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Important contribution in the humanities include anthropologist Franz Boas (1858–1942) and Native American Renaissance writer Louise Erdrich (born 1954).Germans still have an easygoing approach to using blackface or redface; there is a varied and continuing tradition of temporarily immersing oneself in different customs that is part of Carnival. Indianerhobby reenactment or living history is in effect part of German folklore. The "cult" goes beyond Karl May and aims at a high level of authenticity.
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This sort of "second-hand folklore" is an alternative way of dealing with Americanization, "anti-Imperialism", and popular ethnology.The background in human zoos (Völkerschau in German) and the first Western movies is still vivid as well in "Cowboy and Indianer" children games. Americans have e.g. harshly criticized photoshoot of (predominantly white) candidates dressed in Native American garb in Heidi Klum's Germany's Next Topmodel show.The harsh condemnation by Marta Carlson, a Native American activist, of Germans for getting pleasure from "something their whiteness has participated in destroying", is not shared by others. As with Irish or Scottish immigrants, the "whiteness" of German immigrants was not a given for WASP Americans.
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Both Germans and Native Americans had to regain some of their customs, as a direct heritage tradition was no longer in place. It is however still somewhat disturbing for both sides when German hobby Indians meet Native German enthusiasts. There are allegations of plastic shamanism versus mockery about Native Americans excluding non-Indians and banning alcohol at their events. German (and Czech) hobbyists' concept of multiculturalism includes the inaleniable right to keep and drink beer in their tipis or kohtes.
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The Indian department of the Ethnological Museum of Berlin contains one of the largest collections of Native American artifacts in the world, the curators ask for a more active community dealing with the heritage.Maximilian zu Wied-Neuwied, sketches and paintings are part of Prince Maximilian's travel report book Reise im Inneren von Nordamerika (1844) and can be seen at the Nordamerika Native Museum (NONAM) in Zurich and in the Joslyn Art Museum in Omaha, Nebraska.Villa Shatterhand in Radebeul, Saxony hosts the Karl-May-Museum and in its backyard, a log cabin called Villa Bärenfett (bear fat villa) with an exhibition about Red Indians. Author, adventurer, artist, curator and acrobat Ernst Tobis alias Patty Frank (1876–1959) founded this leading collection of Native American artifacts in Germany and took care of them till his death. He led hundreds of thousands of visitors through the collection.The Museum Five Continents in Munich contains the collection of Indian artefacts and art of Princess Theresa of Bavaria, a natural scientist and eager traveler.
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Euthenics () is the study of improvement of human functioning and well-being by improvement of living conditions. "Improvement" is conducted by altering external factors such as education and the controllable environments, including environmentalism, education regarding employment, home economics, sanitation, and housing, as well as the prevention and removal of contagious disease and parasites.In a New York Times article of May 23, 1926, Rose Field notes of the description, "the simplest efficient living". It is also described as a right to environment.The Flynn effect has been often cited as an example of euthenics. Another example is the steady increase in body size in industrialized countries since the beginning of the 20th century. Euthenics is not normally interpreted to have anything to do with changing the composition of the human gene pool by definition, although everything that affects society has some effect on who reproduces and who does not.
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The term was derived in the late 19th century from the Greek verb eutheneo, εὐθηνέω (eu, well; the, root of τίθημι tithemi, to cause). (To be in a flourishing state, to abound in, to prosper.—Demosthenes. To be strong or vigorous.—Herodotus.
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To be vigorous in body.—Aristotle. )Also from the Greek Euthenia, Εὐθηνία. Good state of the body: prosperity, good fortune, abundance.—Herodotus.The opposite of Euthenia is Penia, Πενία ("deficiency" or "poverty") the personification of poverty and need.
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Ellen Swallow Richards (Born in 1842–died in 1911; Vassar Class of '70) was one of the first writers to use the term, in The Cost of Shelter (1905), with the meaning "the science of better living". It is unclear if (and probably unlikely that) any of the study programs of euthenics ever completely embraced Richards' multidisciplinary concept, though several nuances remain today, especially that of interdisciplinarity.
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After Richards' death in 1911, Julia Lathrop (1858–1932; VC '80) continued to promote the development of an interdisciplinary program in euthenics at the college. Lathrop soon teamed with alumna Minnie Cumnock Blodgett (1862–1931; VC '84), who with her husband, John Wood Blodgett, offered financial support to create a program of euthenics at Vassar College. Curriculum planning, suggested by Vassar president Henry Noble MacCracken in 1922, began in earnest by 1923, under the direction of Professor Annie Louise Macleod (Chemistry; First woman PhD, McGill University, 1910).According to Vassar's chronology entry for March 17, 1924, "the faculty recognized euthenics as a satisfactory field for sequential study (major). A Division of Euthenics was authorized to offer a multidisciplinary program focusing the techniques and disciplines of the arts, sciences and social sciences on the life experiences and relationships of women.
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Students in euthenics could take courses in horticulture, food chemistry, sociology and statistics, education, child study, economics, economic geography, physiology, hygiene, public health, psychology and domestic architecture and furniture. With the new division came the first major in child study at an American liberal arts college. "For example, a typical major in child study in euthenics includes introductory psychology, laboratory psychology, applied psychology, child study and social psychology in the Department of Psychology; the three courses offered in the Department of Child Study; beginning economics, programs of social reorganization and the family in Economics; and in the Department of Physiology, human physiology, child hygiene, principles of public health.The Vassar Summer Institute of Euthenics accepted its first students in June 1926.
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Created to supplement the controversial euthenics major which began February 21, 1925, it was also located in the new Minnie Cumnock Blodgett Hall of Euthenics (York & Sawyer, architects; ground broke October 25, 1925). Some Vassar faculty members (perhaps emotionally upset with being displaced on campus to make way, or otherwise politically motivated) contentiously "believed the entire concept of euthenics was vague and counter-productive to women's progress.
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"Having overcome a lukewarm reception, Vassar College officially opened its Minnie Cumnock Blodgett Hall of Euthenics in 1929. Dr. Ruth Wheeler (Physiology and Nutrition – VC '99) took over as director of euthenics studies in 1924. Wheeler remained director until Mary Shattuck Fisher Langmuir (VC '20) succeeded her in 1944, until 1951.The college continued for the 1934–35 academic year its successful cooperative housing experiment in three residence halls.
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Intended to help students meet their college costs by working in their residences. For example, in Main, students earned $40 a year by doing relatively light work such as cleaning their rooms.In 1951, Katharine Blodgett Hadley (VC '20) donated $400,000, through the Rubicon Foundation, to Vassar to help fund operating deficits in the current and succeeding years and to improve faculty salaries. "Discontinued for financial reasons, the Vassar Summer Institute for Family and Community Living, founded in 1926 as the Vassar Summer Institute of Euthenics, held its last session, July 2, 1958. This was the first and last session for the institute's new director, Dr. Mervin Freedman."
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Elmira College is noted as the oldest college still in existence which (as a college for women) granted degrees to women which were the equivalent of those given to men (the first to do so was the now-defunct Mary Sharp College). Elmira College became coeducational in all of its programs in 1969. A special article was written in the December 12, 1937 The New York Times, quoting recent graduates of Elmira College, urging for courses in colleges for men on the care of children. Reporting that "preparation for the greatest of all professions, that of motherhood and child-training, is being given the students at Elmira College in the Nursery School which is Conducted as part of the Department of Euthenics.
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"Elmira College was one of the first of the liberal arts colleges to recognize the fact that women should have some special training, integrated with the so-called liberal studies, which would prepare them to carry on, with less effort and fewer mistakes, a successful family life. Courses in nutrition, household economics, clothing selection, principles of foods and meal planning, child psychology, and education in family relations are a part of the curriculum.The Elmira College nursery school for fifteen children between the ages of two and five years was opened primarily as a laboratory for college students, but it had become so popular with parents in the community that there was always a long waiting list.The New York Times article notes how the nursery had become one of the essential laboratories of the college, where recent mothers testified to the value of the training they received while in college. "Today," one graduate said, "when it is often necessary for young women to continue professional work outside the home after marriage, it is important that young fathers, who must share in the actual care and training of the children, should have some knowledge of correct methods."
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Many factors led to the movement never getting the funding it needed to remain relevant, including: vigorous debate about the exact meaning of euthenics, a strong antifeminism movement paralleling even stronger women's rights movements, confusion with the term eugenics, the economic impact of the Great Depression and two world wars. These factors also prevented the discipline from gaining the attention it needed to put together a lasting, vastly multidisciplinary curriculum. Therefore, it split off into separate disciplines. Child Study is one such curriculum.
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Martin Heggestad of the Mann Library notes that "Starting around 1920, however, home economists tended to move into other fields, such as nutrition and textiles, that offered more career opportunities, while health issues were dealt with more in the hard sciences and in the professions of nursing and public health. Also, improvements in public sanitation (for example, the wider availability of sewage systems and of food inspection) led to a decline in infectious diseases and thus a decreasing need for the largely household-based measures taught by home economists." Thus, the end of euthenics as originally defined by Ellen Swallow Richards ensued.
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According to Ellen Richards, in her book Euthenics: the science of controllable environment (1910): The betterment of living conditions, through conscious endeavor, for the purpose of securing efficient human beings, is what the author means by Euthenics. "Human vitality depends upon two primary conditions—heredity and hygiene—or conditions preceding birth and conditions during life." Eugenics deals with race improvement through heredity. Euthenics deals with race improvement through environment.
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Eugenics is hygiene for the future generations. Euthenics is hygiene for the present generation. Eugenics must await careful investigation.
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Euthenics has immediate opportunity. Euthenics precedes eugenics, developing better men now, and thus inevitably creating a better race of men in the future. Euthenics is the term proposed for the preliminary science on which Eugenics must be based.
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Debate over misconceptions about the movement started almost from the beginning. In his comparison "Eugenics, Euthenics, And Eudemics", (American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 18, No. 6, May 1913), Lester F. Ward of Brown University opens the second section regarding euthenics lamenting: Is there, then, nothing to do? Are we to accept that modern scientific fatalism known as laissez faire, which enjoins the folding of the arms?
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Are we to preach a gospel of inaction? I for one certainly am not content to do so, and I believe that nothing I have thus far said is inconsistent with the most vigorous action, and that in the direction of the betterment of the human race. The end and aim of the eugenists cannot be reproached.
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The race is far from perfect. Its condition is deplorable. Its improvement is entirely feasible, and in the highest degree desirable.
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Nor do I refer merely to economic conditions, to the poverty and misery of the disinherited classes. The intellectual state of the world is deplorable, and its improvement is clearly within the reach of society itself. It is therefore a question of method rather than of principle that concerns us.
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Ward later noted about the organic environment that: Darwin has taught us that the chief barrier to the advance of any species of plants or animals is its competition with other plants and animals that contest the same ground. And therefore the fiercest opponents of any species are the members of the same species which demand the same elements of subsistence. Hence the chief form of relief in the organic world consists in the thinning-out of competitors.
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Any species of animals or plants left free to propagate at its normal rate would overrun the earth in a short time and leave no room for any other species. Any species that is sufficiently vigorous to resist its organic environment will crowd out all others and monopolize the earth. If nature permitted this there could be no variety, but only one monotonous aspect devoid of interest or beauty.
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Whatever we may think of the harsh method by which this is prevented, we cannot regret that it is prevented, and that we have a world of variety, interest, and aesthetic attractiveness. Vassar historians note that "critics faulted the new program as a weakening of science and a slide into vocationalism. The influential educator and historian of education, Abraham Flexner—one of the founders of the Princeton Institute for Advanced Study—attacked the program, along with other "ad hoc" innovations like intercollegiate athletics and student governments, in Universities, American, English, German (1930).
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""Well, what is euthenics? Euthenics is the 'science of efficient living;' and the 'science' is artificially pieced together of bits of mental hygiene, child guidance, nutrition, speech development and correction, family problems, wealth consumption, food preparation, household technology, and horticulture.... The institute is actually justified in an official publication by the profound question of a girl student who is reported as asking, 'What is the connection of Shakespeare with having a baby?' The Vassar Institute of Euthenics bridges this gap!"
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In the summer of 1926, Margaret Sanger created a stir when she gave a radio address, called "Racial Betterment", in the first Euthenics Institute, where she praised attempts to "close our gates to the so-called 'undesirables'" and proposed efforts to "discourage or cut down on the rapid multiplication of the unfit and undesirable at home", by government-subsidized voluntary sterilization.Eugenicist, Charles Benedict Davenport, noted in his article "Euthenics and Eugenics," found reprinted in the Popular Science Monthly of January 1911, page 18, 20: Thus the two schools of euthenics and eugenics stand opposed, each viewing the other unkindly. Against eugenics it is urged that it is a fatalistic doctrine and deprives life of the stimulus toward effort. Against euthenics the other side urges that it demands an endless amount of money to patch up conditions in the vain effort to get greater efficiency.
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Which of the two doctrines is true? The thoughtful mind must concede that, as is so often the case where doctrines are opposed, each view is partial, incomplete and really false. The truth does not exactly lie between the doctrines; it comprehends them both.
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What a child becomes is always the resultant of two sets of forces acting from the moment the fertilized egg begins its development—one is the set of internal tendencies and the other is the set of external influences. What the result of an external influence—a particular environmental condition—shall be depends only in part upon the nature of the influence; it depends also upon the internal nature of the reacting protoplasm. Incest, cousin marriage, the marriage of defectives and tuberculous persons, are, in wide circles, taboo.
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This fact affords the basis for the hope that, when the method of securing strong offspring, even from partially defective stock—and where is the strain without any defect?—is widely known, the teachings of science in respect even to marriage matings will be widely regarded and that in the generations to come the teachings and practice of euthenics will yield greater result because of the previous practice of the principles of eugenics. In a New York Times op-ed dated October 24, 1926, entitled "Eugenics and euthenics", in response to an op-ed entitled "Bright Children Who Fail" which appeared the previous October 15, student of child psychology, Joseph A. Krisses observes: From intensive study we realize the importance of eugenics—the right of birth, and also the subject of euthenics—the right to environment. Too little credit is given to environment when we speak of children having hereditary traits as "Like father, like son," or "Chip off the old block." Such phrases have their origin from the study of eugenics. No one has ever taken an Edwards baby and reared it in a Jukes environment.
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"Not through chance, but through increase of scientific knowledge; not through compulsion, but through democratic idealism consciously working through common interests, will be brought about the creation of right conditions, the control of the environment." (Ellen H. Swallow Richards) "Right living conditions comprise pure food and a safe water supply, a clean and disease free atmosphere in which to live and work, proper shelter and adjustment of work, rest, and amusements." (Ellen H. Swallow Richards) "Probably not more than twenty-five percent in any community are capable of doing a full days work such as they would be capable of doing if they were in perfect health" (Ellen H. Swallow Richards) "Men ignore nature's laws in their personal lives.
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They crave a larger measure of goodness and happiness, and yet in their choice of dwelling places, in their building of houses to live in, in their selection of food and drink, in their clothing of their bodies, in their choice of occupations and amusements, in their methods and habits of work, they disregard natural laws and impose upon themselves conditions that make their ideals of goodness and happiness impossible of attainment." (George E. Dawson, The control of life through Environment) "It is within the power of every living man to rid himself of every parasitic disease." (Louis Pasteur)
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In cultural anthropology and sociology, redistribution refers to a system of economic exchange involving the centralized collection of goods from members of a group followed by the redivision of those goods among those members. It is a form of reciprocity. Redistribution differs from simple reciprocity, which is a dyadic back-and-forth exchange between two parties. Redistribution, in contrast, consists of pooling, a system of reciprocities.
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It is a within group relationship, whereas reciprocity is a between relationship. Pooling establishes a centre, whereas reciprocity inevitably establishes two distinct parties with their own interests. While the most basic form of pooling is that of food within the family, it is also the basis for sustained community efforts under a political leader.
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Sahlins argues that generalized reciprocity within families by elders may be a "starting mechanism" for more general hierarchy, by placing many in the giver's debt. This leads to the question, "when does reciprocity give way to redistribution." Sahlins argues that chiefly redistribution is not different in principle and nothing but a highly organized form of kinship-rank reciprocity.
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Others, such as French Marxist anthropologist Claude Meillassoux, used the development of ranked kin redistribution from generalized reciprocity as the basis for a lineage mode of production found in western African chiefdoms and kingdoms. An elaborate example of this in a non-market society is the potlatch, where large amounts of personal resources are ceremonially given away to others in the community according to social status, with the tacit expectation that other members of the community would themselves give away large amounts of their own property in the future.Bähre argued that redistribution is a central mechanism in capitalist economies. In South Africa, many find themselves in a post-Fordist economy that is characterised by redistribution through the state (development aid, welfare), through markets (for example commercial insurance) and through religious institutions (neo-Pentecostal churches).In modern mixed market economies, the central form of redistribution is facilitated through taxation by the state. Redistribution of property therefore occurs where properties are allocated back to individuals or groups within society either through the provision of public services or directly through welfare benefits.
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Within theories of education, retroactive learning is a delay in understanding an experience, or review of learning experiences when resources become available. Often, it is not possible to learn while an event is occurring because the agent lacks the specific information or resources that it needs to learn. For example, an agent in a realtime environment may not have time to apply an iterative learning algorithm while it is performing a task.
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However, when a resource like time becomes available, the agent can replay the events and learn from them. Episodic memory allows previous experiences to be relived or rehearsed once resources are available so it can be reanalyzed with new knowledge or additional experiences. == References ==
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The conservation and restoration of human remains involves the long-term preservation and care of human remains in various forms which exist within museum collections. This category can include bones and soft tissues as well as ashes, hair, and teeth. Given the organic nature of the human body, special steps must be taken to halt the deterioration process and maintain the integrity of the remains in their current state.
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These types of museum artifacts have great merit as tools for education and scientific research, yet also have unique challenges from a cultural and ethical standpoint. Conservation of human remains within museum collections is most often undertaken by a conservator-restorer or archaeologist. Other specialists related to this area of conservation include osteologists and taxidermists.
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Museum collections contain human remains in many forms, including entire preserved bodies, discrete parts of the anatomy, and even art and artifacts created out of human body parts.
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Museum collections, especially those of the natural history variety, often contain osteological specimens derived from humans. These can include individual bones, bone fragments, entire skeletons, and teeth from both ancient and contemporary sources. Reconstruction of bone fragments should be conducted with great care and consideration. Due to the porous nature of bones, few adhering substances can be used on bone with an adequate level of reversibility, which is a key component of all conservation treatments.
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There are innumerable types of artifacts present in museum collections that include or are composed of human remains, some with great scientific or medical merit and others with great cultural importance. Not only do the body parts vary greatly, but their methods of preservation do as well.
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Mummies, though most often thought of as an Egyptian phenomenon, exist in many cultures and have been found on nearly every continent. The word mummy can refer to both intentionally and naturally preserved bodies and is not limited to one geographic area or culture. Damage of mummified remains can be caused by several main factors, including poor environmental conditions, physical damage, and improper methods of preservation that have been applied in the past.Controlling environmental conditions is highly important in preserving the integrity of mummies. Fungi, pests, and microorganisms that cause decay are some of the possible repercussions of inadequate storage and environmental factors.
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There are a number of ways to mitigate the effects of improper conditions, however. Methods of stabilizing mummies and halting the deterioration process include inert gas control, where the mummy is placed in a chamber or bag into which fumigants are introduced; wet sterilization, where solutions are applied to the mummy to repel insects and the growth of fungi; controlled drying, which reduces the relative humidity in order to stop growth of microorganisms; and ultraviolet irradiation, which affects microorganisms by altering their cells.Some previous treatments which were thought to help in the preservation of mummified remains but ultimately led to further damage include curing the remains by smoking them and applying solutions of copper salts to exposed skin.The Artefact Lab at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (Penn Museum) provides examples and images of mummy preservation. The lab's collection provides insight into ongoing conservation projects on mummies and related artifacts in their collection.
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Bog bodies are human remains which have been found in peat bogs in various locations around the world. They have been preserved naturally in varying degrees due to the specific conditions of peat bogs. Despite their natural preservation, these remains are sensitive to deterioration after being removed from their original locations.
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Freeze-drying is an accepted method of preserving bog bodies in museum collections. Some notable bog body discoveries include the Tollund Man of Denmark, the Elling Woman of Denmark, the Cashel Man of Ireland, the Huldremose Woman of Denmark, the Girl of the Uchter Moor of Germany, the Lindow Man of England, and the Yde Girl of the Netherlands. For a more comprehensive list of examples, see List of bog bodies. A record of the preservation of the Tollund Man's head, which took place in 1951 and involved replacing the bog water in the cells with liquid paraffin wax, can be read on the Tollund Man's website hosted by the Silkeborg Public Library, Silkeborg Museum, and Amtscentret for Undervisning.
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Soft tissues are usually in some sort of state of preservation prior to entering a museum collection, but still require periodic care. Plastination: One method of preserving tissues is plastination, invented by Gunther von Hagens and made famous by the exhibition Body Worlds. The process of plastination involves replacing the water and fat of a specimen with a curable polymer. This form of preservation requires little upkeep in terms of conservation, outside of periodic surface cleaning.
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Wet specimens: A more classic form of soft tissue preservation is in a solution of formaldehyde, creating what is known as a wet specimen. The Mütter Museum in Philadelphia, PA has an extensive collection of wet specimens of human body parts, including both normal specimens and medical abnormalities. Care and hazards of wet specimens can be found on the website of the American Museum of Natural History.
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Sections of human skin can be found in the collections of some museums. Some examples of this include books bound with human skin (anthropodermic bibliopegy) and preserved tattoos. The largest collection of the latter can be found in the Wellcome Collection at the Science Museum, London.
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American artist Andrew Krasnow has caused controversy in recent decades by creating pieces of contemporary art made of human skin. His works, which often make political statements, are composed of pieces of flesh from individuals who have donated their bodies to science. The skin itself has been preserved through the process of tanning.
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Hair is considered human remains by some definitions, but not all. It is not uncommon within museum collections due to the trend of creating "hairwork", most popular during the Victorian era. Locks of hair, hair wreaths, and jewelry made of hair are some of the most commonly found forms.
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Though there is great variety in human remains within museum collections as well as the ways in which they can be preserved, there are a number of best practices to be observed in the preventive care of these types of artifacts. Preventive conservation is the best method of preserving human remains in the long term, as active conservation work should be limited both by conservators' policy to interfere as little as possible and the beliefs of many indigenous tribes and groups who disapprove of altering human remains.
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One of the greatest threats to the long-term well being of human remains in museum collections is improper storage and packing. Proper storage of human remains is not only necessary for their physical preservation, but it also demonstrates the respect that sensitive materials such as these should be accorded. The ideal storage location for sacred artifacts and human remains is a designated space away from the rest of the collection; however, there are often many constraints which prevent this from being possible. At the minimum, ethical guidelines suggest that remains from different individuals should be stored in separate boxes or compartments from each other.
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Generally speaking, human remains are best preserved in cool, dark, dry conditions while wrapped in acid-free (non-buffered) tissue and packing materials. Corporeal materials should not be stored in or near any wood or in any containers which previously housed wood due to potentially increased lignin levels, which produce an acid that can lead to the deterioration of DNA and proteins in the remains. Excessive exposure to light should be avoided in order to prevent bleaching of materials, especially bone.
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Organic materials are porous by nature, which means that they are greatly affected by changes in the moisture levels of their surroundings. Overly moist conditions can lead to growth of fungi on protein materials like human remains, which is one of the most common risks they face. Alternately, low-humidity conditions can potentially cause protein materials to crack, split, and shrink. Ideal storage conditions for bones is 35% to 55% relative humidity with minimal fluctuations, while ideal conditions for the preservation of mummies are 50 to 59 degrees Fahrenheit (10 to 15 degrees Celsius) with a relative humidity of 40% to 55%.
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Embrittlement is a risk for many human remains, and as a result handling should be limited. When possible, artifacts should be lifted by their storage container or tray. To avoid transfer of oils to the remains, nitrile or latex gloves should be worn during their handling. If a body is to be lifted, it must be supported under all of its appendages.
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Cleaning of human remains varies by type. If necessary, surface cleaning of bone can be done with a very mild detergent and water solution, but bones should never be soaked in order to prevent dirt from becoming embedded in pores. The possibility of cleaning human remains is highly dependent on the fragility of the specimen.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_human_remains
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There are many challenges surrounding human remains accessioned by museums, including legal complications involved in dealing with human remains, involvement of living relatives or tribes, and potential repatriation and issues such as the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990 (NAGPRA). NAGPRA requires any federal or federally-funded institution, with the exception of the Smithsonian Institution, to submit full inventories of their Native American funerary and sacred objects and human remains and to repatriate these objects to their tribe of origin should a request be made to do so. Should a museum possess human remains which have a direct living relative or group (Native American or otherwise), it is their ethical obligation to involve these individuals in the care and treatment of the remains.Acquisition of human remains by museums can happen in a number of ways, some of which are considered to be unethical today. Many museums have human remains in their collections which have been there for over a hundred years, in which case they may likely have been acquired in ethically or morally unsound ways.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_human_remains
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This has led to growing concerns that the display of human remains has become depersonalised, by continuing to keep them in collections. Most institutions and museum associations have their own policies on the acquisition of human remains. Some guidelines for the care of human remains including acceptable means of acquisition can be found below.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_human_remains
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Cultural considerations can sometimes interfere with the conservation of human remains, particularly when it comes to physical and chemical analyses, which play an important role in their care. Testing conducted on human remains, especially ancient ones, can include DNA testing, isotope analyses, and carbon-14 dating. The benefits of such testing is sometimes outweighed by the cultural or sacred importance of the remains as well as the risk of damaging them too greatly. According to the Deutscher Museumsbund, there are only three circumstances in which scientific research should be conducted on human remains: there is a great deal of scientific interest the human remains have a known provenance, and the method of acquisition of the human remains is no source for concern.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_human_remains
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The Kennewick Man is a notable example of human remains caught in a struggle between scientific merit and cultural traditions. Since his discovery in 1996, his fate has been the topic of great controversy. As one of the oldest well-preserved ancient skeletons found in America, scientists are eager to conduct various testing on the remains. Native American groups, however, have been adamantly calling for his repatriation and reburial, as per their traditions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_human_remains
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IEEE Intelligent Systems is a bimonthly peer-reviewed academic journal published by the IEEE Computer Society and sponsored by the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI), British Computer Society (BCS), and European Association for Artificial Intelligence (EurAI).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Intelligent_Systems
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The journal was established in 1986 as the quarterly IEEE Expert, changed to bimonthly in 1990. Its name was changed to IEEE Intelligent Systems & Their Applications in 1997 (already in 1996, the journal's title had become IEEE Expert - Intelligent Systems & Their Applications with a marked emphasis put on the text Intelligent Systems). Its current name IEEE Intelligent Systems was given in 2001.The current editor-in-chief is Longbing Cao (University of Technology Sydney). The editor-in-chief emeritus includes James Hendler (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute), Fei-Yue Wang (Chinese Academy of Sciences), Daniel Zeng (University of Arizona), and V.S. Subrahmanian (Northwestern University).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Intelligent_Systems
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According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2021 impact factor of 6.744, ranked in the first quantile of the journals in the category of artificial intelligence.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Intelligent_Systems
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For its 25th anniversary, the journal composed a "Hall of Fame", and the 10 recipients were announced in 2011.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_Intelligent_Systems
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Riverview Psychiatric Center, also known as Riverview Psychiatric Recovery Center, is a psychiatric hospital in Augusta, Maine, operated by the Maine Department of Health and Human Services. The center recruits for volunteers from the United Way for certain services.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverview_Psychiatric_Center
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Modern psychiatric hospitals evolved from, and eventually replaced, the older lunatic asylums. The development of the modern psychiatric hospital is also the story of the rise of organised, institutional psychiatry. In the 19th century, institutionalisation was found to be the "correct solution" to the problem of "madness". In 1834, the Maine Legislature established the Maine Insane Hospital, and together with private donations, state appropriations enabled the hospital to open in 1840.From 1946 to 1962, Dr. Francis Harper Sleeper (1900-1983) served as the superintendent, and his name lent itself to the Sleeper Era, a period of several changes to services, including "unitary control" of nursing, hiring of an additional psychologist and interns, hiring of a pharmacist and a dentist, and creation of a library with a librarian.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverview_Psychiatric_Center
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From the late 1940s through the early 1960s, "the hospital experienced extensive over-crowding." In the 1960s, a new superintendent, Dr. John C. Patterson, mandated discharge of patients to support their rights (as opposed to leaves of absence), which raised admissions, yet, "the population began to drop because of use of new medications. "In the early 1970s, many patients were de-institutionalized under the rubric of patient rights, by supervisor Roy Ettlinger, which led to the inmate population dropping from 1,500 to 350.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverview_Psychiatric_Center
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Patient advocates were also hired, and an ongoing reevaluation of the removal of patients continued throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In 2004, a new "92-bed civil and forensic psychiatric treatment facility" was built to replace the now-old state hospital.In 2007, a state investigation revealed that many potential patients were turned away. At the time, a report to the state legislature reported that the vast majority had other places to go for help, but eight percent, or 30 patients, ended up in emergency rooms.As of August 1, 2012, the center had 57 forensic patients and 35 civil patients, meaning that some forensic patients are occupying beds on the civil side of the hospital.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverview_Psychiatric_Center
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The center also has recently put many forensic patients in nearby Augusta group homes, resulting in a petition with 150 signatures calling for their closure by neighbors with safety concerns. Augusta Mayor William Stokes also expressed concern over Augusta's bearing an unfair burden of mental health patients.The federal Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services announced on October 2, 2013, that Riverview's Medicare Provider Agreement would be terminated, ending the roughly $20 million in federal funds the center receives a year, due to numerous problems at the center.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverview_Psychiatric_Center
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These include contentions that the facility is overcrowded, inadequately staffed, and has used improper methods to control patients, including the use of Tasers. DHHS Commissioner Mary Mayhew stated that the State would appeal the decision, and that if it stood, the Center cannot make up for the loss of the federal funds. In June 2014, the appeal was rejected, citing concerns about document compliance.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverview_Psychiatric_Center
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Mayhew stated that progress has still been made, as only one issue was found by CMS as opposed to the eight initially found, and that DHHS would again reapply. Despite the appeal by the Department, Governor Paul LePage has expressed criticism of attempts to regain accreditation, once stating that "With the federal money, some of the fine print is so atrocious that sometimes we do more harm than good", though he later backed away from those comments, calling the loss of accreditation "shameful" and "disgusting".In August 2014, the sign outside the center was replaced and featured a new name: the Riverview Psychiatric Recovery Center, though the legal name of the facility will remain as it was before. A DHHS spokesman stated that unlike the original one, the sign, which cost $1,236.30, is virtually maintenance free. The change in name was made to reflect "the new culture of recovery and excellence that is being built at the hospital". State legislators were not aware of the changes and State Senator Margaret Craven criticized the administration by saying "They pay more attention to signs than to treatment of people".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverview_Psychiatric_Center
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Riverview Psychiatric Center provides a number of services to patients. The crisis stabilization unit is in effect an emergency room for psychiatry, frequently dealing with suicidal, violent, or otherwise critical individuals. Laws in many jurisdictions providing for long-term involuntary commitment require a commitment order issued by a judge within a short time (after 72 hours, the evaluation period) of the patient's entry to the unit, if the patient does not or is unable to give consent. In Maine, this is also true.As of 2010, some criminal defendants are held at Riverview Psychiatric Center, especially those who claim the insanity defense.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverview_Psychiatric_Center
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Hetucakra or Wheel of Reasons is a Sanskrit text on logic written by Dignaga (c 480–540 CE). It concerns the application of his 'three modes’ (trairūpya), conditions or aspects of the middle term called hetu ("reason" for a conclusion) or linga ("mark", "sign" of a sound argument) in a valid inference within the Indian logico-epistemic tradition, sometimes referred to as Buddhist logic.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetucakra
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Anacker (2005: p. 34), in introducing his English rendering of the "Method for Argumentation (Vāda-vidhi)" of Vasubandhu (fl. 4th century)—a text composed in Sanskrit which is now only extant in a reconstructed composite extracted from Tibetan works, collated by Frauwallner (1957)—holds that: Vasubandhu's criteria for a valid inference-schema are concise and precise, and there is nothing essential omitted. Dignāga's 'wheel of justifications' (hetu-cakra), sometimes held to be the first complete Indian formulation of what constitutes the validity and invalidity of an argument, is in fact nothing of the kind: it is a pedagogic device mapping out in detail what Vasubandhu's criteria already presuppose.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetucakra
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Dignaga formulated the 'three modes’ (trairūpya) which are three conditions required for a logical ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga), which to fulfill in order to establish the 'valid cognition' (pramana) of an 'inference' (anumana): It should be present in the case or object under consideration, the ‘subject-locus’ (pakṣa) It should be present in a ‘similar case’ or a homologue (sapakṣa) It should not be present in any ‘dissimilar case’ or heterologue (vipakṣa)When a ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) is identified, there are three possibilities: the sign may be present in all, some, or none of the sapakṣas. Similarly, the sign may be present in all, some or none of the vipakṣas. To identify a sign, by convention we accept the first condition as being satisfied.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetucakra
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Combining these, Dignaga constructed his ‘Wheel of Reasons’ (Hetucakra) with nine distinct possibilities, which may be tabulated as follows (adapted from Matilal, 1998: p. 9):
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetucakra
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Of the nine possibilities within the cakra or 'wheel', Dignaga asserted that only two are illustrative of sound inference, that is they meet all three conditions, namely Numbers 2 and 8: either "+ sapakṣa & − vipakṣa" or "± sapakṣa & − vipakṣa" would fulfill the required conditions. Dignaga is insistent that at least one sapaksa must have the positive sign. Number 5 is not a case of sound inference as this is a pseudo-sign for although it satisfies the two conditions 1 and 3, it does not fulfill condition 2.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetucakra
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Dignaga required all three conditions to be met in order to establish valid cognition. The second row does not satisfy condition 2 and hence none of Numbers 4, 5, and 6 are logical signs; they are pseudo-signs. Numbers 4 and 6 are called “contradictory” pseudo-signs—an improvement upon the old Nyāya Sūtras definition of contradictory. The middle one, Number 5, is called “uniquely deviating” (asādhāraṇa), perhaps for the reason that this sign becomes a unique sign of the paksa itself, and is not found anywhere else.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetucakra
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In Dignaga’s system, this sign cannot be a sign for anything else, it can only point to itself reflexively or to its own locus. Numbers 1, 3, 7, and 9 are also pseudo-signs. They are called the “deviating” signs, for in each case the sign occurs in some vipaksa or other, although each fulfills the second condition. This shows that, at least in Dignaga’s own view, the second condition (when it is combined with the first) gives only a necessary condition for being an adequate sign, not a sufficient one. In other words, Dignaga intended all three conditions jointly to formulate a sufficient condition.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hetucakra
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Discrimination in dance refers to unequal treatment of performance artists based on white dominant culturally desired symmetry and unified lines.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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Widely known as the mentor of Misty Copeland, Raven Wilkinson was the first African-American woman to break the racial barrier in balled in 1955 and become a principal dancer. Wilkinson auditioned at Swoboda's School of Dance multiple times, but was never picked in auditions. One of her fellow dancers told her, “Raven, they can’t afford to take you because of your race.” Nevertheless, eventually Raven was accepted into the school and began her journey to be the first famous black ballerina.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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While travelling with the Ballet Russe in the 1950s, Wilkinson faced extreme discrimination in the southern states of the United States. She was refused the right to stay at the same hotel as her company and was sent home for her safety until the company moved north again. The Ku Klux Klan had interrupted her performances to protest against the famous Black ballerina.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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Wilkinson was told to put powder on her face to look paler and even told to tell people that she was Mexican and not Black, which were all racist attempts at concealing her skin color from the dance world. Wilkinson saw Misty Copeland dancing on television and knew she had to mentor her. Copeland commented on Wilkinson, “We speak the same very rare language: that of a black classical ballet dancer.”
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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Misty Copeland is highly regarded as one of the most influential and powerful dancers of the modern age. Copeland was the first black ballerina to be a principal dancer with the American Ballet Theatre. She joined the ABT Studio Company in September 2000, then joined as a soloist in August 2007. Eventually, she was promoted to principal dancer in August 2015.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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Copeland is more than a ballerina, as she has used her platform to speak out about racism in ballet. In collaboration with her manager Gilda Squire, she wrote, “She and I have a shared goal to bring ballet to more people and diversify it. That’s been my goal from day one, and it has never wavered.” Copeland's primary goal is to educate and inspire young people about the racism that has been embedded ballet since it was invented.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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As a modern-day black dancer, she still remembers being told to pancake her skin a lighter color to fit in with the rest of the company. She has relied on her mentor and longtime friend, Raven Wilkinson, to highlight the injustices of ballet and was moved by how Wilkinson overcame her struggles as one of very few, black dancers to dance with a major touring troupe. Both dancers were told to pancake their skin to appear lighter than they were, revealing an unsettling lack of advancement towards accepting dancers of color within the last 70 years.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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Ballet is an art form in which balance, unity and perfection are valued above creativity and uniqueness. This idea of a cohesive and unison line of dancers has led to discrimination within the ballet community. Similar heights and leg lengths have historically been important to dance companies, and this ideal is being spread to race as well. Companies desire dancers who all have the same body shape and features to create a cohesive look.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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For example, in the 1950s, ballet companies wanted women with long arms and legs like Galina Ulanova; in the 1960s, under the influence of George Balanchine, they wanted women with long necks and small heads, like Suzanne Farrell; in the 1980s, they wanted women to be extremely thin. More recently, ballet companies have wanted ballerinas to have athletic, muscular bodies like Misty Copeland. Some ballet directors believe that most dancers of color have “unsuitable features”, such as curvy bodies with larger breasts and buttocks, flat feet and differing hair textures. This has led to discrimination and racism against Black ballerinas, as they do not fit the profile that casting directors desire. Some ballet companies continue to use blackface and yellowface to depict people of color, instead of casting people of color, in order to keep the symmetry and similar lines within the dance.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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Within ballet, similar leotards, tights and shoes are worn to maintain the desired uniform image. Historically, tights and shoes have been light pink to match the desired light skin tone. Retail companies did not sell other colors for dancers with different colored legs or feet, so ballet companies encouraged ballerinas of color to wear the light pink tights to make their legs lighter and blend in with the group. Furthermore, ballerinas of color have had to “pancake” their shoes, tights and leotards to match their skin tones.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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The Dance Theater of Harlem has historically encouraged a variety of races and colors within their company as a diverse line is the image they are looking for. Dancer Llanchie Stevenon performed for the company and pushed for the idea of different skin colored tights as her legs were a completely different color than her arms. Stevenson and the theater debuted their flesh-toned tights in 1974 on their European tour.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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Today, companies are still debating the idea of flesh-toned tights as some directors believe diversity in tights is okay when there is lots of diversity, but when there is only one or two dancers of color, companies believe they should continue to use the pink tights to not “break the line. "“Pancaking” ballet materials has led to an increase in cost for ballerinas of color. They have to purchase not only the base materials but also a skin colored paint to pack on to their clothes to achieve the skin tone look. This economic discrimination discourages dancers of color from investing in the dance style as they have to spend more money and time to achieve to what lighter skinned dancers is the bare minimum. In 2017, Gaynor Minden, a popular point shoe brand, debuted their first point shoes of different colors to match multiple skin tones.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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In June 2013, Danny's Cabaret, a strip club in the entertainment district of Jackson, Mississippi, was sued for discriminating against their Black dancers by limiting their hours and requiring them to compete for the “black shift”. White dancers were offered ample shifts while the black dancers had to compete for one which limited their income. One of the dancers filed a complaint against Danny's with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission but Danny's did not respond well and consequently limited their hours even more, fining them, and demanding they quit. Danny's was found liable of discrimination and had to change their ways by way of a supervisor and implementing posters for two years which warns customers of their history of discrimination based on race.Similarly, in March 2017, a very similar situation occurred again in which Danny's was limiting shifts, advertisement campaigns, and opportunities to black dancers due to their race.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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They once again were fined, given a supervisor and put up warnings of their business habits. Once again, in May 2019, Danny's Cabaret was discriminated against by race to black dancers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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As well as limiting their shifts, Danny attempted to get all the black dancers to work at another club called the Black Diamond. It was illegal for the dancers to work at the Diamond because they did not have the permits. The diamond also had less favorable conditions like less security, and worse pay. When the dancers advocated for their right to work at Danny's under equal opportunities and conditions, Danny's fined them and sent them home.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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Ballet Nègre founded, one of the first black ballet companies in the US
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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American Negro Ballet gives its debut performance. Ballet blended with Harlem dance techniques composed of 20 black dancers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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