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Black dancer Janet Collins made metropolitan opera debut in the opera Aida.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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Raven Wilkinson became the first African American women to receive contract to dance full-time with Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo of NYC
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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Arthur Mitchell was the first black principal dancer in the history of NYC ballet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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Alvin Ailey founded Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater, enriched the modern dance heritage and preserved the uniqueness of African America cultural experience
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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Tony Williams joined Boston Ballet and became principal dancer within three years. He later founded the urban nutcracker which incorporates black artist music along with hip hop and tap, not otherwise associated with ballet
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrimination_in_dance
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The Hungarian National Museum (Hungarian: Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum) was founded in 1802 and is the national museum for the history, art, and archaeology of Hungary, including areas not within Hungary's modern borders, such as Transylvania; it is not to be confused with the collection of international art in the Hungarian National Gallery. The museum is in Budapest VIII in a Neoclassical building, purpose-built during 1837–47 by the architect Mihály Pollack.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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The Hungarian National Museum traces its foundation to 1802, when Count Ferenc Széchényi set up the National Széchényi Library. This would then be followed a year later by the donating of a mineral collection by Széchényi's wife. This led to the creation of the Hungarian National Museum as a general history and natural history museum, beyond being simply a library. In 1807, the Hungarian National Parliament passed legislation on the new institution and asked the nation to help donate to the museum.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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The Hungarian Parliament of 1832–1834 helped with the growth of the museum as well. The parliament voted in favor of giving half a million forints to help with the construction of a new building for the museum. During this time the Hungarian National History Museum was officially set up under the Hungarian National Museum.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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Later, in 1846, the museum moved to its current location of VIII. Múzeum krt.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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14–16, where the museum resides in a neo-classical style building designed by Mihály Pollack. In 1848, the Hungarian National Museum played a major role in the Hungarian Revolution. The Revolution was partially spurred by the reading of Sándor Petőfi's 12 points and the famous poem Nemzeti dal on the front steps of the museum.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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This helped make the museum a major site of national importance and identity for Hungary. In remembrance of the revolution, two statues were added to the museum: the first is a statue of János Arany, unveiled in 1883. In 1890, there was a statue next to the stairs of the museum of a memorial tablet to Sándor Petőfi.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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Additionally, during this time, the Upper House of the parliament held its sessions in the Cereminial of the museum. This continued until the new house of Parliament was built. Today, festivities held in remembrance of the National Commemorations Day of 1848 are held in front of the museum.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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In 1949, an act split the ethnographic and natural history part of the Hungarian National Museum off of the main museum. They now comprise the Hungarian Natural History Museum and Ethnographic Museum. This also helped with the setting up of the modern day National Széchényi Library. All of these separate museums are still interconnected, and other museums and monuments have become affiliated with them over time. The most recent addition was the Castle Museum in Esztergom, which joined in 1985.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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The Hungarian National Museum has seven permanent displays. The general history of Hungary is covered in two sections: the archaeology from prehistory to the Avar period ending in 804 AD on the first (ground) floor ("On the East-West frontier"), and the history from 804 to modern times on the first floor. This display covers topics such as the age of the Arpads, the long Turkish occupation, Transylvania and royal Hungary. More modern and Contemporary history covered begins with the Rákóczi War of Independence, showing different sections of his military attire and various coins.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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The history section then ends with the rise and fall of the communist system in Hungary. In another hall on the second floor one can find out about the Scholar Hungarians who made the twentieth century. A room on the first floor displays the medieval Hungarian Coronation Mantle.The ground floor's permanent exhibit is focused on Medieval and Early Modern stone inscriptions and carvings.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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This exhibit looks at various stone relics and the carvings that have been made into them. The majority of the items in this collection were discovered during the 1960s and 1970s, since they looked for more relics post World War II. The final permanent exhibit is placed in the basement of the museum. This is the Roman Lapidary exhibit, which is a collection of ancient Roman stone inscriptions and carvings.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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The building where the Hungarian National Museum is currently located was built from 1837–1847. The style of the main building was laid out in a neo-classical style and was added onto by other artists in the form of statues, paintings and other architecture. The statues of the Portico were done by Raffael Monti of Milan. One of these is a famous statue of the allegoric figure of Hungary, holding a shield with the Hungarian coat of arms on it.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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On the sides of this figure there is Science on one and Art on the other. In addition the paintings that have been in the staircase and on the ceiling since 1875 were done by Károly Lotz and Mór Than. There has also been a garden that is used primarily for various concerts.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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Various artists have performed here including Ferenc Liszt. Today the garden is the venue of the Museum Festival. Scenes from the movie Evita, starring Madonna were filmed on the steps leading in. The scenes depicted the coffin of Eva Peron being carried into a 'Buenos Aires' government building to lay in State.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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Semmelweis Museum of Medical History (since 2017)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_National_Museum
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Hellenoturkism (Greek: Ελληνοτουρκισμός, romanized: Ellinotourkismós; Turkish: Helenotürkizm) is a political concept that encompasses two things: a fact of civilization (i.e. the co-habitation and interdependence, since the 11th century A.D.) of the Greek and Turkish peoples and cultures, and a political ideology based on the above civilizational phenomenon, which aims at establishing a Hellenic-Turkish political ensemble, national, and cultural identity. Most believers in the ideology support differing main principles and points, although generally supported ideas are that, one, both nations and peoples share similar cultures, traditions, histories, and also a mixed genetic similarity. And two, that such a unification would create a new global and regional, military and economic power within the European Union and NATO, which would also peacefully resolve ongoing disputes between the Cypriot, Greek, and Turkish states and communities such as the Cyprus problem, the Aegean problems, and also Maritime-border disputes in the Mediterranean between all four nations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenoturkism
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According to Dimitri Kitsikis, from the time of the Persian Empire and Alexander the Great, to the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the 20th century A.D., the Intermediate Region has been covered by an ecumenical empire that had common civilizational characteristics, despite the fact that it passed into the hands successively of the Persians, to the Greeks, to the Romans, to the Byzantines and, finally, to the Ottomans. This central civilization of the Intermediate Region, existing since the time of Cyrus the Great, bore the characteristics, since the 11th century A.D. and for the last thousand years, of Greek and Turkish cultures. The Ecumenicity of the Empire was Hellenoturkism.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenoturkism
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In the 15th century, a Greek philosopher, George of Trebizond, 1395-1484 (the date of his death varies from 1472 to 1486 depending on the sources), who aimed at synthesizing Islam in the form of Alevism and Christianity in the form of Greek Orthodoxy, is considered by some supporters of Hellenoturkism as one of the main thinkers and founders of their ideology. He addressed the new ruler of the Empire, Fatih, or Mehmed the Conqueror, in a letter of 1466 as the legal emperor of the Romans and of the whole earth, and also as the common emperor of both Romans and Turks. In the 20th century, the ideology of Hellenoturkism was revived by the historian Dimitri Kitsikis who beginning in 1966, with numerous books, articles and conference papers focussed on the subject, and with political activity in both Greece and Turkey, as an advisor of both Greek President Konstantinos Karamanlis and of Turkish President Turgut Özal, strove to establish the basis of a Turkish-Greek Confederation.According to proponents, a bilingual "Greek Turkish Confederation" (East Mediterranean Confederation) between Greece, Turkey and Cyprus (with national capitals in Athens, Ankara and Nicosia, and Confederation parliament in Istanbul) would (to an extent) be a reincarnation of the Byzantine/Ottoman Empires; thus filling the political, cultural and economic vacuum left behind by the absence of these two historic superpowers in the East Mediterranean region.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenoturkism
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It would have the largest economy and military in the area covering the Balkans, the Middle East, the East Mediterranean, the Caucasus and Central Asia, and could become a key global great power due to its geographic location. During the 2010-2015 Greek financial crisis, the idea resurfaced both in Turkey and Greece.However today, Hellenoturkism has little support in Turkey or Greece (excluding Cyprus). Although it has significantly grown in recognition, support and popularity as a result of its presentation in digital media and online platforms or forums.Meanwhile in the recognized Cyprus and unrecognized North Cyprus; the ideas of a united Cypriot federation, Taksim (Partition between Greece & Turkey) by Turks, and Enosis (Unification with Greece) by Greeks are more common.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenoturkism
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Dimitri Kitsikis, political advisorGeorgios Papadopoulos, main perpetrator of the Greek Junta in 1967:According to Yannis Mazis, professor of Turkology & Euroasian Sciences in Boğaziçi University; Papadopulos “saw the possibility of such a confederation as realistic, and possible to come true within the next 40 years at that time”.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenoturkism
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“Türk-Yunan Şiiri” (Turco-Greek poem), or also known as “Olmasın Varsın” (Let it not be that you don’t exist), was a friendship poem between the two nations and peoples written by former prime minister of Turkey, Bülent Ecevit, during his early years as a writer and poet in London, 1947. The poem has been composed by several musicians.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenoturkism
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New relationship energy (or NRE) refers to a state of mind experienced at the beginning of sexual and romantic relationships, typically involving heightened emotional and sexual feelings and excitement. NRE begins with the earliest attractions, may grow into full force when mutuality is established, and can fade over months or years. The term indicates contrast to those feelings aroused in an "old" or ongoing relationship. The term originated in the Usenet postings of Zhahai Stewart in the 1980s and was more widely presented in 1993.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_relationship_energy
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This concept is similar to that of limerence, which was first defined in 1979, but differs in that limerence can also be experienced absent a relationship. While the dynamics described by NRE apply to all relationships, the term is particularly prevalent in the polyamorous community, as people with multiple concurrent intimate relationships experience new relationship energy alongside more settled ongoing relationships. Adjusting to and compensating for the contrast in effect and excitement between the new and old relationships is considered an important factor in successfully balancing those relationships.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_relationship_energy
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Describing the process in a positive way can help old partners deal with feelings of jealousy towards the new partner, as well as helping the person with a new partner be more understanding and conscious of maintaining their existing relationships.New relationship energy is generally considered desirable, perhaps nearly indispensable in forming deep emotional bonds, but it can also temporarily distort perceptions and judgments and this must be taken into account. These distortions of perception do not automatically imply that the attraction is unreal or will not last (indeed most lasting romantic bonds do begin with NRE, although this does not mean that most relationships that begin with NRE would lead to lasting romantic bonds because of the complications that can come with the end of NRE), only that the magnitude of these positive feelings is greater than it is likely to be later, and some potential interpersonal problems may seem smaller than they will later become. Caution rather than avoidance or suppression is usually suggested in dealing with NRE.A less-common variant is new relationship chemistry, which is conceptually similar to NRE except with emphasis explicitly limited to the brain chemistry involved in creating the euphoric feelings, rather than actions and rationalized feelings involved with NRE.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_relationship_energy
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Physical inactivity refers to the lack of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in a person's lifestyle. It is distinct from sedentary behavior.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_inactivity
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The World Health Organization (WHO) has defined physical inactivity as a global public health problem. Each year, approximately 3.2 million people die from causes related to physical inactivity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_inactivity
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As of 2008, the WHO identified the Americas and the Eastern Mediterranean as regions with the greatest prevalence of physical inactivity. Nearly half of all women in both of these regions have physical inactivity, as well as 40% of men in the Americas and 36% of men in the Eastern Mediterranean. In contrast, the region with the lowest prevalence of physical inactivity is Southeast Asia. There, 19% of women and 15% of men are physically inactive.In the US, physical inactivity prevalence varies by state and ethnicity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_inactivity
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All states and territories had prevalence rates of more than 15% of adults. Colorado, Utah, Oregon, and Washington were the only states with physical inactivity prevalence less than 20%. Seven states and two territories had prevalence greater than 30%: Tennessee, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Alabama, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Mississippi, Guam, and Puerto Rico. Hispanics have the highest rate of physical inactivity (31.7%), followed by African-Americans (30.3%), and then non-Hispanic whites (23.4%).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_inactivity
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Several factors have been identified as part of the rising prevalence of physical inactivity. People are participating less in physical activity during leisure time. Additionally, they are increasingly likely to use sedentary behaviors during work and domestic activities.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_inactivity
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Also, instead of walking or cycling, many now use passive transportation. Urbanization may also increase physical inactivity: factors such as violence, lack of greenspace, poor air quality, and dense traffic may discourage physical activity. == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_inactivity
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Ultrasonic machining is a subtractive manufacturing process that removes material from the surface of a part through high frequency, low amplitude vibrations of a tool against the material surface in the presence of fine abrasive particles. The tool travels vertically or orthogonal to the surface of the part at amplitudes of 0.05 to 0.125 mm (0.002 to 0.005 in.). The fine abrasive grains are mixed with water to form a slurry that is distributed across the part and the tip of the tool. Typical grain sizes of the abrasive material range from 100 to 1000, where smaller grains (higher grain number) produce smoother surface finishes.Ultrasonic vibration machining is typically used on brittle materials as well as materials with a high hardness due to the microcracking mechanics.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_machining
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An ultrasonically vibrating machine consists of two major components, an electroacoustic transducer and a sonotrode, attached to an electronic control unit with a cable. The abrasive grains in the slurry now act as a free cutting tool as they strike the workpiece thousands of times per second. An electronic oscillator in the control unit produces an alternating current oscillating at a high frequency, usually between 18 and 40 kHz in the ultrasonic range. The transducer converts the oscillating current to a mechanical vibration.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_machining
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Two types of transducers have been used in ultrasonic machining; either piezoelectric or magnetostrictive: Piezoelectric transducer This consists of a piece of piezoelectric ceramic, such as barium titanate, with two metal electrodes plated on its surface. The alternating voltage from the control unit applied to the electrodes causes the piezoelectric element to bend back and forth slightly, causing it to vibrate. Magnetostrictive transducer This consists of a cylinder of ferromagnetic material such as steel inside a coil of wire.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_machining
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Magnetostriction is an effect which causes a material to change shape slightly when a magnetic field through it changes. The alternating current from the control unit, applied to the coil, creates an alternating magnetic field in the magnetostrictive cylinder which makes it change shape slightly with each oscillation, causing it to vibrate.The transducer vibrates the sonotrode at low amplitudes and high frequencies. The sonotrode is usually made of low carbon steel.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_machining
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A constant stream of abrasive slurry flows between the sonotrode and work piece. This flow of slurry allows debris to flow away from the work cutting area. The slurry usually consists of abrasive boron carbide, aluminum oxide or silicon carbide particles in a suspension of water (20 to 60% by volume).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_machining
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The sonotrode removes material from the work piece by abrasion where it contacts it, so the result of machining is to cut a perfect negative of the sonotrode's profile into the work piece. Ultrasonic vibration machining allows extremely complex and non-uniform shapes to be cut into the workpiece with extremely high precision.Machining time depends on the workpiece's strength, hardness, porosity and fracture toughness; the slurry's material and particle size; and the amplitude of the sonotrode's vibration. The surface finish of materials after machining depends heavily on hardness and strength, with softer and weaker materials exhibiting smoother surface finishes. The inclusion of microcrack and microcavity features on the materials surface depend highly on the crystallographic orientation of the work piece's grains and the materials fracture toughness.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_machining
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Ultrasonic vibration machining physically operates by the mechanism of microchipping or erosion on the work piece's surface. Since the abrasive slurry is kept in motion by high frequency, low amplitude vibrations, the impact forces of the slurry are significant, causing high contact stresses. These high contact stresses are achieved by the small contact area between the slurry's particles and the work piece's surface. Brittle materials fail by cracking mechanics and these high stresses are sufficient to cause micro-scale chips to be removed from its surface. The material as a whole does not fail due to the extremely localized stress regions. The average force imparted by a particle of the slurry impacting the work piece's surface and rebounding can be characterized by the following equation: F a v e = 2 m v t o {\displaystyle F_{ave}={\frac {2mv}{t_{o}}}} Where m is the mass of the particle, v is the velocity of the particle when striking the surface and to is the contact time, which can be approximated according to the following equation: t o ≃ 5 r c o ( c o v ) 1 5 {\displaystyle t_{o}\simeq {\frac {5r}{c_{o}}}\left({\frac {c_{o}}{v}}\right)^{\frac {1}{5}}} c o = E ρ {\displaystyle c_{o}={\sqrt {\frac {E}{\rho }}}} Where r is the radius of the particle, co is the elastic wave velocity of the work piece, E is the work pieces Young's Modulus and ρ is the materials density.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_machining
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In rotary ultrasonic vibration machining (RUM), the vertically oscillating tool is able to revolve about the vertical center line of the tool. Instead of using an abrasive slurry to remove material, the surface of the tool is impregnated with diamonds that grind down the surface of the part. Rotary ultrasonic machines are specialized in machining advanced ceramics and alloys such as glass, quartz, structural ceramics, Ti-alloys, alumina, and silicon carbide. Rotary ultrasonic machines are used to produce deep holes with a high level of precision.Rotary ultrasonic vibration machining is a relatively new manufacturing process that is still being extensively researched. Currently, researchers are trying to adapt this process to the micro level and to allow the machine to operate similar to a milling machine.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_machining
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In chemical-assisted ultrasonic machining (CUSM), a chemically reactive abrasive fluid is used to ensure greater machining of glass and ceramic materials. Using an acidic solution, such as hydrofluoric acid, machining characteristics such as material removal rate and surface quality can be improved greatly compared to traditional ultrasonic machining. While time spent machining and surface roughness decrease with CUSM, the entrance profile diameter is slightly larger than normal due to the additional chemical reactivity of the new slurry choice. In order to limit the extent of this enlargement, the acid content of the slurry must be carefully selected as to ensure user safety and a quality product.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_machining
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Since ultrasonic vibration machining does not use subtractive methods that may alter the physical properties of a workpiece, such as thermal, chemical, or electrical processes, it has many useful applications for materials that are more brittle and sensitive than traditional machining metals. Materials that are commonly machined using ultrasonic methods include ceramics, carbides, glass, precious stones and hardened steels. These materials are used in optical and electrical applications where more precise machining methods are required to ensure dimensional accuracy and quality performance of hard and brittle materials.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_machining
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Ultrasonic machining is precise enough to be used in the creation of microelectromechanical system components such as micro-structured glass wafers.In addition to small-scale components, ultrasonic vibration machining is used for structural components because of the required precision and surface quality provided by the method. The process can safely and effectively create shapes out of high-quality single crystal materials that are often necessary but difficult to generate during normal crystal growth. As advanced ceramics become a greater part of the structural engineering realm, ultrasonic machining will continue to provide precise and effective methods of ensuring proper physical dimensions while maintaining crystallographic properties.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_machining
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Ultrasonic vibration machining is a unique non-traditional manufacturing process because it can produce parts with high precision that are made of hard and brittle materials which are often difficult to machine. Additionally, ultrasonic machining is capable of manufacturing fragile materials such as glass and non-conductive metals that can not be machined by alternative methods such as electrical discharge machining and electrochemical machining. Ultrasonic machining is able to produce high-tolerance parts because there is no distortion of the worked material. The absence of distortion is due to no heat generation from the sonotrode against the work piece and is beneficial because the physical properties of the part will remain uniform throughout. Furthermore, no burrs are created in the process, thus fewer operations are required to produce a finished part.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_machining
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Because ultrasonic vibration machining is driven by microchipping or erosion mechanisms, the material removal rate of metals can be slow and the sonotrode tip can wear down quickly from the constant impact of abrasive particles on the tool. Moreover, drilling deep holes in parts can prove difficult as the abrasive slurry will not effectively reach the bottom of the hole. Note, rotary ultrasonic machining is efficient at drilling deep holes in ceramics because the absence of a slurry cutting fluid and the cutting tool is coated in harder diamond abrasives. In addition, ultrasonic vibration machining can only be used on materials with a hardness value of at least 45 HRC. == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_machining
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Haussmann's renovation of Paris was a vast public works programme commissioned by Emperor Napoleon III and directed by his prefect of Seine, Georges-Eugène Haussmann, between 1853 and 1870. It included the demolition of medieval neighbourhoods that were deemed overcrowded and unhealthy by officials at the time; the building of wide avenues; new parks and squares; the annexation of the suburbs surrounding Paris; and the construction of new sewers, fountains and aqueducts. Haussmann's work was met with fierce opposition, and he was finally dismissed by Napoleon III in 1870; but work on his projects continued until 1927. The street plan and distinctive appearance of the centre of Paris today are largely the result of Haussmann's renovation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haussmann's_renovation_of_Paris
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In the middle of the 19th century, the centre of Paris was viewed as overcrowded, dark, dangerous, and unhealthy. In 1845, the French social reformer Victor Considerant wrote: "Paris is an immense workshop of putrefaction, where misery, pestilence and sickness work in concert, where sunlight and air rarely penetrate. Paris is a terrible place where plants shrivel and perish, and where, of seven small infants, four die during the course of the year." The street plan on the Île de la Cité and in the neighbourhood called the "quartier des Arcis", between the Louvre and the "Hôtel de Ville" (City Hall), had changed little since the Middle Ages.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haussmann's_renovation_of_Paris
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The population density in these neighbourhoods was extremely high, compared with the rest of Paris; in the neighbourhood of Champs-Élysées, population density was estimated at 5,380 per square kilometre (22 per acre); in the neighbourhoods of Arcis and Saint-Avoye, located in the present Third Arrondissement, there was one inhabitant for every three square metres (32 sq ft). In 1840, a doctor described one building in the Île de la Cité where a single 5-square-metre room (54 sq ft) on the fourth floor was occupied by twenty-three people, both adults and children. In these conditions, disease spread very quickly.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haussmann's_renovation_of_Paris
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Cholera epidemics ravaged the city in 1832 and 1848. In the epidemic of 1848, five percent of the inhabitants of these two neighbourhoods died.Traffic circulation was another major problem. The widest streets in these two neighborhoods were only five metres (16 feet) wide; the narrowest were one or two meters (3–7 feet) wide. Wagons, carriages and carts could barely move through the streets.The centre of the city was also a cradle of discontent and revolution; between 1830 and 1848, seven armed uprisings and revolts had broken out in the centre of Paris, particularly along the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, around the Hôtel de Ville, and around Montagne Sainte-Geneviève on the left bank. The residents of these neighbourhoods had taken up pavement stones and blocked the narrow streets with barricades, which had to be dislodged by the army.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haussmann's_renovation_of_Paris
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The urban problems of Paris had been recognized in the 18th century; Voltaire complained about the markets "established in narrow streets, showing off their filthiness, spreading infection and causing continuing disorders." He wrote that the façade of the Louvre was admirable, "but it was hidden behind buildings worthy of the Goths and Vandals." He protested that the government "invested in futilities rather than investing in public works." In 1739 he wrote to the young Frederick the Great: "I saw the fireworks which they fired off with such management; would rather they started to have a Hôtel de Ville, beautiful squares, magnificent and convenient markets, beautiful fountains, before having fireworks.
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"The 18th century architectural theorist and historian Quatremere de Quincy had proposed establishing or widening public squares in each of the neighbourhoods, expanding and developing the squares in front the Cathedral of Nôtre Dame and the church of Saint Gervais, and building a wide street to connect the Louvre with the Hôtel de Ville, the new city hall. Pierre-Louis Moreau-Desproux, the architect in chief of Paris, suggested paving and developing the embankments of the Seine, building monumental squares, clearing the space around landmarks, and cutting new streets. In 1794, during the French Revolution, a Commission of Artists drafted an ambitious plan to build wide avenues, including a street in a straight line from the Place de la Nation to the Louvre, where the Avenue Victoria is today, and squares with avenues radiating in different directions, largely making use of land confiscated from the church during the Revolution, but all of these projects remained on paper.Napoleon Bonaparte also had ambitious plans for rebuilding the city.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haussmann's_renovation_of_Paris
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He began work on a canal to bring fresh water to the city and began work on the Rue de Rivoli, beginning at the Place de la Concorde, but was able to extend it only to the Louvre before his downfall. "If only the heavens had given me twenty more years of rule and a little leisure," he wrote while in exile on Saint Helena, "one would vainly search today for the old Paris; nothing would remain of it but vestiges. "The medieval core and plan of Paris changed little during the restoration of the monarchy through the reign of King Louis-Philippe (1830–1848).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haussmann's_renovation_of_Paris
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It was the Paris of the narrow and winding streets and foul sewers described in the novels of Balzac and Victor Hugo. In 1833, the new prefect of the Seine under Louis-Philippe, Claude-Philibert Barthelot, comte de Rambuteau, made modest improvements to the sanitation and circulation of the city. He constructed new sewers, though they still emptied directly into the Seine, and a better water supply system.
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He constructed 180 kilometres of sidewalks, a new street, rue Lobau; a new bridge over the Seine, the Pont Louis-Philippe; and cleared an open space around the Hôtel de Ville. He built a new street the length of the Île de la Cité and three additional streets across it: rue d'Arcole, rue de la Cité and rue Constantine. To access the central market at Les Halles, he built a wide new street (today's rue Rambuteau) and began work on the Boulevard Malesherbes. On the Left Bank, he built a new street, rue Soufflot, which cleared space around the Panthéon, and began work on the rue des Écoles, between the École Polytechnique and the Collège de France.Rambuteau wanted to do more, but his budget and powers were limited. He did not have the power to easily expropriate property to build new streets, and the first law which required minimum health standards for Paris residential buildings was not passed until April 1850, under Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, then president of the French Second Republic.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haussmann's_renovation_of_Paris
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King Louis-Philippe was overthrown in the February Revolution of 1848. On 10 December 1848, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte, won the first direct presidential elections ever held in France with an overwhelming 74.2 percent of the votes cast. He was elected largely because of his famous name, but also because of his promise to try to end poverty and improve the lives of ordinary people. Though he had been born in Paris, he had lived very little in the city; from the age of seven, he had lived in exile in Switzerland, England, and the United States, and for six years in prison in France for attempting to overthrow King Louis-Philippe.
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He had been especially impressed by London, with its wide streets, squares and large public parks. In 1852 he gave a public speech declaring: "Paris is the heart of France. Let us apply our efforts to embellishing this great city.
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Let us open new streets, make the working class quarters, which lack air and light, more healthy, and let the beneficial sunlight reach everywhere within our walls". As soon as he was President, he supported the building of the first subsidized housing project for workers in Paris, the Cité-Napoléon, on the rue Rochechouart. He proposed the completion of the rue de Rivoli from the Louvre to the Hôtel de Ville, completing the project begun by his uncle Napoléon Bonaparte, and he began a project which would transform the Bois de Boulogne (Boulogne Forest) into a large new public park, modelled after Hyde Park in London but much larger, on the west side of the city.
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He wanted both these projects to be completed before the end of his term in 1852, but became frustrated by the slow progress made by his prefect of the Seine, Jean-Jacques Berger. The prefect was unable to move the work forward on the rue de Rivoli quickly enough, and the original design for the Bois de Boulogne turned out to be a disaster; the architect, Jacques Ignace Hittorff, who had designed the Place de la Concorde for Louis-Philippe, followed Louis-Napoléon's instructions to imitate Hyde Park and designed two lakes connected by a stream for the new park, but forgot to take into account the difference of elevation between the two lakes. If they had been built, the one lake would have immediately emptied itself into the other.At the end of 1851, shortly before Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte's term expired, neither the rue de Rivoli nor the park had progressed very far.
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He wanted to run for re-election in 1852, but was blocked by the new Constitution, which limited him to one term. A majority of members of parliament voted to change the Constitution, but not the two-thirds majority required.
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Prevented from running again, Napoléon, with the help of the army, staged a coup d'état on 2 December 1851 and seized power. His opponents were arrested or exiled. The following year, on 2 December 1852, he declared himself Emperor, adopting the throne name Napoléon III.
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Napoléon III dismissed Berger as the Prefect of the Seine and sought a more effective manager. His minister of the interior, Victor de Persigny, interviewed several candidates, and selected Georges-Eugène Haussmann, a native of Alsace and Prefect of the Gironde, who impressed Persigny with his energy, audacity, and ability to overcome or get around problems and obstacles. He became Prefect of the Seine on 22 June 1853, and on 29 June, the Emperor showed him the map of Paris and instructed Haussmann to aérer, unifier, et embellir Paris: to give it air and open space, to connect and unify the different parts of the city into one whole, and to make it more beautiful.Haussmann went to work immediately on the first phase of the renovation desired by Napoléon III: completing the grande croisée de Paris, a great cross in the centre of Paris that would permit easier communication from east to west along the rue de Rivoli and rue Saint-Antoine, and north-south communication along two new Boulevards, Strasbourg and Sébastopol. The grand cross had been proposed by the National Convention during the Revolution, and begun by Napoléon I; Napoléon III was determined to complete it.
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Completion of the rue de Rivoli was given an even higher priority, because the Emperor wanted it finished before the opening of the Paris Universal Exposition of 1855, only two years away, and he wanted the project to include a new hotel, the Grand Hôtel du Louvre, the first large luxury hotel in the city, to house the Imperial guests at the Exposition.Under the Emperor, Haussmann had greater power than any of his predecessors. In February 1851, the French Senate had simplified the laws on expropriation, giving him the authority to expropriate all the land on either side of a new street; and he did not have to report to the Parliament, only to the Emperor. The French parliament, controlled by Napoléon III, provided fifty million francs, but this was not nearly enough.
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Napoléon III appealed to the Péreire brothers, Émile and Isaac, two bankers who had created a new investment bank, Crédit Mobilier. The Péreire brothers organised a new company which raised 24 million francs to finance the construction of the street, in exchange for the rights to develop real estate along the route. This became a model for the building of all of Haussmann's future boulevards.To meet the deadline, three thousand workers laboured on the new boulevard twenty-four hours a day.
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The rue de Rivoli was completed, and the new hotel opened in March 1855, in time to welcome guests to the Exposition. The junction was made between the rue de Rivoli and rue Saint-Antoine; in the process, Haussmann restyled the Place du Carrousel, opened up a new square, Place Saint-Germain l'Auxerrois facing the colonnade of the Louvre, and reorganized the space between the Hôtel de Ville and the place du Châtelet. Between the Hôtel de Ville and the Bastille square, he widened the rue Saint-Antoine; he was careful to save the historic Hôtel de Sully and Hôtel de Mayenne, but many other buildings, both medieval and modern, were knocked down to make room for the wider street, and several ancient, dark and narrow streets, rue de l'Arche-Marion, rue du Chevalier-le-Guet and rue des Mauvaises-Paroles, disappeared from the map.In 1855, work began on the north-south axis, beginning with Boulevard de Strasbourg and Boulevard Sébastopol, which cut through the center of some of the most crowded neighborhoods in Paris, where the cholera epidemic had been the worst, between the rue Saint-Martin and rue Saint-Denis.
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"It was the gutting of old Paris," Haussmann wrote with satisfaction in his Memoires: of the neighborhood of riots, and of barricades, from one end to the other." The Boulevard Sébastopol ended at the new Place du Châtelet; a new bridge, the Pont-au-Change, was constructed across the Seine, and crossed the island on a newly built street. On the left bank, the north-south axis was continued by the Boulevard Saint-Michel, which was cut in a straight line from the Seine to the Observatory, and then, as the rue d'Enfer, extended all the way to the rue d'Orléans.
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The north-south axis was completed in 1859. The two axes crossed at the Place du Châtelet, making it the center of Haussmann's Paris. Haussmann widened the square, moved the Fontaine du Palmier, built by Napoléon I, to the center and built two new theaters, facing each other across the square; the Cirque Impérial (now the Théâtre du Châtelet) and the Théâtre Lyrique (now Théâtre de la Ville).
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In the first phase of his renovation Haussmann constructed 9,467 metres (6 miles) of new boulevards, at a net cost of 278 million francs. The official parliamentary report of 1859 found that it had "brought air, light and healthiness and procured easier circulation in a labyrinth that was constantly blocked and impenetrable, where streets were winding, narrow, and dark." It had employed thousands of workers, and most Parisians were pleased by the results. His second phase, approved by the Emperor and parliament in 1858 and begun in 1859, was much more ambitious.
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He intended to build a network of wide boulevards to connect the interior of Paris with the ring of grand boulevards built by Louis XVIII during the restoration, and to the new railroad stations which Napoleon III considered the real gates of the city. He planned to construct 26,294 metres (16 miles) of new avenues and streets, at a cost of 180 million francs. Haussmann's plan called for the following: On the right bank: The construction of a large new square, place du Chateau-d'Eau (the modern Place de la République).
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This involved demolishing the famous theater street known as "le boulevard du Crime", made famous in the film Les Enfants du Paradis; and the construction of three new major streets: the boulevard du Prince Eugène (the modern boulevard Voltaire); the boulevard de Magenta and rue Turbigo. Boulevard Voltaire became one of the longest streets in the city, and became the central axis of the eastern neighborhoods of the city. It would end at the place du Trône (the modern Place de la Nation).
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The extension of boulevard Magenta to connect it with the new railway station, the Gare du Nord. The construction of boulevard Malesherbes, to connect the place de la Madeleine to the new Monceau neighborhood. The construction of this street obliterated one of the most sordid and dangerous neighborhoods in the city, called la Petite Pologne, where Paris policemen rarely ventured at night.
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A new square, place de l'Europe, in front of the Gare Saint-Lazare railway station. The station was served by two new boulevards, rue de Rome and rue Saint-Lazaire. In addition, the rue de Madrid was extended and two other streets, rue de Rouen (the modern rue Auber) and rue Halevy, were built in this neighborhood.
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Parc Monceau was redesigned and replanted, and part of the old park made into a residential quarter. The rue de Londres and rue de Constantinople, under a new name, avenue de Villiers, was extended to porte Champerret. The Étoile, around the Arc de Triomphe, was completely redesigned.
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A star of new avenues radiated from the Étoile; avenue de Bezons (now avenue de Wagram); avenue Kléber; avenue Josephine (now avenue Marceau); avenue Prince-Jerome (now avenues Mac-Mahon and Niel); avenue Essling (now Carnot); and a wider avenue de Saint-Cloud (now avenue Victor-Hugo), forming with Champs-Elysées and other existing avenues a star of 12 avenues. Avenue Daumesnil was built as far as the new Bois de Vincennes, a huge new park being constructed on the east edge of the city. The hill of Chaillot was leveled, and a new square created at the Pont de l'Alma.
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Three new boulevards were built in this neighborhood: avenue d'Alma (the present avenue George V); avenue de l'Empereur (the present avenue du President-Wilson), which connected the places d'Alma, d'Iena and du Trocadéro. In addition, four new streets were built in that neighborhood: rue Francois-Ier, rue Pierre Charron, rue Marbeuf and rue de Marignan.On the left bank: Two new boulevards, avenue Bosquet and avenue Rapp, were constructed, beginning from the pont de l'Alma. The avenue de la Tour Maubourg was extended as far as the pont des Invalides.
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A new street, boulevard Arago, was constructed, to open up Place Denfert-Rochereau. A new street, boulevard d'Enfer (today's boulevard Raspail) was built up to the intersection Sèvres–Babylone. The streets around the Panthéon on Montagne Sainte-Geneviève were extensively changed.
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A new street, avenue des Gobelins, was created, and part of rue Mouffetard was expanded. Another new street, rue Monge, was created on the east, while another new street, rue Claude Bernard, on the south. Rue Soufflot, built by Rambuteau, was entirely rebuilt.On the Île de la Cité: The island became an enormous construction site, which completely destroyed most of the old streets and neighborhoods.
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Two new government buildings, the Tribunal de Commerce and the Prefecture de Police, were built, occupying a large part of the island. Two new streets were also built, the boulevard du Palais and the rue de Lutèce. Two bridges, the pont Saint-Michel and the pont au Change were completely rebuilt, along with the embankments near them.
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The Palais de Justice and Place Dauphine were extensively modified. At the same time, Haussmann preserved and restored the jewels of the island; the square in front of the Cathedral of Notre Dame was widened, the spire of the Cathedral, pulled down during the Revolution, was restored, whilst Sainte-Chapelle and the ancient Conciergerie were saved and restored.The grand projects of the second phase were mostly welcomed, but also caused criticism. Haussmann was especially criticized for his taking large parts of the Jardin du Luxembourg to make room for the present-day boulevard Raspail, and for its connection with the boulevard Saint-Michel.
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The Medici Fountain had to be moved further into the park, and was reconstructed with the addition of statuary and a long basin of water. Haussmann was also criticized for the growing cost of his projects; the estimated cost for the 26,290 metres (86,250 ft) of new avenues had been 180 million francs, but grew to 410 million francs; property owners whose buildings had been expropriated won a legal case entitling them to larger payments, and many property owners found ingenious ways to increase the value of their expropriated properties by inventing non-existent shops and businesses, and charging the city for lost revenue.Haussmann found creative ways to raise more money for the grand projects while circumventing the Legislative Assembly, whose approval was otherwise needed for direct borrowing increases. The City of Paris began paying its contractors on the new works projects with vouchers instead of money; the vouchers were then purchased from the contractors by the city's lenders, mainly the mortgage bank Crédit Foncier.
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In this way Haussmann indirectly raised 463 million francs by 1867; 86% of this debt was owned by Crédit Foncier. This debt conveniently did not have to be included on the city's balance sheets.
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Another method was the creation of a fund, the Caisse des Travaux de Paris, decreed by Napoléon III on 14 November 1858. Ostensibly it was intended to give the city greater freedom in executing the grand projects. Revenue from the sale of materials salvaged from the demolitions and the sale of lots left over from the expropriations went into this fund, amounting to some 365 million francs between 1859 and 1869.
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The fund expended much more than it took in, some 1.2 billion francs towards the grand projects during the ten years it existed. To offset some of the deficit, which the City of Paris was responsible for, Haussmann issued 100 million francs in securities from the fund guaranteed by the city. He only needed the approval of the city council to raise this new sum, and, like the voucher scheme, the securities were not included in the city's official debt obligations.
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On 1 January 1860 Napoleon III officially annexed the suburbs of Paris out to the ring of fortifications around the city. The annexation included eleven communes; Auteuil, Batignolles-Monceau, Montmartre, La Chapelle, Passy, La Villette, Belleville, Charonne, Bercy, Grenelle and Vaugirard, along with pieces of other outlying towns. The residents of these suburbs were not entirely happy to be annexed; they did not want to pay the higher taxes, and wanted to keep their independence, but they had no choice; Napoleon III was Emperor, and he could arrange boundaries as he wished. Haussmann was keen to expand the boundaries as well, since the enlarged tax base would provide vital funding for the public works then underway.
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Numerous factories and workshops had been established in the suburbs, some to specifically avoid paying the Octroi, a tax on goods and materials paid at entry points into Paris. With the annexation, these facilities now had to pay tax on the raw materials and fuel they used. This was a deliberate way of discouraging the development of heavy industry in the environs of Paris, which neither Haussmann nor the city council wished to take root.With the annexation Paris was enlarged from twelve to twenty arrondissements, the number today.
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The annexation more than doubled the area of the city from 3,300 hectares to 7,100 hectares, and the population of Paris instantly grew by 400,000 to 1,600,000 people. The annexation made it necessary for Haussmann to enlarge his plans, and to construct new boulevards to connect the new arrondissements with the center. In order to connect Auteuil and Passy to the center of Paris, he built rues Michel-Ange, Molitor and Mirabeau. To connect the plain of Monceau, he built avenues Villers, Wagram, and boulevard Malesherbes. To reach the northern arrondissements he extended boulevard Magenta with boulevard d'Ornano as far as the Porte de la Chapelle, and in the east extended the rue des Pyrénées.
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The third phase of renovations was proposed in 1867 and approved in 1869, but it faced much more opposition than the earlier phases. Napoleon III had decided to liberalize his empire in 1860, and to give a greater voice to the parliament and to the opposition. The Emperor had always been less popular in Paris than in the rest of the country, and the republican opposition in parliament focused its attacks on Haussmann. Haussmann ignored the attacks and went ahead with the third phase, which planned the construction of twenty-eight kilometers (17 miles) of new boulevards at an estimated cost of 280 million francs.The third phase included these projects on the right bank: The renovation of the Jardins des Champs-Élysées.
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Finishing the place du Château d'Eau (now Place de la Republique), creating a new avenue des Amandiers and extending avenue Parmentier. Finishing the place du Trône (now Place de la Nation) and opening three new boulevards: avenue Philippe-Auguste, avenue Taillebourg, and avenue de Bouvines. Extending the rue Caulaincourt and preparing a future Pont Caulaincourt.
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Building a new rue de Châteaudon and clearing the space around the church of Notre-Dame de Lorette, making room for connection between the Gare Saint-Lazare, the Gare du Nord and Gare de l'Est. Finishing the place in front of the Gare du Nord. Rue Maubeuge was extended from Montmartre to the boulevard de la Chapelle, and rue La Fayette was extended to the porte de Pantin.
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The Place de l'Opéra had been created during the first and second phases; the opera itself was to be built in the third phase. Extending Boulevard Haussmann from the Place Saint-Augustin to rue Taitbout, connecting the new quarter of the Opera with that of Etoile. Creating the Place du Trocadéro, the starting point of two new avenues, the modern President-Wilson and Henri-Martin.
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Creating the Place Victor Hugo, the starting point of avenues Malakoff and Bugeaud and rues Boissière and Copernic. Finishing the Rond-Point of the Champs-Élysées, with the construction of avenue d'Antin (now Franklin Roosevelt) and rue La Boétie.On the left bank: Building the Boulevard Saint-Germain from the Pont de la Concorde to rue du Bac; building rue des Saints-Pères and rue de Rennes. Extending the rue de la Glacière and enlarging place Monge.Haussmann did not have time to finish the third phase, as he soon came under intense attack from the opponents of Napoleon III.
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In 1867, one of the leaders of the parliamentary opposition to Napoleon, Jules Ferry, ridiculed the accounting practices of Haussmann as Les Comptes fantastiques d'Haussmann ("The fantastic (bank) accounts of Haussmann"), a play-on-words based on the "Les Contes d'Hoffman" Offenbach operetta popular at the time. In the autumn of 1867, the voucher program was ruled as official debt by the Court of Accounts, rather than as the "deferred payments" which Haussmann argued they were. This made the voucher scheme illegal, since the City of Paris had not obtained the permission of the Legislative Assembly before borrowing. The City was forced to enter into renegotiations with the Crédit Foncier to convert the vouchers into regular debt.
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Two separate agreements were made with the Crédit Foncier; the city agreed to repay 465 million francs in total over 40 years and 39 years respectively. The debates in the Legislative Assembly surrounding the authorization of these new agreements lasted 11 sessions, with critics attacking Haussmann's borrowing, his questionable funding mechanisms, and the City of Paris's governing structure. The result was a new law, passed on April 18, 1868, which gave the Legislative Assembly oversight of the city's finances.In the parliamentary elections of May 1869, the government candidates won 4.43 million votes, while the opposition republicans won 3.35 million votes.
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In Paris, the republican candidates won 234,000 votes to 77,000 for the Bonapartist candidates, and took eight of the nine seats of Paris deputies. At the same time Napoleon III was increasingly ill, suffering from gallstones which were to cause his death in 1873, and preoccupied by the political crisis that would lead to the Franco-Prussian War. In December 1869 Napoleon III named an opposition leader and fierce critic of Haussmann, Emile Ollivier, as his new prime minister.
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Napoleon gave in to the opposition demands in January 1870 and asked Haussmann to resign. Haussmann refused to resign, and the Emperor reluctantly dismissed him on 5 January 1870. Eight months later, during the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III was captured by the Germans, and the Empire was overthrown.
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In his memoirs, written many years later, Haussmann had this comment on his dismissal: "In the eyes of the Parisians, who like routine in things but are changeable when it comes to people, I committed two great wrongs: Over the course of seventeen years, I disturbed their daily habits by turning Paris upside down, and they had to look at the same face of the Prefect in the Hôtel de Ville. These were two unforgivable complaints. "Haussmann's successor as prefect of the Seine appointed Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, the head of Haussmann's department of parks and plantations, as the director of works of Paris.
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Alphand respected the basic concepts of his plan. Despite their intense criticism of Napoleon III and Haussmann during the Second Empire, the leaders of the new Third Republic continued and finished his renovation projects. 1875: completion of the Paris Opéra 1877: completion of the boulevard Saint-Germain 1877: completion of the avenue de l'Opéra 1879: completion of the boulevard Henri IV 1889: completion of the avenue de la République 1907: completion of the boulevard Raspail 1927: completion of the boulevard Haussmann
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Prior to Haussmann, Paris had only four public parks: the Jardin des Tuileries, the Jardin du Luxembourg, and the Palais Royal, all in the center of the city, and the Parc Monceau, the former property of the family of King Louis Philippe, in addition to the Jardin des Plantes, the city's botanical garden and oldest park. Napoleon III had already begun construction of the Bois de Boulogne, and wanted to build more new parks and gardens for the recreation and relaxation of the Parisians, particularly those in the new neighborhoods of the expanding city. Napoleon III's new parks were inspired by his memories of the parks in London, especially Hyde Park, where he had strolled and promenaded in a carriage while in exile; but he wanted to build on a much larger scale. Working with Haussmann, Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, the engineer who headed the new Service of Promenades and Plantations, whom Haussmann brought with him from Bordeaux, and his new chief gardener, Jean-Pierre Barillet-Deschamps, also from Bordeaux, laid out a plan for four major parks at the cardinal points of the compass around the city.
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