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This list has examples of suffix forms suitable for use in Australia with clear connotations of the class and type of road, recommended by Standards Australia. == References ==
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Wallace v. Jaffree, 472 U.S. 38 (1985), was a United States Supreme Court case deciding on the issue of silent school prayer.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_v._Jaffree
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An Alabama law authorized teachers to set aside one minute at the start of each day for a moment for "meditation or voluntary prayer. "Ishmael Jaffree, an American citizen, was a resident of Mobile County, Alabama and a parent of three students who attended school in the Mobile County Public School System; two of the three children were in the second grade and the third was in kindergarten. His youngest was being made fun of by peers because he refused to say the prayers. On May 28, 1982, Jaffree brought suit naming the Mobile County School Board, various school officials, and the minor plaintiffs' three teachers as defendants.
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Jaffree sought a declaratory judgment and an injunction restraining the defendants from "maintaining or allowing the maintenance of regular religious prayer services or other forms of religious observances in the Mobile County Public Schools in violation of the First Amendment as made applicable to states by the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution." Jaffree's complaint further alleged that two of his children had been subjected to various acts of religious indoctrination and that the defendant teachers had led their classes in saying certain prayers in unison on a daily basis; that as a result of not participating in the prayers his minor children had been exposed to ostracism from their peer group classmates; and that Jaffree had repeatedly but unsuccessfully requested that the prayers be stopped. The original complaint mentioned no specific statutes, but the case later dealt with three laws for public schools in Alabama: The first law (1978) created a minute of silence for meditation.
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The second law (1981) added the option of voluntary prayer. The third law (1982) authorized teachers to recite a prayer with "willing students".Despite initially granting a preliminary injunction, the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Alabama ultimately allowed the practice, found in favor of the defendants and upheld all three laws. The United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit also upheld the 1978 law but reversed with respect to the laws from 1981 and 1982 by holding them unconstitutional.
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The Supreme Court ruled 6-3 that the Alabama laws from 1981 and 1982 violated the US Constitution, but it upheld the law from 1978 that enabled a minute of silence for meditation in public schools of Alabama. Justice John Paul Stevens wrote the majority opinion and was joined by Justices William J. Brennan, Jr., Thurgood Marshall, Harry Blackmun, and Lewis Powell. Justice Powell wrote a separate concurring opinion, and Justice Sandra Day O'Connor wrote an opinion concurring in the judgment. Chief Justice Warren E. Burger and Associate Justices William H. Rehnquist (later Chief Justice) and Byron White each issued a dissenting opinion.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_v._Jaffree
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Rehnquist asserted that the Court's reasoning was flawed inasmuch as it was based on the writings of Thomas Jefferson, who was not the author of the Establishment Clause. The Court first noted that "the proposition that the several States have no greater power to restrain the individual freedoms protected by the First Amendment than does the Congress of the United States" is "firmly embedded in our constitutional jurisprudence" and that "the First Amendment was adopted to curtail the power of Congress to interfere with the individual's freedom to believe, to worship, and to express himself in accordance with the dictates of his own conscience." The "Lemon Test," which had been created by the Court to determine whether legislation violates the Establishment Clause, included as a factor that "the statute must have a secular legislative purpose."
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The Court further held in Jaffree that "the First Amendment requires that a statute must be invalidated if it is entirely motivated by a purpose to advance religion." The record in the case shows that the Alabama law "was not motivated by any clearly secular purpose" but also that "indeed, the statute had no secular purpose." With no secular purpose behind the law, which expanded a previous law that already allowed for meditation so that it now explicitly included "voluntary prayer" as well, the only possible conclusion was that the new law had been passed "for the sole purpose of expressing the State's endorsement of prayer activities for one minute at the beginning of each school-day." "Such an endorsement is not consistent with the established principle that the government must pursue a course of complete neutrality toward religion" and so the Court ruled in favor of Jaffree and upheld the Eleventh Circuit's decision.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_v._Jaffree
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In his dissent to the US Supreme Court case, Wallace v. Jaffree, Chief Justice Burger expressed several reasons for his opinion that the Court decided incorrectly. He began by pointing out that the statute authorizing a moment of silence at the beginning of a school day, which mentioned the word "prayer," did not unconstitutionally promote a religion. He maintained that the ruling against that statute was directly aggressive and intimidating to religion, which is as unconstitutional as a candid establishment of religion. Also in his first point, he contested the decision with the point that a school is constitutionally on the same level of government as state and federal legislatures and even the Supreme Court.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_v._Jaffree
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Thus, the endorsement of a "moment of silence" with an oblique suggestion of prayer is no less constitutional as is the opening of Congress or a court session with a prayer by a publicly-funded chaplain. In his next point, Burger emphasized the tenuousness of the Court's peripheral reasoning by specifically including the statements of the statute's sponsor and the differences between the statute and its predecessor statute. Upon the subject of the statute's sponsor's comments, he raised many points that work to invalidate the use of the statements as evidence for the original intent of the legislature at the time of the statute's enactment.
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Firstly, he mentioned that those statements were made by the sponsor after the legislature's vote on the bill and that the legislature did not in all likelihood know any portion of his views enough to claim his motives to be those of the entire legislature. He also brought attention to the fact that the same legislator also stated that one of his purposes was to resolve a misunderstanding that silent, individual prayer was unconstitutionally prohibited.
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Next, Burger discussed the differences between the debated statute and its predecessor by bringing up the Court's opinion that the inclusion of the phrase "or voluntary prayer" endorsed and promoted religion. He stated that the Court's reasoning relied upon the removal of the phrase from its context. He compared that addition to the addition of the phrase "under God" to the Pledge of Allegiance and contested that the Court's logic would also condemn the Pledge of Allegiance as unconstitutional and so was discernibly preposterous.
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He suggested that when taken in context, the phrase "or voluntary prayer" was perfectly constitutional as a measure to prevent the unconstitutional prohibition of individual prayer. Burger, in his third point, called out the Court's use of the "Lemon Test as an indolent attempt to apply a test that was "one size fits all" to a less-than-standard case. He suggested that the use of the test ignored the Court's duty to examine the statute against the ideas of the Establishment Clause and that the decision of the case clearly showed that shortcoming. In his conclusion, Justice Burger reiterated the fact that the statute was not an unconstitutional endorsement and promotion of religion that sought to establish a state church but an entirely-constitutional measure designed to prevent truly-unconstitutional infringements upon the rights of students to pray individually as they please.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_v._Jaffree
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Justice Rehnquist's dissenting opinion relied heavily upon pointing out the faults behind the common misunderstanding of Thomas Jefferson's statements about the "wall of separation of church and state" in his letter to the Danbury Baptist Association. Rehnquist began by explaining that the Establishment Clause has been closely linked with Jefferson's letter since Everson v. Board of Education. Rehnquist called attention to the fact that Jefferson did not write the letter until 14 years after the amendments to the US Constitution had been ratified and that Jefferson then resided in France. Thus, Rehnquist considered that Jefferson to be a less-than-ideal source of background on the Establishment Clause, regardless of Jefferson's intended meaning.
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Justice Rehnquist suggested instead to turn to the actions of the Congress and James Madison's significant role in it for insight into the original intent of the Establishment Clause. He continued by referencing the debates of the colonies' ratification conventions. He pointed out the fact that the states frequently opposed the ratification of the Constitution was the lack of a Bill of Rights.
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Those who upon that basis opposed ratification thought that the government, without such an enumeration of rights, had a great potential to follow the authoritarian path that they wished to avoid. To solve the impasse, Madison urged Congress to consider his draft of amendments. After some time of debate and revision, a version what is now the First Amendment was created: "No religion shall be established by law, nor shall the equal rights of conscience be infringed."
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That version was met with opposition by many representatives as it could be construed "to abolish religion altogether" or "to be taken in such latitude as to be extremely hurtful to the cause of religion." It was on that basis that the final version of the amendment was selected and ratified.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_v._Jaffree
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Thus, Rehnquist stated that it is indisputable that the spirit in which the Congress approved the Establishment Clause was one of open-minded toleration, not hostility towards religion. He then brings up Thomas Jefferson's reasoning for not issuing a Thanksgiving Proclamation. Jefferson said that partaking in prayer and religious exercises are acts of individual discipline and that the right to those activities can never be safer than in the hands of the people.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_v._Jaffree
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Rehnquist maintained that the meaning of the Establishment Clause was a preventative measure to keep the government from establishing a religion, not to prevent the individual freedom to follow one's own beliefs. In his conclusion, Rehnquist denounced the Lemon Test as "having no more grounding in the First Amendment than the wall theory created from 'separation of church and state' " in Everson v. Board of Education. He says that because it has no basis in the amendment that it is designed to interpret, it cannot yield predictably constitutional results when applied to a statute.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace_v._Jaffree
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An important part of the heritage of family resilience is the concept of individual psychological resilience which originates from work with children focusing on what helped them become resilient in the face of adversity. Individual resilience emerged primarily in the field of developmental psychopathology as scholars sought to identify the characteristics of children that allowed them to function "OK" after adversity. Individual resilience gradually moved into understanding the processes associated with overcoming adversity, then into prevention and intervention and now focuses on examining how factors at multiple levels of the system (e.g., molecular, individual, family, community) and using interdisciplinary approaches (e.g., medical, social services, education) promote resilience. Resilience also has origins to the field of positive psychology.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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The term resilience gradually changed definitions and meanings, from a personality trait to a dynamic process of families, individuals, and communities.Family resilience emerged as scholars incorporated together ideas from general systems theory perspectives on families, family stress theory, and psychological resilience perspectives. Two prominent approaches to family resilience are to view families as contexts of individual resilience and families as systems. In the field of family therapy the families as systems approach to family resilience is often used based on the assumption that significant risk, protective mechanisms, and positive adaptation occur at multiple interrelated system levels (individual, subsystem, system, or ecosystem). Thus, family resilience involves the application of concepts such as resilience, adaptation and coping to a significant stressor or adversity from a family systems perspective.
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One of the common factors associated with successful adaptation and coping is identified as resilience of individual family members. Resilience can be generally defined as the ability to "bounce back" to healthy functioning when faced with significant stressors and events. The concept of resilience has been heavily researched in adolescents and now includes specific character traits and behaviors known as protective and recovery factors. Previously, researchers have focused on identifying the characteristics of resilient individuals and started to explore the possibility of family resilience and family coping with stress.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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Currently, researchers are focused on specific interventions to increase resilience in the family unit, while considering related genetic and environmental factors.There are diverse definitions of what resilience and/or family resilience is. The National Network for Family Resiliency defines resilience as "the family's ability to cultivate strengths to positively meet the challenges of life". Atkinson, Martin, & Rankin define resilience as "the ability to bounce back and have better physical and mental health outcomes".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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For family resilience specifically, McCubbin & McCubbin have posited that "family resilience includes the characteristics, dimensions, and properties of families which help families to be resilient to disruption in the face of change and adaptive in the face of crisis situations".Using a combination of the above work, family resilience can be generally defined as: a dynamic process of families that have been exposed to a significant stressor or adversity that requires protective and recovery factors, identified by the family, as helpful to promote healthy coping in families and their self-identified family members. In the February 2015 special issue of Family Relations (journal) on individual and family resilience, authors provide a variety of definitions of family resilience. For example, Masten and Monn (p. 6) define resilience as "the capacity for adapting successfully in the context of adversity".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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Resilience and family resilience have been studied in the context of various theoretical underpinnings. These include Bandura's Self-Efficacy Theory, Lazarus' Stress Theory, Froma Walsh's Family Resilience Framework, and McCubbin and Patterson's Family Stress and Resilience Model. The family stress theory originates from the family systems model that considers all members of the family as important and as a system where all parts and interactions between and among those parts as important. The Family Stress and Resilience Model by McCubbin & McCubbin has been adopted by the field of family nursing because of the use in diverse families and because of the connection to the nursing metaparadigm of person, environment, health, and nursing This strong theoretical connection to resilience and nursing supports the interest from nursing, which focuses on caring for diverse families and individuals in a holistic manner.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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Henry, Morris, & Harrist proposed the overarching Family Resilience Model (FRM) as a general model of family resilience within which existing models fit as ways of looking at family resilience. Based on a review of existing individual and family resilience scholarship, these authors developed the FRM to include key ideas from individual resilience, proposing that significant risk suggests increased risk for negative outcomes. This risk can be lowered through protective mechanisms, increasing the potential for positive outcomes, or heightened through vulnerabilities that pile up to increase the potential for negative outcomes.
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However, significant risk, protection, vulnerability, and outcomes (or adaptation) occur within the context of family meanings, family adaptive systems (emotional systems, control systems, identity systems, maintenance systems, stress-response systems) in the particular family, and broader ecosystems.Resilience as a concept has been heavily studied on the individual level in children who have experienced significant stress or adversities. Family resilience is another level of resilience that is related to complex relationships and environmental factors. Fields that have utilized resilience research include psychology sociology, education, psychiatry and nursing.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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The concept of resilience is attractive to many different health related fields because of all that remains unknown about the process, as well as the potential for reducing or preventing adverse outcomes due to significant experiences with adversity. Once thought of as simply a personality trait, resilience has become known as a dynamic process with many related factors that can change throughout an individual's life. Since resilience is also related to experience to stressors and ultimately results in healthy coping, connections can be made with resilience literature, military family literature, and other stress/coping literature
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Family and individual resilience factors are not always the same. Family factors consist of stress management, emotion regulation skills, collaborative goal setting and problem solving. In contrast, individual factors that foster resilience include flexibility, use of social support, rebounding, high expectations, humor, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. While few valid and reliable measures exist to measure resilience or family resilience specifically, much recent work has focused on measuring these attributes of resilient families. Family resilience is a strengths-oriented approach that tends to emphasize positive outcomes at the overall family system level, within family systems, in individual family members, and in the family-ecosystem fit and recognize the subjective meanings families bring to understanding risk, protection, and adaptation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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According to Henry et al. when examining family resilience is critical to be aware of some key issues: (a) significant risk must be present for resilience to occur, (b) other vulnerabilities (e.g., chronic illness, addiction, poor conflict management or communication beyond the focal risk may "pile-up" to present additional challenges; c) protection (factors or processes of resilience) must be distinguished from outcomes (short or long term indicators of resilience), (d) family situational meanings (how a family collectively perceives the risk, protection, and vulnerabilities) interact with risk, vulnerabilities, protection, and outcomes, (e) these all occur within family adaptive systems (patterns of interaction within families described as meaning systems, control systems, emotion systems, maintenance systems, stress-response systems) and ecosystems. Thus, assessing resilience requires consideration of which component(s) the researcher is addressing. Further, measurement can occur at the level of the family-ecosystem (e.g., school-family, healthcare-family), overall family system, in family subsystems (e.g., couple relationships, sibling relationships, parent-child relationship, grandparent-grandchild relationship). Once the researcher clarifies which level(s) upon which they wish to focus, measures can be identified at the appropriate level.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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The problem with a nebulous definition of family resilience is that it is difficult to measure without a concrete definition. Specific measurement tools of resilience include the Family Strengths and Resilience Scale, Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale, the Resilience Scale and other self-report measures such as Brief Symptom Inventory, Child Behavior Checklist, Child Depression Inventory, and Mental Health Inventories have been most commonly used. One can also measure all of the attributes and antecedents of family resilience individually to attempt to capture what it means to be resilient at a certain phase of a family developmental cycle.
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Protective factors that can be quantitatively measured include: celebrations, hardiness, time together, routines, traditions, communication, financial management, and health. These factors have been most important when starting to understand the protective factors of resilience, versus the recovery factors, which are employed when the crisis or challenge has already occurred and the family needs to adapt.
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Recovery factors include: coping, social support, family support, esteem building, optimism, recreation, control, organization, flexibility, and hope. These factors are dependent upon the type of family that utilizes them and the need for certain factors depending upon the type of stressor (e.g. normative or non-normative). In short, it is difficult to measure family resilience. Card and Barnett (2015) discuss four key methodological issues in researching individual and family resilience: psychometric properties (reliability, validity, measurement equivalence), causality in the absence of experimental research, contrasting variable centered and person centered approaches, and the multilevel nature of family resilience.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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Professionals who work with families may employ a variety of educational, therapeutic, or community-based approaches to helping protect families against adversity or facilitate the abilities of families to mobilize their strengths or gain new resources to successfully rebound from adversity (i.e., demonstrate resilience). Examples of such approaches are to inoculate against risk (or expose families to low levels of risk in preparation for potential greater risks), reducing risk, increasing resources, or changing meanings to make them more manageable, according to Henry et a. (2015).Disability within a family critically affects each family members life.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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People with disabilities may encounter societal, medical, environmental, physical, and attitudinal barriers. These barriers can have the ability to put these individuals and their families in the face of adversity. Family functioning is also key in identifying basic elements in resilience, including such processes as cohesion, flexibility, open communication, problem-solving, and an affirming belief system.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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In addition, in order for families to frame the stress and uncertainty of having a child with a disability as a challenge that provides opportunities for finding resilience and meaning finding the right resources and professionals is essential. When a family who is facing adversity is surrounded by a community who lack in responding to hardships they are bound to family disruption. This proves that as family adversities become more challenging and difficult, the availability of community resources and a family's outreach to use them are essential. This may include resources like providing financial security, practical assistance, social support, a basic sense of connectedness through kin and friendship networks, and religious or other group affiliations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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Recent literature has focused on identifying healthy coping and adaptation in military families. With the current wars across the world, more military members are being deployed and are struggling with various issues such as: mental illness, substance abuse, difficulty with transitions, changes in roles, and ensuring their family is safe and healthy. The families of these military members are not immune to these stressors. The stress associated with the military can lead to depression if adequate coping mechanisms are not employed, or if the family does not possess the needed support or strength to adapt to stressors.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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The Department of Defense has collaborated with positive psychology scientists to create the Comprehensive Soldier Fitness program for members of the Army. More recently, the Family Skills Component of this program has been released for use by family members in the military. New military, government, and public health initiatives are focused on fostering and promoting resilience in the military family overall.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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Initial results from pilot studies show that those who are resilient can better cope with stressors and are less likely to suffer from depression or alcohol use.The Comprehensive Soldier Fitness program in the U.S. Army is the first of its kind. With input from the positive psychology field, a program to increase the physical and psychological health of service members was implemented in 2009.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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The Family Skills Component of this program is meant to assist military spouses and family members to also increase their levels of resilience. Additionally to this program, there is also a project called Families OverComing Under Stress (FOCUS). This project was created by a University of California, Los Angeles-Harvard intervention development team at a Marine Corps Base, Camp Pendleton.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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The program was created as a large-scale demonstration program for the US Marine Corps and US Navy. Essentially FOCUS was created to supply education and skills training designed to aid with coping and deployment-related experiences for military parents and children. Within this program family members of those in the military build a support network with each other by communicating each of their deployment-related experiences.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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This understanding is from each other aids in supporting the family resiliency processes. Results report an improved understanding of deployment and combat stress, improved family skills like communication, emotional regulation, family goal setting, and stress management. A 2012 American Journal of Public Health study of 331 families who participated in the original military FOCUS program shows it significantly improves children's behavior and family functioning and reduces anxiety and depression among all family members
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_resilience
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Tall oil, also called liquid rosin or tallol, is a viscous yellow-black odorous liquid obtained as a by-product of the kraft process of wood pulp manufacture when pulping mainly coniferous trees. The name originated as an anglicization of the Swedish tallolja ('pine oil'). Tall oil is the third largest chemical by-product in a kraft mill after lignin and hemicellulose; the yield of crude tall oil from the process is in the range of 30–50 kg / ton pulp. It may contribute to 1.0–1.5% of the mill's revenue if not used internally.
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In the kraft process, high alkalinity and temperature convert the esters and carboxylic acids in rosin into soluble sodium soaps of lignin, rosin, and fatty acids. The spent cooking liquor is called weak black liquor and is about 15% dry content. The black liquor is concentrated in a multiple effect evaporator and after the first stage the black liquor is about 20–30%. At this stage it is called intermediate liquor.
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Normally the soaps start to float in the storage tank for the weak or intermediate liquors and are skimmed off and collected. A good soap skimming operation reduces the soap content of the black liquor down to 0.2–0.4% w/w of the dry residue. The collected soap is called raw rosin soap or rosinate.
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The raw rosin soap is then allowed to settle or is centrifuged to release as much as possible of the entrained black liquor. The soap goes then to the acidulator where it is heated and acidified with sulfuric acid to produce crude tall oil (CTO).The soap skimming and acidulator operation can be improved by addition of flocculants. A flocculant will shorten the separation time and give a cleaner soap with lower viscosity.
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This makes the acidulator run smoother as well.Most pines give a soap yield of 5–25 kg/ton pulp, while Scots pine gives 20–50 kg/ton. Scots pine grown in northern Scandinavia give a yield of even more than 50 kg/ton. Globally about 2 mill ton/year of CTO are refined.
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The composition of crude tall oil varies a great deal, depending on the type of wood used. A common quality measure for tall oil is acid number. With pure pines it is possible to have acid numbers in the range 160–165, while mills using a mix of softwoods and hardwoods might give acid numbers in the range of 125–135.Normally crude tall oil contains rosins, which contains resin acids (mainly abietic acid and its isomers), fatty acids (mainly palmitic acid, oleic acid and linoleic acid) and fatty alcohols, unsaponifiable sterols (5–10%), some sterols, and other alkyl hydrocarbon derivates.By fractional distillation tall oil rosin is obtained, with rosin content reduced to 10–35%. By further reduction of the rosin content to 1–10%, tall oil fatty acid (TOFA) can be obtained, which is cheap, consists mostly of oleic acid, and is a source of volatile fatty acids.
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The tall oil rosin finds use as a component of adhesives, rubbers, and inks, and as an emulsifier. The pitch is used as a binder in cement, an adhesive, and an emulsifier for asphalt.TOFA is a low-cost and vegetarian lifestyle-friendly alternative to tallow fatty acids for production of soaps and lubricants. When esterified with pentaerythritol, it is used as a compound of adhesives and oil-based varnishes. When reacted with amines, polyamidoamines are produced which may be used as epoxy resin curing agents. == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tall_oil
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The International Hygiene Exhibition was a world's fair focusing on medicine and public health, held in Dresden, Germany, in 1911.The leading figure organizing the exhibition was German philanthropist and businessman Karl August Lingner, who had grown wealthy from his Odol mouthwash brand, and was enthusiastic to educate the public about advances in public health. Lingner had previously organized a public-health exhibition as part of the 1903 Dresden municipal expo, and its success led him to plan a larger endeavor.The exhibition opened on May 6, 1911, with 30 countries participating, 100 buildings built for the event, and 5 million visitors over its duration. It emphasized accessible visual representations of the body, and a particular sensation were the transparent organs preserved and displayed according to a method devised by Werner Spalteholz.Following the exhibition, its contents became the permanent German Hygiene Museum in Dresden. Its success spawned several follow-up expos, most notably the 1926 GeSoLei exhibition in Düsseldorf.Other International Exhibitions of Hygiene were held in: 1910: Buenos Aires, Argentina: Exposición Internacional del Centenario (1910) 1913: Lima, Peru 1914: Genoa, Italy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Hygiene_Exhibition
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Salt for Svanetia (Georgian: მარილი სვანეთს marili svanets; Russian: Соль Сванетии, romanized: Sol' Svanetii) is a 1930 Soviet-Georgian silent documentary film directed by Mikhail Kalatozov. As one of the earliest ethnographic films, it documents the life of the Svan people in the isolated mountain village of Ushguli in Svanetia, in the northwestern part of the Georgian Soviet Republic.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_for_Svanetia
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Most of Salt for Svanetia describes and explores the daily life of the Svan people, who are living isolated from civilisation in a harsh natural environment in the mountainous region of Svanetia. The film starts with the Lenin quotation "Even now there are far reaches of the Soviet Union where the patriarchal way of life persists along with remnants of the clan system." Svanetia and the mountain village of Ushguli are then located on two slowly dissolving maps of the region and are described as "cut off from civilization by mountains and glaciers". The location of the village is further introduced by several expository shots showing the Svanetian landscape.
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These shots give some emphasis to tall towers (still visible in the 2006 photograph below). It explains that these have been constructed by villagers to serve as a defense against feudal overseers, and it shows how villagers have used them to fend off tax collectors by heaving rocks from the tower tops. This introductory focus on class conflict fades as the film moves to concentrate on the daily routine of the villagers.
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One sequence shows how sheep are raised, another how wool and yarn are produced, and another on how barley is threshed. These sequences powerfully convey the technological underdevelopment of the area. Wool spinning technique antedates the spinning wheel; barley is threshed by cattle dragging a stone studded platform, weighed down by a mother tending to her child, over the barley.
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Another scene shows a suspension bridge and a man trying to cross over rushing water as his pack animals resist. A desperate harvest during an early July snowstorm is shown. Other scenes show how the Svan people tailor their clothes, make hats, cut their hair and bury their dead.
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The film then concentrates on the lack of salt supplies. Cut off from the outside world for most of the year, the village suffers from a shortage of salt. It is shown how this forces the animals to lick human sweat and urine.
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A party of workers, returning from migratory labor farther down the valley, are shown bringing salt back to the village. Most of them die when they are crushed by an avalanche. The solution to the salt shortage is presented in the climax of the film where the young Soviet power builds a road that connects the isolated region to the outside world. The film shows how teams of construction workers with their steamrollers arrive, cutting down a forest that is the last obstacle for the road that will connect the Svan people with Soviet civilisation.
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Svanetia was an underdeveloped region, and thus Soviet planners tried to make it a showcase of Soviet modernization during the first five-year plan between 1928 and 1932. During this time roads were built, an air service was established and industries such as mining and lumbering were developed. It was against this background of Svanetia as a showcase of Soviet modernization that Salt for Svanetia was produced.Inspired by a tour of the Caucasus, the writer and journalist Sergei Tretyakov wrote a newspaper article that gave Kalatozov the idea for the film.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_for_Svanetia
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Tretyakov then wrote a script for Kalatozov, and shooting began in the mountain village Ushguli in Upper Svanetia. Originally the film was planned to be a fictional feature film, but ultimately Viktor Shklovsky edited the footage Kalatozov had shot in Svanetia into a documentary film. The authenticity of some scenes has been disputed by the Svan people who deny that some of the customs shown have ever existed. The cinematography of Mikhail Kalatozov and the cinematographer Shalva Gegelashvili has been described as expressionistic due to its use of dramatic shadows, silhouettes against a dramatic skyline and Dutch angles.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_for_Svanetia
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After the film was finished it was criticized by Stalinist authorities as being unbalanced and unfair towards Svanetia. It was claimed that the director was too fascinated by the backwardness and superstition of Svanetia, and only superficially interested in socialist modernization. Kalatozov fell out of favor, culminating in a ban of his next film Nail in the Boot and a denunciation of his script on Imam Shamil.Despite the negative immediate reaction, Salt for Svanetia has been praised by film historians and other film directors. The Russian film director Andrei Tarkovsky called it an "amazing film". The American film historian Jay Leyda described it as a "masterpiece" and "the most powerful documentary film I have ever seen".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_for_Svanetia
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In 2015 the Scottish klezmer band Moishe's Bagel created a CD soundtrack with the same name to accompany the film.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_for_Svanetia
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Lenperone (Elanone-V) is a typical antipsychotic of the butyrophenone chemical class. It was first reported as an anti-emetic in 1974, and its use in treatment of acute schizophrenia was reported in 1975. Related early antipsychotic agents include declenperone and milenperone. Lenperone was never approved by the FDA for use in humans in the United States, but prior to 1989 it was approved for use in veterinary medicine for sedation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenperone
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The alkylation between 2-(3-chloropropyl)-2-(4-fluorophenyl)-1,3-dioxolane (1) and 4-(4-fluorobenzoyl)piperidine (2) gives 2-(p-fluorophenyl)-2-{3-propyl}-1,3-dioxolane, CID:20318874 (3). Deprotection of the ketal function completes the synthesis of lenperone (4).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenperone
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The military–entertainment complex is the cooperation between militaries and entertainment industries to their mutual benefit, especially in such fields as cinema, multimedia, virtual reality, and multisensory extended reality.Though the term can be used to describe any military–entertainment complex in any nation, the most prominent complex is between the United States Department of Defense (DoD) and the film industry of the United States.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–entertainment_complex
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In Hollywood, many movie and television productions are, by choice, contractually supervised by the DoD Entertainment Media Unit within the Office of the Secretary of Defense at the Pentagon, and by the public affairs offices of the military services maintained solely for the American entertainment industry in Hollywood, Los Angeles. Producers looking to borrow military equipment or filming on location at a military installation for their works need to apply to the DoD, and submit their movies' scripts for vetting. Ultimately, the DoD has a say in every U.S.-made movie that uses DoD resources, not available on the open market, in their productions.During World War II, Hollywood "became the unofficial propaganda arm of the U.S. military".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–entertainment_complex
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The United States Office of War Information (OWI) had a unit exclusively dedicated to Hollywood called the Bureau of Motion Pictures. From 1942 to 1945, the OWI's Bureau of Motion Pictures reviewed 1,652 film scripts and revised or discarded any that portrayed the United States in a negative light, including material that made Americans seem "oblivious to the war or anti-war." Elmer Davis, the head of the OWI, said that "The easiest way to inject a propaganda idea into most people's minds is to let it go through the medium of an entertainment picture when they do not realize they're being propagandized".Four decades after the release of the 1954 adult animated film Animal Farm, Cold War historian Tony Shaw discovered, through looking at archives of the film, that the CIA had secretly purchased the rights to the film.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–entertainment_complex
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The CIA also altered the ending of the film so that the pigs, who represent communists, were overthrown by the other animals on the farm.The 1986 film Top Gun, produced by Don Simpson and Jerry Bruckheimer at Paramount Pictures, and with DoD assistance, aimed at rebranding the U.S. Navy's image in the post-Vietnam War era. During the showings of the film, military recruiters set up tables in cinemas during its premieres.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–entertainment_complex
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However, claims enlistments spiked as high as 500% are a myth, and enlistments only rose by approximately 8% in 1986. By the end of the 1980s and early 1990s, Hollywood producers were stressing script writers to create military-related plots to gain production power from the U.S. military.Some American movies co-scripted with the DoD include: Air Force One (1997) Apollo 13 (1995) Armageddon (1998) Batman & Robin (1997) Battleship (2012) Behind Enemy Lines (2001) Black Hawk Down (2001) Captain Phillips (2013) Deep Impact (1998) Godzilla (1998) The Green Berets (1968) I Am Legend (2007) Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989) Iron Man (2008) Iron Man 2 (2010) The Jackal (1997) James Bond series: Goldfinger (1964) Thunderball (1965) Licence to Kill (1989) GoldenEye (1995) Tomorrow Never Dies (1997) Jurassic Park III (2001) The Karate Kid Part II (1986) The Next Karate Kid (1994) King Kong (2005) Midway (2019) Last Action Hero (1993) Red Dawn (1984) The Silence of the Lambs (1991) Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home (1986) Top Gun (1986) Top Gun: Maverick (2022) Transformers (2007) Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen (2009) Transformers: Dark of the Moon (2011) Transformers: The Last Knight (2017) True Lies (1994) Wonder Woman 1984 (2020) Wings (1927)The website Spy Culture compiled a list of 410 DoD-sponsored movies.The CIA collaborated extensively in the production of the 2012 film Zero Dark Thirty.The documentary Theaters of War (2022) says that more than 2,500 films and TV shows have been supervised by the military, mostly, as well as the security services.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–entertainment_complex
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Katy Perry's 2012 music video "Part of Me", in which she signs up to join the Marines, was shot at USMC Camp Pendleton in Oceanside, California, with the support of the Marines.On YouTube, a new music video genre appeared, the military music videos. Typically, these are video clips portraying singers in military equipment and surrounded by military vehicles and weapons. This video genre is used by a number of armed forces across the globe (list of examples below) Azerbaijan's State Border Service: QƏLƏBƏNİN YOLLARI National Army of Colombia: Espada de Honor People's Liberation Army: Battle Declaration Russian Airborne Forces: Iraqi Army: شمس المصلاوي - انا عراقية The United States Air Force has an official rock band, Max Impact, and released a punk version of its official anthem. In early 2019, the U.S. Army released a promotional military hip hop video, "Giving All I Got", with the explicit intent to get the attention of the younger crowd.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–entertainment_complex
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In his book From Sun Tzu to Xbox, Ed Halter wrote "The technologies that shape our culture have always been pushed forward by war". Video games "were not created directly for military purposes, arose out of an intellectual environment whose existence was entirely predicated on defense research". The first known virtual military training equipment, a flight simulator made of wood, was created in the 1920s by Edward Link. Since the Second World War, the U.S.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–entertainment_complex
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Army and its sub-agencies played a major role in the development of digital computers. The DARPA, an agency of the DoD, contributed to the development of Advanced computing systems, computer graphics, the Internet, multiplayer networked systems, and the 3-D navigation of virtual environments.Arguably the first video game (faux-military simulation), the PDP-1-powered Spacewar!, was developed in 1962. The U.S.
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Army's first video game created for training purposes, the board game Mech War, was implemented in the staff officer training curriculum in the 1970s at the Army War College. During the 1980s, Academic and military researchers led the development of distributed interactive simulations (DIS) that enable the creation of real-time, virtual theaters of war. The release by Atari of the game Battlezone was a revolution for the graphics perspective, introducing first-person shooter games for the first time.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–entertainment_complex
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Donn A. Starry, head of the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), said in a conference in 1981: " learned to learn in a different world, ... a world of television, electronic toys and games, computers, and a host of other electronic devices. They belong to a TV and technology generation... how is it that our soldiers are still sitting in classrooms, still listening to lectures, still depending on books and other paper reading materials, when possibly new and better methods have been available for many years?" The Air Force captain Jack A. Thorpe developed SIMNET with DARPA, a real-time distributed networking to modernize virtual simulation capacities and enable soldiers to experience war situation in times of peace. The magazine Wired argued this was the real embryo of the Internet.After the first-person-shooter hit Doom came out in 1993, the Marine Corps Modeling and Simulation Office (MCMSO) released the online Personal Computer Based Wargames Catalog where Army personnel published detailed reviews of the video games they investigated. Doom became the MCMSO's absolute preference, and in 1995, the game Marine Doom was released, and the alien-themed graphics of the game's first version was replaced by military-themed graphics.Dave Anthony, a writer for Call of Duty, left his job and became an "unknown conflict" adviser for the Department of Defense.The video game Homefront was created by John Milius, who also wrote/directed the 1984 war film Red Dawn that gave its name to the Operation Red Dawn which led to the capture of Saddam Hussein.Sometimes the military will create their own games, such as America's Army, a free first-person shooter that was intended to educate and recruit prospective soldiers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–entertainment_complex
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The U.S. military has provided $53 million in funding to professional sports organizations in exchange for pro-military messaging, such as a "salute" to active duty soldiers and war veterans. This practice is common in the NFL and NASCAR with the latter's "NASCAR Salutes" program running through the entirety of May.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–entertainment_complex
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Philip Meredith Strub was the head of the DoD's Film Liaison Unit from 1989 to 2018. Strub oversaw the creation of "Dara", a DoD database of all entertainment productions that had approached the department for assistance. Strub received his bachelor's degree in political science from Saint Louis University in Missouri in 1968; was commissioned as a U.S. Navy officer; and received a master's in cinema production in 1974 from the University of Southern California.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–entertainment_complex
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David Evans became head of the DoD's Film Liaison Unit after Strub's retirement in 2018. Evans spent 13 years as a public affairs specialist at the DoD and then spent four years working as Strub's deputy. Less is known about Evans than even Strub. Shortly after his appointment, his LinkedIn profile was deleted.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military–entertainment_complex
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"More Product, Less Process: Revamping Traditional Archival Processing" is a 2005 archival science article written by Mark A. Greene and Dennis Meissner that first appeared in the Fall/Winter 2005 issue of The American Archivist. : 208 The paper argues that traditional archival processing is too slow, and advocates for the use of minimal processing in order to reduce backlogs and provide access to archival collections as quickly as possible. : 208 The ideology presented in the article, abbreviated as MPLP, has since been widely adopted in modern archival theory with subsequent praise directed primarily towards the ability to increase user accessibility without prohibiting the option for future processing.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More_Product,_Less_Process
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Greene and Meissner begin the article with a call to action, citing the British report Best Value and Local Authority Archives, which claims that archival cataloging, arrangement, and description are "not working" and that growing backlogs are "weakening the archival profession". : 208–9 The authors hypothesize that "processing projects squander scarce resources", and that it is thus necessary to entirely reframe the discussion about processing rather than simply suggesting a new processing technique. : 209 Their methodology included a literature review, an overview of National Historical Publications and Records Commission (NHPRC) grants, two surveys, and examination of other relevant studies.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More_Product,_Less_Process
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: 209 Greene and Meissner discuss what they perceive to be problems with processing and cite a 1998 Association of Research Libraries (ARL) survey of special collections units which found that nearly a third of manuscript collections made up uncatalogued backlogs. : 210 The authors present a new set of guidelines for arrangement, preservation, and description: Expediting the availability of collections to users; Assuring adequate arrangement of materials for users' needs; Taking the minimum steps necessary for physically preserving collection materials; Describing materials sufficiently for use. : 212–3
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More_Product,_Less_Process
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The authors argue that arrangement at the item level is not necessary and instead emphasize the importance of creating finding aids for collections instead. : 214–20 The authors then discuss the rate at which archivists are able to process collections, citing a 1982 study by Karen Temple Lynch and Thomas E. Lynch that put the figure at 12.7 hours per cubic foot. : 223 Further citing a study by the Billy Graham Center Archives that found the cost of processing as high as 15.1 hours and $374 per foot,: 225–6 Greene and Meissner lament that with regard to processing, archivists "have utterly failed to come to grips with a critical administrative reality, a reality that eats 90 percent of our direct program expenditures". : 227 The authors propose five major findings from their research: Arrangement was still often at the item level; Only 51% of repositories were regularly putting finding aids online; While most repositories have some preservation considerations, very few do it consistently; Repositories were not responding to the challenges presented by backlogs; Many of the repositories store their collections in appropriate temperature and relative humidity conditions, but still feel the need to remove metal fasteners (which the authors argue is unnecessary). : 230–1
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More_Product,_Less_Process
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Recognizing that tradeoffs must be made, Greene and Meissner argue that some preservation concerns must be given up for the sake of providing effective access to users of collections. : 236–7 They then present their "principles for change" as recommendations for archivists: The Golden Minimum: to reach the processing requirements of current and future users at the most basic level. : 240–1 Arrangement: As opposed to organization of individual items, arranging collections at the series and folder levels simplifies and facilitates research for prospective users. : 241 Description: to embody the materials, provide context and access information to the user, and reflect the level of arrangement.
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: 245–6 Preservation: Modern climate controlled storage can be trusted to preserve materials following minimalist processing. : 251 Policies: “Unprocessed collections should be presumed open to researchers. Period.”: 252 Metrics: Consistency must be established at the most basic acceptable level among all aspects of archival processing.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More_Product,_Less_Process
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: 252 "More Product, Less Process" concludes that because greater funding and resources are not forthcoming, archivists must "change the way we process so that we can, with our existing resources, roughly triple the speed with which we process". : 254 The authors acknowledge the difficulty of their prospective changes, similar issues that librarians face, and the innovative processing work done at institutions including Arizona State University, Yale University, Marquette University, the University of Central Florida, the University of Montana, and the Wisconsin Historical Society. : 255–6
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More_Product,_Less_Process
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The minimal processing approach advocated by "More Product, Less Process" has been implemented by many archives and libraries, including but not limited to the Library of Congress, the University of North Carolina's Wilson Library, and the Academic Health Center Archives at the University of Minnesota. Greene and Meissner's article has been highly influential within the archival community, and it has inspired multiple series of presentations, seminars, workshops, and webinars on minimal processing. Emphasis has been drawn towards the argument's devotion to combating extensive backlogs and rethinking archival processing. The University of South Carolina' libraries' blog cites their collection of the papers of Environmentalist, Inc. as a product of MPLP through its lack of thorough processing, but extensive availability to the public.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More_Product,_Less_Process
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The article has also inspired the name of "More Podcast, Less Process", an archives-related podcast hosted by Jefferson Bailey of the Metropolitan New York Library Council and Joshua Ranger of AudioVisual Preservation Solutions.Prior to Mark Greene's death in 2017, the authors continued to expand their original thesis, notably in a 2010 Journal of Archival Organization article that amplifies their resource allocation argument and directly rebuts a variety of critics.Criticism of "More Product, Less Process" has been primarily directed towards its perceived broadness, lenience, and reductive perspective. One piece argues MPLP's poor application to item level digitization and notes the ambiguity of relying on relative importance and condition to determine processing priority. A 2015 article in The American Archivist criticizes MPLP as overtly negative and negligent towards the values of preservation and argues that the philosophy places collections themselves at risk. Greene and Meissner's response reiterates their argument and the opportunity cost relationship of processing and user access.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More_Product,_Less_Process
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In Henningsen v. Bloomfield Motors, Inc., 32 N.J. 358, 161 A.2d 69 (N.J. 1960), the New Jersey Supreme Court held that an automobile manufacturer's attempt to use an express warranty that disclaimed an implied warranty of merchantability was invalid.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henningsen_v._Bloomfield_Motors,_Inc.
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On May 7, 1955, Mr. Claus H. Henningsen purchased a Plymouth automobile, manufactured by Chrysler Corporation, from Bloomfield Motors, Inc. The automobile was intended as a Mother's Day gift to his wife, Helen, and the purchase was executed solely by Mr. Henningsen. The contract for sale was a one-page form and contained paragraphs in various type sizes on the front and back of the form. Mr. Henningsen testified he did not read all paragraphs of the contract. The back of the contract contained the following clause: The manufacturer warrants each new motor vehicle (including original equipment placed thereon by the manufacturer except tires), chassis or parts manufactured by it to be free from defects in material or workmanship under normal use and service.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henningsen_v._Bloomfield_Motors,_Inc.
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Its obligation under this warranty being limited to making good at its factory any part or parts thereof which shall, within ninety (90) days after delivery of such vehicle to the original purchaser or before such vehicle has been driven 4,000 miles, whichever event shall first occur, be returned to it with transportation charges prepaid and which its examination shall disclose to its satisfaction to have been thus defective; This warranty being expressly in lieu of all other warranties expressed or implied, and all other obligations or liabilities on its part, and it neither assumes nor authorizes any other person to assume for it any other liability in connection with the sale of its vehicles. The car was delivered on May 9, 1955. There were no problems with the car until May 19, 1955.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henningsen_v._Bloomfield_Motors,_Inc.
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On that day, Mrs. Henningsen was driving the car at 20-22 mph on a smooth two lane highway. Mrs. Henningsen then heard a loud noise, the steering wheel spun in her hands, and the car suddenly veered and collided with a wall. The car was damaged severely, and declared totaled by the Henningsens' insurance carrier. The defendants refused to repair the car under warranty since they claimed the express warranty was limited only to repairing the defective parts and that it was not liable for damages caused by defective parts.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henningsen_v._Bloomfield_Motors,_Inc.
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Mr. and Mrs. Henningsen sued under a theory of negligence and a theory of warranty. The court felt the proof was not sufficient to make out a prima facie case of negligence and gave the case to the jury solely on the warranty theory. The jury returned a verdict for the plaintiffs, Mr. and Mrs. Henningsen, against both defendants. The appellate case was argued on December 7, 1959 and was decided on May 9, 1960.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henningsen_v._Bloomfield_Motors,_Inc.
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Automobile purchasers may recover for damages caused by defective parts under an implied warranty of merchantability since automobile manufacturers and dealers may not limit this warranty to replacement of only defective parts as this violates fair dealing and public policy.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henningsen_v._Bloomfield_Motors,_Inc.
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The court rejected Chrysler's argument that the law required privity of contract and therefore foreclosed consumers from seeking to hold liable automobile manufactures where a consumers had purchased the vehicle from an automobile retailer. The court explained that the common law rule requiring privity stemmed from the pre-modern nature of markets, where buyers typically purchased directly from the maker. While the court recognized that a majority of states still followed the rule requiring privity, it pointed to the developing trend away from the common law rule due to the changing nature of modern markets, wherein direct sales were no longer as common, as a sufficient basis for it to depart from the common law rule. The court viewed as unjust scenarios where manufacturers could advertise and profit from claims of product suitability but then escape liability where those claims proved untrue.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henningsen_v._Bloomfield_Motors,_Inc.
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In the court's view, the manufacturer's advertisements of product suitability represented an implied warranty to consumers, and that warranty accompanied every car the manufacturer put into the stream of trade. The court then turned to the contract between Bloomfield Motors and Mr. Henningsen. The court reiterated that the public policy of New Jersey attached an implied warranty of merchantability to the sale of all goods.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henningsen_v._Bloomfield_Motors,_Inc.
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While the state's Uniform Sales Act allowed for buyers and sellers to negotiate and vary the terms of a contract, that statutory allowance was in no way intended to permit seller abuse of disproportionate bargaining power to obtain from purchasers any waiver of the implied warranty of merchantability. Because Chrysler had compelled Bloomfield Motors to use a standardized form contract and forbade dealers from altering or consenting to any alteration to the contract's terms, and because Bloomfield Motors had acquiesced to that contract's use in selling to Henningsen, the court determined the manufacturer and dealer had unfairly obtained the disclaimer from Henningsen. Consequently, the disclaimer contained in the contract could not apply, and the implied warranty therefore stood.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henningsen_v._Bloomfield_Motors,_Inc.
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Some law and economics scholars have criticized this result as it will ultimately raise prices as automobile manufacturers and dealers have to pay for implied warranty costs. This results in an economically inefficient transaction since not all consumers wanted this warranty, but now all consumers are forced to pay for it.New Jersey courts, attorneys and scholars frequently cite Henningsen as the landmark case that established strict liability for defective products in the United States. However, the majority of US courts, attorneys, and law professors usually cite Escola v. Coca-Cola Bottling Co. and the Supreme Court of California as the source of the doctrine. Although Henningsen helped articulate the rationale for the then-imminent shift from implied warranty to strict liability as the dominant theory of American product liability, the case never actually imposes "strict liability" or "absolute liability" for defective products.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henningsen_v._Bloomfield_Motors,_Inc.
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In macroeconomics, particularly in the history of economic thought, the Treasury view is the assertion that fiscal policy has no effect on the total amount of economic activity and unemployment, even during times of economic recession. This view was most famously advanced in the 1930s (during the Great Depression) by the staff of the British Chancellor of the Exchequer. The position can be characterized as: Any increase in government spending necessarily crowds out an equal amount of private spending or investment, and thus has no net impact on economic activity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_view
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In his 1929 budget speech, Winston Churchill explained, "The orthodox Treasury view ... is that when the Government borrow in the money market it becomes a new competitor with industry and engrosses to itself resources which would otherwise have been employed by private enterprise, and in the process raises the rent of money to all who have need of it." Keynesian economists reject this view, and often use the term "Treasury view" when criticizing this and related arguments. The term is sometimes conflated with the related position that fiscal stimulus has negligible impact on economic activity, a view that is not incompatible with mainstream macroeconomic theory.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_view
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In the late 1920s and early 1930s, during the height of the Great Depression, many economists (most prominently John Maynard Keynes) tried to persuade governments that increased government spending would mitigate the situation and reduce unemployment. In the United Kingdom, the staff of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, notably Ralph George Hawtrey and Frederick Leith-Ross, argued against increased spending by putting forward the "Treasury view". Simply put the Treasury view was the view that fiscal policy could only move resources from one use to another, and would not affect the total flow of economic activity. Therefore, neither government spending nor tax cuts could boost employment and economic activity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_view
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This view can historically be traced back to various statements of Say's law. Keynes argued against this position, and particularly in The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, provided a theoretical foundation for how fiscal stimulus can increase economic activity during recessions.Opinions are currently sharply divided on the Treasury view, with different schools of economic thought holding contradicting views. Many in the "freshwater" Chicago school of economics advocate a form of the Treasury view, whereas economists from saltwater schools reject the view as incorrect.A number of prominent financial economists (including Eugene Fama) have recently advocated the strong form of this view – that of no possible impact.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_view
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However, it is categorically rejected by Keynesian macroeconomics, which holds that economic activity depends on aggregate spending (at least in the short run). It is related to, and at times equated with, theories of Say's law, Ricardian equivalence, and the Policy Ineffectiveness Proposition. Noted macroeconomists such as Milton Friedman and Robert Barro have advocated a weak form of this view, that fiscal policy has temporary and limited effects.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_view
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