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A nuisance can be either public (also "common") or private. A public nuisance was defined by English scholar Sir James Fitzjames Stephen as, "an act not warranted by law, or an omission to discharge a legal duty, which act or omission obstructs or causes inconvenience or damage to the public in the exercise of rights common to all Her Majesty's subjects". Private nuisance is the interference with the right of specific people. Nuisance is one of the oldest causes of action known to the common law, with cases framed in nuisance going back almost to the beginning of recorded case law. Nuisance signifies that the "right of quiet enjoyment" is being disrupted to such a degree that a tort is being committed.
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Under the common law, persons in possession of real property (land owners, lease holders etc.) are entitled to the quiet enjoyment of their lands. However this doesn't include visitors or those who aren't considered to have an interest in the land. If a neighbour interferes with that quiet enjoyment, either by creating smells, sounds, pollution or any other hazard that extends past the boundaries of the property, the affected party may make a claim in nuisance. Legally, the term nuisance is traditionally used in three ways: to describe an activity or condition that is harmful or annoying to others (e.g., indecent conduct, a rubbish heap or a smoking chimney) to describe the harm caused by the before-mentioned activity or condition (e.g., loud noises or objectionable odors) to describe a legal liability that arises from the combination of the two.
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However, the "interference" was not the result of a neighbor stealing land or trespassing on the land. Instead, it arose from activities taking place on another person's land that affected the enjoyment of that land.The law of nuisance was created to stop such bothersome activities or conduct when they unreasonably interfered either with the rights of other private landowners (i.e., private nuisance) or with the rights of the general public (i.e., public nuisance) A public nuisance is an unreasonable interference with the public's right to property. It includes conduct that interferes with public health, safety, peace or convenience.
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The unreasonableness may be evidenced by statute, or by the nature of the act, including how long, and how bad, the effects of the activity may be.Private nuisance arose out of the action on the case and protects a person’s right to the use and enjoyment of their land. It doesn't include trespass.To be a nuisance, the level of interference must rise above the merely aesthetic. For example: if your neighbour paints their house purple, it may offend you; however, it doesn't rise to the level of nuisance.
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In most cases, normal uses of a property that can constitute quiet enjoyment cannot be restrained in nuisance either. For example, the sound of a crying baby may be annoying, but it is an expected part of quiet enjoyment of property and does not constitute a nuisance.Nuisance distinguishes between cases where the conduct alleged to be a nuisance has caused material injury to property and the cases where it has caused “sensible personal discomfort”.Any affected property owner has standing to sue for a private nuisance. If a nuisance is widespread enough, but yet has a public purpose, it is often treated at law as a public nuisance.
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Owners of interests in real property (whether owners, lessors, or holders of an easement or other interest) have standing only to bring private nuisance suits. According to Oldham v Lawson (where held that the husband has a mere licence and had no title to sue whereas his wife as owner did have title to sue) and some later cases, exclusive possession is necessary to establish a private nuisance case. However, one situation related to transform a private nuisance against land to one against person, this case is no longer considered to be authoritative.
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In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the law of nuisance became difficult to administer, as competing property uses often posed a nuisance to each other, and the cost of litigation to settle the issue grew prohibitive. As such, most jurisdictions now have a system of land use planning (e.g. zoning) that describes what activities are acceptable in a given location. Zoning generally overrules nuisance. For example: if a factory is operating in an industrial zone, neighbours in the neighbouring residential zone can't make a claim in nuisance. Jurisdictions without zoning laws essentially leave land use to be determined by the laws concerning nuisance. Similarly, modern environmental laws are an adaptation of the doctrine of nuisance to modern complex societies, in that a person's use of his property may harmfully affect another's property, or person, far from the nuisance activity, and from causes not easily integrated into historic understandings of nuisance law.
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Under the common law, the only remedy for a nuisance was the payment of damages. However, with the development of the courts of equity, the remedy of an injunction became available to prevent a defendant from repeating the activity that caused the nuisance, and specifying punishment for contempt if the defendant is in breach of such an injunction. The law and economics movement has been involved in analyzing the most efficient choice of remedies given the circumstances of the nuisance. In Boomer v. Atlantic Cement Co.
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a cement plant interfered with a number of neighbors, yet the cost of complying with a full injunction would have been far more than a fair value of the cost to the plaintiffs of continuation. The New York court allowed the cement plant owner to 'purchase' the injunction for a specified amount—the permanent damages. In theory, the permanent damage amount should be the net present value of all future damages suffered by the plaintiff.
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An Inspector of Nuisances was the title of an office in several English-speaking jurisdictions. In many jurisdictions this term is now archaic, the position and/or term having been replaced by others. In medieval England it was an office of the Courts Leet and later it was also a parochial office concerned with local action against a wide range of 'nuisances' under the common law: obstructions of the highway, polluted wells, adulterated food, smoke, noise, smelly accumulations, eavesdropping, peeping toms, lewd behaviour, and many others. In the United Kingdom from the mid- 19th century this office became associated with solving public health and sanitation problems, with other types of nuisances being dealt with by the local constables.
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The first Inspector of Nuisances appointed by a UK local authority Health Committee was Thomas Fresh in Liverpool in 1844. Liverpool later promoted a private Act, the Liverpool Sanatory Act 1846, that created a statutory post of Inspector of Nuisances. This became the precedent for later local and national legislation.
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In local authorities that had established a Board of Health under the Public Health Act 1848, or under local Acts implementing the Towns Improvement Clauses Act of 1847, the title was 'Inspector of Nuisances'. The Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention Act 1855 and the Metropolis Management Act 1855 (via section 134) mandated such an office but with the title of 'Sanitary Inspector'. So in some places the title was 'Sanitary Inspector' and in others 'Inspector of Nuisances'.
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Eventually the title was standardized across all UK local authorities as 'Sanitary Inspector'. An Act of Parliament in 1956 changed the title to 'Public Health Inspector'. Similar offices were established across the British Commonwealth and Empire.
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The nearest modern equivalent of this position in the UK is the Environmental Health Officer. This title being adopted by local authorities on the recommendation of Central Government after the Local Government Act 1972. Today, Registered UK Environmental Health Officers working in non-enforcement roles (e.g. in the private sector) may prefer to use the generic term 'Environmental Health Practitioner'.
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In New South Wales Australia, the NSW Public Health Act 1896 gave the NSW Board of Health power to establish 'standards of strength and purity for articles of general consumption', to appoint analysts, and 'to cause to be made such enquiries as it thinks fit in relation to any matters concerning the public health'. Inspectors under the new Act were known as Inspectors of Nuisances, but were later renamed 'sanitary inspectors'.In the United States, a modern example of an officer with the title 'Inspector of Nuisances' but not the public health role is found in Section 3767 of the Ohio Revised Code which defines such a position to investigate nuisances, where this term broadly covers establishments in which lewdness and alcohol are found. Whereas in the United States the environmental health officer role is undertaken by local authority officers with the titles 'Registered Environmental Health Specialist' or 'Registered Sanitarian' depending on the jurisdiction.
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The boundaries of the tort are potentially unclear, due to the public/private nuisance divide, and existence of the rule in Rylands v Fletcher. Writers such as John Murphy at Lancaster University have popularised the idea that Rylands forms a separate, though related, tort. This is still an issue for debate, and is rejected by others (the primary distinction in Rylands concerns 'escapes onto land', and so it may be argued that the only difference is the nature of the nuisance, not the nature of the civil wrong.)
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Under English law, unlike US law, it is no defence that the claimant "came to the nuisance": the 1879 case of Sturges v Bridgman is still good law, and a new owner can bring a claim in nuisance for the existing activities of a neighbour. In February 2014 the UK Supreme Court ruling in the case of Coventry v Lawrence prompted the launch of a campaign to have the "coming to a nuisance" law overturned. Campaigners hold that established lawful activity continuing with planning permission and local residents' support should be accepted as part of the character of the area by any new residents coming to the locality.
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Many states have limited instances where a claim of nuisance may be brought. Such limitation often became necessary as the sensibilities of urban dwellers were offended by smells of agricultural waste when they moved to rural locations. For example: many states and provinces have "right to farm" provisions, which allow any agricultural use of land zoned or historically used for agriculture.
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There are two classes of nuisance under the American law: a nuisance in fact, or "nuisance per accidens", and a nuisance per se. The classification determines whether the claim goes to the jury, or gets decided by the judge. An alleged nuisance in fact is an issue of fact to be determined by the jury, who will decide whether the thing (or act) in question created a nuisance, by examining its location and surroundings, the manner of its conduct, and other circumstances.
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A determination that something is a nuisance in fact also requires proof of the act and its consequences.By contrast, a nuisance per se is "an activity, or an act, structure, instrument, or occupation which is a nuisance at all times and under any circumstances, regardless of location or surroundings." Liability for a nuisance per se is absolute, and injury to the public is presumed; if its existence is alleged and established by proof, it is also established as a matter of law. Therefore, a judge would decide a nuisance per se, while a jury would decide a nuisance in fact.
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Most nuisance claims allege a nuisance in fact, for the simple reason that not many actions or structures have been deemed to be nuisances per se. In general, if an act, or use of property, is lawful, or authorized by competent authority, it cannot be a nuisance per se. Rather, the act in question must either be declared by public statute, or by case law, to be a nuisance per se.
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There are few state or federal statutes or case law declaring actions or structures to be a nuisance in and of themselves. Few activities or structures, in and of themselves and under any and all circumstances, are a nuisance; which is how courts determine whether or not an action or structure is a nuisance per se.Over the last 1000 years, public nuisance has been used by governmental authorities to stop conduct that was considered quasi-criminal because, although not strictly illegal, it was deemed unreasonable in view of its likelihood to injure someone in the general public. Donald Gifford argues that civil liability has always been an "incidental aspect of public nuisance".
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Traditionally, actionable conduct involved the blocking of a public roadway, the dumping of sewage into a public river or the blasting of a stereo in a public park. To stop this type of conduct, governments sought injunctions either enjoining the activity that caused the nuisance or requiring the responsible party to abate the nuisance. In recent decades, however, governments blurred the lines between public and private nuisance causes of action.
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William Prosser noted this in 1966 and warned courts and scholars against confusing and merging the substantive laws of the two torts. In some states, his warning went unheeded and some courts and legislatures have created vague and ill-defined definitions to describe what constitutes a public nuisance.
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For example, Florida's Supreme Court has held that a public nuisance is any thing that causes "annoyance to the community or harm to public health. "A contemporary example of a nuisance law in the United States is the Article 40 Bylaw of Amherst, Massachusetts known as the Nuisance House Bylaw. The law is voted on by members of the town at town meetings.
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The stated purpose of such a law is "In accordance with the Town of Amherst’s Home Rule Authority, and to protect the health, safety, and welfare of the inhabitants of the Town, this bylaw shall permit the Town to impose liability on owners and other responsible persons for the nuisances and harm caused by loud and unruly gatherings on private property and shall discourage the consumption of alcoholic beverages by underage persons at such gatherings. "In practice, the law works so that if one member of the neighborhood feels that there is a neighbor's noise level is annoying or excessively loud, that neighbor is instructed to inform the town police so that they can respond to the location of the noise. "The responding officer has some discretion in how to deal with the noise complaint.... When determining the appropriate response, the officer may take many factors into consideration, such as the severity of the noise, the time of day, whether the residents have been warned before, the cooperation of the residents to address the problem. "The term is also used less formally in the United States to describe the non-meritorious nature of frivolous litigation. A lawsuit may be described as a "nuisance suit", and a settlement a "nuisance settlement", if the defendant pays money to the plaintiff to drop the case primarily to spare the cost of litigation, rather than because the suit would have a significant likelihood of winning.
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In the field of environmental science, there are a number of phenomena which are considered nuisances under the law, including most notably noise, water and light pollution. Moreover there are some issues that are not necessarily legal matters that are termed environmental nuisance; for example, an excess population of insects or other vectors may be termed a "nuisance population" in an ecological sense.In terms of environmental nuisance litigations, it is hard for someone to be successful in this area due to the standing requirements of private and public nuisance. It is the Court's opinion that legislation should regulate this area.Particularly, in Australia, all the jurisdictions have such kind of legislation.
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A common nuisance is punishable as a misdemeanour at common law, where no special provision is made by statute. In modern times, many of the old common law nuisances have been the subject of legislation. It's no defence for a master or employer that a nuisance is caused by the acts of his servants, if such acts are within the scope of their employment, even though such acts are done without his knowledge, and contrary to his orders. Nor is it a defence that the nuisance has been in existence for a great length of time, for no lapse of time will legitimate a public nuisance.A private nuisance is an act, or omission, which causes inconvenience or damage to a private person, and is left to be redressed by action.
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There must be some sensible diminution of these rights affecting the value or convenience of the property. "The real question in all the cases is the question of fact, whether the annoyance is such as materially to interfere with the ordinary comfort of human existence" (Lord Romilly in Crump v. Lambert (1867) L.R.
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3 Eq. 409). A private nuisance, differing in this respect from a public nuisance, may be legalized by uninterrupted use for twenty years. It used to be thought that, if a man knew there was a nuisance and went and lived near it, he couldn't recover, because, it was said, it is he that goes to the nuisance, and not the nuisance to him.
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But this has long ceased to be law, as regards both the remedy by damages, and the remedy by injunction.The remedy for a public nuisance is by information, indictment, summary procedure or abatement. An information lies in cases of great public importance, such as the obstruction of a navigable river by piers. In some matters, the law allows the party to take the remedy into his own hands, and to "abate" the nuisance.
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Thus; if a gate be placed across a highway, any person lawfully using the highway may remove the obstruction, provided that no breach of the peace is caused thereby. The remedy for a private nuisance is by injunction, action for damages or abatement. An action lies in every case for a private nuisance; it also lies where the nuisance is public, provided that the plaintiff can prove that he has sustained some special injury.
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In such a case, the civil is in addition to the criminal remedy. In abating a private nuisance, care must be taken not to do more damage than is necessary for the removal of the nuisance.In Scotland, there's no recognized distinction between public and private nuisances. The law as to what constitutes a nuisance is substantially the same as in England. A list of statutory nuisances will be found in the Public Health (Scotland) Act 1867, and amending acts. The remedy for nuisance is by interdict, or action.
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Waggle dance is a term used in beekeeping and ethology for a particular figure-eight dance of the honey bee. By performing this dance, successful foragers can share information about the direction and distance to patches of flowers yielding nectar and pollen, to water sources, or to new nest-site locations with other members of the colony.The waggle dance and the round dance are two forms of dance behaviour that are part of a continuous transition. As the distance between the resource and the hive increases, the round dance transforms into variations of a transitional dance, which, when communicating resources at even greater distances, becomes the waggle dance. In the case of Apis mellifera ligustica, the round dance is performed until the resource is about 10 metres away from the hive, transitional dances are performed when the resource is at a distance of 20 to 30 metres away from the hive, and finally, when it is located at distances greater than 40 metres from the hive, the waggle dance is performed. However, even close to the nest, the round dance can contain elements of the waggle dance, such as a waggle portion. It has therefore been suggested that the term waggle dance is better for describing both the waggle dance and the round dance.Austrian ethologist and Nobel laureate Karl von Frisch was one of the first who translated the meaning of the waggle dance.
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A waggle dance consists of one to 100 or more circuits, each of which consists of two phases: the waggle phase and the return phase. A worker bee's waggle dance involves running through a small figure-eight pattern: a waggle run (aka waggle phase) followed by a turn to the right to circle back to the starting point (aka return phase), another waggle run, followed by a turn and circle to the left, and so on in a regular alternation between right and left turns after waggle runs. Waggle-dancing bees produce and release two alkanes, tricosane and pentacosane, and two alkenes, (Z)-9-tricosene and (Z)-9-pentacosene, onto their abdomens and into the air.The direction and duration of waggle runs are closely correlated with the direction and distance of the resource being advertised by the dancing bee. In an experiment with capture and relocation of bees exposed to a waggle dance the bees followed the path that would have taken them to an experimental feeder had they not been displaced.
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The resource can include the location of a food source or a potential nesting site. For cavity-nesting honey bees, like the western honey bee (Apis mellifera) or Apis nigrocincta, flowers that are located directly in line with the sun are represented by waggle runs in an upward direction on the vertical combs, and any angle to the right or left of the sun is coded by a corresponding angle to the right or left of the upward direction. The distance between hive and recruitment target is encoded in the duration of the waggle runs.
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The farther the target, the longer the waggle phase. The more excited the bee is about the location, the more rapidly it will waggle, so it will grab the attention of the observing bees, and try to convince them. If multiple bees are doing the waggle dance, it's a competition to convince the observing bees to follow their lead, and competing bees may even disrupt other bees' dances or fight each other off.
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In addition, some open-air nesting honeybees such as the black dwarf honeybee (Apis andreniformis), whose nests hang from twigs or branches, will perform a horizontal dance on a stage above their nest in order to signal to resources.Waggle dancing bees that have been in the nest for an extended time adjust the angles of their dances to accommodate the changing direction of the sun. Therefore, bees that follow the waggle run of the dance are still correctly led to the food source even though its angle relative to the sun has changed. The consumption of ethanol by foraging bees has been shown to reduce waggle dance activity and increase occurrence of the tremble dance.Kevin Abbott and Reuven Dukas of McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada discovered that if a dead western honeybee is placed on a flower, bees performed far fewer waggle dances upon returning to the hive.
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The scientists explain that the bees associate the dead bee with the presence of a predator at the food source. The reduction of the dance repetition frequency, therefore, indicates that the dancing bees perform and communicate a form of risk/benefit analysis.Though first decoded by Karl von Frisch, dancing behavior in bees had been observed and described multiple times prior. Around 100 years before Frisch's discovery, Nicholas Unhoch described dancing behavior of bees as being an indulgence "in certain pleasures and jollity".
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He admitted ignorance as to the purpose of the dancing. 35 years prior to Unhoch's observations, Ernst Spitzner observed bees dancing and interpreted it as transmitting forage resource odors to other nestmates.
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Aristotle, in addition to describing flower constancy behavior, suspected that some form of communication occurred between foragers within a nest: "On each trip the bee does not fly from a flower of one kind to a flower of another, but flies from one violet, say, to another violet, and never meddles with another flower until it has got back to the hive; on reaching the hive they throw off their load, and each bee on her return is followed by three or four companions. What it is that they gather is hard to see, and how they do it has not been observed". Jürgen Tautz also writes about it in his book The Buzz about Bees (2008): Many elements of the communication used to recruit miniswarms to feeding sites are also observed in "true" swarming behavior.
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Miniswarms of foragers are not placed under the same selection pressure as are true swarms, because the fate of the entire colony is not at stake. A truly swarming colony has to be quickly led to a new home, or it will perish. The behavior used to recruit to food sources possibly developed from the "true" swarming behavior.
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Honeybees accumulate an electric charge during flying and when their body parts are moved or rubbed together. Bees emit constant and modulated electric fields during the waggle dance. Both low- and high-frequency components emitted by dancing bees induce passive antennal movements in stationary bees according to Coulomb's Law. The electrically charged flagella of mechanoreceptor cells are moved by electric fields and more strongly so if sound and electric fields interact. Recordings from axons of the Johnston's organ indicate its sensitivity to electric fields. Therefore, it has been suggested that electric fields emanating from the surface charge of bees stimulate mechanoreceptors and may play a role in social communication during the waggle dance.
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As defined by von Frisch, Tanzsprache (German for 'dance language') is the information about direction, distance, and quality of a resource (such as food or nesting sites) contained within the waggle dance. There is supporting evidence of the waggle dance and "Tanzsprache" in Apis dorsata. Similar to other bees, they utilize the dance language to indicate the critical information regarding food resources. The dancer's body points in the direction of the food source and the sound produced during the dance indicates the profitability of the food.
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Although there is some evidence for a direct connection between the Tanzsprache and the performance of the waggle dance, recent criticism holds that potential foragers need not correctly translate the dance language from the waggle dance to successfully forage. In an experiment on the honeybee Apis mellifera, most individuals who thoroughly followed a waggle dance ignored the resource direction and location information.
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Instead, 93% of the foragers returned to foraging areas they had previous knowledge of.Bees that follow a waggle dance can successfully forage without decoding the dance language information in several ways: Dance follower may use olfactory information from the dancer and find either the same resource or a different one with a similar scent. Following a dance may simply trigger foraging behavior. A forager may then search randomly for resources.
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Following a dance may reactivate private knowledge of a resource. After reactivation, the forager may return to the known resource. Using information communicated in the waggle dance is more useful to foragers when private information about resources is lacking.
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The use of the word language may lead to misrepresentations of the waggle dance. The Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure proposed a system of language where a sign is made up of two chief components. The signifier is the physical or phonetic representation of a sign.
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The signified is the conceptual component. If the dance language followed the Saussurian dyadic model of semiotics, the signifier would be the waggle dance and the signified would be the location of the foraging resource. Though the dance language may or may not follow this sort of pattern, it is not considered to be a language with syntactical grammar or a set of symbols.
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The waggle dance may be less efficient than once thought. Some bees observe over 50 waggle runs without successfully foraging, while others will forage successfully after observing 5 runs. Likewise, studies have found that honeybees rarely make use of the information communicated in the waggle dance and seem to only do so about ten percent of the time. There can be a conflict between private information based upon individual experiences, and social information transmitted through dance communication.
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Essentially, foragers often prefer to use remembered information about previously rewarding food sites that they have visited and will use this information even when receiving dance information about new food sources. This sheds light on the fact that following social information is more energetically costly than foraging independently and is not always advantageous. Using olfactory cues and memory of plentiful foraging sites, honeybees are able to successfully forage independently without expending the potentially extensive energy it takes to process and execute the directions communicated by their fellow foragers.
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However, foragers following waggle dances will eventually switch to using public information, the food location information provided by the waggle dancer when their private information is no longer useful.The waggle dance is beneficial in some environments and not in others, which provides a plausible explanation as to why the information provided by waggle dances are only used sparingly. Depending on weather, other competitors, and food source characteristics, transmitted information may quickly degrade and become obsolete. As a result, foragers have been reported to be attached to their food sites and continue to revisit a single patch many times after it has become unprofitable.
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For example, the waggle dance plays a significantly larger role in foraging when food sources are not as abundant. In temperate habitats, for instance, honey bee colonies routinely perform the waggle dance but were still able to successfully forage when the location information provided by the dance was experimentally obscured. In tropical habitats, however, honey bee foraging is severely impaired if waggle dancing is prevented.
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This difference is thought to be due to the patchiness of resources in tropical environment versus the homogeneity of resources in temperate environments. In the tropics, food resources can come in the form of flowering trees which are rich in nectar but are scattered sparsely and bloom only briefly. Thus, in tropical zones information about forage location might be more valuable than in temperate zones.
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Ancestors to modern honeybees most likely performed excitatory movements to encourage other nest-mates to forage. These excitatory movements include shaking, zig-zagging, buzzing and crashing into nestmates. Similar behavior is observed in other Hymenoptera including stingless bees, wasps, bumblebees and ants.One promising theory for the evolution of the waggle dance, first proposed by Martin Lindauer, is that the waggle dance originally aided in the communication of information about a new nest site, rather than spatial information about foraging sites.Honeybees with the most derived traits have been observed to perform the most derived waggle dances. The honeybees can be categorized into three main groups: the dwarf honeybees (2 species), the giant honeybees (3 species), both of which build a single comb in an open nest site, while the remaining 6 species are cavity-nesting.
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It has been confirmed that the dwarf honey bees are basal and the giant and cavity-nesting honey bees are monophyletic. The waggle dances of each bee species varies to different extents, nesting behavior playing a key role in waggle dance traits. For example, the open nesting honeybee variety rely on celestial cues to orient their dance while the cavity-nesting bees are able to use gravity and orient their dances in their dark nests.
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The open-nesting bees have no reason to have to use gravity because they do not need to perform their dances in the dark. Further, cavity-nesting bees have incorporated a sound element into their dances. Using the vibration of their wings, these bees use acoustics to aid in the signaling and provide more information about the distance, direction, and quality of the food/nesting site.
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It is suspected that this also evolved in response to the cavity-nesting bees having to perform their waggle dance in the dark. The dance orientation has evolved as well, ancestrally being performed on a horizontal plane, cavity-nesters have evolved to perform the dance on a vertical plane. Horizontal dancing results in more error in the dance, thus it is advantageous to dance vertically (more accurately) as cavity-nesting species do.Observations have suggested that different species of honeybees have different "dialects" of the waggle dance, each species or subspecies dance varying by curve or duration. A study from 2008 demonstrated that a mixed colony of Asiatic honeybees (Apis cerana cerana) and European honeybees (Apis mellifera ligustica) were gradually able to understand one another's "dialects" of waggle dance.
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In line with recent work in swarm intelligence research involving optimization algorithms inspired by the behavior of social insects (including bees, ants and termites), and vertebrates such as fish and birds, there has recently been research on using bee waggle dance behavior for efficient fault-tolerant routing. From the abstract of Wedde, Farooq, and Zhang (2004): In this paper we present a novel routing algorithm, BeeHive, which has been inspired by the communicative and evaluative methods and procedures of honey bees. In this algorithm, bee agents travel through network regions called foraging zones. On their way their information on the network state is delivered for updating the local routing tables.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance
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BeeHive is fault tolerant, scalable, and relies completely on local, or regional, information, respectively. We demonstrate through extensive simulations that BeeHive achieves a similar or better performance compared to state-of-the-art algorithms. Another bee-inspired stigmergic computational technique called bee colony optimization is employed in Internet Server Optimization.The Zigbee RF protocol is named after the waggle dance.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waggle_dance
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A corporate university is any educational entity that is a strategic tool designed to assist its parent organization in achieving its mission by conducting activities that cultivate individual and organizational learning, knowledge, and wisdom. Corporate universities (CU) are a growing trend in corporations. In 1993, corporate universities existed in only 400 companies.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_university
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By 2001, this number had increased to 2,000, including Walt Disney, Boeing, and Motorola.The 'corporate university' also refers to public universities which have developed, or have been forced by states to develop, corporate style behaviour.In most cases, corporate universities are not universities in the strict sense of the word. The traditional university is an educational institution which grants both undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in a variety of subjects, as well as conducting original scientific research. In contrast, a corporate university typically limits scope to providing job-specific, indeed company-specific, training for the managerial personnel of the parent corporation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_university
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The scope of the CU depends on the corporate strategy, consequently maintaining a strategic alignment between the CU and the parent organisation belong to the key success factors of a CU implementation. Corporate universities are most commonly found in the United States, a nation which has no official legal definition of the term "university". Perhaps the best-known corporate university is the Hamburger University operated by McDonald's Corporation in Chicago.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_university
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Corporate universities are set up for a variety of reasons, but most organizations have the same basic needs. These are to: Bring a common culture, loyalty, and belonging to a company Get the most out of the investment in education Organize training Remain competitive in today's economy Retain employees Start and support change in the organizationCUs offer valuable training and education to employees, but they also help organizations retain and promote key employees. Although a CU may sound attractive, there is a lot of work that goes into the planning and implementation of such a project.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_university
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J.P. Morgan and Co. is an example of a company with an organized curriculum. They have three different types of courses: Business specific courses, organizational learning and communication classes, and management and executive training.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_university
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Most CUs offer a blended curriculum of online and in person classes. Some organizations offer courses during the workday while other offer them at varying times. Courses can be short workshops or longer, more traditional courses.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_university
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Unlike traditional universities, CUs demand a return on their investment. There must be concrete evidence that the classroom is delivering results. Many CUs provide hands-on and team learning as a more effective alternative to lecture-based courses, but all CUs agree that what is learned in the classroom should be directly applicable to the work environment.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_university
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Although a CU may sound attractive, there is a lot of work that goes into the planning and implementation of such a project such as complex logistics, resource optimization and careful budgeting. Indeed, corporate universities tend to be cost centers with dedicated training facilities servicing an often global workforce through a dedicated curriculum. To manage this complexity, specific Enterprise resource planning systems have been developed for Corporate Universities, such as a Training management system. Other systems such as accounting systems and different types of learning technologies can be used together.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_university
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The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) is a one-billion-word corpus of contemporary American English. It was created by Mark Davies, retired professor of corpus linguistics at Brigham Young University (BYU).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_of_Contemporary_American_English
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The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) is composed of one billion words as of November 2021. The corpus is constantly growing: In 2009 it contained more than 385 million words; In 2010 the corpus grew in size to 400 million words; By March 2019, the corpus had grown to 560 million words.As of November 2021, the Corpus of Contemporary American English is composed of 485,202 texts. According to the corpus website, the current corpus (November 2021) is composed of texts that include 24-25 million words for each year 1990–2019. For each year contained in the corpus (1990–2019), the corpus is evenly divided between six registers/genres: TV/movies, spoken, fiction, magazine, newspaper, and academic (see Texts and Registers page of the COCA website).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_of_Contemporary_American_English
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In addition to the six registers that were previously listed, COCA (as of November 2021) also contains 125,496,215 words from blogs, and 129,899,426 from websites, making it a corpus that is truly composed of contemporary English (see Texts and Register page of COCA). The texts come from a variety of sources: Spoken: (85 million words) Transcripts of unscripted conversation from nearly 150 different TV and radio programs. Fiction: (81 million words) Short stories and plays, first chapters of books 1990–present, and movie scripts.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_of_Contemporary_American_English
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Popular magazines: (86 million words) Nearly 100 different magazines, from a range of domains such as news, health, home and gardening, women's, financial, religion, and sports. Newspapers: (81 million words) Ten newspapers from across the US, with text from different sections of the newspapers, such as local news, opinion, sports, and the financial section. Academic journals: (81 million words) Nearly 100 different peer-reviewed journals. These were selected to cover the entire range of the Library of Congress Classification system.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_of_Contemporary_American_English
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The Corpus of Contemporary American English is free to search for registered users.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_of_Contemporary_American_English
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The interface is the same as the BYU-BNC interface for the 100 million word British National Corpus, the 100 million word Time Magazine Corpus, and the 400 million word Corpus of Historical American English (COHA), the 1810s–2000s (see links below) Queries by word, phrase, alternates, substring, part of speech, lemma, synonyms (see below), and customized lists (see below) The corpus is tagged by CLAWS, the same part of speech (PoS) tagger that was used for the BNC and the Time corpus Chart listings (totals for all matching forms in each genre or year, 1990–present, as well as for subgenres) and table listings (frequency for each matching form in each genre or year) Full collocates searching (up to ten words left and right of node word) Re-sortable concordances, showing the most common words/strings to the left and right of the searched word Comparisons between genres or time periods (e.g. collocates of 'chair' in fiction or academic, nouns with 'break the ' in newspapers or academic, adjectives that occur primarily in sports magazines, or verbs that are more common 2005–2010 than previously) One-step comparisons of collocates of related words, to study semantic or cultural differences between words (e.g. comparison of collocates of 'small', 'little', 'tiny', 'minuscule', or lilliputian or 'Democrats' and 'Republicans', or 'men' and 'women', or 'rob' vs 'steal') Users can include semantic information from a 60,000 entry thesaurus directly as part of the query syntax (e.g. frequency and distribution of synonyms of 'beautiful', synonyms of 'strong' occurring in fiction but not academic, synonyms of 'clean' + noun ('clean the floor', 'washed the dishes')) Users can also create their own 'customized' word lists, and then re-use these as part of subsequent queries (e.g. lists related to a particular semantic category (clothes, foods, emotions), or a user-defined part of speech) Note that the corpus is available only through the web interface, due to copyright restrictions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_of_Contemporary_American_English
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The corpus of Global Web-based English (GloWbE; pronounced "globe") contains about 1.9 billion words of text from twenty different countries. This makes it about 100 times as large as other corpora like the International Corpus of English, and it allows for many types of searches that would not be possible otherwise. In addition to this online interface, you can also download full-text data from the corpus. It is unique in the way that it allows one to carry out comparisons between different varieties of English. GloWbE is related to the many other corpora of English.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_of_Contemporary_American_English
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Quality function deployment (QFD) is a method developed in Japan beginning in 1966 to help transform the voice of the customer into engineering characteristics for a product. Yoji Akao, the original developer, described QFD as a "method to transform qualitative user demands into quantitative parameters, to deploy the functions forming quality, and to deploy methods for achieving the design quality into subsystems and component parts, and ultimately to specific elements of the manufacturing process." The author combined his work in quality assurance and quality control points with function deployment used in value engineering.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_function_deployment
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The house of quality, a part of QFD, is the basic design tool of quality function deployment. It identifies and classifies customer desires (What's), identifies the importance of those desires, identifies engineering characteristics which may be relevant to those desires (How's), correlates the two, allows for verification of those correlations, and then assigns objectives and priorities for the system requirements. This process can be applied at any system composition level (e.g. system, subsystem, or component) in the design of a product, and can allow for assessment of different abstractions of a system. It is intensely progressed through a number of hierarchical levels of What’s and How’s and analyse each stage of product growth (service enhancement), and production (service delivery).The house of quality appeared in 1972 in the design of an oil tanker by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries.The output of the house of quality is generally a matrix with customer desires on one dimension and correlated nonfunctional requirements on the other dimension.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_function_deployment
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The cells of matrix table are filled with the weights assigned to the stakeholder characteristics where those characteristics are affected by the system parameters across the top of the matrix. At the bottom of the matrix, the column is summed, which allows for the system characteristics to be weighted according to the stakeholder characteristics. System parameters not correlated to stakeholder characteristics may be unnecessary to the system design and are identified by empty matrix columns, while stakeholder characteristics (identified by empty rows) not correlated to system parameters indicate "characteristics not addressed by the design parameters". System parameters and stakeholder characteristics with weak correlations potentially indicate missing information, while matrices with "too many correlations" indicate that the stakeholder needs may need to be refined.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_function_deployment
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QFD is applied in a wide variety of applications viz product design, manufacturing, production, engineering, research and development (R&D), information technology (IT), support, testing, regulatory, and other phases in hardware, software, service, and system organizations. organization functions necessary to assure customer satisfaction, including business planning, packaging and logistics, procurement, marketing, sales & service. QFD is also deployed in quality improvement, quality management, military needs and consumer products. Customer services Applications for Education improvement and services in hotels etc.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_function_deployment
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The concepts of fuzzy logic have been applied to QFD ("Fuzzy QFD" or "FQFD"). A review of 59 papers in 2013 by Abdolshah and Moradi found a number of conclusions: most FQFD "studies were focused on quantitative methods" to construct a house of quality matrix based on customer requirements, where the most-employed techniques were based on multiple-criteria decision analysis methods. They noted that there are factors other than the house of quality relevant to product development, and called metaheuristic methods "a promising approach for solving complicated problems of FQFD."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_function_deployment
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The process of quality function deployment (QFD) is described in ISO 16355-1:2015.Pugh concept selection can be used in coordination with QFD to select a promising product or service configuration from among listed alternatives. Modular function deployment uses QFD to establish customer requirements and to identify important design requirements with a special emphasis on modularity. There are three main differences to QFD as applied in modular function deployment compared to house of quality: The benchmarking data is mostly gone; the checkboxes and crosses have been replaced with circles, and the triangular "roof" is missing.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_function_deployment
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Lactate inflection point (LIP) is the exercise intensity at which the blood concentration of lactate and/or lactic acid begins to increase rapidly. It is often expressed as 85% of maximum heart rate or 75% of maximum oxygen intake. When exercising at or below the lactate threshold, any lactate produced by the muscles is removed by the body without it building up.The onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) is often confused with the lactate threshold.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactate_threshold
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With an exercise intensity higher than the threshold the lactate production exceeds the rate at which it can be broken down. The blood lactate concentration will show an increase equal to 4.0 mM; it then accumulates in the muscle and then moves to the bloodstream.Regular endurance exercise leads to adaptations in skeletal muscle which raises the threshold at which lactate levels will rise. This is mediated via activation of the protein receptor PGC-1α, which alters the isoenzyme composition of the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) complex and decreases the activity of lactate dehydrogenase A (LDHA), while increasing the activity of lactate dehydrogenase B (LDHB).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactate_threshold
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The lactate threshold is a useful measure for deciding exercise intensity for training and racing in endurance sports (e.g., long distance running, cycling, rowing, long distance swimming and cross country skiing), but varies between individuals and can be increased with training.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactate_threshold
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Interval training alternates work and rest periods allowing the body to temporarily exceed the lactate threshold at a high intensity, and then recover (reduce blood-lactate). This type of training uses the ATP-PC and the lactic acid system while exercising, which provides the most energy when there are short bursts of high intensity exercise followed by a recovery period. Interval training can take the form of many different types of exercise and should closely replicate the movements found in the sport being trained for. Interval training can be adjusted to the individual, however it is important to consider the intensity of each interval, duration or distance of each interval, length of rest/recovery, number of repetitions, frequency of training and recovery type.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactate_threshold
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Fartlek and interval training are similar, the main difference being the structure of the exercise. Fartlek is a Swedish word, meaning speed play. This type of training is a combination of continuous (generally aerobic) and interval training (generally anaerobic), involving consistent changes of pace/intensity throughout the session.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactate_threshold
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It is important to understand the difference between lactate threshold and lactic acid tolerance. Aerobic training will not help with lactic acid tolerance, however, it will increase the lactate threshold. The body will build a better tolerance of the effects of lactic acid over time by doing anaerobic training, allowing the muscles’ ability to work in the presence of increased lactic acid. Training at or slightly above the lactate threshold improves the lactic acid tolerance.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactate_threshold
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Muscles are producing lactate even at rest, with resting blood lactate levels in the 1–2 mM/L range. Although the lactate threshold is defined as the point when lactic acid starts to accumulate, some testers approximate this by crossing the lactate threshold and using the point at which lactate reaches a concentration of 4 mmol/L of lactate. Accurately measuring the lactate blood concentration involves taking blood samples (normally a pinprick to the finger, earlobe or thumb) during a ramp test where the exercise intensity is progressively increased.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactate_threshold
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Blood samples are a popular way of measuring the lactate blood concentration, however there are many factors that may affect the sample. Every individual has a different health status, thus the results from the blood lactate response can vary from factors prior to exercise such as the glycogen status of the participant and ambient temperature. “Furthermore, the lactate concentration measured may vary depending on the sampling site sweat contamination, and the accuracy of the lactate analyser.” There are many factors that may give this test a false reading; it is important that an individual takes these into consideration, to receive an accurate test.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactate_threshold
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The aerobic threshold (AeT or AerT) is sometimes defined equivalently to the lactate threshold (LT); as the exercise intensity at which blood lactate concentrations rise above resting levels. In contrast, at the anaerobic threshold (AnT) the exercise is at an intensity beyond which blood lactate concentration is linearly related to exercise intensity, but increases with both exercise intensity and duration. The blood lactate concentration at the anaerobic threshold is called the "maximum steady-state lactate concentration" (MLSS).AeT is the exercise intensity at which anaerobic energy pathways start to operate, considered to be around 65-85% of an individual's maximum heart rate. Some have suggested this is where blood lactate reaches a concentration of 2 mmol/litre (at rest it is around 1). The anaerobic energy system increases the ability to produce blood lactate during maximal exercise, resulting from an increased amount of glycogen stores and glycolytic enzymes.In zone-based polarized training methodologies, LT1 is commonly used to designate the linear inflection point, often observed around blood lactate levels of 2.0 mM/L, while LT2 is commonly used to designate the non-linear inflection point, often observed around blood lactate levels of 4.0 mM/L.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactate_threshold
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The Institute on Collaborative Language Research or CoLang is a biennial training institute in language documentation for any person interested in community-based, collaborative language work. CoLang has been described as part of a modern collaborative model in community-based methodologies of language revitalization and documentation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoLang
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The institute happens in even-numbered summers (opposite the Linguistic Society of America Summer Institute) at various American universities, but it has drawn participants and instructors from around the world, including Australia, Canada, Kenya, Morocco, Nigeria, Singapore and the United Kingdom. The first part of the institute consists of two weeks of workshops on topics like community archiving, linguistics, audio and video recording, language teaching, and activism. The workshops are followed by a three or four week practicum where participants work intensively with speakers of a language to document it.While each individual institute is organized by one or two local director(s), CoLang as a whole is governed by its Advisory Circle, which includes Indigenous scholars, linguistics professors, language activists, students, and representatives from partner organizations. Each institute has been funded by a grant from the National Science Foundation's Dynamic Language Infrastructure (formerly called Documenting Endangered Languages) program.The first InField in 2008 resulted in ongoing collaboration between Kennedy Bosire and Carlos Nash for the completion of the Ekegusii encyclopedia and a dissertation on tone in Ekegusii, while the fifth CoLang in 2016 resulted in the development of a thirty-year revitalization plan for Kristang in Singapore. InField/CoLang has also resulted in ongoing community-based linguistics work in Kwak'wala and Kari’nja, among others.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoLang
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CoLang was founded in 2008 as InField, the Institute on Field Linguistics and Language Documentation, by Carol Genetti. The institute was renamed to CoLang and adopted a charter and Advisory Circle in 2012. CoLang announced a long-term partnership with the Linguistic Society of America (LSA) in 2015.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoLang
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InField 2008 was held at the University of California Santa Barbara. The director was Carol Genetti. The practicum languages were Ekegusii, Kwak'wala, and Mende.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoLang
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InField 2010 was held at the University of Oregon. The director was Spike Gildea. The practicum languages were Northern Paiute, Uyghur, and Wapishana.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoLang
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CoLang 2012 was held at the University of Kansas. The directors were Arienne Dwyer and Carlos Nash. The practicum languages were Amazigh, Cherokee, and Uda.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoLang
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CoLang 2014 was held at the University of Texas Arlington. The director was Colleen Fitzgerald. The practicum languages were Alabama, Apoala Mixtec (course in Spanish), Innu, and Ngambai.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoLang
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CoLang 2016 was held at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. The directors were Alice Taff and Siri Tuttle. The practicum languages were Han, Miyako, and Unangam Tunuu
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoLang
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CoLang 2018 was be held at the University of Florida. The director was George Aaron Broadwell. The practicum languages were Timucua, Macuiltianguis Zapotec, and Nyangbo (Tutrugbu).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoLang
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CoLang 2020 was to be held at the University of Montana, co-directed by Mizuki Miyashita and Susan Penfield. It was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but took place in 2022. The practicum languages were Northern Cheyenne and South Bolivian Quechua
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CoLang
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