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Desire is not a relation to an object but a relation to a lack (manque). In The Four Fundamental Concepts of Psychoanalysis Lacan argues that "man's desire is the desire of the Other." This entails the following: Desire is the desire of the Other's desire, meaning that desire is the object of another's desire and that desire is also desire for recognition.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacanianism
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Here Lacan follows Alexandre Kojève, who follows Hegel: for Kojève the subject must risk his own life if he wants to achieve the desired prestige. This desire to be the object of another's desire is best exemplified in the Oedipus complex, when the subject desires to be the phallus of the mother. In "The Subversion of the Subject and the Dialectic of Desire in the Freudian Unconscious", Lacan contends that the subject desires from the point of view of another whereby the object of someone's desire is an object desired by another one: what makes the object desirable is that it is precisely desired by someone else.
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Again Lacan follows Kojève. who follows Hegel.
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This aspect of desire is present in hysteria, for the hysteric is someone who converts another's desire into his/her own (see Sigmund Freud's "Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria" in SE VII, where Dora desires Frau K because she identifies with Herr K). What matters then in the analysis of a hysteric is not to find out the object of her desire but to discover the subject with whom she identifies. Désir de l'Autre, which is translated as "desire for the Other" (though it could also be "desire of the Other").
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The fundamental desire is the incestuous desire for the mother, the primordial Other. Desire is "the desire for something else", since it is impossible to desire what one already has. The object of desire is continually deferred, which is why desire is a metonymy. Desire appears in the field of the Other—that is, in the unconscious.Last but not least for Lacan, the first person who occupies the place of the Other is the mother and at first the child is at her mercy. Only when the father articulates desire with the Law by castrating the mother is the subject liberated from desire for the mother.
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Lacan considered the human psyche to be framed within the three orders of The Imaginary, The Symbolic and The Real (RSI). The three divisions in their varying emphases also correspond roughly to the development of Lacan's thought. As he himself put it in Seminar XXII, "I began with the Imaginary, I then had to chew on the story of the Symbolic...and I finished by putting out for you this famous Real".Lacan's early psychoanalytic period spans the 1930s and 1940s. His contributions from this period centered on the questions of image, identification and unconscious fantasy.
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Developing Henri Wallon's concept of infant mirroring, he used the idea of the mirror stage to demonstrate the imaginary nature of the ego, in opposition to the views of ego psychology.In the fifties, the focus of Lacan's interest shifted to the symbolic order of kinship, culture, social structure and roles—all mediated by the acquisition of language—into which each one of us is born and with which we all have to come to terms.The focus of therapy became that of dealing with disruptions on the part of the Imaginary of the structuring role played by the signifier/Other/Symbolic Order.Lacan's approach to psychoanalysis created a dialectic between Freud's thinking and that of both Structuralist thinkers such as Ferdinand de Saussure, as well as with Heidegger, Hegel and other continental philosophers.The sixties saw Lacan's attention increasingly focused on what he termed the Real—not external consensual reality, but rather that unconscious element in the personality, linked to trauma, dream and the drive, which resists signification.The Real was what was lacking or absent from every totalising structural theory; and in the form of jouissance, and the persistence of the symptom or synthome, marked Lacan's shifting of psychoanalysis from modernity to postmodernity. Then Real, together with the Imaginary and the Symbolic came to form a triad of "elementary registers." Lacan believed these three concepts were inseparably intertwined, and by the 1970s they were an integral part of his thought.
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Lacan's thinking was intimately geared not only to the work of Freud but to that of the most prominent of his psychoanalytic successors—Heinz Hartmann, Melanie Klein, Michael Balint, D. W. Winnicott and more. With Lacan's break with official psychoanalysis in 1963–1964, however, a tendency developed to look for a pure, self-contained Lacanianism, without psychoanalytic trappings. Jacques-Alain Miller's index to Ecrits had already written of "the Lacanian epistemology...the analytic experience (in its Lacanian definition...)"; and where the old guard of first-generation disciples like Serge Leclaire continued to stress the importance of the re-reading of Freud, the new recruits of the sixties and seventies favoured instead an ahistorical Lacan, systematised after the event into a rigorous if over-simplified theoretical whole.Three main phases may be identified in Lacan's mature work: his Fifties exploration of the Imaginary and the Symbolic; his concern with the Real and the lost object of desire, the objet petit a, during the Sixties; and a final phase highlighting jouissance and the mathematical formulation of psychoanalytic teaching. As the fifties Lacan developed a distinctive style of teaching based on a linguistic reading of Freud, so too he built up a substantial following within the Société Française de Psychanalyse , with Serge Leclaire only the first of many French "Lacanians".
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It was this phase of his teaching that was memorialised in Écrits, and which first found its way into the English-speaking world, where more Lacanians were thus to be found in English or Philosophy Departments than in clinical practice.However the very extent of Lacan's following raised serious criticisms: he was accused both of abusing the positive transference to tie his analysands to himself, and of magnifying their numbers by the use of shortened analytic sessions. The questionable nature of his following was one of the reasons for his failure to gain recognition for his teaching from the International Psychoanalytical Association recognition for the French form of Freudianism that was "Lacanianism"—a failure that led to his founding the École Freudienne de Paris (EFP) in 1964. Many of his closest and most creative followers, such as Jean Laplanche, chose the IPA over Lacan at this point, in the first of many subsequent Lacanian schisms.Lacan's 1973 Letter to the Italians, nominated Muriel Drazien, Giacomo Contri and Armando Verdiglione to carry his teaching in Italy.
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As a body of thought, Lacanianism began to make its way into the English-speaking world from the sixties onwards, influencing film theory, feminist thought, queer theory, and psychoanalytic criticism, as well as politics and social sciences, primarily through the concepts of the Imaginary and the Symbolic. As the role of the real and of jouissance in opposing structure became more widely recognised, however, so too Lacanianism developed as a tool for the exploration of the divided subject of postmodernity.Since Lacan's death, however, much of the public attention focused on his work began to decline. Lacan had always been criticised for an obscurantist writing style; and many of his disciples simply replicated the mystificatory elements in his work (in a sort of transferential identification) without his freshness. Where interest in Lacanianism did revive in the 21st century, it was in large part the work of figures like Slavoj Žižek who have been able to use Lacan's thought for their own intellectual ends, without the sometimes stifling orthodoxy of many of the formal Lacanian traditions. The continued influence of Lacanianism is thus paradoxically strongest in those who seem to have embraced Malcolm Bowie's recommendation: "learn to unlearn the Lacanian idiom in the way Lacan unlearns the Freudian idiom".
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Élisabeth Roudinesco has suggested that, after the founding of the EFP "the history of psychoanalysis in France became subordinate to that of Lacanianism...the Lacanian movement occupied thereafter the motor position in relation to which the other movements were obliged to determine their course'". There was certainly a large expansion in the numbers of the school, if arguably at the expense of quantity over quality, as a flood of psychologists submerged the analysts who had come with him from the SFP. Protests against the new regime reached a head with the introduction of the self-certifying 'passe' to analytic status, and old comrades such as François Perrier broke away in the bitter schism of 1968 to found the Quatrieme Groupe. However, major divisions remained within the EDF, which underwent another split over the question of analytic qualifications. There remained within the movement a broad division between the old guard of first generation Lacanians, focused on the symbolic—on the study of Freud through the structural linguistic tools of the fifties—and the younger group of mathematicians and philosophers centred on Jacques-Alain Miller, who favoured a self-contained Lacanianism, formalised and free of its Freudian roots. As the seventies Lacan spoke of the mathematicisation of psychoanalysis and coined the term 'matheme' to describe its formulaic abstraction, so Leclaire brusquely dismissed the new formulas as “graffiti” Nevertheless, despite these and other tensions, the EDF held together under the charisma of their Master, until (despairing of his followers) Lacan himself dissolved the school in 1980 the year before his death.
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The start of the eighties saw the post-Lacanian movement dissolve into a plethora of new organisations, of which the Millerite Ecole de la Cause freudienne (ECF, 273 members) and the Centre de formation et de recherches psychoanalytiques (CFRP, 390 members) are perhaps the most important. By 1993 another fourteen associations had grown out of the former EDF; nor did the process stop there. Early resignations and splits from the ECF were followed in the late 1990s by a massive exodus of analysts worldwide from Miller's organisation under allegations of misuse of authority.Attempts were made to re-unite the various factions, Leclaire arguing that Lacanianism was "becoming ossified, stiffening into a kind of war of religion, into theoretical debates that no longer contribute anything new". But with French Lacanianism (in particular) haunted by a past of betrayals and conflict—by faction after faction claiming their segment of Lacanian thought as the only genuine one—reunification of any kind has proven very problematic; and Roudinesco was perhaps correct to conclude that "'Lacanianism, born of subversion and a wish to transgress, is essentially doomed to fragility and dispersal".
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Three main divisions can be made in contemporary Lacanianism. In one form, the academic reading of a de-clinicalised Lacan has become a pursuit in itself. The (self-styled) legitimatism of the ECF, developed into an international movement with strong Spanish support as well as Latin American roots, set itself up as a rival challenge to the IPA. The third form is a plural Lacanianism, best epitomised in the moderate CFRP, with its abandonment of the passe and openness to traditional psychoanalysis, and (after the 1995 dissolution) in its two successors.Attempts to rejoin the IPA remain problematic, however, not least due to the persistence of the 'short session' and of Lacan's rejection of countertransference as a therapeutic tool.
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Judith Butler, Bracha L. Ettinger and Jane Gallop have used Lacanian work, though in a critical way, to develop gender theory.
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Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, the latter a trained Lacanian analyst, launched a major attack on Lacanian psychoanalysis from within post-structuralism in Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (1972). Frederick Crews writes that when they "indicted Lacanian psychoanalysis as a capitalist disorder" and "pilloried analysts as the most sinister priest-manipulators of a psychotic society" in Anti-Oedipus, their "demonstration was widely regarded as unanswerable" and "devastated the already shrinking Lacanian camp in Paris. "The Deleuzoguattarian critique of Lacanianism attacks its conception of desire as "negative", in that it results from a lack in the subject, and its belief that the unconscious mind is "structured like a language". Deleuze and Guattari argued that the unconscious mind was schizophrenic, characterised by rhizomes of libidinal investment, and that desire was a creative force that powered the essential building blocks of psychical structures, desiring-machines.
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The networks of signifiers to which so much weight is given in Lacanianism are structures created by desiring-machines, above the level of the unconscious. Hence Lacanian analysis works to solve neurosis, but it fails to see that neuroses are a second-order problem that reveal nothing about the unconscious—as does Freud's classical psychoanalysis.
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Deleuze and Guattari proposed an alternative post-structuralist extension of classical psychoanalysis, schizoanalysis, which was defined in opposition to these apparent flaws in Lacanianism. Unlike Lacanianism, schizoanalysis openly repudiates parts of Freud, particularly his neurotic conception of the unconscious, and Deleuze and Guattari insisted that it was distinct from psychoanalysis. Schizoanalysis was further elaborated on in A Thousand Plateaus (1980) and Guattari's individual work in the 1980s and early 90s.
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Elizabeth Grosz accuses Lacan of maintaining a sexist tradition in psychoanalysis.Luce Irigaray accuses Lacan of perpetuating phallocentric mastery in philosophical and psychoanalytic discourse. Others have echoed this accusation, seeing Lacan as trapped in the very phallocentric mastery his language ostensibly sought to undermine. The result—Cornelius Castoriadis would maintain—was to make all thought depend upon himself, and thus to stifle the capacity for independent thought among all those around him.
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In statistics, the Horvitz–Thompson estimator, named after Daniel G. Horvitz and Donovan J. Thompson, is a method for estimating the total and mean of a pseudo-population in a stratified sample. Inverse probability weighting is applied to account for different proportions of observations within strata in a target population. The Horvitz–Thompson estimator is frequently applied in survey analyses and can be used to account for missing data, as well as many sources of unequal selection probabilities.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horvitz–Thompson_estimator
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Formally, let Y i , i = 1 , 2 , … , n {\displaystyle Y_{i},i=1,2,\ldots ,n} be an independent sample from n of N ≥ n distinct strata with a common mean μ. Suppose further that π i {\displaystyle \pi _{i}} is the inclusion probability that a randomly sampled individual in a superpopulation belongs to the ith stratum. The Horvitz–Thompson estimator of the total is given by:: 51 Y ^ H T = ∑ i = 1 n π i − 1 Y i , {\displaystyle {\hat {Y}}_{HT}=\sum _{i=1}^{n}\pi _{i}^{-1}Y_{i},} and the Horvitz–Thompson estimate of the mean is given by: μ ^ H T = N − 1 Y ^ H T = N − 1 ∑ i = 1 n π i − 1 Y i . {\displaystyle {\hat {\mu }}_{HT}=N^{-1}{\hat {Y}}_{HT}=N^{-1}\sum _{i=1}^{n}\pi _{i}^{-1}Y_{i}.} In a Bayesian probabilistic framework π i {\displaystyle \pi _{i}} is considered the proportion of individuals in a target population belonging to the ith stratum.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horvitz–Thompson_estimator
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Hence, π i − 1 Y i {\displaystyle \pi _{i}^{-1}Y_{i}} could be thought of as an estimate of the complete sample of persons within the ith stratum. The Horvitz–Thompson estimator can also be expressed as the limit of a weighted bootstrap resampling estimate of the mean. It can also be viewed as a special case of multiple imputation approaches.For post-stratified study designs, estimation of π {\displaystyle \pi } and μ {\displaystyle \mu } are done in distinct steps.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horvitz–Thompson_estimator
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In such cases, computating the variance of μ ^ H T {\displaystyle {\hat {\mu }}_{HT}} is not straightforward. Resampling techniques such as the bootstrap or the jackknife can be applied to gain consistent estimates of the variance of the Horvitz–Thompson estimator. The "survey" package for R conducts analyses for post-stratified data using the Horvitz–Thompson estimator.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horvitz–Thompson_estimator
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Crime reconstruction or crime scene reconstruction is the forensic science discipline in which one gains "explicit knowledge of the series of events that surround the commission of a crime using deductive and inductive reasoning, physical evidence, scientific methods, and their interrelationships". Gardner and Bevel explain that crime scene reconstruction "involves evaluating the context of a scene and the physical evidence found there in an effort to identify what occurred and in what order it occurred." Chisum and Turvey explain that "olistic crime reconstruction is the development of actions and circumstances based on the system of evidence discovered and examined in relation to a particular crime. In this philosophy, all elements of evidence that come to light in a given case are treated as interdependent; the significance of each piece, each action, and each event falls and rises on the backs of the others."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_reconstruction
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Crime scene reconstruction has been described as putting together a jigsaw puzzle but doing so without access to the box top; the analyst does not know what the picture is supposed to look like. Furthermore, not all of the pieces are likely to be present, so there will be holes in the picture. However, if enough pieces of a puzzle are assembled in the correct order, the picture may become clear enough that the viewer is able to recognize the image and answer critical questions about it. In forensic science, there are three areas of importance in finding the answers and determining the components of a crime scene: (1) specific incident reconstruction, (2) event reconstruction, and (3) physical evidence reconstruction.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_reconstruction
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Specific incident reconstruction deals with road traffic accidents, bombings, homicides, and accidents of any severity. Event reconstruction looks at connections between evidence, sequence of events, and identity of those involved. Physical evidence reconstruction focuses on such items as firearms, blood traces, glass fragments, and any other objects that can be stripped for DNA analysis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_reconstruction
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To be competent as a crime scene reconstructionist, one must possess the requisite technical knowledge and have a thorough understanding of forensic investigations. There are no set educational requirements; however, many practicing crime scene reconstructionists possess undergraduate or graduate degrees in forensic science, chemistry, biology, physics, engineering, or criminal justice. In addition, a crime scene reconstructionist must have considerable experience in the investigation and analysis of crime scenes and physical evidence. Most crime scene reconstructionists have gained such experience either as a crime scene investigator, homicide investigator, or medicolegal death investigator.. Arguably, a crime scene reconstructionist is a forensic scientist who specializes in interpreting and assembling evidence in a coherent manner.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_reconstruction
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Chisum and Turvey explain that to perform crime reconstruction one need not "be an expert in all forensic disciplines" but "must become an expert in only one: the interpretation of the evidence in context." The crime scene reconstructionist may not be the person who carries out laboratory analysis of evidence such as developing DNA profiles or performing firearms and toolmark analysis; however, the competent crime scene reconstructionist must understand the meaning of each various piece of evidence and how it fits within the overall context of the scene. In this way, the crime scene reconstructionist is able to assemble the necessary puzzle pieces to make the picture visible.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_reconstruction
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The Association for Crime Scene Reconstruction was formed in 1991 by a group of crime scene professionals who "saw a need for an organization that would encompass an understanding of the whole crime scene and the necessity of reconstructing that scene in order to better understand the elements of the crime and to recognize and preserve evidence." The association publishes a peer-reviewed journal and holds an annual conference in which members gain information about the latest techniques and technologies used in crime scene reconstruction and share case examples. Many crime scene reconstructionists are also members of the International Association of Bloodstain Pattern Analysts, the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, and the International Association for Identification or one of its state chapters.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_reconstruction
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The International Association for Identification (IAI) had previously offered the only nationally recognized Certified Crime Scene Reconstructionist program in the United States. Whilst the board continues to support their currently certified reconstructionists, the program has been suspended as of 21 March 2017 due to a lack of participants. To be eligible for certification, applicants must have a minimum of five years experience in the crime scene reconstruction field; must have completed a minimum of 120 hours of related professional training including coursework in bloodstain pattern analysis, shooting incident reconstruction, and other related areas; and, must meet other qualifications such as being published in a professional journal, presenting to a professional association, or being an active instructor in the field. Once approved by the board, applicants must pass a 300-question multiple choice examination and a series of practical questions involving actual analysis of crime scene evidence as presented in photographs. Certification is valid for five years. The IAI maintains a roster of certified crime scene reconstructionists on the organization's website.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_reconstruction
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Center for Evolutionary Psychology (CEP) is a research center co-founded and co-directed by John Tooby and Leda Cosmides and is affiliated with the University of California, Santa Barbara. The center is meant to provide research support and comprehensive training in the field of evolutionary psychology. The goals of the center are to facilitate the discovery of the adaptations that characterize the species-wide architecture of the human mind and brain and to explore how socio-cultural phenomena can be explained with reference to these adaptations. The extramural board of the center are made up of Irven DeVore, Paul Ekman, Michael Gazzaniga, Steven Pinker and Roger Shepard.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Evolutionary_Psychology
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Hand-stopping is a technique by which a natural horn or a natural trumpet can be made to produce notes outside of its normal harmonic series. By inserting the hand, cupped, into the bell, the player can reduce the pitch of a note by a semitone or more. This, combined with the use of crooks changing the key of the instrument, allowed composers to write fully chromatic music for the horn and almost fully chromatic music for the trumpet before the invention of piston and valve horns and trumpets in the early 19th Century. A stopped note is called gestopft in German and bouché in French.The technique was invented in Europe in the mid 18th Century, and its first celebrated exponent was Giovanni Punto, who learned the technique from A. J. Hampel and subsequently taught it to the Court orchestra of George III.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand-stopping
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In addition to the change in pitch, the timbre is changed, sounding somewhat muted. Some pieces call for notes to be played stopped (sometimes written as gestopft in the score) specifically in order to produce this muted tone. This can clearly be heard on recordings of natural horns playing pre-valve repertoire such as the Punto concertino (a recording by Anthony Halstead and the Hanover Band is available which demonstrates this to particularly good effect).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand-stopping
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The pitch control is affected by the degree of closing the bell with the right hand. As the palm closes the bell, the effective tube length is increased, lowering the pitch (up to about a semitone for horns in the range D through G). But when the hand stops the bell completely, the tube length is shortened, raising pitch about a semitone for horns tuned near to the key of F.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand-stopping
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Borchert's epochs refer to five distinct periods in the history of American urbanization and are also known as Borchert's model of urban evolution. Each epoch is characterized by the impact of a particular transport technology on the creation and differential rates of growth of American cities. This model was conceptualized by University of Minnesota geographer John R. Borchert (about) in 1967. The five epochs identified by Borchert are: Sail-Wagon Epoch (1790–1830), cities grow near ports and major waterways which are used for transportation; Iron Horse Epoch (1830–70), characterized by impact of steam engine technology, and development of steamboats and regional railroad networks; Steel Rail Epoch (1870–1920), dominated by the development of long haul railroads and a national railroad network; Auto-Air-Amenity Epoch (1920–70), with growth in the gasoline combustion engine; High-Technology Epoch (1970–present), expansion in service and information sectors of the economySubsequent researchers (e.g., Phillips and Brunn) have proposed an extension of Borchert's model with new epochs to take into account late 20th-century developments in patterns of metropolitan growth and decline in the United States.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borchert's_Epochs
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The impressionable years hypothesis is a theory of political psychology that posits that individuals form durable political attitudes and party affiliations during late adolescence and early adulthood. In United States political history, the theory has been used to explain the waxing and waning in the strength of the two major political parties. The theory has also been applied outside of the United States.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionable_years_hypothesis
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According to the impressionable years hypothesis, the historical environment has an important socializing influence on individuals of entire generations, and individuals within these generations thus tend to share values and attitudes compared to individuals within other generations. Under the strictest definition of this hypothesis, attitudes remain fixed in individuals after they exit their early adulthood. Political change thus happens primarily through a process known as cohort replacement, in which a generation dies out and is replaced by another generation. Two theories contrast to the impressionable years hypothesis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionable_years_hypothesis
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The "increasing persistence hypothesis" posits that attitudes become less likely to change as individuals become older, while the "life-long openness hypothesis" proposes that the attitudes of individuals remain flexible regardless of age.An influential 1928 essay by Karl Mannheim proposed that political leanings were heavily influenced by the historical context of an individual's youth. Another early exploration of the idea began in the 1930s under the direction of Theodore Newcomb. In the Bennington College Study, Newcomb tracked the political attitudes of a cohort of female students attending Bennington College. In follow-up interviews conducted decades later, Newcomb found that the previously-conservative women had retained liberal political attitudes that they had first gained at Bennington.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionable_years_hypothesis
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Polling and analyses by Gallup, the Pew Research Center, and other sources have found that year of birth is an important predictor of political affiliation. For example, Baby boomers born during the early-to-mid 1950s tend to be significantly more Democratic-leaning than those born earlier or later. These Baby Boomers entered adulthood in the late 1960s and early 1970s, a period which saw the liberalization of American social views. By contrast, younger Boomers who came of age during the stagflation and tax revolts of the late 1970s have tended to favor the Republican Party.According to a 2014 model developed by Catalist and Columbia University, presidential approval ratings inform voting behaviors for decades.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionable_years_hypothesis
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The model works best with white voters, as black voters have tended to more consistently vote for Democratic candidates, and there is less data available for the remaining demographic groups. According to the model, popular presidents such as Dwight D. Eisenhower can leave lasting impressions on voters in their young adulthood. The model estimates that events that occur between the ages of 14 and 24 are the most important in determining an individual's political attitudes, though those attitudes continue to change after age 24. A separate model developed by Professor Dan Hopkins found that the political affiliation of a given individual was strongly affected by the popularity of presidents when that individual turned 18 years old.
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Osborne et al. use the theory to partially explain the decline of the Democratic Party and the New Deal coalition in the South. According to their theory, the events of the civil rights movement were extremely unpopular among white Southerners and the support of national Democratic leadership for the civil rights movement alienated white Southerners from the party. While older Southern voters resisted changes to their political affiliations and attitudes, younger voters moved to the Republican Party. As, older, Democratic voters died out, the Republican Party became the dominant party in the South.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionable_years_hypothesis
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The impressionable years hypothesis has also been explored in other countries. A 2002 study by James Tilley found that individuals in the United Kingdom who came of age during the 1920s, 1950s, and 1980s tended to more strongly support the Conservative Party, which was dominant during those decades. A 2004 study in Algeria found that most generations were not strongly affected by the circumstances of their youth, with some exceptions regarding certain attitudes in certain generations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionable_years_hypothesis
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Special Education Bulgaria (SEB) (Bulgarian: Специална Педагогика България) is a community of practice, a professional community, for special education professionals and the parents of students with special needs throughout Bulgaria. SEB was developed by researchers from Sofia University, Bulgaria and the University of Wollongong, Australia. The purpose of the SEB website is to facilitate the community of practice. It is hoped that such a community will help reduce the sense of isolation felt by young special education teachers and other special education stakeholders in rural areas of Bulgaria. The community is also intended to support special education stakeholders who are separated from their support network across busy cities or by the requirements of daily living.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Education_Bulgaria
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ARMA International (formerly the Association of Records Managers and Administrators) is a not-for-profit (charitable) membership association for information professionals – primarily information management (including records management) and information governance, and related industry practitioners and vendors. The association provides educational opportunities and educational publications covering aspects of information management broadly.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARMA_International
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The Association was founded in 1955. In 1975, the Association of Records Executives and Administrators (AREA) and the American Records Management Association merged to form ARMA International. The headquarters for ARMA International is located in Overland Park, Kansas. ARMA International services professionals in the United States, Tokyo, the United Kingdom, and Canada.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARMA_International
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Its members include records managers, attorneys, information technology professionals, consultants, and archivists involved in various aspects of managing records and information assets. ARMA hosts an annual conference with the goal of bringing together record and information management professionals from around the world – In 2023, ARMA will host conferences in both the United States and Canada. Topics addressed in the 120+ educational sessions include advanced technology, creating information structure, ediscovery and information law, information management fundamentals, information project management, and reducing organizational information risk. The expo features exhibitors displaying records and information technologies, products, and services.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARMA_International
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A gamma wave or gamma rhythm is a pattern of neural oscillation in humans with a frequency between 25 and 140 Hz, the 40 Hz point being of particular interest. Gamma rhythms are correlated with large scale brain network activity and cognitive phenomena such as working memory, attention, and perceptual grouping, and can be increased in amplitude via meditation or neurostimulation. Altered gamma activity has been observed in many mood and cognitive disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, and schizophrenia. Elevated gamma activity has also been observed in moments preceding death.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave
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Gamma waves can be detected by electroencephalography or magnetoencephalography. One of the earliest reports of gamma wave activity was recorded from the visual cortex of awake monkeys. Subsequently, significant research activity has concentrated on gamma activity in visual cortex.Gamma activity has also been detected and studied across premotor, parietal, temporal, and frontal cortical regions Gamma waves constitute a common class of oscillatory activity in neurons belonging to the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop. Typically, this activity is understood to reflect feedforward connections between distinct brain regions, in contrast to alpha wave feedback across the same regions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave
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Gamma oscillations have also been shown to correlate with the firing of single neurons, mostly inhibitory neurons, during all states of the wake-sleep cycle. Gamma wave activity is most prominent during alert, attentive wakefulness. However, the mechanisms and substrates by which gamma activity may help to generate different states of consciousness remain unknown.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave
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Some researchers contest the validity or meaningfulness of gamma wave activity detected by scalp EEG, because the frequency band of gamma waves overlaps with the electromyographic frequency band. Thus, gamma signal recordings could be contaminated by muscle activity. Studies utilizing local muscle paralysis techniques have confirmed that EEG recordings do contain EMG signal, and these signals can be traced to local motor dynamics such as saccade rate or other motor actions involving the head. Advances in signal processing and separation, such as the application of independent component analysis or other techniques based on spatial filtering, have been proposed to reduce the presence of EMG artifacts.In at least some EEG textbooks, users are instructed to put an electrode on an eyelid to catch these, as well as 1 on the heart, & a pair on the sides of the neck, to catch muscle-signal from the body below the neck. Clinical EEG may not do these things.
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Gamma waves may participate in the formation of coherent, unified perception, also known as the problem of combination in the binding problem, due to their apparent synchronization of neural firing rates across distinct brain regions. 40-Hz gamma waves were first suggested to participate in visual consciousness in 1988, .e.g, two neurons oscillate synchronously (though they are not directly connected) when a single external object stimulates their respective receptive fields. Subsequent experiments by many others demonstrated this phenomenon in a wide range of visual cognition. In particular, Francis Crick and Christof Koch in 1990 argued that there is a significant relation between the binding problem and the problem of visual consciousness and, as a result, that synchronous 40 Hz oscillations may be causally implicated in visual awareness as well as in visual binding.
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Later the same authors expressed skepticism over the idea that 40-Hz oscillations are a sufficient condition for visual awareness.A number of experiments conducted by Rodolfo Llinás supports a hypothesis that the basis for consciousness in awake states and dreaming is 40-Hz oscillations throughout the cortical mantle in the form of thalamocortical iterative recurrent activity. In two papers entitled "Coherent 40-Hz oscillation characterizes dream state in humans” (Rodolfo Llinás and Urs Ribary, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:2078-2081, 1993) and "Of dreaming and wakefulness” (Llinas & Pare, 1991), Llinás proposes that the conjunction into a single cognitive event could come about by the concurrent summation of specific and nonspecific 40-Hz activity along the radial dendritic axis of given cortical elements, and that the resonance is modulated by the brainstem and is given content by sensory input in the awake state and intrinsic activity during dreaming. According to Llinás’ hypothesis, known as the thalamocortical dialogue hypothesis for consciousness, the 40-Hz oscillation seen in wakefulness and in dreaming is proposed to be a correlate of cognition, resultant from coherent 40-Hz resonance between thalamocortical-specific and nonspecific loops. In Llinás & Ribary (1993), the authors propose that the specific loops give the content of cognition, and that a nonspecific loop gives the temporal binding required for the unity of cognitive experience. A lead article by Andreas K. Engel et al. in the journal Consciousness and Cognition (1999) that argues for temporal synchrony as the basis for consciousness, defines the gamma wave hypothesis thus: The hypothesis is that synchronization of neuronal discharges can serve for the integration of distributed neurons into cell assemblies and that this process may underlie the selection of perceptually and behaviorally relevant information.
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The suggested mechanism is that gamma waves relate to neural consciousness via the mechanism for conscious attention: The proposed answer lies in a wave that, originating in the thalamus, sweeps the brain from front to back, 40 times per second, drawing different neuronal circuits into synch with the precept , and thereby bringing the precept into the attentional foreground. If the thalamus is damaged even a little bit, this wave stops, conscious awarenesses do not form, and the patient slips into profound coma. Thus the claim is that when all these neuronal clusters oscillate together during these transient periods of synchronized firing, they help bring up memories and associations from the visual percept to other notions.
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This brings a distributed matrix of cognitive processes together to generate a coherent, concerted cognitive act, such as perception. This has led to theories that gamma waves are associated with solving the binding problem.Gamma waves are observed as neural synchrony from visual cues in both conscious and subliminal stimuli. This research also sheds light on how neural synchrony may explain stochastic resonance in the nervous system.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave
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Altered gamma wave activity is associated with mood disorders such as major depression or bipolar disorder and may be a potential biomarker to differentiate between unipolar and bipolar disorders. For example, human subjects with high depression scores exhibit differential gamma signaling when performing emotional, spatial, or arithmetic tasks. Increased gamma signaling is also observed in brain regions that participate in the default mode network, which is normally suppressed during tasks requiring significant attention. Rodent models of depression-like behaviors also exhibit deficient gamma rhythms.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave
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Decreased gamma-wave activity is observed in schizophrenia. Specifically, the amplitude of gamma oscillations is reduced, as is the synchrony of different brain regions involved in tasks such as visual oddball and Gestalt perception. People with schizophrenia perform worse on these behavioral tasks, which relate to perception and continuous recognition memory. The neurobiological basis of gamma dysfunction in schizophrenia is thought to lie with GABAergic interneurons involved in known brain wave rhythm-generating networks. Antipsychotic treatment, which diminishes some behavioral symptoms of schizophrenia, does not restore gamma synchrony to normal levels.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave
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Gamma oscillations are observed in the majority of seizures and may contribute to their onset in epilepsy. Visual stimuli such as large, high-contrast gratings that are known to trigger seizures in photosensitive epilepsy also drive gamma oscillations in visual cortex. During a focal seizure event, maximal gamma rhythm synchrony of interneurons is always observed in the seizure onset zone, and synchrony propagates from the onset zone over the whole epileptogenic zone.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave
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Enhanced gamma band power and lagged gamma responses have been observed in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Interestingly, the tg APP-PS1 mouse model of AD exhibits decreased gamma oscillation power in the lateral entorhinal cortex, which transmits various sensory inputs to the hippocampus and thus participates in memory processes analogous to those affected by human AD. Decreased hippocampal slow gamma power has also been observed in the 3xTg mouse model of AD.Gamma stimulation may have therapeutic potential for AD and other neurodegenerative diseases. Optogenetic stimulation of fast-spiking interneurons in the gamma-wave frequency range was first demonstrated in mice in 2009.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave
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Entrainment or synchronization of hippocampal gamma oscillations and spiking to 40 Hz via non-invasive stimuli in the gamma-frequency band, such as flashing lights or pulses of sound, reduces amyloid beta load and activates microglia in the well-established 5XFAD mouse model of AD. Subsequent human clinical trials of gamma band stimulation have shown mild cognitive improvements in AD patients who have been exposed to light, sound, or tactile stimuli in the 40 Hz range. However, the precise molecular and cellular mechanisms by which gamma band stimulation ameliorates AD pathology is unknown.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave
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Hypersensitivity and memory deficits due to Fragile X syndrome may be linked to gamma rhythm abnormalities in the sensory cortex and hippocampus. For example, decreased synchrony of gamma oscillations has been observed in the auditory cortex of FXS patients. The FMR1 knockout rat model of FXS exhibits an increased ratio of slow (~25-50 Hz) to fast (~55-100 Hz) gamma waves.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave
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High-amplitude gamma wave synchrony can be self-induced via meditation. Long-term practitioners of meditation such as Tibetan Buddhist monks exhibit both increased gamma-band activity at baseline as well as significant increases in gamma synchrony during meditation, as determined by scalp EEG. fMRI on the same monks revealed greater activation of right insular cortex and caudate nucleus during meditation. The neurobiological mechanisms of gamma synchrony induction are thus highly plastic. This evidence may support the hypothesis that one's sense of consciousness, stress management ability, and focus, often said to be enhanced after meditation, are all underpinned by gamma activity. At the 2005 annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, the current Dalai Lama commented that if neuroscience could propose a way to induce the psychological and biological benefits of meditation without intensive practice, he "would be an enthusiastic volunteer."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave
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Delta wave – (0.1 – 3 Hz) Theta wave – (4 – 7 Hz) Mu wave – (7.5 – 12.5 Hz) SMR wave – (12.5 – 15.5 Hz) Alpha wave – (7 (or 8) – 12 Hz) Beta wave – (12 – 30 Hz) Gamma wave – (32 – 100 Hz) High-frequency oscillations – (over ~80 Hz)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_wave
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Possibility theory is a mathematical theory for dealing with certain types of uncertainty and is an alternative to probability theory. It uses measures of possibility and necessity between 0 and 1, ranging from impossible to possible and unnecessary to necessary, respectively. Professor Lotfi Zadeh first introduced possibility theory in 1978 as an extension of his theory of fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic. Didier Dubois and Henri Prade further contributed to its development. Earlier, in the 1950s, economist G. L. S. Shackle proposed the min/max algebra to describe degrees of potential surprise.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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For simplicity, assume that the universe of discourse Ω is a finite set. A possibility measure is a function pos {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} } from 2 Ω {\displaystyle 2^{\Omega }} to such that: Axiom 1: pos ( ∅ ) = 0 {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} (\varnothing )=0} Axiom 2: pos ( Ω ) = 1 {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} (\Omega )=1} Axiom 3: pos ( U ∪ V ) = max ( pos ( U ) , pos ( V ) ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} (U\cup V)=\max \left(\operatorname {pos} (U),\operatorname {pos} (V)\right)} for any disjoint subsets U {\displaystyle U} and V {\displaystyle V} .It follows that, like probability on finite probability spaces, the possibility measure is determined by its behavior on singletons: pos ( U ) = max ω ∈ U pos ( { ω } ) . {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} (U)=\max _{\omega \in U}\operatorname {pos} (\{\omega \}).} Axiom 1 can be interpreted as the assumption that Ω is an exhaustive description of future states of the world, because it means that no belief weight is given to elements outside Ω. Axiom 2 could be interpreted as the assumption that the evidence from which pos {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} } was constructed is free of any contradiction.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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Technically, it implies that there is at least one element in Ω with possibility 1. Axiom 3 corresponds to the additivity axiom in probabilities. However there is an important practical difference.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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Possibility theory is computationally more convenient because Axioms 1–3 imply that: pos ( U ∪ V ) = max ( pos ( U ) , pos ( V ) ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} (U\cup V)=\max \left(\operatorname {pos} (U),\operatorname {pos} (V)\right)} for any subsets U {\displaystyle U} and V {\displaystyle V} .Because one can know the possibility of the union from the possibility of each component, it can be said that possibility is compositional with respect to the union operator. Note however that it is not compositional with respect to the intersection operator. Generally: pos ( U ∩ V ) ≤ min ( pos ( U ) , pos ( V ) ) ≤ max ( pos ( U ) , pos ( V ) ) .
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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{\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} (U\cap V)\leq \min \left(\operatorname {pos} (U),\operatorname {pos} (V)\right)\leq \max \left(\operatorname {pos} (U),\operatorname {pos} (V)\right).} When Ω is not finite, Axiom 3 can be replaced by: For all index sets I {\displaystyle I} , if the subsets U i , i ∈ I {\displaystyle U_{i,\,i\in I}} are pairwise disjoint, pos ( ⋃ i ∈ I U i ) = sup i ∈ I pos ( U i ) . {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} \left(\bigcup _{i\in I}U_{i}\right)=\sup _{i\in I}\operatorname {pos} (U_{i}).}
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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Whereas probability theory uses a single number, the probability, to describe how likely an event is to occur, possibility theory uses two concepts, the possibility and the necessity of the event. For any set U {\displaystyle U} , the necessity measure is defined by nec ( U ) = 1 − pos ( U ¯ ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {nec} (U)=1-\operatorname {pos} ({\overline {U}})} .In the above formula, U ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {U}}} denotes the complement of U {\displaystyle U} , that is the elements of Ω {\displaystyle \Omega } that do not belong to U {\displaystyle U} . It is straightforward to show that: nec ( U ) ≤ pos ( U ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {nec} (U)\leq \operatorname {pos} (U)} for any U {\displaystyle U} and that: nec ( U ∩ V ) = min ( nec ( U ) , nec ( V ) ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {nec} (U\cap V)=\min(\operatorname {nec} (U),\operatorname {nec} (V))} .Note that contrary to probability theory, possibility is not self-dual. That is, for any event U {\displaystyle U} , we only have the inequality: pos ( U ) + pos ( U ¯ ) ≥ 1 {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} (U)+\operatorname {pos} ({\overline {U}})\geq 1} However, the following duality rule holds: For any event U {\displaystyle U} , either pos ( U ) = 1 {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} (U)=1} , or nec ( U ) = 0 {\displaystyle \operatorname {nec} (U)=0} Accordingly, beliefs about an event can be represented by a number and a bit.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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There are four cases that can be interpreted as follows: nec ( U ) = 1 {\displaystyle \operatorname {nec} (U)=1} means that U {\displaystyle U} is necessary. U {\displaystyle U} is certainly true. It implies that pos ( U ) = 1 {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} (U)=1} . pos ( U ) = 0 {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} (U)=0} means that U {\displaystyle U} is impossible.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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U {\displaystyle U} is certainly false. It implies that nec ( U ) = 0 {\displaystyle \operatorname {nec} (U)=0} . pos ( U ) = 1 {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} (U)=1} means that U {\displaystyle U} is possible.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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I would not be surprised at all if U {\displaystyle U} occurs. It leaves nec ( U ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {nec} (U)} unconstrained. nec ( U ) = 0 {\displaystyle \operatorname {nec} (U)=0} means that U {\displaystyle U} is unnecessary.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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I would not be surprised at all if U {\displaystyle U} does not occur. It leaves pos ( U ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} (U)} unconstrained.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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The intersection of the last two cases is nec ( U ) = 0 {\displaystyle \operatorname {nec} (U)=0} and pos ( U ) = 1 {\displaystyle \operatorname {pos} (U)=1} meaning that I believe nothing at all about U {\displaystyle U} . Because it allows for indeterminacy like this, possibility theory relates to the graduation of a many-valued logic, such as intuitionistic logic, rather than the classical two-valued logic. Note that unlike possibility, fuzzy logic is compositional with respect to both the union and the intersection operator.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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The relationship with fuzzy theory can be explained with the following classic example. Fuzzy logic: When a bottle is half full, it can be said that the level of truth of the proposition "The bottle is full" is 0.5. The word "full" is seen as a fuzzy predicate describing the amount of liquid in the bottle.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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Possibility theory: There is one bottle, either completely full or totally empty. The proposition "the possibility level that the bottle is full is 0.5" describes a degree of belief. One way to interpret 0.5 in that proposition is to define its meaning as: I am ready to bet that it's empty as long as the odds are even (1:1) or better, and I would not bet at any rate that it's full.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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There is an extensive formal correspondence between probability and possibility theories, where the addition operator corresponds to the maximum operator. A possibility measure can be seen as a consonant plausibility measure in the Dempster–Shafer theory of evidence. The operators of possibility theory can be seen as a hyper-cautious version of the operators of the transferable belief model, a modern development of the theory of evidence. Possibility can be seen as an upper probability: any possibility distribution defines a unique credal set set of admissible probability distributions by K = { P ∣ ∀ S P ( S ) ≤ pos ( S ) } . {\displaystyle K=\{\,P\mid \forall S\ P(S)\leq \operatorname {pos} (S)\,\}.} This allows one to study possibility theory using the tools of imprecise probabilities.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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We call generalized possibility every function satisfying Axiom 1 and Axiom 3. We call generalized necessity the dual of a generalized possibility. The generalized necessities are related to a very simple and interesting fuzzy logic called necessity logic.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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In the deduction apparatus of necessity logic the logical axioms are the usual classical tautologies. Also, there is only a fuzzy inference rule extending the usual modus ponens. Such a rule says that if α and α → β are proved at degree λ and μ, respectively, then we can assert β at degree min{λ,μ}. It is easy to see that the theories of such a logic are the generalized necessities and that the completely consistent theories coincide with the necessities (see for example Gerla 2001).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Possibility_theory
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The Korea International Broadcasting Foundation (KIBF; Korean: 한국국제방송교류재단) is a South Korean non-profit organization established to broadcast Korean content to promote interest in Korea globally. The foundation operates Arirang TV and Arirang Radio. The foundation's offerings compete with KBS World (owned by state owned broadcaster KBS) which also broadcasts Korean content overseas.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_International_Broadcasting_Foundation
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The foundation was established April 10, 1996, and began domestic broadcasting in 1997. Overseas broadcasting commenced in the Asia-Pacific region in 1999 and broadcasts to Europe, the North Africa and Americas started in 2000. In 2003, the foundation established Arirang FM.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_International_Broadcasting_Foundation
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Jeju, an English language FM radio station in South Korea. Arabic language broadcasting commenced in 2004. In 2015, Arirang launched a channel on the UN's in-house broadcast network.In May 2020, Arirang TV signed a memorandum of understanding with The Korea Times.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korea_International_Broadcasting_Foundation
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The Chengdu Culture Park (Chinese: 成都文化公园) is an urban park in the city of Chengdu, Sichuan, China.The park is located at West Section 2, 1st Ring Road, near the Qingyang Taoist Temple and Wenjun Qintai Park. It covers 71,326 m2 with greenery, a lake, large stones, statues, a teahouse, and towers. In the early 1950s, the city government created an avenue on paddy fields near Qingyang Temple to exhibit and trade flowers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chengdu_Culture_Park
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Following the eighth flower exhibition, the avenue was converted into the Qingyang Temple Garden, with surrounding walls. In 1966, the park was renamed by the city government as the Chengdu Culture Park. Features at the park include the Relief Art Wall, the Shi’er Qiao Martyrs’ Tombs, and the Zhiji Rock and Octagonal Pavilion.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chengdu_Culture_Park
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Auditory processing disorder (APD), rarely known as King-Kopetzky syndrome or auditory disability with normal hearing (ADN), is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting the way the brain processes sounds. Individuals with APD usually have normal structure and function of the outer, middle, and inner ear (peripheral hearing). However, they cannot process the information they hear in the same way as others do, which leads to difficulties in recognizing and interpreting sounds, especially the sounds composing speech. It is thought that these difficulties arise from dysfunction in the central nervous system.The American Academy of Audiology notes that APD is diagnosed by difficulties in one or more auditory processes known to reflect the function of the central auditory nervous system.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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It can affect both children and adults. Although the actual prevalence is currently unknown, it has been estimated to impact 2–7% in children in US and UK populations. APD can continue into adulthood. It has been reported that males are twice as likely to be affected by the disorder as females.Neurodevelopmental forms of APD are differentiable from aphasia in that aphasia is by definition caused by acquired brain injury, but acquired epileptic aphasia has been viewed as a form of APD.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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Many people experience problems with learning and day-to-day tasks with difficulties over time. Individuals with this disorder may experience the signs and symptoms below; talk louder than necessary talk softer than necessary have trouble remembering a list or sequence often need words or sentences repeated have poor ability to memorize information learned by listening interpret words too literally need assistance hearing clearly in noisy environments rely on accommodation and modification strategies find or request a quiet work space away from others request written material when attending oral presentations ask for directions to be given one step at a time
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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It has been discovered that APD and ADHD may present overlapping symptoms. Below is a ranked order of behavioral symptoms that are most frequently observed in each disorder. Professionals evaluated the overlap of symptoms between the two disorders. The order below is of symptoms that are almost always observed.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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This chart shows that although the symptoms listed are different, it is easy to get confused between many of them. There is a co-occurrence between ADHD and APD. A systematic review published in 2018 detailed one study that showed 10% of children with APD have confirmed or suspected ADHD. It also stated that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the two, since characteristics and symptoms between APD and ADHD tend to overlap. The systematic review mentioned here described this overlap between APD and other behavioral disorders and whether or not it was easy to distinguish those children that solely had auditory processing disorder.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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There has been considerable debate over the relationship between APD and specific language impairment (SLI). SLI is diagnosed when a child has difficulties with understanding or producing spoken language for no obvious cause. The problems cannot be explained in terms of peripheral hearing loss. The child is typically late in starting to talk, and may have problems in producing speech sounds clearly, and in producing or understanding complex sentences.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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Some theoretical accounts of SLI regard it as the result of auditory processing problems. However, this view of SLI is not universally accepted, and others regard the main difficulties in SLI as stemming from problems with higher-level aspects of language processing. Where a child has both auditory and language problems, it can be difficult to sort out the causality at play.Similarly with developmental dyslexia, researchers continue to explore the hypothesis that reading problems emerge as a downstream consequence of difficulties in rapid auditory processing.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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Again, cause and effect can be hard to unravel. This is one reason why some experts have recommended using non-verbal auditory tests to diagnose APD.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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Specifically regarding neurological factors, dyslexia has been linked to polymicrogyria which causes cell migrational problems. Children that have polymicrogyri almost always present with deficits on APD testing. It has also been suggested that APD may be related to cluttering, a fluency disorder marked by word and phrase repetitions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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It has been found that a higher than expected proportion of individuals diagnosed with SLI and dyslexia on the basis of language and reading tests also perform poorly on tests in which auditory processing skills are tested. APD can be assessed using tests that involve identifying, repeating, or discriminating speech, and a child may do poorly because of primary language problems. In a study comparing children with a diagnosis of dyslexia and those with a diagnosis of APD, they found the two groups could not be distinguished. Analogous results were observed in studies comparing children diagnosed with SLI or APD, the two groups presenting with similar diagnostic criteria. As such, the diagnosis a child receives may depend on which specialist they consult: the same child who might be diagnosed with APD by an audiologist may instead be diagnosed with SLI by a speech-language therapist or with dyslexia by a psychologist.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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Acquired APD can be caused by any damage to or dysfunction of the central auditory nervous system and can cause auditory processing problems. For an overview of neurological aspects of APD, see T. D. Griffiths's 2002 article "Central Auditory Pathologies".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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Some studies have indicated an increased prevalence of a family history of hearing impairment in these patients. The pattern of results is suggestive that auditory processing disorder may be related to conditions of autosomal dominant inheritance. The ability to listen to and comprehend multiple messages at the same time is a trait that is heavily influenced by our genes, say federal researchers. These "short circuits in the wiring" sometimes run in families or result from a difficult birth, just like any learning disability.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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Auditory processing disorder can be associated with conditions affected by genetic traits, such as various developmental disorders. Inheritance of auditory processing disorder refers to whether the condition is inherited from your parents or "runs" in families. Central auditory processing disorder may be hereditary neurological traits from the mother or the father.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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In the majority of cases of developmental APD, the cause is unknown. An exception is acquired epileptic aphasia or Landau-Kleffner syndrome, where a child's development regresses, with language comprehension severely affected. The child is often thought to be deaf, but normal peripheral hearing is found.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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In other cases, suspected or known causes of APD in children include delay in myelin maturation, ectopic (misplaced) cells in the auditory cortical areas, or genetic predisposition. In a family with autosomal dominant epilepsy, seizures which affected the left temporal lobe seemed to cause problems with auditory processing. In another extended family with a high rate of APD, genetic analysis showed a haplotype in chromosome 12 that fully co-segregated with language impairment.Hearing begins in utero, but the central auditory system continues to develop for at least the first decade.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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There is considerable interest in the idea that disruption to hearing during a sensitive period may have long-term consequences for auditory development. One study showed thalamocortical connectivity in vitro was associated with a time sensitive developmental window and required a specific cell adhesion molecule (lcam5) for proper brain plasticity to occur. This points to connectivity between the thalamus and cortex shortly after being able to hear (in vitro) as at least one critical period for auditory processing.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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Another study showed that rats reared in a single tone environment during critical periods of development had permanently impaired auditory processing. "Bad" auditory experiences, such as temporary deafness by cochlear removal in rats leads to neuron shrinkage.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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In a study looking at attention in APD patients, children with one ear blocked developed a strong right-ear advantage but were not able to modulate that advantage during directed-attention tasks.In the 1980s and 1990s, there was considerable interest in the role of chronic otitis media (middle ear disease or "glue ear") in causing APD and related language and literacy problems. Otitis media with effusion is a very common childhood disease that causes a fluctuating conductive hearing loss, and there was concern this may disrupt auditory development if it occurred during a sensitive period. Consistent with this, in a sample of young children with chronic ear infections recruited from a hospital otolaryngology department, increased rates of auditory difficulties were found later in childhood. However, this kind of study will have sampling bias because children with otitis media will be more likely to be referred to hospital departments if they are experiencing developmental difficulties. Compared with hospital studies, epidemiological studies, which assesses a whole population for otitis media and then evaluate outcomes, have found much weaker evidence for long-term impacts of otitis media on language outcomes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_processing_disorder
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