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It is unlikely on historical grounds that Linear B writing then existed in the northwest Peloponnese. Finally, the pebble was apparently discovered on the morning of April Fool's Day. If it is indeed a forgery, the symbols spelling a-so-na may spell out the name Iasonas, the first name of the son of Xeni Arapojanni and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kafkania_pebble |
Dorymyrmex bicolor is a species of ant in the Dolichoderinae subfamily, known by some as cone ants due to the shape of their mounds. Dorymyrmex bicolor was recently known as Conomyrma bicolor but has been renamed to Dorymyrmex bicolor. Dorymyrmex bicolor has a single petiole and a slit-like orifice which releases chemi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorymyrmex_bicolor |
Dorymyrmex bicolor regularly interacts with three different species of Myrmecocystus, another genus of ants. Between the two genera of ants, in the southwestern region, there is much overlap of food sources and space between Dorymyrmex bicolor and Myrmecocystus. The Myrmecocystus ants secrete a substance from their poi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorymyrmex_bicolor |
The workers of Dorymyrmex bicolor will surround the entrance to a nest of Myrmecocystus and will drop stones and other objects down the entrance, in an attempt to block the entrance. As many as 10-30 workers of Dorymyrmex bicolor have been observed to drop stones in an opposing nest, but only 5 workers are required to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorymyrmex_bicolor |
The known range of Dorymyrmex bicolor stretches from the Southwestern United States (California, Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma), northern and southern Mexico (including Baja California), El Salvador, Guatemala, Belize, Peru, Honduras, and a few Caribbean island nations (i.e. Jamaica). | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorymyrmex_bicolor |
Dorymyrmex bicolor has a primarily foraging focused behavior, because of this they are known to influence rates of seed germination and distribution in plants. They move quickly and are active from early to late afternoon. They build crater shaped nests made of fine sand, as they primarily live in desert like areas tho... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorymyrmex_bicolor |
Cisgender (often shortened to cis; sometimes cissexual) is a term used to describe a person whose gender identity corresponds to their sex assigned at birth. The word cisgender is the antonym of transgender. The prefix cis- is Latin and means on this side of. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender |
The term cisgender was coined in 1994 and entered into dictionaries starting in 2015 as a result of changes in social discourse about gender. The term has been and continues to be controversial and subject to critique. Related concepts are cisnormativity (the presumption that cisgender identity is preferred or normal) ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender |
The term cisgender has its origin in the Latin-derived prefix cis-, meaning 'on this side of', which is the opposite of trans-, meaning 'across from' or 'on the other side of'. This usage can be seen in the cis–trans distinction in chemistry, the cis and trans sides of the Golgi apparatus in cellular biology, the ancie... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender |
Marquis Bey states that "proto-cisgender discourse" arose in German in 1914, when Ernst Burchard introduced the cis/trans distinction to sexology by contrasting "cisvestitismus, or a type of inclination to wear gender-conforming clothing, with transvestitismus, or cross-dressing." German sexologist Volkmar Sigusch sta... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender |
The term cisgender itself was coined in English in 1994 in a Usenet newsgroup about transgender topics as Dana Defosse, then a graduate student, sought a way to refer to non-transgender people that avoided marginalizing transgender people or implying that transgender people were an other. Correspondingly, some trans ac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender |
Medical academics use the term and have recognized its importance in transgender studies since the 1990s. After the terms cisgender and cissexual were used in a 2006 article in the Journal of Lesbian Studies and Serano's 2007 book Whipping Girl, the former gained further popularity among English-speaking activists and ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender |
In February 2014, Facebook began offering "custom" gender options, allowing users to identify with one or more gender-related terms from a selected list, including cis, cisgender, and others. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender |
Sociologists Kristen Schilt and Laurel Westbrook define cisgender as a label for "individuals who have a match between the gender they were assigned at birth, their bodies, and their personal identity". A number of derivatives of the terms cisgender and cissexual include cis male for "male assigned male at birth", cis ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender |
As of July 2023, use of the term cisgender has been considered controversial.While intended to be a positive descriptor to distinguish between trans and non-trans identity, the term has been met with criticisms in more recent years. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender |
Krista Scott-Dixon wrote in 2009 that she preferred "the term non-trans to other options such as cissexual/cisgendered", saying non-trans is clearer to average people.Women's and gender studies scholar Mimi Marinucci writes that some consider the 'cisgender–transgender' binary distinction to be as dangerous or self-def... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender |
Intersex people are born with atypical physical sex characteristics that can complicate initial sex assignment and lead to involuntary or coercive medical treatment. The term cisgender "can get confusing" in relation to people with intersex conditions, although some intersex people use the term according to the Interac... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender |
Three decades later, in a personal essay, Defosse said she did not intend the word as an insult. She says she does not believe the word cisgender "caused problems – it only revealed them." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisgender |
Conjunctive archaeology is a method of studying of the past developed by Walter Taylor in the 1940s that combined elements of both traditional archaeology and the allied field of anthropology. It is exemplified by Taylor's A Study of Archeology (1948). Taylor saw archaeology as an integrated discipline, combining the s... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctive_archaeology |
Elements of Taylor's approach are now a standard practice in the discipline, but Taylor's open and specific criticism of leading archaeologists of his day caused dismay amongst many archaeologists. Taylor was one of the first to criticize the descriptive, historical approaches to archaeology that dominated the discipli... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctive_archaeology |
Walter Taylor was the founder of conjunctive archaeology. He was born in Chicago and studied at Yale. He saw archaeology as a discipline that was multifaceted, and tried to focus on Anthropology and Archaeology to form a well-balanced and all-consuming study. He was frustrated by the focus of his contemporaries on typo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctive_archaeology |
He put forward his polemical ideas in A Study of Archaeology, which served as a critique of culture-historical archaeology and put forward his prescription of a conjunctive archaeology. Taylor was reacting to what he saw as his contemporaries' limited use of artifacts to produce culture chronologies and identify groups... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctive_archaeology |
Part of this new focus on sites as units of analysis would require the collection of what might have appeared as trivial data, as well as paying better attention to things like paleoenvironmental data. All this was done with the aim of developing comparative approaches at the site level and beyond. Taylor's A Study of ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctive_archaeology |
First, it was a history of Americanist archaeology. Alongside V. Gordon Childe and especially Grahame Clark, he envisaged an archaeology that saw the necessary goal of archaeology as the reconstruction of prehistoric lifeways with a focus on cultures as "functioning entities embracing social, political, and ideological... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctive_archaeology |
The influence of conjunctive archaeology on the field is somewhat controversial. Taylor claimed until he died that his ideas were a major theoretical contribution that anticipated and directly contributed to The New Archaeology. Perhaps the most public and central debate on the topic of conjunctive archaeology's influe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctive_archaeology |
Taylor's claims are difficult to assess. While he clearly shared some goals with the later processualists, he also very evidently diverged from them in crucial theoretical ways. The core difference was his reliance on Boas. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctive_archaeology |
The idealist conception of culture that Taylor put forward via Boas is at odds with the more materialist aims of the processualists. Perhaps the core separation between processualists and Walter Taylor is the latter's ambivalence if not rejection of the idea of Material culture. Taylor instead believed that all culture... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctive_archaeology |
Some scholars have contributed to an edited volume reflecting on Taylor's impact in an ambivalent way. In this book, the argument is partially laid out that Taylor's work might have had influence on Post-processual archaeology rather than processual, given his focus on ideational elements of culture as well as his deep... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjunctive_archaeology |
MSU Faculty of Psychology (Russian: Факультет психологии МГУ) is a faculty of the Moscow State University, which was established in 1966 and headed by Aleksei Leontiev until his death in 1979. At various times, a number of researchers have worked at the Faculty, such as Sergei Rubinstein, Alexander Luria, Eugene Sokolo... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MSU_Faculty_of_Psychology |
An avian veterinarian is a veterinarian who specializes in treating birds. All veterinarians, upon first qualification from a certified veterinary college, may treat any species. Additional training is required for qualification to become a recognized specialist in the care of birds.In the United States, a veterinarian... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avian_veterinarian |
Inis Beag (Irish, 'Little Island') is a pseudonymous Irish island in the 1960s, as described by American cultural anthropologist John Cowan Messenger. Messenger lived on the island and studied the community in 1959 and 1960. He subsequently wrote several academic works about his experience, including Inis Beag: Isle of... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
Messenger describes Inis Beag as a remote island off the coast of Connemara, Ireland, near the Aran Islands in the 1960s. It contains a small, isolated, Irish-speaking, Catholic population. Messenger states that during the period of his study between 1958 and 1966, Inis Beag supported a population of around 350, mostly... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
Messenger characterises the Gaelic revival movement as nativism. He states that members of the revival and those involved in the Irish independence movement held up the island the surrounding areas as examples of true Irish identity. Messenger argues that many of the written works by these members were "romanticized," ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
"Messenger argues that these customs were as not as pure as other outsiders stated. He found that 11 of the 111 adult males and 9 of the 85 adult females had given up the traditional local clothing for imported styles from the mainland. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
This behaviour was especially prevalent among the younger women, with no adherents between the ages of 18 and 29. He also found that use of the local curach had declined in recent decades, from 30 to 50 three-man crews fishing nearly all year in the early 1900s to nine crews working from the island in 1960. Messenger f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
Messenger reported that Inis Beag had no formal sex education, and sexual intercourse was treated by both sexes and the local curate as a "duty" which must be "endured." Messenger proposed that the institutionalisation of repression of sexual conduct was due to early replacement of physical affection with verbal affect... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
He also reported that islanders tended to bathe only the hands, face, and feet and developed an "obsessive fear" of nudity early in life. In some households, "dogs whipped for licking their genitals and soon to indulge in this behavior outside when unobserved. "He argues that repression of sexuality also manifested i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
Elders of the island boasted that there was no premarital sex, although some young men did admit to it in rumor. Messenger states that when couples did have sex with each other the husband always initiated and the wife was commonly passive. Messenger found that couples left their underclothes only partially removed and... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
He states that menstruation and menopause were regarded with profound misgivings. He states that women asked Messenger's wife about the female cycle more than any other question about sex phenomena. He states that young women were often traumatized by menarche, and that in 1960 at least three older women had confined t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
Women sent their children out of the room when Messenger's wife would inquire about their pregnancies. Messenger viewed the men as grossly ignorant about sex. He found that female orgasm was unknown to the men, not experienced by the women, or shunned and hidden. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
Messenger reported that one middle-aged bachelor who considered himself "wise in the ways of the outside world . . | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
. described the violent bodily reactions of a girl to his fondling" and when Messenger explained, he "admitted not knowing that women also could achieve climax." Men of the island thought sexual intercourse would weaken them, and would abstain the night before an exhausting task. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
Despite all this, Messenger could not report a single family that was childless due to ignorance. He states that this was a phenomenon in some other regions of Ireland. When Messenger inquired how newly married couples learned how to copulate, he was told that "after marriage, nature takes its course." | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
In Marriage in Ireland, a collection of essays edited by Art Cosgrove covering history of marriage practices and norms in Ireland from the 8th century to the 1980s, Trinity College Dublin historian David Fitzpatrick is critical of this work. He describes Messenger's account in Inis Beag (1969), along with two other Ame... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inis_Beag |
A cowl is a usually hood-shaped covering used to increase the draft of a chimney and prevent backflow. The cowl, usually made of galvanized iron, is fitted to the chimney pot to prevent wind blowing the smoke back down into the room below. Undoubtedly named after the resemblance of many designs to the cowl garment worn... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowl_(chimney) |
Under normal conditions the warm air from the fire will rise up the chimney emitting the smoke with it and dispersing it at rooftop level where it is less of a nuisance. In strong winds the pressure of the wind may overwhelm the updraft and push the airflow in reverse down the flue. Smoke will then fill the room it is ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowl_(chimney) |
When raw coal rather than smokeless fuel is burnt, the amount of smoke may be considerable and measures to prevent backflow occurring are a necessity. A secondary function is to prevent birds and squirrels from nesting in the chimney. Cowls often also act as a rain guard to keep rain from going down the chimney. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowl_(chimney) |
A metal wire mesh is sometimes added as a spark arrestor. Wooden cowls were used on oasts to prevent the ingress of rain into kilns, and create a flow of air through the kiln. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowl_(chimney) |
An H-style cap (cowl) is a chimney top constructed from chimney pipes shaped like the letter H. It is an age-old method to regulate draft in situations where prevailing winds or turbulence cause downdraft and back-puffing. Although the H-cap has a distinctive advantage over most other downdraft caps, it fell out of fav... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowl_(chimney) |
Cowls are also used where flues are no longer in use and therefore need to be capped off for protection against ingress of precipitation and nesting birds. Such cowls are designed to afford protection to the flue while still allowing a degree of ventilation. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cowl_(chimney) |
The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict is the first international treaty that focuses exclusively on the protection of cultural property in armed conflict. It was signed at The Hague, Netherlands, on 14 May 1954 and entered into force on 7 August 1956. As of July 202... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
All three agreements are part of International Humanitarian Law, which, in the form of further agreements, primarily includes provisions defining the permissible means and methods of warfare and aiming at the widest possible protection of persons not involved in the fighting. In contrast to these parts of International... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
As of July 2021, 133 states are party to the treaty and there are 110 States Parties to the First Protocol, while the Second Protocol has 84 States Parties. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
For the purposes of the present Convention, the term 'cultural property' shall cover, irrespective of origin or ownership: (a) movable or immovable property of great importance to the cultural heritage of every people, such as monuments of architecture, art or history, whether religious or secular; archaeological sites... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 preceded the Hague Convention of 1954. The multilateral agreement of 1899 and the slightly amended later version of 1907 contained in Article 27 the commandment for the attacking party to spare historical monuments, educational institutions and institutions of religious, not-for-p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
Article 56 also contained a general ban on the confiscation, destruction or damage of such facilities. However, during the First World War, acceptance of these first Hague Conventions was severely restricted by the so-called all-participation clause. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
It stated that, in the event of war or armed conflict, this Agreement should apply only if all States involved in that conflict are parties to the Convention. The Russian lawyer, painter and writer Nicholas Roerich, who witnessed the destruction of cultural assets in Russia during the First World War and the October Re... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
This proposal was subsequently discussed by the International Museum Office of the League of Nations and at private conferences in Bruges in 1931 and 1932 and in Washington, D.C. in 1933. The seventh international conference of American states, which took place in Buenos Aires in 1933, recommended the adoption of the d... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The Board of the Pan-American Union subsequently presented a treaty "on the protection of artistic and scientific institutions and historical monuments", which was signed on 15 April 1935 in the White House by 21 states in North, Central and South America. Ten of the signatory states also became parties by ratification... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The Roerich Pact contained eight articles and several significant innovations compared with the general provisions of Articles 27 and 56 of the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. On the one hand, the treaty established the status of neutrality for historical monuments, museums, scientific and artistic institutions as ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The Parties should send lists of monuments and sites for which they claimed protection under the Treaty to the Pan-American Union, which should forward them to all States Parties. In addition, the Treaty defined a protection mark for the marking of cultural objects, consisting of three red dots in a red circle on a whi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The symbol was also called the "Banner of Peace", the movement based on the Roerich Pact under the name Pax Cultura in analogy to the Geneva Conventions as the "Red Cross of Culture". However, the acceptance of the Roerich Pact was limited to the United States and the countries of Central and South America. Not a singl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
Even though it remains valid in relations between the parties and the Organization of American States (OAS) and continues to act as a depositary in succession to the Pan-American Union, the Roerich Pact remained without significant practical relevance. As the USA is not party to the 1999 Second Protocol of the Hague Co... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
Only four years after the Roerich Pact was signed, the government of the Netherlands presented a draft for a new convention, in the drafting of which the International Museum Office of the League of Nations was also significantly involved. However, the start of the Second World War in the same year prevented all furthe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
In 1951, the General Conference of UNESCO decided to set up a committee of governmental experts to draft a new convention. A year later, this committee submitted a draft to the General Conference, which forwarded it to the national governments for further discussion. From 21 April to 14 May 1954, an international confe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The Nazi Party headed by Adolf Hitler rose to power in Germany in 1933 after the country's crippling defeat, and its socioeconomic distress during the years following World War I. World War II was aimed at reclaiming the glory of the once great Germanic state. Cultural property of many European nations and significant ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
With artists depicting the hardship of the German people after World War I, and further expressing the fear of anti-Semitism and fascism, the Nazi party and Hitler himself soon realised the dangerous power of art, and began to clamp down on artistic production and forcing both artists and the public alike to adhere to ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
Further, artists that were Jewish and artworks that did not match the Nazi ideology, or posed a threat to it, were stamped as degenerate art. Degenerate works of art, culminating in the infamous exhibition with the same name, were those whose subject, artist, or art was either Jewish or expressed Anti-Nazi sentiments, ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
German Jews were ordered to report their personal assets, which were then privatized by the country. Jewish owned art galleries were forced to sell the works of art they housed. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The Nazis concentrated their efforts on ensuring that all art within Germany would be Aryan in nature, speaking to the might of the Germanic state rather than Jewish art which was deemed as a blight on society. In a feat to "purge" German museums and collections, confiscation committees seized approximately 16,000 item... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
In the Soviet Union, Nazi plunder of cultural significant art is best illustrated in the Third Reich's pillage of the Catherine Palace near St Petersburg and its famous Amber Room dating to the early 1700s. In October 1941, the Nazis had occupied the western portion of the Soviet Union, and began removing art treasures... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
A post-war Russian report concluded that 'summarizing all the facts, we can say that the Amber Room was destroyed between 9 and 11 April 1945' during the battle to take the city. However, in the absence of definitive proof, other theories about its fate continue to be entertained to the present day. With financial assi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
With the conclusion of the Second World War and the subsequent defeat of the Axis Powers, the atrocities which the Nazi leadership condoned, leading to the removal of culturally significant items and the destruction of numerous others could not be allowed to occur in future generations. This led the victorious Allied f... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
Due to the onset of the Second World War the draft convention was shelved with no further steps being taken. With the conclusion of the war, a new proposal was submitted to UNESCO by the Netherlands in 1948. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The General Conference of UNESCO in 1951 decided to convene a committee of government experts to draft a convention. This committee met in 1952 and thereafter submitted its drafts to the General Conference. The intergovernmental Conference, which drew up and adopted the Convention and the further Acts, took place at Th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The Hague Convention outlines various prohibitions and obligations which States Parties are expected to observe, both in peacetime and in times of conflict. Broadly, the Hague Convention requires that States Parties adopt protection measures during peacetime for the safeguarding of cultural property. Such measures incl... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
In doing so, they agree to refrain from using cultural property and its immediate surroundings for purposes likely to expose it to destruction or damage in the event of armed conflict. States Parties also agree to refrain from any act of hostility directed against such property. The Convention also requires the establi... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The obligation of States Parties to safeguard cultural property in peacetime is outlined in Article 3. It stipulates: 'The High Contracting Parties undertake to prepare in time of peace for the safeguarding of cultural property situated within their own territory against the foreseeable effects of an armed conflict, by... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The Hague Convention sets out a minimum level of respect which all States Parties must observe, both in relation to their own national heritage as well as the heritage of other States Parties. States are obliged not to attack cultural property, nor to remove or misappropriate movable property from its territory of orig... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
However, a State Party is not entitled to ignore the Convention's rules by reason of another Party's failure to implement safeguarding measures alone. This is set out in Article 4 of the Hague Convention: Article 4: (1) The High Contracting Parties undertake to respect cultural property situated within their own territ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
(3) The High Contracting Parties further undertake to prohibit, prevent and, if necessary, put a stop to any form of theft, pillage or misappropriation of, and any acts of vandalism directed against, cultural property. They shall, refrain from requisitioning movable cultural property situated in the territory of anothe... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The rules set out in the Hague Convention also apply to States who are Occupying Powers of territory during conflict or otherwise. The Convention obliges Occupying Powers to respect the cultural property of the occupied territory, and to support local national authorities in its preservation and repair when necessary. ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The Hague Convention establishes a 'special protection' regime, which obliges States Parties to ensure the immunity of cultural property under special protection from acts of hostility (Articles 8 and 9). Under Article 8, this protection may be granted to one of three categories of cultural property: (1) refuges intend... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The First Protocol was adopted at the same time as the Hague Convention, on 14 May 1954. It specifically applies to movable cultural property only, and prohibits the export of movable property from occupied territory and also requires its return to its original territory at the conclusion of hostilities (Article 1). St... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
Criminal acts committed against cultural property in the late 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s highlighted the deficiencies in the implementation of the Hague Convention and its First Protocol. As a result of the 'Boylan review' (a review of the Convention led by Professor Patrick Boylan), the Second Protocol to th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
One of the most important features of the Second Protocol is the 'enhanced protection' regime it establishes. This new category of cultural property is outlined in Chapter Three of the Second Protocol. Enhanced protection status means that the relevant cultural property must remain immune from military attack, once it ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
An attack against cultural property which enjoys enhanced protection status is only excusable if such an attack is the 'only feasible means of terminating the use of property ' (Article 13).To be granted enhanced protection, the cultural property in question must satisfy the three criteria stipulated in Article 10 of t... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
Article 24 of the Second Protocol establishes a 12-member Committee for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. Its members are elected for a term of four years, and an equitable geographic representation is taken into account at the election of its members. The Committee meets once a year i... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The Committee is responsible for the granting, suspension and cancellation of enhanced protection to cultural properties nominated by States Parties. It also receives and considers requests for international assistance which are submitted by States, as well as determining the use of the Fund for the Protection of Cultu... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
Article 29 of the Second Protocol establishes the Fund for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict. Its purpose is to provide financial or other assistance for 'preparatory or other measures to be taken in peacetime'. It also provides financial or other assistance in relation to 'emergency, p... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
Chapter Four of the Second Protocol specifies sanctions to be imposed for serious violations against cultural property, and defines the conditions in which individual criminal responsibility should apply. This reflects an increased effort to fight impunity through effective criminal prosecution since the adoption of th... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
In 2016 UNESCO, in collaboration with the Sanremo International Institute of Humanitarian Law, published a manual titled 'Protection of Cultural Property: Military Manual'. This manual outlines the rules and obligations contained in the Second Protocol, and provides practical guidance on how these rules should be imple... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The Rome Statute, adopted in July 1998 and entering into force four years later, as the legal basis of the International Criminal Court (ICC), defines in Article 8(2) deliberate attacks against buildings of a religious, educational, artistic, scientific or non-profit nature and against historical monuments as war crime... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
Article 3 of the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia also contains provisions that allow the prosecution of violations of the fundamental principles of the Hague Convention of 1954. On the basis of this article, for the first time since the conclusion of the Convention, proceedings ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
From 1945 to 1990 Croatia would become part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. One of the most striking features of the historic city of Dubrovnik, and that which gives its characteristic appearance are its intact medieval fortifications. Its historic city walls run uninterrupted encircling the Old-City. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
This complex structure of fortification is one of the most complete depictions of medieval construction in the Mediterranean, consisting of a series of forts, bastions, casemates, towers and detached forts. Within the Old City are many medieval churches, cathedrals, and palaces from the Baroque period, encircled by its... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
It also houses the archives of Ragusa, which have been kept continuously since the 13th century and are a very important source for Mediterranean history. The archives hold materials created by the civil service in the Republic of Ragusa. The Siege of Dubrovnik was a military engagement fought between the Yugoslav Peop... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The Old Town was specifically targeted by the JNA even though it served no military purpose to bomb this town. At the heart of the bombing efforts by the JNA elite was the complete eradication of the memory of the Croatian people and history by erasing their cultural heritage and destroying their cultural property. The... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
The attacks on the Herzegovinian city of Mostar, which in November 1993 led to the destruction of the Stari most bridge, internationally recognised as an outstanding cultural asset, led to the trial of six defendants before the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in April 2006. Among them is the C... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
Mostar was mostly known for its old Turkish houses and specifically the Old Bridge; the Stari Mostar, after which it is named. In the 1990s conflict with the former Yugoslavia, however, most of the historic town and the Old Bridge were destroyed purposely by Croatian Army and their allies. This type of destruction was ... | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict |
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