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In the weeks and months preceding the 2016 United States presidential election, there was near-unanimity among news media outlets and polling organizations that Hillary Clinton's election was extremely likely. For example, on November 7, the day before the election, The New York Times opined that Clinton then had "a consistent and clear advantage in states worth at least 270 electoral votes." The Times estimated the probability of a Clinton win at 84%. Also on November 7, Reuters estimated the probability of Clinton defeating Donald Trump in the election at 90%, and The Huffington Post put Clinton's odds of winning at 98.2% based on "9.8 million simulations".The contradiction between the election results and the pre-election estimates, both from news media outlets and from pollsters, may have been due to two factors: news and polling professionals could not imagine a candidate as unconventional as Trump becoming president, and Trump supporters may have been under-sampled by surveys, or may have lied to or misled pollsters out of fear of social ostracism.
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In the corporate world, ineffective and suboptimal group decision-making can negatively affect the health of a company and cause a considerable amount of monetary loss.
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Aaron Hermann and Hussain Rammal illustrate the detrimental role of groupthink in the collapse of Swissair, a Swiss airline company that was thought to be so financially stable that it earned the title the "Flying Bank". The authors argue that, among other factors, Swissair carried two symptoms of groupthink: the belief that the group is invulnerable and the belief in the morality of the group. : 1056 In addition, before the fiasco, the size of the company board was reduced, subsequently eliminating industrial expertise. This may have further increased the likelihood of groupthink.
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: 1055 With the board members lacking expertise in the field and having somewhat similar background, norms, and values, the pressure to conform may have become more prominent. : 1057 This phenomenon is called group homogeneity, which is an antecedent to groupthink. Together, these conditions may have contributed to the poor decision-making process that eventually led to Swissair's collapse.
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Another example of groupthink from the corporate world is illustrated in the United Kingdom-based companies Marks & Spencer and British Airways. The negative impact of groupthink took place during the 1990s as both companies released globalization expansion strategies. Researcher Jack Eaton's content analysis of media press releases revealed that all eight symptoms of groupthink were present during this period. The most predominant symptom of groupthink was the illusion of invulnerability as both companies underestimated potential failure due to years of profitability and success during challenging markets.
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Up until the consequence of groupthink erupted they were considered blue chips and darlings of the London Stock Exchange. During 1998–1999 the price of Marks & Spencer shares fell from 590 to less than 300 and that of British Airways from 740 to 300. Both companies had already featured prominently in the UK press and media for more positive reasons to do with national pride in their undoubted sector-wide performance.
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Recent literature of groupthink attempts to study the application of this concept beyond the framework of business and politics. One particularly relevant and popular arena in which groupthink is rarely studied is sports. The lack of literature in this area prompted Charles Koerber and Christopher Neck to begin a case-study investigation that examined the effect of groupthink on the decision of the Major League Umpires Association (MLUA) to stage a mass resignation in 1999.
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The decision was a failed attempt to gain a stronger negotiating stance against Major League Baseball. : 21 Koerber and Neck suggest that three groupthink symptoms can be found in the decision-making process of the MLUA. First, the umpires overestimated the power that they had over the baseball league and the strength of their group's resolve.
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The union also exhibited some degree of closed-mindedness with the notion that MLB is the enemy. Lastly, there was the presence of self-censorship; some umpires who disagreed with the decision to resign failed to voice their dissent. : 25 These factors, along with other decision-making defects, led to a decision that was suboptimal and ineffective.
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Researcher Robert Baron (2005) contends that the connection between certain antecedents which Janis believed necessary has not been demonstrated by the current collective body of research on groupthink. He believes that Janis' antecedents for groupthink are incorrect, and argues that not only are they "not necessary to provoke the symptoms of groupthink, but that they often will not even amplify such symptoms". As an alternative to Janis' model, Baron proposed a ubiquity model of groupthink. This model provides a revised set of antecedents for groupthink, including social identification, salient norms, and low self-efficacy.
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Aldag and Fuller (1993) argue that the groupthink concept was based on a "small and relatively restricted sample" that became too broadly generalized. Furthermore, the concept is too rigidly staged and deterministic. Empirical support for it has also not been consistent. The authors compare groupthink model to findings presented by Maslow and Piaget; they argue that, in each case, the model incites great interest and further research that, subsequently, invalidate the original concept.
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Aldag and Fuller thus suggest a new model called the general group problem-solving (GGPS) model, which integrates new findings from groupthink literature and alters aspects of groupthink itself. : 534 The primary difference between the GGPS model and groupthink is that the former is more value neutral and more political. : 544
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Later scholars have re-assessed the merit of groupthink by reexamining case studies that Janis originally used to buttress his model. Roderick Kramer (1998) believed that, because scholars today have a more sophisticated set of ideas about the general decision-making process and because new and relevant information about the fiascos have surfaced over the years, a reexamination of the case studies is appropriate and necessary. He argues that new evidence does not support Janis' view that groupthink was largely responsible for President Kennedy's and President Johnson's decisions in the Bay of Pigs Invasion and U.S. escalated military involvement in the Vietnam War, respectively.
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Both presidents sought the advice of experts outside of their political groups more than Janis suggested. : 241 Kramer also argues that the presidents were the final decision-makers of the fiascos; while determining which course of action to take, they relied more heavily on their own construals of the situations than on any group-consenting decision presented to them. : 241 Kramer concludes that Janis' explanation of the two military issues is flawed and that groupthink has much less influence on group decision-making than is popularly believed.
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Groupthink, while it is thought to be avoided, does have some positive effects. A case study by Choi and Kim shows that with group identity, group performance has a negative correlation with defective decision making. This study also showed that the relationship between groupthink and defective decision making was insignificant. These findings mean that in the right circumstances, groupthink does not always have negative outcomes. It also questions the original theory of groupthink.
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Whyte (1998) suggests that collective efficacy plays a large unrecognised role in groupthink because it causes groups to become less vigilant and to favor risks, two particular factors that characterize groups affected by groupthink. McCauley recasts aspects of groupthink's preconditions by arguing that the level of attractiveness of group members is the most prominent factor in causing poor decision-making. The results of Turner's and Pratkanis' (1991) study on social identity maintenance perspective and groupthink conclude that groupthink can be viewed as a "collective effort directed at warding off potentially negative views of the group". Together, the contributions of these scholars have brought about new understandings of groupthink that help reformulate Janis' original model.
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According to a theory many of the basic characteristics of groupthink – e.g., strong cohesion, indulgent atmosphere, and exclusive ethos – are the result of a special kind of mnemonic encoding (Tsoukalas, 2007). Members of tightly knit groups have a tendency to represent significant aspects of their community as episodic memories and this has a predictable influence on their group behavior and collective ideology, as opposed to what happens when they are encoded as semantic memories (which is common in formal and more loose group formations).
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Baron, R. S. (2005). "So right it's wrong: groupthink and the ubiquitous nature of polarized group decision making". Advances in Experimental Social Psychology.
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37: 219–253. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(05)37004-3. ISBN 9780120152377.
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Ferraris, C.; Carveth, R. (2003). "NASA and the Columbia disaster: Decision-making by groupthink?"
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(PDF). Proceedings of the 2003 Association for Business Communication Annual Convention. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-10-18.
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Retrieved 2018-09-18. Esser, J. K. (1998).
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"Alive and well after 25 years: a review of groupthink research" (PDF). Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes. 73 (2–3): 116–141.
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doi:10.1006/obhd.1998.2758. PMID 9705799. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-06-18.
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Hogg, M. A.; Hains, S. C. (1998). "Friendship and group identification: A new look at the role of cohesiveness in groupthink".
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European Journal of Social Psychology. 28 (3): 323–341. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199805/06)28:3<323::AID-EJSP854>3.0.CO;2-Y.
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Klein, D. B.; Stern, C. (Spring 2009). "Groupthink in academia: Majoritarian departmental politics and the professional pyramid".
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The Independent Review: A Journal of Political Economy (Independent Institute). 13 (4): 585–600. Mullen, B.; Anthony, T.; Salas, E.; Driskell, J. E.
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(1994). "Group cohesiveness and quality of decision making: An integration of tests of the groupthink hypothesis". Small Group Research.
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25 (2): 189–204. doi:10.1177/1046496494252003. S2CID 143659013.
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Moorhead, G.; Ference, R.; Neck, C. P. (1991). "Group decision fiascoes continue: Space Shuttle Challenger and a revised groupthink framework" (PDF).
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Human Relations. 44 (6): 539–550. doi:10.1177/001872679104400601.
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S2CID 145804327. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-07-07. O'Connor, M. A.
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(Summer 2003). "The Enron board: The perils of groupthink". University of Cincinnati Law Review.
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71 (4): 1233–1320. SSRN 1791848. Packer, D. J.
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(2009). "Avoiding groupthink: Whereas weakly identified members remain silent, strongly identified members dissent about collective problems" (PDF). Psychological Science.
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20 (5): 546–548. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02333.x. PMID 19389133.
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S2CID 26310448. Rose, J. D. (Spring 2011).
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"Diverse perspectives on the groupthink theory: A literary review" (PDF). Emerging Leadership Journeys. 4 (1): 37–57.
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Tetlock, P. E. (1979). "Identifying victims of groupthink from public statements of decision makers" (PDF).
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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 37 (8): 1314–1324. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.8.1314.
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Tetlock, P. E.; Peterson, R. S.; McGuire, C.; Chang, S. J.; Feld, P. (1992). "Assessing political group dynamics: A test of the groupthink model" (PDF).
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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 63 (3): 403–425. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.403.
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Turner, M. E.; Pratkanis, A. R.; Probasco, P.; Leve, C. (1992). "Threat, cohesion, and group effectiveness: Testing a social identity maintenance perspective on groupthink" (PDF).
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Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 63 (5): 781–796. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.5.781.
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Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-09-23. Retrieved 2012-02-04. Whyte, G.
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(1989). "Groupthink reconsidered". Academy of Management Review.
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14 (1): 40–56. doi:10.2307/258190. JSTOR 258190.
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Janis, Irving L. (1972). Victims of Groupthink: A Psychological Study of Foreign-policy Decisions and Fiascoes. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin.
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ISBN 0-395-14002-1. Janis, Irving L.; Mann, L. (1977).
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Decision making: A Psychological Analysis of Conflict, Choice, and Commitment. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-02-916190-8.
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Kowert, P. (2002). Groupthink or Deadlock: When do Leaders Learn from their Advisors?.
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Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-5250-6. Martin, Everett Dean, The Behavior of Crowds, A Psychological Study, Harper & Brothers Publishers, New York, 1920.
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Nemeth, Charlan (2018). In Defense of Troublemakers: The Power of Dissent in Life and Business. Basic Books.
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ISBN 978-0465096299. Schafer, M.; Crichlow, S. (2010).
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Groupthink versus High-Quality Decision Making in International Relations. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-14888-7.
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Sunstein, Cass R.; Hastie, Reid (2014). Wiser: Getting Beyond Groupthink to Make Groups Smarter. Harvard Business Review Press.
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't Hart, P. (1990). Groupthink in Government: a Study of Small Groups and Policy Failure.
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Amsterdam; Rockland, MA: Swets & Zeitlinger. ISBN 90-265-1113-2. 't Hart, P.; Stern, E. K.; Sundelius, B.
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(1997). Beyond Groupthink: Political Group Dynamics and Foreign Policy-Making. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-09653-2.
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The CRAAP test is a test to check the objective reliability of information sources across academic disciplines. CRAAP is an acronym for Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, and Purpose. Due to a vast number of sources existing online, it can be difficult to tell whether these sources are trustworthy to use as tools for research.
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The CRAAP test aims to make it easier for educators and students to determine if their sources can be trusted. By employing the test while evaluating sources, a researcher can reduce the likelihood of using unreliable information. The CRAAP test, developed by Sarah Blakeslee and her team of librarians at California State University, Chico (CSU Chico), is used mainly by higher education librarians at universities. It is one of various approaches to source criticism.
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The first step toward knowing if a source is reliable is to check its currency. Currency means that the information found is the most recent. That said, students and educators may ask where the information was posted or published. Next, they look to see if the information has been revised or updated and whether the research assignment can rely on multiple sources in different McGuire platforms.
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The topic is also taken into consideration of whether it needs current news, media, or the latest findings from research or that can be found from older sources as well. These questions are important because they help pinpoint recent trends of the information and also exhibit the constant research changes that are spreading rapidly as technology expands now and in the future. If the source comes from a website, the links to access it must be working.
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When looking at sources, the relevance of the information will impact a well rounded research endeavor. One question in this category to ask is how does the topic relate to the information given in a source? More importantly, the writers of the references should focus on the intended audience. There are a vast number of topics and an increase in access to information.
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Therefore, the relevance of the information helps the audience know what they are looking for. Also, there is a check-in about whether the data is at an appropriate level of comprehension, that is, the degree must not be too elementary or advanced for the students' or educators' needs. Because of the variety of sources, educators can do their best to keep an open mind about source usage. Moreover, they should decide if they feel comfortable enough to cite the source.
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There is, however, not only the currency and relevance of the given source, but also its authority to consider. This is significant because the students and educators will look to see who is the author, publisher, or sponsor before they can trust the information. Their education level and the author's affiliations are important because this can help the readers know if the author is qualified to write on the topic. There should also be contact information for the publisher or author. The authority of the source helps the students or educators know that the information can be used and trusted in a proper manner. Authority in citing a source establishes a trust boundary between the reader and the author of the works.
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Emphasizing the trustworthiness of sources, the accuracy of the contents in the source must connect back to the origin. Evidence must support the information presented to the audience. Evidence can include findings, observations, or field notes.
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The report must be reviewed or referred. It must be verifiable from another source or common knowledge. That said, the language used in the sources has to be unbiased or free of emotion, because of its use for fact retrieval. The content in the source should be free of spelling, grammar, or typographical errors.
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The purpose of the sources helps the readers know whether the information they are looking for is right for their research. The questions that arise when looking for the purpose range from informing, teaching, selling, entertaining, research or even self-gaining purposes. Also, the author's intentions should be clear. Certain aspects should be taken into consideration whether the information given is fact, opinion, or propaganda as well as political, personal, religious, or ideological bias. Knowing the purpose of the information helps researching for sources a lot easier.
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The test was implemented by Sarah Blakeslee during the spring of 2004 when she was creating a first year workshop to first-year instructors. Blakeslee was frustrated that she could not remember the criteria for looking up different sources. After much thought, she came up with the acronym. She wanted to give students an easier way to determine what sources are credible.
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One of the other tests that came before the CRAAP test is the SAILS test: Standardized Assessment of Information Literacy Skills, created in 2002 by a group of librarians at Kent State University as an assessment for students' information literacy skills. The SAILS test focuses more on the scores as a quantitative measure of how well students look up their sources. While the SAILS test is more specific in its terms of evaluation, it shares the same objectives as the CRAAP test.
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One university has started using the CRAAP test to help teach students about online content evaluation. In a 2017 article, Cara Berg, a reference librarian and co-coordinator of user education at William Paterson University emphasizes website evaluation as a tool for active research. At Berg's university, for example, library instruction is given to roughly 300 different classes, each in different subjects that require some type of research that require students to look up sources. Website evaluation using the CRAAP test was incorporated as part of the first year seminar for students at this university, to help them hone their research skills.
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When the CRAAP test was first implemented at William Paterson University, there were some technical challenges. The workshop for website evaluation felt rushed and in most cases, librarians could not cover all the angles in one class session. As well, as a consequence of rushing the website evaluation portion for reasons of time, student performance on an assessment focused on website evaluation was poor. To address these problems, they developed a "flipped" method in which students watched a video that covered two of three workshop sections on their own time, with in-class instruction limited to website evaluation yet occupying all of a class period. Student performance on assessments of their knowledge of CRAAP for website evaluation improved after the change to instruction.
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The CRAAP test is generally used in library instruction as part of a first-year seminar for students. Students were required to participate in this class as a part of the graduation requirement at William Paterson University. Besides using the CRAAP method in English courses, many other courses have been using this method as well, such as science and engineering classes.
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The test is applied the same way as the website evaluation and is used universally in all courses. Examples of universities that use the CRAAP test include Central Michigan University, Benedictine University, Community College of Baltimore County, among the many examples. There are other schools that use the test as a way for students to do well on their assignments in subjects that require research papers.
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In 2004, Marc Meola's paper "Chucking the Checklist" critiqued the checklist approach to evaluating information, and librarians and educators have explored alternative approaches. Mike Caulfield, who has criticized some uses of the CRAAP test in information literacy, has emphasized an alternative approach using step-by-step heuristics that can be summarized by the acronym SIFT: "Stop; Investigate the source; Find better coverage; Trace claims, quotes, and media to the original context".In a December 2019 article, Jennifer A. Fielding raised the issue that the CRAAP method's focus is on a "deep-dive" into the website being evaluated, but noted that "in recent years the dissemination of mis- and disinformation online has become increasingly sophisticated and prolific, so restricting analysis to a single website's content without understanding how the site relates to a wider scope now has the potential to facilitate the acceptance of misinformation as fact." Fielding contrasted use of the CRAAP method, a "vertical reading" of a single website, with "lateral reading", a fact-checking method to find and compare multiple sources of information on the same topic or event.In a 2020 working paper, Sam Wineburg, Joel Breakstone, Nadav Ziv and Mark Smith found that using the CRAAP method for information literacy education makes "students susceptible to misinformation". According to these authors the method needs thorough adaptation in order to help students detect fake news and biased or satirical sources in the digital age. == References ==
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Visual.ly is a community platform for data visualization and infographics. It was founded by Stew Langille, Lee Sherman, Tal Siach, and Adam Breckler in 2011.
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Visual.ly was inspired by the founders’ time at Mint.com. As Mint's Director of Marketing, Langille noticed that the infographics posted to MintLife, the company blog, generated 30 times more traffic than a comparable text article. According to Langille, “we knew we were onto something big.”In April 2011, Langille, along with MintLife's Editor-in-Chief Lee Sherman and Adam Breckler, a Mint web developer, left Mint.com to co-found Visual.ly with Tal Siach, the founder of Walyou, an Israeli gadget site.
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Langille states that Visual.ly aims to evolve how digital news media outlets present information, similar to how USA Today’s weather infographics transformed news outlets in the early ‘90s and how Wired’s graphic design influenced digital media in the early 2000s.In October 2011, Visual.ly announced a $2 million round in seed funding, led by Crosslink Capital, 500 Startups, and SoftTech. At the time of the announcement, Visual.ly had 26,000 users, 7,000 infographics, and 1 million monthly page views. They have partnered with The Atlantic, Buzzfeed, AskMen, CNNMoney, and National Geographic, among other media outlets, to provide infographics and data visualizations.
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Visual.ly is structured both as a showcase for infographics as well as a marketplace and community for publishers, designers, and researchers. The site allows users to search images through description, tags, and sources in a variety of categories, ranging from Education to Business or Politics. Users can publish infographics to their personal profile, which they can subsequently share through their social networks.Visual.ly maintains a team of data analysts, journalists, and designers that create infographics and data visualizations using the Visual.ly tools. They are currently developing a tool that allows anyone to create and publish their own data visualizations.
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Through this tool, users will be able to gather information from databases and APIs in an automated service (meaning that users only need to specify the kind of information they want to visually display) to produce an infographic. Visual.ly’s first tool, the Twitter Visualizer tool allows users to input the Twitter handles of two people, and then generates an infographic comparing the hobbies, number of followers and occupation of the two accounts. CBC used this feature to compare leading politicians.
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Visual.ly’s infographics have been featured on NPR, The Huffington Post and CNN. They were named as one of Inc. Magazine’s 10 new web tools to make life easier. Their YouTube channel has received over 100,000 views.
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Sloyd (Swedish slöjd), also known as educational sloyd, is a system of handicraft-based education started by Uno Cygnaeus in Finland in 1865. The system was further refined and promoted worldwide, and was taught in the United States until the early 20th century. It is still taught as a compulsory subject in Finnish, Danish, Swedish and Norwegian schools.
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The word sloyd is derived from the Swedish word slöjd, which translates as crafts, handicraft, or handiwork. It refers primarily to woodwork but also paper-folding and sewing, embroidery, knitting and crochet. Otto Salomon, with the financial support of his uncle, started a school for teachers on the Nääs estate (now a part of the Swedish municipality of Lerum) in the 1870s. The school attracted students from throughout the world and was active until around 1960. Educational sloyd's purpose was formative in that it was thought that the benefits of handicrafts in general education built the character of the child, encouraging moral behavior, greater intelligence, and industriousness. Sloyd had a noted impact on the early development of manual training, manual arts, industrial education, and technical education.
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Sloyd (slöjd) has been a Swedish school subject since the 1870s and compulsory since 1955. In the present national curriculum for Swedish elementary schools, students have classes in Slöjd every semester, normally between the ages of nine and fifteen. In most schools, the course is still divided traditionally into two parts: soft materials (textiles) and hard materials (woodwork and metalwork). Each semester, students switch between the two different classrooms.
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Differences in what kind of tasks are selected, and how the subject-specific content is handled, depending on the teacher's training. The present aims of the slöjd curriculum in Sweden are: developing the ability to create and design self-made products in different materials expressing cultural and aesthetic values. managing handtools and materialsSloyd also aims to develop the student's practical knowledge, and their ability to solve practical problems through knowledge of different working processes, as well as how to evaluate the results of their own work during the production process by trying out different ways to handle specific tools or materials or by choosing alternative tools and materials.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloyd
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Born in Finland, Meri Toppelius was the first to introduce the sloyd system in the United States.The major points of sloyd introduction in the United States were Gustaf Larsson's Sloyd Teacher Training School, which was housed on the fourth floor of the North Bennet Street Industrial School (now the North Bennet Street School) in Boston, and at the Baron de Hirsch Trade School in NYC.Of the sloyd system, North Bennet Street Industrial School's annual report from the school year 1908–1909 had the following to say: The North Bennet Street Industrial School came into being in 1880 as an answer to the question thus stated in the first annual report: 'Might we not train these unskilled masses, and thus create a demand for them and their labor?' Throughout its history, the school has had a single aim—social betterment by means of such education as shall increase efficiency and respect for labor... Indeed, it is largely due to the work started here and developed through the Sloyd Training School that manual training has become the inheritance of children over our entire country. That same annual report goes on to say that "The Sloyd Training School, for many years occupying the fourth floor, was given a new building on Harcourt Street, the growth and demands upon the school has increased to such an extent as made the old quarters entirely inadequate. The implication is that the teachings were further absorbed into the Boston educational system.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloyd
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Gustaf Larsson wrote a number of books about sloyd and sloyd education, and B.B. Hoffmann, principal of the Baron De Hirsch Trade School, also published an important text. Ednah Anne Rich, a graduate of Gustaf Larsson's school in Boston and of the Sloyd Training School at Nääs started Sloyd teacher training in Santa Barbara. In a few years, sloyd was being taught in hundreds of schools throughout the US.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloyd
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In educational sloyd, as devised by Otto Salomon in the 1870s, woodworking projects were designed to build incrementally on the child's growing skill. This was accomplished by making the projects grow in the degree of difficulty over a period of time, through the introduction of the complexity of shape and procedures, and through the gradual introduction of more difficult woodworking tools. Salomon believed that the teacher should carefully study and know each child. It was said that from the student's perspective, no project should be any more difficult than the immediately preceding project.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloyd
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Sloyd was taught through the use of series of models, growing in difficulty and complexity that the students were supposed to accurately reproduce without interference from the teacher. Salomon developed exercises in the use of various tools leading to proficiency in the making of models. The exercises in the use of various tools were developed through a careful study by Salomon, but he also encouraged that model series be adapted and made relevant to the various cultures in which sloyd was taught.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloyd
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The objects in the model series were designed to be useful to the child and his family, thereby building a relationship of goodwill and mutual support in the child's education. "Paper sloyd," in particular, was intended as a preparation for woodworking and sewing, which were considered more difficult work appropriate for older students.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloyd
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The book Paper Sloyd for Primary Grades suggests that the craft's benefits for the student included the following: "Observation is quickened; eyes are trained to see right lines and distances, thus aiding in free-hand drawing and writing; while the hand and wrist muscles, being used for a definite purpose, unconsciously become obedient assistants. "Paper sloyd consisted of paper folding which resembles the Japanese art of origami, but involves more cutting and gluing. Projects might include folding a case for a comb or whiskbroom, a box for candies or pencils, pinwheels, a "match scratcher," a blotting-pad, or a penwiper.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloyd
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Sloyd differed from other forms of manual training in its adherence to a set of distinct pedagogical principles. These were: that instruction should move from the known to the unknown, from the easy to the more difficult, from the simple to the more complex, from the concrete to the abstract, and the products made in sloyd should be practical in nature and build the relationship between home and school. Sloyd, unlike its major rival, "the Russian system" promoted by Victor Della-Vos, was designed for general rather than vocational education. Educational sloyd as practiced in Sweden started with the use of the knife.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloyd
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The knife was controversial when sloyd was first introduced in the UK. Educators in London and the other cities of the UK could hardly imagine putting knives in the hands of the juveniles. They developed a rationale for the use of chisels instead.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloyd
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Salomon's purpose in the use of the knife was that it illustrates a fundamental premise. During the time of sloyd's invention and introduction in rural Sweden, nearly every boy growing up on a farm was already experienced in the use of the knife and knew how to use it without endangering himself or others. Starting with the known and moving toward the unknown was a crucial element of Salomon's theory.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloyd
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He also believed that beauty of form was more readily available through the use of the knife. Salomon believed that of all the basic crafts, woodworking best fit general educational purposes. Because most schools would not be able to afford to introduce a wide variety of crafts to their students, the overall needs of education would be best served through woodworking sloyd.
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He adhered rigidly to this plan, and it was not until his death that textile and metal sloyd was added to the teacher training at Nääs. It was also clear to Salomon that mastery of a single craft was more important than a cursory exploration of several crafts that did not offer the student the opportunity of reaching a point of mastery. Unlike woodworking education of the later years in the US, woodworking sloyd was introduced in the primary grades for the greatest benefit to the child's growing intellect.
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This was in contrast to the Russian system devised by Victor Della Vos, which was intended as a vocational system to help prepare students for employment in industry. The distinctions between the two systems were greater than perceived by many.
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Both used a series of models, but the Russian system used only parts of things rather than finished objects. Salomon's system was based firmly on his study of a long line of educational philosophers like Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Fröbel, Commenius and others. Teacher training at Nääs involved extensive lectures in the fundamental theory of education.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloyd
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