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A related point is that N-ellipsis must be introduced by a pre-noun element in the noun phrase. In other words, the ellipsis cannot be phrase-initial, e.g. *He likes papers about gapping and she likes papers about stripping. - Failed attempt at N-ellipsis; the ellipsis must be "introduced" *We have pictures of Sam, and we have pictures of Bill too. - Failed attempt at N-ellipsis; the ellipsis must be "introduced"These data are (also) important because they bear on the formal account of N-ellipsis, a point that is considered in the next section.
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There are three basic possibilities that one might pursue in order to develop a formal account of N-ellipsis: 1) N-ellipsis is truly ellipsis; part of the noun phrase has indeed been elided.2) A covert pronoun is present, which means ellipsis in the traditional sense is actually not involved.3) An overt pronoun is present; the word that appears to introduce the ellipsis is actually functioning like a pronoun, which means ellipsis is in no way present.Each of these three analyses is illustrated here using tree structures of an example NP. The example sentence She gave the first talk on gapping, and he gave the first on stripping is the context, whereby the trees focus just on the structure of the noun phrase showing ellipsis. For each of the three theoretical possibilities, both a constituency-based representation (associated with phrase structure grammars) and a dependency-based representation (associated with dependency grammars) is employed: The constituency trees are on the left, and the corresponding dependency trees on the right. These trees are merely broadly representative of each of the possible analyses (many modern constituency grammars would likely reject the relatively flat structures on the left, opting instead for more layered trees).
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The ellipsis analysis assumes the presence of the elided noun. The null pronoun analysis also assumes ellipsis, but what is absent is not an actual noun, but rather it is a covert pronoun that would perhaps surface as one if it were not elided. The overt pronoun analysis entirely rejects the notion that ellipsis is involved.
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Instead, it grants the one pre-nominal element the status of an indefinite pronoun. Each of these three analyses has its strengths and weaknesses, and which analysis is preferred varies based in part on the theoretical framework adopted. The traditional ellipsis analysis has an advantage insofar as it is the most straightforward; a simple ellipsis mechanism is involved, which explains the fact that ellipsis in such cases is (usually) optional.
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The ellipsis analysis cannot, however, so easily account for the systematic variation in forms seen with possessives, since it suggests that there should be no such variation. The covert pronoun analysis can easily accommodate the fact that N-ellipsis has a distribution that is close to that of the indefinite pronoun one, but it too has difficulty with the systematic variation in forms seen with possessives. Both analyses are challenged by the fact that they cannot explain why N-ellipsis is limited in occurrence in English to a relatively small number of pre-nominal elements.
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Both are also challenged by the observation that the null element must be "introduced". The third analysis, the overt pronoun analysis, accommodates the systematic variation in possessive forms, since it assumes that the distinct pronoun forms appear precisely in order to indicate when a pronoun is present. The overt pronoun analysis can also account for the relatively small number of pre-nominal elements that can "introduce" ellipsis, since it reduces this ability down to a simple lexical characteristic of the pre-nominal elements involved.
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Furthermore, it quite obviously accounts for the fact that the "ellipsis" must be introduced, for there is in fact no ellipsis, but rather a pronoun appears. The overt pronoun analysis is challenged, however, by other data.
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The overt pronouns would have to be unlike most other pronouns, since they would have to allow modification by an adverb, e.g. You took the second train after I had taken the very first. The adverb very is modifying first, which should not be possible if first is a pronoun. In sum, the theoretical analysis of N-ellipsis is open to innovation.
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Corver, N. and M. van Koppen 2009. Let’s Focus on Noun Phrase Ellipsis. In: J.-W. Zwart (ed.
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), Groninger Arbeiten zur germanistischen Linguistik 48, 3–26. Lobeck, A. 1995.
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Ellipsis: Functional heads, licensing, and identification. New York: Oxford University Press. Netter, K.
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1996. Functional categories in an HPSG for German, volume 3 of Saarbrücken Dissertations in Computational Linguistics and Language Technology. Werner, E.
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2011. The ellipsis of "ellipsis". A reanalysis of "elided" noun phrase structures in German.
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Master's Thesis, Utrecht University. Winhart, H. 1997.
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Die Nominalphrase in einem HPSG-Fragment des Deutschen. In E. Hinrichs et al. eds., Ein HPSG-Fragment des Deutschen. Teil 1: Theorie, chapter 5, pages 319{384. Universität Tübingen, Tübingen.
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Signwriters design, manufacture and install signs, including advertising signs for shops, businesses and public facilities as well as signs for transport systems.
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Traditional signwriters use methods closely related to those of their forebears in this craft and do not depend on technology - they are able to set out a sign with chalk and write it by eye in freehand. They do not rely on fonts and normally have their own individual lettering styles, yet also have the ability to render fonts closely to brand, as in architectural design briefs, for example. Designs are often created by hand on the drawing board and later combined with CAD software for preliminary layout production. The final execution is made by hand using brushes known as quills and similar signwriting 'pencils' and chiseled brushes.
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Specialist enamels are also employed to fashion a long-lasting finish along with the traditional use of gold leaf. Historically, signwriters drew or painted signs by hand using a variety of paint depending on the background i.e. enamel paint for vehicles and general signs, and water-based paints for short-term window signs. The term "modern signwriters" is misleading, as most do not use the traditional brush as method of application.
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Many use vinyl masking screens in order to replicate traditional signwriting. Modern print-based signage producers design and 'output' signs with the assistance of computer software and a range of equipment such as large format digital printers, plotters, cutters, flat bed routers and engraving machines. Signwriting and signmakers may offer many different processes to present the same lettering or images in different media, such as banners, metal engraving, LED or neon signs.
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Signs created with large-format printers may use solvent inks, water-based inks, latex inks or ultraviolet-curable/cured inks. The last material is the most modern, and can be printed directly onto many different substrates such as wood, metal and plastic, adhesive-backed or non-adhesive films.
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Adhesive-backed films are then laminated to another substrate. So called 'permanent' signage for use in shopfronts can be cut by machine or hand from acrylic or metal. However these deteriorate and lose pigmentation and surface polish after two to three years. Many traditional signwriters point out that a painted sign, by contrast, grows more beautiful with age, eventually becoming what's known as a 'ghost sign' as it fades revealing grounds, surfaces, brushstrokes and undercoats.
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Signwriters were employed to paint signs for a wide variety of purposes. They required good hand-eye coordination as well as the ability to produce different styles of font, ornamentation and lettershapes.
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Signwriting for these establishments is typically elaborately painted, cast in metal or gilded, for the latter sometimes also for the menu case. This is typically done by signage machine specialists or by visual (manual) artists and/or metalworkers.
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Adaptive Behavior is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal that covers the field of adaptive behavior in living organisms and autonomous artificial systems. It was established in 1992 and is the official journal of the International Society of Adaptive Behavior. It is published by SAGE Publications. The editor-in-chief is Tom Froese (Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology).
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The journal is abstracted and indexed in Scopus, the Science Citation Index Expanded, and the Social Sciences Citation Index. According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2020 impact factor of 1.942.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptive_Behavior_(journal)
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Timbral listening is the process of actively listening to the timbral characteristics of sound.
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In timbral listening, "pitch is subordinate to timbre". Instead, the specific quality of a musical tone is determined by considering "the presence, distribution and relative amplitude of overtones. "When using this listening technique/ method of perception / interpretation there is "a relation between timbre and spectral content which is analogous to that between pitch and frequency in that one is the prevalent cultural construct of the other.
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"The most common form of timbral listening is listening to speech. This is demonstrated by listening to, for example, the vowels /a/ and /i/ spoken at the same pitch and intensity. The difference between the two sounds is entirely one of spectrum, or as the term is used in this article, timbre.
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It has been suggested that "timbral listening is an ideal sonic mirror of the natural world". It is often (but not always) used in association with musics that are based in mimicry of sounds in the natural environment. Valentina Suzukei suggests that 'it was the nomadic way of life and its focus on the timbral qualities of natural sounds that created this kind of musicality'. This is especially prevalent in Canada where composers such as Hildegard Westerkamp apply the thinking of R. Murray Schafer's World Soundscape Project to their compositions.
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As timbre has "no domain-specific adjectives" it "must be described in metaphor or by analogy to other senses". This method also has limitations.
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Traditional music in Tuva and other Turkic cultures of inner AsiaThe composition of timbre-centered music in the nomadic communities of Tuva involves mimicry of sounds heard in the environment. Timbral listening is a fundamental component of listening to, understanding and being able to correctly perform this music using vocal techniques such as throat singing "khoomei" and harmonic producing instruments such as the jaw harp, bzaanchy, shoor, qyl qiyak, qyl-gobyz, ku-rai and igil. Barundi whispered Inanga or Inanga Chucotée in AfricaThis music employs a fundamental drone and overtone harmonics.
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It consists of "a whispered text, accompanied by the inanga, a trough zither of eight strings. To listen correctly (using timbral listening), one must consider "the effect of the combined timbres of the noisy whisper and the inanga" as a whole sound. Some forms of contemporary electronic musicMore recently, computers and synthesizers are being used by contemporary composers to produce timbral-centered music.
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Contemporary composers state timbral listening as the correct technique to adopt in listening to and analysing their timbre (as opposed to pitch) based compositions. 'Pure timbres' are explored using methods such as granular synthesis in works such as Dragon of the Nebula by Mara Helmuth. Shakuhachi music in JapanThe music produced by the Shakuhachi end blown flute such as honkyoku, contains timbral variations that are of equal importance to pitch variations. These timbral variations are indicated in Shakuhachi musical notation.
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The technique of timbral listening is used by sound engineers to evaluate timbre difference.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbral_listening
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Emotion perception refers to the capacities and abilities of recognizing and identifying emotions in others, in addition to biological and physiological processes involved. Emotions are typically viewed as having three components: subjective experience, physical changes, and cognitive appraisal; emotion perception is the ability to make accurate decisions about another's subjective experience by interpreting their physical changes through sensory systems responsible for converting these observed changes into mental representations. The ability to perceive emotion is believed to be both innate and subject to environmental influence and is also a critical component in social interactions.
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How emotion is experienced and interpreted depends on how it is perceived. Likewise, how emotion is perceived is dependent on past experiences and interpretations. Emotion can be accurately perceived in humans. Emotions can be perceived visually, audibly, through smell and also through bodily sensations and this process is believed to be different from the perception of non-emotional material.
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Emotions can be perceived through visual, auditory, olfactory, taste and physiological sensory processes. Nonverbal actions can provide social partners with information about subjective and emotional states. This nonverbal information is believed to hold special importance and sensory systems and certain brain regions are suspected to specialize in decoding emotional information for rapid and efficient processing.
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The visual system is the primary mode of perception for the way people receive emotional information. People use emotional cues displayed by social partners to make decisions regarding their affective state. Emotional cues can be in the form of facial expressions, which are actually a combination of many distinct muscle groups within the face, or bodily postures (alone or in relation to others), or found through the interpretation of a situation or environment known to have particular emotional properties (i.e., a funeral, a wedding, a war zone, a scary alley, etc.). While the visual system is the means by which emotional information is gathered, it is the cognitive interpretation and evaluation of this information that assigns it emotional value, garners the appropriate cognitive resources, and then initiates a physiological response. This process is by no means exclusive to visual perception and in fact may overlap considerably with other modes of perception, suggesting an emotional sensory system comprising multiple perceptual processes all of which are processed through similar channels.
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A great deal of research conducted on emotion perception revolves around how people perceive emotion in others' facial expressions. Whether the emotion contained in someone's face is classified categorically or along dimensions of valence and arousal, the face provides reliable cues to one's subjective emotional state. As efficient as humans are in identifying and recognizing emotion in another's face, accuracy goes down considerably for most emotions, with the exception of happiness, when facial features are inverted (i.e., mouth placed above eyes and nose), suggesting that a primary means of facial perception includes the identification of spatial features that resemble a prototypical face, such that two eyes are placed above a nose which is above a mouth; any other formation of features does not immediately constitute a face and requires extra spatial manipulation to identify such features as resembling a face.
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Research on the classification of perceived emotions has centered around the debate between two fundamentally distinct viewpoints. One side of the debate posits that emotions are separate and discrete entities whereas the other side suggests that emotions can be classified as values on the dimensions of valence (positive versus negative) and arousal (calm/soothing versus exciting/agitating). Psychologist Paul Ekman supported the discrete emotion perspective with his groundbreaking work comparing emotion perception and expression between literate and preliterate cultures. Ekman concluded that the ability to produce and perceive emotions is universal and innate and that emotions manifest categorically as basic emotions (anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, and possibly contempt).
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The alternative dimensional view garnered support from psychologist James Russell, who is best known for his contributions toward the circumplex of emotion. Russell described emotions as constructs which lie on the dimensions of valence and arousal and it is the combination of these values which delineate emotion. Psychologist Robert Plutchik sought to reconcile these views and proposed that certain emotions be considered "primary emotions" which are grouped either positively or negatively and can then be combined to form more complex emotions, sometimes considered "secondary emotions", such as remorse, guilt, submission, and anticipation. Plutchik created the "wheel of emotions" to outline his theory.
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Culture plays a significant role in emotion perception, most notably in facial perception. Although the features of the face convey important information, the upper (eyes/brow) and lower (mouth/nose) regions of the face have distinct qualities that can provide both consistent and conflicting information. As values, etiquette, and quality of social interactions vary across cultures, facial perception is believed to be moderated accordingly.
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In western cultures, where overt emotion is ubiquitous, emotional information is primarily obtained from viewing the features of the mouth, which is the most expressive part of the face. However, in eastern cultures, where overt emotional expression is less common and therefore the mouth plays a lesser role in emotional expression, emotional information is more often obtained from viewing the upper region of the face, primarily the eyes. These cultural differences suggest a strong environmental and learned component in emotion expression and emotion perception.
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Although facial expressions convey key emotional information, context also plays an important role in both providing additional emotional information and modulating what emotion is actually perceived in a facial expression. Contexts come in three categories: stimulus-based context, in which a face is physically presented with other sensory input that has informational value; perceiver-based context, in which processes within the brain or body of a perceiver can shape emotion perception; and cultural contexts that affect either the encoding or the understanding of facial actions.
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The auditory system can provide important emotional information about the environment. Voices, screams, murmurs, and music can convey emotional information. Emotional interpretations of sounds tend to be quite consistent.
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Traditionally, emotion perception in the voice has been determined through research studies analyzing, via prosodic parameters such as pitch and duration, the way in which a speaker expresses an emotion, known as encoding. Alternatively, a listener who attempts to identify a particular emotion as intended by a speaker can decode emotion. More sophisticated methods include manipulating or synthesizing important prosodic parameters in speech signal (e.g., pitch, duration, loudness, voice quality) in both natural and simulated affective speech.
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Pitch and duration tend to contribute more to emotional recognition than loudness. Music has long been known to have emotional qualities and is a popular strategy in emotion regulation. When asked to rate emotions present in classical music, music professionals could identify all six basic emotions with happiness and sadness the most represented, and in decreasing order of importance, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust. The emotions of happiness, sadness, fear, and peacefulness can be perceived in a short length of exposure, as little as 9–16 seconds including instrumental-only music selections.
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Aromas and scents also influence mood, for example through aromatherapy, and humans can extract emotional information from scents just as they can from facial expressions and emotional music. Odors may be able to exert their effects through learning and conscious perception, such that responses typically associated with particular odors are learned through association with their matched emotional experiences. In-depth research has documented that emotion elicited by odors, both pleasant and unpleasant, affects the same physiological correlates of emotion seen with other sensory mechanisms.
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Theories on emotion have focused on perception, subjective experience, and appraisal. Predominant theories of emotion and emotion perception include what type of emotion is perceived, how emotion is perceived somatically, and at what stage of an event emotion is perceived and translated into subjective, physical experience.
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Following the influence of René Descartes and his ideas regarding the split between body and mind, in 1884 William James proposed the theory that it is not that the human body acts in response to our emotional state, as common sense might suggest, but rather, we interpret our emotions on the basis of our already present bodily state. In the words of James, "we feel sad because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and neither we cry, strike, nor tremble because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be." James believed it was particular and distinct physical patterns that map onto specific experienced emotions. Contemporaneously, psychologist Carl Lange arrived at the same conclusion about the experience of emotions.
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Thus, the idea that felt emotion is the result of perceiving specific patterns of bodily responses is called the James-Lange theory of emotion. In support of the James-Lange theory of emotion, Silvan Tomkins proposed the facial feedback hypothesis in 1963; he suggested that facial expressions actually trigger the experience of emotions and not the other way around. This theory was tested in 1974 by James Laird in an experiment where Laird asked participants to hold a pencil either between their teeth (artificially producing a smile) or between their upper lip and their nose (artificially producing a frown) and then rate cartoons.
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Laird found that these cartoons were rated as being funnier by those participants holding a pencil in between their teeth. In addition, Paul Ekman recorded extensive physiological data while participants posed his basic emotional facial expressions and found that heart rate raised for sadness, fear, and anger yet did not change at al for happiness, surprise, or disgust, and skin temperature raised when participants posed anger but not other emotions. While contemporary psychologists still agree with the James-Lange theory of emotion, human subjective emotion is complex and physical reactions or antecedents do not fully explain the subjective emotional experience.
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Walter Bradford Cannon and his doctoral student Philip Bard agreed that physiological responses played a crucial role in emotions, but did not believe that physiological responses alone could explain subjective emotional experiences. They argued that physiological responses were too slow relative to the relatively rapid and intense subjective awareness of emotion and that often these emotions are similar and imperceptible to people at such a short timescale. Cannon proposed that the mind and body operate independently in the experience of emotions such that differing brain regions (cortex versus subcortex) process information from an emotion-producing stimulus independently and simultaneously resulting in both an emotional and a physical response. This is best illustrated by imagining an encounter with a grizzly bear; you would simultaneously experience fear, begin to sweat, experience an elevated heart rate, and attempt to run. All of these things would happen at the same time.
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Stanley Schachter and his doctoral student Jerome Singer formulated their theory of emotion based on evidence that without an actual emotion-producing stimulus, people are unable to attribute specific emotions to their bodily states. They believed that there must be a cognitive component to emotion perception beyond that of just physical changes and subjective feelings. Schachter and Singer suggested that when someone encounters such an emotion-producing stimulus, they would immediately recognize their bodily symptoms (sweating and elevated heart rate in the case of the grizzly bear) as the emotion fear. Their theory was devised as a result of a study in which participants were injected with either a stimulant (adrenaline) that causes elevated heart rate, sweaty palms and shaking, or a placebo.
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Participants were then either told what the effects of the drug were or were told nothing, and were then placed in a room with a person they did not know who, according to the research plan, would either play with a hula hoop and make paper airplanes (euphoric condition) or ask the participant intimate, personal questions (angry condition). What they found was that participants who knew what the effects of the drug were attributed their physical state to the effects of the drug; however, those who had no knowledge of the drug they received attributed their physical state to the situation with the other person in the room. These results led to the conclusion that physiological reactions contributed to emotional experience by facilitating a focused cognitive appraisal of a given physiologically arousing event and that this appraisal was what defined the subjective emotional experience. Emotions were thus a result of a two-stage process: first, physiological arousal in a response to an evoking stimulus, and second, cognitive elaboration of the context in which the stimulus occurred.
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Emotion perception is primarily a cognitive process driven by particular brain systems believed to specialize in identifying emotional information and subsequently allocating appropriate cognitive resources to prepare the body to respond. The relationship between various regions is still unclear, but a few key regions have been implicated in particular aspects of emotion perception and processing including areas suspected of being involved in the processing of faces and emotional information.
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The fusiform face area, part of the fusiform gyrus is an area some believe to specialize in the identification and processing of human faces, although others suspect it is responsible for distinguishing between well known objects such as cars and animals. Neuroimaging studies have found activation in this area in response to participants viewing images of prototypical faces, but not scrambled or inverted faces, suggesting that this region is specialized for processing human faces but not other material. This area has been an area of increasing debate and while some psychologists may approach the fusiform face area in a simplistic manner, in that it specializes in the processing of human faces, more likely this area is implicated in the visual processing of many objects, particularly those familiar and prevalent in the environment. Impairments in the ability to recognize subtle differences in faces would greatly inhibit emotion perception and processing and have significant implications involving social interactions and appropriate biological responses to emotional information.
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The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis plays a role in emotion perception through its mediation of the physiological stress response. This occurs through the release of hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor, also known as corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), from nerve terminals in the median eminence arising in the paraventricular nucleus, which stimulates adrenocorticotropin release from the anterior pituitary that in turn induces the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex. This progressive process culminating in the release of glucocorticoids to environmental stimuli is believed to be initiated by the amygdala, which evaluates the emotional significance of observed phenomena. Released glucocorticoids provide negative feedback on the system and also the hippocampus, which in turn regulates the shutting off of this biological stress response. It is through this response that information is encoded as emotional and bodily response is initiated, making the HPA axis an important component in emotion perception.
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The amygdala appears to have a specific role in attention to emotional stimuli. The amygdala is a small, almond-shaped region within the anterior part of the temporal lobe. Several studies of non-human primates and of patients with amygdala lesions, in addition to studies employing functional neuroimaging techniques, have demonstrated the importance of the amygdala in face and eye-gaze identification. Other studies have emphasized the importance of the amygdala for the identification of emotional expressions displayed by others, in particular threat-related emotions such as fear, but also sadness and happiness.
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In addition, the amygdala is involved in the response to non-facial displays of emotion, including unpleasant auditory, olfactory and gustatory stimuli, and in memory for emotional information. The amygdala receives information from both the thalamus and the cortex; information from the thalamus is rough in detail and the amygdala receives this very quickly, while information from the cortex is much more detailed but is received more slowly. In addition, the amygdala's role in attention modulation toward emotion-specific stimuli may occur via projections from the central nucleus of the amygdala to cholinergic neurons, which lower cortical neuronal activation thresholds and potentiate cortical information processing.
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There is great individual difference in emotion perception and certain groups of people display abnormal processes. Some disorders are in part classified by maladaptive and abnormal emotion perception while others, such as mood disorders, exhibit mood-congruent emotional processing. Whether abnormal processing leads to the exacerbation of certain disorders or is the result of these disorders is yet unclear, however, difficulties or deficits in emotion perception are common among various disorders. Research investigating face and emotion perception in autistic individuals is inconclusive.
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Past research has found atypical, piecemeal face-processing strategies among autistic individuals and a better memory for lower versus upper regions of the face and increased abilities to identify partly obscured faces. Autistic individuals tend to display deficits in social motivation and experience that may decrease overall experience with faces and this in turn may lead to abnormal cortical specialization for faces and decreased processing efficiency. However, these results have not been adequately replicated and meta-analyses have found little to no differential face processing between typically-developing and autistic individuals although autistic people reliably display worse face memory and eye perception which could mediate face and possibly emotion perception.
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Individuals with schizophrenia also have difficulties with all types of facial emotion expression perception, incorporating contextual information in making affective decisions, and indeed, facial perception more generally. Neuropathological and structural neuroimaging studies of these patients have demonstrated abnormal neuronal cell integrity and volume reductions in the amygdala, insula, thalamus and hippocampus and studies employing functional neuro-imaging techniques have demonstrated a failure to activate limbic regions in response to emotive stimuli, all of which may contribute to impaired psychosocial functioning. In patients with major depressive disorder, studies have demonstrated either generalized or specific impairments in the identification of emotional facial expressions, or a bias towards the identification of expressions as sad.
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Neuro-pathological and structural neuroimaging studies in patients with major depressive disorder have indicated abnormalities within the subgenual anterior cingulate gyrus and volume reductions within the hippocampus, ventral striatal regions and amygdala.Similarly, anxiety has been commonly associated with individuals being able to perceive threat when in fact none is present, and orient more quickly to threatening cues than other cues. Anxiety has been associated with an enhanced orienting toward threat, a late-stage attention maintenance toward threat, or possibly vigilance-avoidance, or early-stage enhanced orienting and later-stage avoidance.
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As a form of anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has also been linked with abnormal attention toward threatening information, in particular, threatening stimuli which relates to the personally relevant trauma, making such a bias in that context appropriate, but out of context, maladaptive. Such processing of emotion can alter an individual's ability to accurately assess others' emotions as well. Mothers with violence-related PTSD have been noted to show decreased medial prefrontal cortical activation in response to seeing their own and unfamiliar toddlers in helpless or distressed states of mind that is also associated with maternal PTSD symptom severity, self-reported parenting stress, and difficulty in identifying emotions and which, in turn, impacts sensitive caregiving.
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Moreover, child maltreatment and child abuse have been associated with emotion processing biases as well, most notably toward the experience-specific emotion of anger. Research has found that abused children exhibit attention biases toward angry faces such that they tend to interpret even ambiguous faces as angry versus other emotions and have a difficulty disengaging from such expressions while other research has found abused children to demonstrate an attentional avoidance of angry faces. It is believed to be adaptive to attend to angry emotion as this may be a precursor to danger and harm and quick identification of even mild anger cues can facilitate the ability for a child to escape the situation, however, such biases are considered maladaptive when anger is over-identified in inappropriate contexts and this may result in the development of psychopathology.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_perception
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Researchers employ several methods designed to examine biases toward emotional stimuli to determine the salience of particular emotional stimuli, population differences in emotion perception, and also attentional biases toward or away from emotional stimuli. Tasks commonly utilized include the modified Stroop task, the dot probe task, visual search tasks, and spatial cuing tasks. The Stroop task, or modified Stroop task, displays different types of words (e.g., threatening and neutral) in varying colors. The participant is then asked to identify the color of the word while ignoring the actual semantic content.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_perception
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Increased response time to indicate the color of threat words relative to neutral words suggests an attentional bias toward such threat. The Stroop task, however, has some interpretational difficulties in addition to the lack of allowance for the measurement of spatial attention allocation. To address some of the limitations of the Stroop task, the dot probe task displays two words or pictures on a computer screen (either one at the top or left and the other on the bottom or right, respectively) and after a brief stimuli presentation, often less than 1000ms, a probe appears in the location of one of the two stimuli and participants are asked to press a button indicating the location of the probe.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_perception
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Different response times between target (e.g., threat) and neutral stimuli infer attentional biases to the target information with shorter response times for when the probe is in the place of the target stimuli indicating an attention bias for that type of information. In another task that examines spatial attentional allocation, the visual search task asks participants to detect a target stimulus embedded in a matrix of distractors (e.g., an angry face among several neutral or other emotional faces or vice versa). Faster detection times to find emotional stimuli among neutral stimuli or slower detection times to find neutral stimuli among emotional distractors infer an attentional bias for such stimuli.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_perception
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The spatial cuing task asks participants to focus on a point located between two rectangles at which point a cue is presented, either in the form of one of the rectangles lighting up or some emotional stimuli appearing within one of the rectangles and this cue either directs attention toward or away from the actual location of the target stimuli. Participants then press a button indicating the location of the target stimuli with faster response times indicating an attention bias toward such stimuli. In the morph task participants gradually scroll a facial photograph from the neutral expression to an emotion or from one emotion to another and should indicate at what frame each emotion appears on the face. A recently introduced method consists of presenting dynamic faces (videoclips) and measuring verbal reaction time (into a microphone); it is more precise than previous solutions: verbal responses to six basic emotions differ in hit rates and reaction times.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_perception
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A pedagogical agent is a concept borrowed from computer science and artificial intelligence and applied to education, usually as part of an intelligent tutoring system (ITS). It is a simulated human-like interface between the learner and the content, in an educational environment. A pedagogical agent is designed to model the type of interactions between a student and another person. Mabanza and de Wet define it as "a character enacted by a computer that interacts with the user in a socially engaging manner". A pedagogical agent can be assigned different roles in the learning environment, such as tutor or co-learner, depending on the desired purpose of the agent. "A tutor agent plays the role of a teacher, while a co-learner agent plays the role of a learning companion".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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The history of Pedagogical Agents is closely aligned with the history of computer animation. As computer animation progressed, it was adopted by educators to enhance computerized learning by including a lifelike interface between the program and the learner. The first versions of a pedagogical agent were more cartoon than person, like Microsoft's Clippy which helped users of Microsoft Office load and use the program's features in 1997. However, with developments in computer animation, pedagogical agents can now look lifelike.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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By 2006 there was a call to develop modular, reusable agents to decrease the time and expertise required to create a pedagogical agent. There was also a call in 2009 to enact agent standards. The standardization and re-usability of pedagogical agents is less of an issue since the decrease in cost and widespread availability of animation tools. Individualized pedagogical agents can be found across disciplines including medicine, math, law, language learning, automotive, and armed forces. They are used in applications directed to every age, from preschool to adult.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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Distributed cognition theory is the method in which cognition progresses in the context of collaboration with others. Pedagogical agents can be designed to assist the cognitive transfer to the learner, operating as artifacts or partners with collaborative role in learning. To support the performance of an action by the user, the pedagogical agent can act as a cognitive tool as long as the agent is equipped with the knowledge that the user lacks. The interactions between the user and the pedagogical agent can facilitate a social relationship. The pedagogical agent may fulfill the role of a working partner.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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Socio-cultural learning theory is how the user develops when they are involved in learning activities in which there is interaction with other agents. A pedagogical agent can: intervene when the user requests, provide support for tasks that the user cannot address, and potentially extend the learners cognitive reach. Interaction with the pedagogical agent may elicit a variety of emotions from the learner. The learner may become excited, confused, frustrated, and/or discouraged. These emotions affect the learners' motivation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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Extraneous cognitive load is the extra effort being exerted by an individual's working memory due to the way information is being presented. A pedagogical agent can increase the user's cognitive load by distracting them and becoming the focus of their attention, causing split attention between the instructional material and the agent. Agents can reduce the perceived cognitive load by providing narration and personalization that can also promote a user's interest and motivation. While research on the reduction of cognitive load from pedagogical agents is minimal, more studies have shown that agents do not increase it.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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It has been suggested by researchers that pedagogical agents may take on different roles in the learning environment. Examples of these roles are: supplanting, scaffolding, coaching, testing, or demonstrating or modelling a procedure. A pedagogical agent as a tutor has not been demonstrated to add any benefit to an educational strategy in equivalent lessons with and without a pedagogical agent. According to Richard Mayer, there is some support in research for pedagogical agent increasing learning, but only as a presenter of social cues.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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A co-learner pedagogical agent is believed to increase the student's self-efficacy. By pointing out important features of instructional content, a pedagogical agent can fulfill the signaling function, which research on multimedia learning has shown to enhance learning. Research has demonstrated that human-human interaction may not be completely replaced by pedagogical agents, but learners may prefer the agents to non-agent multimedia systems.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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This finding is supported by social agency theory. Much like the varying effectiveness of the pedagogical agent roles in the learning environment, agents that take into account the user's affect have had mixed results.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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Research has shown pedagogical agents that make use of the users’ affect have been found to increase user knowledge retention, motivation, and perceived self-efficacy. However, with such a broad range of modalities in affective expressions, it is often difficult to utilize them. Additionally, having agents detect a user's affective state with precision remains challenging, as displays of affect are different across individuals.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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The appearance of a pedagogical agent can be manipulated to meet the learning requirements. The attractiveness of a pedagogical agent can enhance student's learning when the users were the opposite gender of the pedagogical agent. Male students prefer a sexy appearance of a female pedagogical agents and dislike the sexy appearance of male agents. Female students were not attracted by the sexy appearance of either male or female pedagogical agents.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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Pedagogical agents have reached a point where they can convey and elicit emotion, but also reason about and respond to it. These agents are often designed to elicit and respond to affective actions from users through various modalities such as speech, facial expressions, and body gestures. They respond to the affective state of the given user, and make use of these modalities using a wide array of sensors incorporated into the design of the agent. Specifically in education and training applications, pedagogical agents are often designed to increasingly recognize when users or learners exhibit frustration, boredom, confusion, and states of flow. The added recognition in these agents is a step toward making them more emotionally intelligent, comforting and motivating the users as they interact.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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The design of a pedagogical agent often begins with its digital representation, whether it will be 2D or 3D and static or animated. Several studies have developed pedagogical agents that were both static and animated, then evaluated the relative benefits. Similar to other design considerations, the improved learning from static or animated agents remains questionable. One study showed that the appearance of an agent portrayed using a static image can impact a user's recall, based on the visual appearance.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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Other research found results that suggest static agent images improve learning outcomes. However, several other studies found user's learned more when the pedagogical agent was animated rather than static. Recently a meta-analysis of such research found a negligible improvement in learning via pedagogical agents, suggesting more work needs to be done in the area to support any claims.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogical_agent
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The Taub Urban Research Center is a research institution affiliated with New York University. The Taub center aims to produce cutting-edge research in urban policy. Research at the center has focused on national issues as well as those relating specifically to New York City. Technology, economic development and immigration have been addressed in projects funded by the Taub center.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taub_Urban_Research_Center
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An alter ego (Latin for "other I") means an alternate self, which is believed to be distinct from a person's normal or true original personality. Finding one's alter ego will require finding one's other self, one with a different personality. Additionally, the altered states of the ego may themselves be referred to as alterations. A distinct meaning of alter ego is found in the literary analysis used when referring to fictional literature and other narrative forms, describing a key character in a story who is perceived to be intentionally representative of the work's author (or creator), by oblique similarities, in terms of psychology, behavior, speech, or thoughts, often used to convey the author's thoughts. The term is also sometimes, but less frequently, used to designate a hypothetical "twin" or "best friend" to a character in a story. Similarly, the term alter ego may be applied to the role or persona taken on by an actor or by other types of performers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter_ego
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Cicero coined the term as part of his philosophical construct in 1st-century Rome, but he described it as "a second self, a trusted friend".The existence of "another self" was first fully recognized in the 18th century, when Anton Mesmer and his followers used hypnosis to separate the alter ego. These experiments showed a behavior pattern that was distinct from the personality of the individual when he was in the waking state compared with when he was under hypnosis. Another character had developed in the altered state of consciousness but in the same body.Freud throughout his career would appeal to such instances of dual consciousness to support his thesis of the unconscious.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter_ego
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He considered that "We may most aptly describe them as cases of a splitting of the mental activities into two groups, and say that the same consciousness turns to one or the other of these groups alternately". Freud considered the roots of the phenomenon of the alter ego to be in the narcissistic stage of early childhood. Heinz Kohut would identify a specific need in that early phase for mirroring, by another which resulted later in what he called the "twinship or alter ego transference".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter_ego
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The title characters in Robert Louis Stevenson's thriller Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde represent an exploration of the concept that good and evil exist within one person, constantly at war. Edward Hyde represents the doctor's other self, a psychopath who is unrestrained by the conventions of civilized society, and who shares a body with the doctor. The names "Jekyll and Hyde" have since become synonymous with a split personality or an alter ego that becomes capable of overpowering the original self. In the novel The Count of Monte Cristo by Alexandre Dumas, the main character Edmond Dantes, after escaping from the Chateau d'If, assumes three alter egos: the count of Monte Cristo, the Italian abbe called Giacomo Busoni, and the Englishman Lord Wilmore.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter_ego
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In the novel, the Count of Monte Cristo rewards those who had been good to him while punishing those who contributed in one way or the other to his imprisonment. He leads M. Danglars to lose all his fortune, M. de Villefort to his madness, Fernand Mandego to commit suicide, and others more to their fate. Norman Douglas in the late 1890s wrote a short story, "The Familiar Spirit", about a man who became aware while drowning of a conformist second self – "the presence within him of this Spirit, his alter ego, which is bent on crushing his ambition".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter_ego
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Published in 1905, the Scarlet Pimpernel is the prototype hero with a secret identity. Sir Percy Blakeney leads a double life: apparently just a wealthy fop, but in reality he is the Scarlet Pimpernel, a formidable swordsman and a quick-thinking master of disguise and escape artist. By drawing attention to his alter ego, Blakeney hides behind his public face as a slow thinking foppish playboy (similar to Bruce Wayne (Batman)), and also establishes a network of supporters, The League of the Scarlet Pimpernel, that aid his endeavours.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter_ego
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In comic books, superheroes and their secret identities are often considered the alter egos. The archetypal comic book hero, Superman, assumes the identity of the "mild-mannered" newspaper reporter Clark Kent to live among the citizens of Metropolis without arousing suspicion. The Incredible Hulk comic book series further complicates this theme, as Bruce Banner loses control to the Hyde-like Hulk whenever he becomes angry, yet also depends upon the Hulk's superpowers to combat villains.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter_ego
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In the film and novel Fight Club, the narrator has an alter ego he loses control of, Tyler Durden. In the Indian Malayalam film Ustaad, written by Ranjith and directed by Sibi Malayil, Mohanlal plays the character of Ustaad, the alter ego of the character Parameswaran. In Disney's Hannah Montana, Miley Stewart (played by Miley Cyrus), leads the life of a high school student, and the life of teen pop sensation Hannah Montana allowing her to get the best of both worlds.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter_ego
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Likewise, Miley's friends, Lilly Truscott (played by Emily Osment) and Oliver Oken (played by Mitchel Musso), also lead the lives of high school students and are what make up Hannah's entourage, Lola Luftnagle and Mike Stanley III respectively. In Pretty Little Liars, Vivian Darkbloom is the alter ego of Alison Dilaurentis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter_ego
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In Beavis and Butt-Head, Cornholio is Beavis's alter ego. Several famous musicians have adopted alter egos over the years, usually to indicate a new creative direction or a deep dive into their emotions removed from their popular stage persona—notable examples being David Bowie (with Ziggy Stardust and Aladdin Sane) and Prince (with Camille). Rolling Stone wrote Bowie's invention of Ziggy Stardust was "the alter ego that changed music forever and sent his career into orbit".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter_ego
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Particularly during the 2000s, several big-name singers dedicated album eras to reveal their alter egos, including Janet Jackson with Damita Jo, Mariah Carey with The Emancipation of Mimi, and Beyoncé with I Am ... Sasha Fierce. Many rappers have also employed alter egos, notably Eminem (Slim Shady), Shock G (as Humpty Hump), Lil' Kim, and Nicki Minaj (with Roman Zolanski), Tyler, the Creator (Tyler Baudelaire), among others.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter_ego
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The rapper MF DOOM has used a lot of alter egos throughout his career, notably Madvillian, Viktor Vaughn, JJ DOOM and DANGERDOOM. Darth Vader is considered to be the alter ego of Anakin Skywalker following his fall to the dark side of The Force. In OMORI, the story revolves around a boy named SUNNY and his "alter-ego" OMORI.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter_ego
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The meridian 22° east of Greenwich is a line of longitude that extends from the North Pole across the Arctic Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, Europe, Africa, the Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, and Antarctica to the South Pole. The 22nd meridian east forms a great circle with the 158th meridian west. Part of the border between Angola and Zambia is defined by the meridian.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22nd_meridian_east
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Starting at the North Pole and heading south to the South Pole, the 22nd meridian east passes through:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22nd_meridian_east
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Meridian 22.5° East crosses most countries (sovereign states) from all meridians: 26 in total. When Svalbard (in the North) and Antarctica (in the South) are added it crosses 28 territories. From North to South: Norway, Finland, Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Russia (Kaliningrad), Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Greece, Libya, Chad, Sudan, Central African Republic, Congo Democratic Republic, Angola, Zambia, Namibia, Botswana and South Africa. The line could be drawn from Tappeluft in Norway (the most northern town on mainland on this meridian) to George in South Africa (the most southern city on this meridian) which is 11,573 km.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22nd_meridian_east
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