point of statistical insignificance (in part because of the rising cost of college). Moreover, although the income premium remains positive, it has declined to historic lows (with more pronounced downward trajectories with heads of household with postgraduate degrees).In the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, colleges and universities saw an increase in the number of faculty members leaving academia, citing low pay, stressful work environments, heavy workloads, lack of administrative support, and occupational burnout. Moreover, lecturers and professors in the humanities face a highly precarious job market.
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Graduates who majored in the humanities and the liberal arts in the 2010s were most likely to regret having done so and had lower expected incomes than their counterparts in STEM.Between the early 2000s and the late 2010s, the number of students from emerging economies going abroad for higher education increased, and the United States was the most popular destination for international students, many of whom were from mainland China. In fact, the United States was the single most popular destination for Chinese students; among children of the ruling class ("princelings"), attending elite institutions was commonplace and seen as a status symbol. However, deteriorating Sino-American relations and the COVID-19 pandemic reduced the number of Chinese students enrolling in many U.S.
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colleges and universities. Dependency on foreign students threatens the future of many American schools, which have hitherto been assuming that the number of international applicants would keep growing. In reality, international enrollments have been falling since 2015.Falling demand for higher education in the United States will force this industry to become more innovative, which is something it has not been traditionally good at. Moreover, as the birth rates of teenagers and the lower classes continues to fall while women with higher incomes and education are having more children, students in the future will be less likely to have to rely on loans.
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The view that higher education is a bubble is debated. Some economists do not think that returns to a college education are falling but instead believe that the benefits far outweigh the costs. Yet, the returns for marginal students or students in certain majors, especially at costly private universities, may not justify the investment. It has been suggested that the returns to education should be compared to the returns to other forms of investment such as the stock market, bonds, real estate, and private equity.
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A higher return would suggest underinvestment in higher education, but lower returns would suggest a bubble. Studies have typically found a causal relationship between growth and education, although the quality and type of education matters, and not just the number of years of schooling.In a financial bubble, assets like houses are sometimes purchased with a view to reselling at a higher price, and this can produce rapidly escalating prices as people speculate on future prices. An end to the spiral can provoke abrupt selling of the assets, resulting in an abrupt collapse in price – the bursting of the bubble.
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Because the asset acquired through college attendance – a higher education – cannot be sold but only rented through wages, there is no similar mechanism that would cause an abrupt collapse in the value of existing degrees. For this reason, this analogy could be misleading. However, one rebuttal to the claims that a bubble analogy is misleading is the observation that the 'bursting' of the bubble are the negative effects on students who incur student debt, for example, as the American Association of State Colleges and Universities reports that "Students are deeper in debt today than ever before.... The trend of heavy debt burdens threatens to limit access to higher education, particularly for low-income and first-generation students, who tend to carry the heaviest debt burden.
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Federal student aid policy has steadily put resources into student loan programs rather than need-based grants, a trend that straps future generations with high debt burdens. Even students who receive federal grant aid are finding it more difficult to pay for college. "However, the data actually show that notwithstanding a slight increase in 2008–2009, student loan default rates have declined since the mid-1980s and 1990s.
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During both periods of growth and recession, those with college degrees are much less likely than those without to be unemployed, even though they earn higher wages.Ohio University economist Richard Vedder has written in The Wall Street Journal that: A key measure of the benefits of a degree is the college graduate's earning potential – and on this score, their advantage over high-school graduates is deteriorating. Since 2006, the gap between what the median college graduate earned compared with the median high-school graduate has narrowed by $1,387 for men over 25 working full time, a 5% fall. Women in the same category have fared worse, losing 7% of their income advantage ($1,496).
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A college degree's declining value is even more pronounced for younger Americans. According to data collected by the College Board, for those in the 25–34 age range, the differential between college graduate and high school graduate earnings fell 11% for men, to $18,303 from $20,623. The decline for women was an extraordinary 19.7%, to $14,868 from $18,525. Meanwhile, the cost of college has increased 16.5% in 2012 dollars since 2006, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics' higher education tuition-fee index.
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A different explanation for rising tuition is the reduction of state and federal appropriations to colleges, making them more reliant on student tuition. Thus, it is not a bubble but a form of shifting costs away from state and federal funding over to students. This has mostly applied to public universities which in 2011 for the first time have taken in more in tuition than in state funding and had the greatest increases in tuition. Implied from this shift away from public funding to tuition is privatization, although The New York Times reported that such claims are exaggerated.A second hypothesis claims that as a result of federal law that severely restricts the ability of students to discharge their federally guaranteed student loans in bankruptcy, lenders and colleges know that students are on the hook for any amount that they borrow, including late fees and interest (which can be capitalized and increase the principal loan amount), thus removing the incentive to only provide students loans that the students can be reasonably expected to repay.
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As evidence for this hypothesis, it has been suggested that returning bankruptcy protections (and other standard consumer protections) to student loans would cause lenders to be more cautious, thereby causing a sharp decline in the availability of student loans, which, in turn, would decrease the influx of dollars to colleges and universities, who, in turn, would have to sharply decrease tuition to match the lower availability of funds.Economic and social commentator Gary North has remarked at LewRockwell.com, "To speak of college as a bubble is silly. A bubble does not pop until months or years after the funding ceases. There is no indication that the funding for college education will cease.
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"Azar Nafisi, Johns Hopkins University professor and bestselling author of Reading Lolita in Tehran, has stated on the PBS NewsHour that a purely economic analysis of a higher education bubble is incomplete: Universities become sort of like canaries in the mine for a culture. They become the sort of standard of where culture is going. The dynamism, the originality of these entrepreneurial experiences, the fact that society allows people to be original, to take risks, all of it comes from a passionate love of knowledge.
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And universities represent all the different areas and fields within a society. And the students and faculty come from all these fields. This is a community that represents the best that a society has to offer. And there was a mention of our universities being the best in the world.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education_bubble_in_the_United_States
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The social character is the central basic concept of the analytic social psychology of Erich Fromm.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_character
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The concept describes the formation of the shared character structure of the people of a society or a social class according to their way of life and the socially typical expectations and functional requirements regarding socially adaptive behavior. Social character is essentially adaptive to the dominant mode of production in a society. According to Fromm, the concept integrates Marx's theory concerning how the mode of production determines ideology with Freud's concept of character. While individual character describes the richness of the character structure of an individual, the social character describes the emotional attitudes common to people in a social class or society.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_character
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The social character is acquired substantially in the family as an agent of the society but also developed in other institutions of society such as schools and workplaces. The function of the social character is to motivate people to accomplish the expected social tasks concerning work and interaction, education and consuming. Arising in the interaction of the socio-economic social structure and the social libidinous structure the social character makes it possible to use human energies as a socially productive resource.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_character
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Erich Fromm emphasizes the social necessities, which must be obeyed by the members of a society. So that a society functions adequately, their members must acquire a character structure which enables them to do what they need to do in order to prosper.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_character
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It is for example expected in an authoritarian society that people are motivated to subordinate themselves to a hierarchy and fulfill selflessly the instructions brought to them. In peasant society, people are socialized to save and to work independently. However, in the permissive consumer culture people are socialized to consume gladly and extensively.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_character
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Thus the character structure in every society is formed in such a way that people can fulfill expectations quasi voluntarily. Although everyone develops character traits and character orientations that distinguish them from people who live in other cultures, people in every culture with the same mode of production share basic elements of the social character. As a theorist of the society Fromm is not interested in the peculiarities by which the individual persons distinguish themselves from each other but he asks what is common to most people in their psychological reactions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_character
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So he examines the part of the character structure which is shared by most members of a society. Fromm describes this general core in the character as social character. The figuration of the social character takes place in most societies at cost of the spontaneity and freedom of the individuals.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_character
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Fromm, Erich (1942). Character and Social Process. An Appendix to Fear of Freedom, Routledge. Fromm, Erich (1994).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_character
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"Appendix: Character and the social process". In Escape from Freedom. New York: Henry Holt and Company, pp.
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275–296. ISBN 0805031499. Fromm, Erich and Michael Maccoby (1996).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_character
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Social Character in a Mexican Village. New Brunswick: Transaction Publisher. ISBN 1560008768.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_character
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Jensen, Walter A. (2017). "What is social character?"
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_character
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In Erich Fromm's contributions to sociological theory. Kalamazoo, MI: Printmill, pp. 59–172. ISBN 978-0970491947.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_character
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Fish medicine is the study and treatment of the diseases of fish. Although some practitioners work primarily with aquarium fish, this field also has important applications to fisheries management. Fish medicine is a relatively recent veterinary specialization; veterinary textbooks in the English language were not published until the early 1990s. The United States does not have an official specialization for fish medicine, worldwide there are several professional organizations for veterinarians interested in fish medicine, such as the World Aquatic Veterinary Medical Association, and the International Association of Aquatic Animal Medicine.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_medicine
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Lacanianism or Lacanian psychoanalysis is a theoretical system that explains the mind, behaviour, and culture through a structuralist and post-structuralist extension of classical psychoanalysis, initiated by the work of Jacques Lacan from the 1950s to the 1980s. Lacanian perspectives contend that the world of language, the Symbolic, structures the human mind, and stress the importance of desire, which is conceived of as perpetual and impossible to satisfy. Contemporary Lacanianism is characterised by a broad range of thought and extensive debate between Lacanians. Lacanianism has been particularly influential in post-structuralism, literary theory and feminist theory, as well as in various branches of critical theory, including queer theory.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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Equally, it has been criticised by the post-structuralists Deleuze and Guattari and by various feminist theorists. Its clinical relevance is limited and outside France it has had no influence on psychiatry. There is a Lacanian strand in left-wing politics, including Saul Newman's and Duane Rousselle's post-anarchism, Louis Althusser's structural Marxism, and the works of Slavoj Žižek and Alain Badiou. Influential figures in Lacanianism include Slavoj Žižek, Julia Kristeva and Serge Leclaire.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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Lacanians view the structure of the mind as defined by the individual's entry as an infant into the world of language, the Symbolic, through an Oedipal process. Like other post-structuralist approaches, Lacanianism regards the subject as an illusion created when an individual is signified (represented in language). However, this initial signification is incomplete, as there is always something about the subject which cannot be properly represented in language, which means that signification also divides the subject. The Symbolic is defined by the Other, those parts of the outside world with which the subject cannot identify, which is the place where signifiers are given meaning.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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Language is hence a discourse of the Other, outside conscious control. The unconscious mind is constituted by a network of empty signifiers that resurface in language—particularly dreams and Freudian slips—and Lacanian clinical practice focuses closely on the precise words used by the analysand (patient), which Lacan characterised as a "return to Freud". Analysis focuses largely on desire.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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Lacanians contend that desire cannot be satisfied, as the object and cause of desire is an unobtainable object, the objet petit a, which the subject continually associates with different things that they wrongly believe will satisfy their desire. Objet a exists as a consequence of the division of the subject in signification, so desire is said to result from an unsolvable lack at the heart of the subject. Lacanianism posits that all people belong to one of three "clinical structures" and either are psychotic, perverse, or, most commonly, neurotic.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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Neurotic subjects—that is to say, most people—are then always either hysterical or obsessional. The three clinical structures describe the subject's relationship to the Other and are each associated with a different defence mechanism: psychotics use foreclosure, a rejection of the father's authority in the Oedipus complex that results in a failure to form a Symbolic unconscious; perverts use disavowal, failing to accept that lack causes desire and nominating a specific object as its cause, their fetish; and neurotics use repression. Psychical reality is constituted by the Symbolic, the Imaginary, the Real, and for Lacanians who follow Kristeva, the Semiotic.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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Lacan's first official contribution to psychoanalysis was the mirror stage, which he described as "formative of the function of the 'I' as revealed in psychoanalytic experience." By the early 1950s, he came to regard the mirror stage as more than a moment in the life of the infant; instead, it formed part of the permanent structure of subjectivity. In the "imaginary order", the subject's own image permanently catches and captivates the subject. Lacan explains that "the mirror stage is a phenomenon to which I assign a twofold value.
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In the first place, it has historical value as it marks a decisive turning-point in the mental development of the child. In the second place, it typifies an essential libidinal relationship with the body-image".As this concept developed further, the stress fell less on its historical value and more on its structural value. In his fourth seminar, "La relation d'objet", Lacan states that "the mirror stage is far from a mere phenomenon which occurs in the development of the child.
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It illustrates the conflictual nature of the dual relationship. " The mirror stage describes the formation of the ego via the process of objectification, the ego being the result of a conflict between one's perceived visual appearance and one's emotional experience.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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This identification is what Lacan called "alienation". At six months, the baby still lacks physical co-ordination. The child is able to recognize themselves in a mirror prior to the attainment of control over their bodily movements.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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The child sees their image as a whole and the synthesis of this image produces a sense of contrast with the lack of co-ordination of the body, which is perceived as a fragmented body. The child experiences this contrast initially as a rivalry with their image, because the wholeness of the image threatens the child with fragmentation—thus the mirror stage gives rise to an aggressive tension between the subject and the image. To resolve this aggressive tension, the child identifies with the image: this primary identification with the counterpart forms the ego.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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Lacan understood this moment of identification as a moment of jubilation, since it leads to an imaginary sense of mastery; yet when the child compares their own precarious sense of mastery with the omnipotence of the mother, a depressive reaction may accompany the jubilation.Lacan calls the specular image "orthopaedic", since it leads the child to anticipate the overcoming of its "real specific prematurity of birth". The vision of the body as integrated and contained, in opposition to the child's actual experience of motor incapacity and the sense of his or her body as fragmented, induces a movement from "insufficiency to anticipation". In other words, the mirror image initiates and then aids, like a crutch, the process of the formation of an integrated sense of self.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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In the mirror stage a "misunderstanding" (méconnaissance) constitutes the ego—the "me" (moi) becomes alienated from itself through the introduction of an imaginary dimension to the subject. The mirror stage also has a significant symbolic dimension, due to the presence of the figure of the adult who carries the infant. Having jubilantly assumed the image as their own, the child turns their head towards this adult, who represents the big other, as if to call on the adult to ratify this image.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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Lacan's concept of desire is related to Hegel's Begierde, a term that implies a continuous force, and therefore somehow differs from Freud's concept of Wunsch. Lacan's desire refers always to unconscious desire because it is unconscious desire that forms the central concern of psychoanalysis. The aim of psychoanalysis is to lead the analysand to recognize his/her desire and by doing so to uncover the truth about his/her desire. However this is possible only if desire is articulated in speech: "It is only once it is formulated, named in the presence of the other, that desire appears in the full sense of the term."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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And again in The Ego in Freud's Theory and in the Technique of Psychoanalysis: "what is important is to teach the subject to name, to articulate, to bring desire into existence. The subject should come to recognize and to name her/his desire.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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But it isn't a question of recognizing something that could be entirely given. In naming it, the subject creates, brings forth, a new presence in the world."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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The truth about desire is somehow present in discourse, although discourse is never able to articulate the entire truth about desire; whenever discourse attempts to articulate desire, there is always a leftover or surplus.Lacan distinguishes desire from need and from demand. Need is a biological instinct where the subject depends on the Other to satisfy its own needs: in order to get the Other's help, "need" must be articulated in "demand". But the presence of the Other not only ensures the satisfaction of the "need", it also represents the Other's love.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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Consequently, "demand" acquires a double function: on the one hand, it articulates "need", and on the other, acts as a "demand for love". Even after the "need" articulated in demand is satisfied, the "demand for love" remains unsatisfied since the Other cannot provide the unconditional love that the subject seeks. "Desire is neither the appetite for satisfaction, nor the demand for love, but the difference that results from the subtraction of the first from the second."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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Desire is a surplus, a leftover, produced by the articulation of need in demand: "desire begins to take shape in the margin in which demand becomes separated from need". Unlike need, which can be satisfied, desire can never be satisfied: it is constant in its pressure and eternal. The attainment of desire does not consist in being fulfilled but in its reproduction as such.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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As Slavoj Žižek puts it, "desire's raison d'être is not to realize its goal, to find full satisfaction, but to reproduce itself as desire".Lacan also distinguishes between desire and the drives: desire is one and drives are many. The drives are the partial manifestations of a single force called desire. Lacan's concept of "objet petit a" is the object of desire, although this object is not that towards which desire tends, but rather the cause of desire.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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