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Following this process, milling can commence and may take several forms: The roller mill may be a single roller mill, double roller mill or pneumatic roller mill. In a complete maize milling plant, there are several roller mills that work together, they have different functions, the first mill mainly peeling the maize skin, the second and third will grind the maize into granular sizes, and meanwhile to get some super fine flour, and the granular sized product will go to the next mill to continue grinding. While grinding time, use double bin sifter or square plan sifter to sift the meal from the miller, classification and sifting more super flour. In general, the sifting used to separate the flour and bran, also separate large size and small size to ensure flour quality.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize_milling
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After the maize is processed, it will come out in different final products like flour and grits. They are different from their granular size. For the packing, a Full-auto Flour Packing Machine is adopted, and the flour is packed into 5 kg, 10 kg, 25 kg or 50 kg bags.
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The best quality maize meal is therefore obtained by: De-germinating the maize prior to milling Milling with rollers rather than hammer mills or plate mills/disc mills. Alternatively, if the budget is small, the whole maize, after cleaning and conditioning, may be milled by means of the plate mill only and then sifted (without de-germination). A significant part of the bran and germ meal would then be sifted off, resulting in a Special Sifted meal - of lower quality than roller milled meal and higher quality than hammer milled meal. A further element of major importance is sifting.
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Milling and sifting, form the very essence of grain processing. The sifters in every system should be one or more of the following: Turbo sifters - two separation horizontally shafted with steel screens - high capacity but not sifting very fine - used in small capacity plate mill systems and as graders for samp and other primary grading after de-germinators. Rotary sifters - three separation horizontally shafted with nylon screens - lower capacity but very fine screening - used in small capacity plate mill systems.
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Mini plan sifters - relatively high capacity and very fine screening used as primary sifters for all mills of 1 ton per hour to 2.5 tons per hour. Plan sifters in various sizes and numbers of passages: Very high capacity and fine screening - used in all mills with capacity of 2.5 ton per hour and more.Industrial type mills can be constructed over one level, two levels, three levels or more, as existing buildings determine or as practical as the solution may be. High capacity mills normally require more levels to make use of gravity in moving product between mills and sifters. Another option is to place a small mill (500-1,000 kg/h) in a container. This is only recommended for special applications where buildings are problematic, where the mill needs to be moved from time to time to another location, where temporary power is used and where the mill is located in very remote areas.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize_milling
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In the philosophy of perception and philosophy of mind, direct or naïve realism, as opposed to indirect or representational realism, are differing models that describe the nature of conscious experiences; out of the metaphysical question of whether the world we see around us is the real world itself or merely an internal perceptual copy of that world generated by our conscious experience. Indirect realism is broadly equivalent to the scientific view of perception that subjects do not experience the external world as it really is, but perceive it through the lens of a conceptual framework. Furthermore, indirect realism is a core tenet of the cognitivism paradigm in psychology and cognitive science. While there is superficial overlap, the indirect model is unlike the standpoint of idealism, which holds that only ideas are real, but there are no mind-independent objects.Conversely, direct realism postulates that conscious subjects view the world directly, treating concepts as a 1:1 correspondence. Furthermore, the framework rejects the premise that knowledge arrives via a representational medium, as well as the notion that concepts are interpretations of sensory input derived from a real external world.
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Aristotle was the first to provide a description of direct realism. In On the Soul he describes how a see-er is informed of the object itself by way of the hylomorphic form carried over the intervening material continuum with which the eye is impressed.In medieval philosophy, direct realism was defended by Thomas Aquinas.Indirect realism was popular with several early modern philosophers, including René Descartes, John Locke, G. W. Leibniz, and David Hume.Locke categorized qualities as follows: Primary qualities are qualities which are "explanatorily basic" – which is to say, they can be referred to as the explanation for other qualities or phenomena without requiring explanation themselves – and they are distinct in that our sensory experience of them resembles them in reality. (For example, one perceives an object as spherical precisely because of the way the atoms of the sphere are arranged.) Primary qualities cannot be removed by either thought or physical action, and include mass, movement, and, controversially, solidity (although later proponents of the distinction between primary and secondary qualities usually discount solidity).
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Secondary qualities are qualities that one's experience does not directly resemble; for example, when one sees an object as red, the sensation of seeing redness is not produced by some quality of redness in the object, but by the arrangement of atoms on the surface of the object which reflects and absorbs light in a particular way. Secondary qualities include colour, smell, sound, and taste.Thomas Reid, a notable member of the Scottish common sense realism was a proponent of direct realism. Direct realist views have been attributed to Baruch Spinoza.Late modern philosophers, J. G. Fichte and G. W. F. Hegel followed Kant in adopting empirical realism.
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Direct realism was also defended by John Cook Wilson in his Oxford lectures (1889–1915). On the other hand, Gottlob Frege (in his 1892 paper "Über Sinn und Bedeutung") subscribed to indirect realism.In contemporary philosophy, indirect realism has been defended by Edmund Husserl and Bertrand Russell. Direct realism has been defended by Hilary Putnam, John McDowell, Galen Strawson, and John R. Searle.However, epistemological dualism has come under sustained attack by other contemporary philosophers, such as Ludwig Wittgenstein (the private language argument) and Wilfrid Sellars in his seminal essay "Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind".
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Indirect realism is argued to be problematical because of Ryle's regress and the homunculus argument. Recently, reliance on the private language argument and the "homunculus objection" has itself come under attack. It can be argued that those who argue for "inner presence", to use Antti Revonsuo's term, are not proposing a private "referent", with the application of language to it being "private" and thus unshareable, but a private use of public language. There is no doubt that each of us has a private understanding of public language, a notion that has been experimentally supported; George Steiner refers to our personal use of language as an "idiolect", one particular to ourselves in its detail. The question has to be put how a collective use of language can go on when, not only do we have differing understandings of the words we use, but our sensory registrations differ.
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This argument was "first offered in a more or less fully explicit form in Berkeley (1713)." It is also referred to as the problem of conflicting appearances (e.g. Myles Burnyeat's article Conflicting Appearances). It has been argued that "informed commonsense" indicates that perceptions often depend on organs of perception.
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For example, humans would receive visual information very differently if they, like flies, had compound eyes, and may not even be able to imagine how things would appear with entirely different sense organs such as infra-red detectors or echo-location devices. Furthermore, perception systems can misrepresent objects even when in full working order, as shown, for example, by optical illusions like the Müller-Lyer illusion. More dramatically, sometimes people perceive things which are not there at all, which can be termed instances of "hallucination" or "perceptual delusion".
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The argument from illusion allegedly shows the need to posit sense-data as the immediate objects of perception. In cases of illusion or hallucination, the object has qualities that no public physical object in that situation has and so must be distinct from any such object. Naïve realism may accommodate these facts as they stand by virtue of its very vagueness (or "open-texture"): it is not specific or detailed enough to be refuted by such cases.
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A more developed direct realist might respond by showing that various cases of misperception, failed perception, and perceptual relativity do not make it necessary to suppose that sense-data exist. When a stick submerged in water looks bent a direct realist is not compelled to say the stick actually is bent but can say that the stick can have more than one appearance: a straight stick can look bent when light reflected from the stick arrives at one's eye in a crooked pattern, but this appearance is not necessarily a sense-datum in the mind. Similar things can be said about the coin which appears circular from one vantage point and oval-shaped from another.
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Pressing on your eyeball with a finger creates double vision but assuming the existence of two sense-data is unnecessary: the direct realist can say that they have two eyes, each giving them a different view of the world. Usually the eyes are focused in the same direction; but sometimes they are not. However, this response is presumably based on previously observed data.
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If one were to be able to observe nothing other than the stick in the water, with no previous information, it would appear that the stick was bent. Visual depth in particular is a set of inferences, not an actual experience of the space between things in a radial direction outward from the observation point. If all empirical evidence is based upon observation then the entire developed memory and knowledge of every perception and of each sense may be as skewed as the bent stick.
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Since objects with different qualities are experienced from each of the different perspectives there is no apparent experiential basis for regarding one out of any such set of related perceptual experiences as the one in which the relevant physical object is itself immediately experienced. The most reasonable conclusion is that the experienced object is always distinct from the physical object or at least that there is no way to identify which, if any, of the immediately experienced objects is the physical object itself. Epistemologically it is as though physical objects were never given, whether or not that is in fact the case.Another potential counter-example involves vivid hallucinations: phantom elephants, for instance, might be interpreted as sense-data.
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A direct realist response would differentiate hallucination from genuine perception: no perception of elephants is going on, only the different and related mental process of hallucination. However, if there are visual images when we hallucinate it seems reasonable that there are visual images when we see. Similarly if dreaming involves visual and auditory images in our minds it seems reasonable to think there are visual and auditory images, or sense-data, when we are awake and perceiving things.
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This argument has been challenged in a number of different ways. First it has been questioned whether there must be some object present that actually has the experienced qualities, which would then seemingly have to be something like a sense-datum. Why couldn't it be that the perceiver is simply in a state of seeming to experience such an object without any object actually being present?
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Second, in cases of illusion and perceptual relativity there is an object present which is simply misperceived, usually in readily explainable ways, and no need to suppose that an additional object is also involved. Third, the last part of the perceptual relativity version of the argument has been challenged by questioning whether there is really no experiential difference between veridical and non-veridical perception; and by arguing that even if sense-data are experienced in non-veridical cases and even if the difference between veridical and non-veridical cases is, as claimed, experientially indiscernible, there is still no reason to think that sense-data are the immediate objects of experience in veridical cases. Fourth, do sense-data exist through time or are they momentary?
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Can they exist when not being perceived? Are they public or private? Can they be themselves misperceived?
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Do they exist in minds or are they extra-mental, even if not physical? On the basis of the intractability of these questions, it has been argued that the conclusion of the argument from illusion is unacceptable or even unintelligible, even in the absence of a clear diagnosis of exactly where and how it goes wrong.Direct realists can potentially deny the existence of any such thing as a mental image but this is difficult to maintain, since we seem able to visually imagine all sorts of things with ease. Even if perception does not involve images other mental processes like imagination certainly seem to.
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One view, similar to Reid's, is that we do have images of various sorts in our minds when we perceive, dream, hallucinate and imagine but when we actually perceive things, our sensations cannot be considered objects of perception or attention. The only objects of perception are external objects. Even if perception is accompanied by images, or sensations, it is wrong to say we perceive sensations. Direct realism defines perception as perception of external objects where an "external object" is allowed to be a photon in the eye but not an impulse in a nerve leading from the eye. Recent work in neuroscience suggests a shared ontology for perception, imagination and dreaming, with similar areas of brain being used for all of these.
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One concern with indirect realism is that if simple data flow and information processing is assumed then something in the brain must be interpreting incoming data. This something is often described as a homunculus, although the term homunculus is also used to imply an entity that creates a continual regress, and this need not be implied. This suggests that some phenomenon other than simple data flow and information processing is involved in perception. This is more of an issue now than it was for rationalist philosophers prior to Newton, such as Descartes, for whom physical processes were poorly defined.
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Descartes held that there is a "homunculus" in the form of the soul, belonging to a form of natural substance known as res cogitans that obeyed different laws from those obeyed by solid matter (res extensa). Although Descartes' duality of natural substances may have echoes in modern physics (Bose and Fermi statistics) no agreed account of 'interpretation' has been formulated. Thus representationalism remains an incomplete description of perception.
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Aristotle realized this and simply proposed that ideas themselves (representations) must be aware—in other words that there is no further transfer of sense impressions beyond ideas. A potential difficulty with representational realism is that, if we only have knowledge of representations of the world, how can we know that they resemble in any significant way the objects to which they are supposed to correspond? Any creature with a representation in its brain would need to interact with the objects that are represented to identify them with the representation.
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This difficulty would seem reasonably to be covered by the learning by exploration of the world that goes on throughout life. However, there may still be a concern that if the external world is only to be inferred, its 'true likeness' might be quite different from our idea of it. The representational realist would answer to this that "true likeness" is an intuitive concept that falls in the face of logic, since a likeness must always depend on the way in which something is considered.
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A semantic difficulty may arise when considering reference in representationalism. If a person says "I see the Eiffel Tower" at a time when they are indeed looking at the Eiffel Tower, to what does the term "Eiffel Tower" refer? The direct realist might say that in the representational account people do not really see the tower but rather 'see' the representation.
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However, this is a distortion of the meaning of the word "see" which the representationalist does not imply. For the representationalist the statement refers to the Eiffel Tower, which implicitly is experienced in the form of a representation. The representationalist does not imply that when a person refers to the Eiffel Tower, they are referring to their sense experience, and when another person refers to the Tower, they are referring to their sense experience.
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Furthermore, representative realism claims that we perceive our perceptual intermediaries—we can attend to them—just as we observe our image in a mirror. However, as we can scientifically verify, this is clearly not true of the physiological components of the perceptual process. This also brings up the problem of dualism and its relation to representative realism, concerning the incongruous marriage of the metaphysical and the physical.
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The new objection to the Homunculus Argument claims that it relies on a naive view of sensation. Because the eyes respond to light rays is no reason for supposing that the visual field requires eyes to see it. Visual sensation (the argument can be extrapolated to the other senses) bears no direct resemblance to the light rays at the retina, nor to the character of what they are reflected from or pass through or what was glowing at the origin of them.
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The reason given is that they only bear the similarities of co-variation with what arrives at the retinas. Just as the currents in a wire going to a loudspeaker vary proportionately with the sounds that emanate from it but have no other likeness, so too does sensation vary proportionately (and not necessarily directly) with what causes it but bears no other resemblance to the input. This implies that the colour we experience is actually a cortical occurrence, and that light rays and external surfaces are not themselves coloured.
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The proportional variations with which cortical colour changes are there in the external world, but not colour as we experience it. Contrary to what Gilbert Ryle believed, those who argue for sensations being brain processes do not have to hold that there is a "picture" in the brain since this is impossible according to this theory since actual pictures in the external world are not coloured. It is plain that Ryle unthinkingly carried over what the eyes do to the nature of sensation; A. J. Ayer at the time described Ryle's position as "very weak".
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So there is no "screen" in front of cortical "eyes", no mental objects before one. As Thomas Hobbes put it: "How do we take notice of sense?—by sense itself".
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Moreland Perkins has characterized it thus: that sensing is not like kicking a ball, but rather "kicking a kick". Today there are still philosophers arguing for colour being a property of external surfaces, light sources, etc.A more fundamental criticism is implied in theories of this type.
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The differences at the sensory and perceptual levels between agents require that some means of ensuring at least a partial correlation can be achieved that allows the updatings involved in communication to take place. The process in an informative statement begins with the parties hypothetically assuming that they are referring to the "same" entity or "property", even though their selections from their sensory fields cannot match; we can call this mutually imagined projection the "logical subject" of the statement. The speaker then produces the logical predicate which effects the proposed updating of the "referent".
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If the statement goes through, the hearer will now have a different percept and concept of the "referent"—perhaps even seeing it now as two things and not one. The radical conclusion is that we are premature in conceiving of the external as already sorted into singular "objects" in the first place, since we only need to behave as if they are already logically singular. The diagram at the beginning of this entry would thus be thought of as a false picture of the actual case, since to draw "an" object as already selected from the real is only to treat the practically needful, but strictly false, hypothesis of objects-as-logically-singular as ontologically given.
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The proponents of this view thus argue that there is no need actually to believe in the singularity of an object since we can manage perfectly well by mutually imagining that 'it' is singular. A proponent of this theory can thus ask the direct realist why he or she thinks it is necessary to move to taking the imagining of singularity for real when there is no practical difference in the outcome in action. Therefore, although there are selections from our sensory fields which for the time being we treat as if they were objects, they are only provisional, open to corrections at any time, and, hence, far from being direct representations of pre-existing singularities, they retain an experimental character.
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Virtual constructs or no, they remain, however, selections that are causally linked to the real and can surprise us at any time—which removes any danger of solipsism in this theory. This approach dovetails with the philosophy known as social constructivism.The character of experience of a physical object can be altered in major ways by changes in the conditions of perception or of the relevant sense-organs and the resulting neurophysiological processes, without change in the external physical object that initiates this process and that may seem to be depicted by the experience. Conversely any process that yields the same sensory/neural results will yield the same perceptual experience, no matter what the physical object that initiated the process may have been like.
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Furthermore, the causal process that intervenes between the external object and the perceptual experience takes time, so that the character of the experience reflects, at the most, an earlier stage of that object than the one existing at the moment of perception. As in observations of astronomical objects the external object may have ceased to exist long before the experience occurs. These facts are claimed to point to the conclusion that the direct object of experience is an entity produced at the end of this causal process, distinct from any physical object that initiates the process."
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The above argument invites the conclusion of a perceptual dualism that raises the issue of how and whether the object can be known by experience. The adverbial theory proposes "that this dualism is a dualism of objects, with perceptual experience being a more direct experience of objects of a different sort, sense-data." Perceptual dualism implies:both an act of awareness (or apprehension) and an object (the sense-datum) which that act apprehends or is an awareness of. The fundamental idea of the adverbial theory, in contrast, is that there is no need for such objects and the problems that they bring with them (such as whether they are physical or mental or somehow neither).
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Instead, it is suggested, merely the occurrence of a mental act or mental state with its own intrinsic character is enough to account for the character of immediate experience.According to the adverbial theory, when, for example, I experience a silver elliptical shape (as when viewing a coin from an angle) I am in a certain specific state of sensing or sensory awareness or of being appeared to: I sense in a certain manner or am appeared to in a certain way, and that specific manner of sensing or of being appeared to accounts for the content of my experience: I am in a certain distinctive sort of experiential state. There need be no object or entity of any sort that is literally silver and elliptical in the material world or in the mind. I experience a silver and elliptical shape because an object or entity that literally has that color and shape is directly before my mind. But the nature of these entities and the way in which they are related to the mind are difficult to understand. The adverbial theory has the advantage of being metaphysically simpler, avoiding issues about the nature of sense-data, but we gain no real understanding of the nature of the states in question or of how exactly they account for the character of immediate experience."
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Forensic radiology is the discipline which comprises the performance, interpretation and reportage of the radiological examinations and procedures which are needed in court procedures or law enforcement. Radiological methods are widely used in identification, age estimation and establishing cause of death. Comparison of ante mortem and post mortem radiographs is one of the means of identification.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_radiology
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The scanning of baggage, vehicles and individuals have many applications. Tools like multislice helical computed tomography can be used for detailed documentation of injuries, tissue damage and complications like air embolism and pulmonary aspiration of blood. These types of digital autopsies offer certain advantages when compared to traditional autopsies.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_radiology
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In the Land of Invented Languages: Esperanto Rock Stars, Klingon Poets, Loglan Lovers, and the Mad Dreamers who Tried to Build a Perfect Language is a 2009 non-fiction book by linguist Arika Okrent about the history and culture of constructed languages, or conlangs, languages created by individuals. Okrent explores the motivations for creating a language, the challenges faced by such projects, and the outcomes of a number of high-profile conlangs. The book revolves around six conlangs: John Wilkins' unnamed 'philosophical language', Esperanto, Blissymbols, Loglan and its descendant Lojban, and the Klingon language designed for the Star Trek universe. Okrent describes her personal experiences learning and interacting with these languages and their speakers, and provides historical and linguistic analyses of their structures and features.
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In the Land of Invented Languages was published by Spiegel & Grau, at the time an imprint of Random House, on 19 May 2009. The book received a generally positive reception from both literary critics and enthusiasts of constructed languages. It was praised for its humorous, intelligent, and informative style, as well as for its depth of research and accessibility to a wide audience. It was also noted for its perspective on the successes and failures of conlangs, and the paradoxes and dilemmas they pose for their creators and users.
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Constructed languages, or conlangs, are intentionally created languages. Unlike natural languages, which naturally emerge from human communities, conlangs are developed by individuals or, rarely, small groups. Conlangs vary in their intent; artistic languages such as Quenya are designed for aesthetic purposes such as worldbuilding, engineered languages such as Ithkuil are designed for philosophical or experimental purposes, and auxiliary languages such as Esperanto are intended to be used for mass communication. Though conlangs have been recorded since the lingua ignota of Hildegard of Bingen in the twelfth century, they increased in popularity with the rise of the internet.Arika Okrent is a linguist and journalist.
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She has a master's degree in linguistics from Gallaudet University, a university with a mostly-Deaf student body, and a Ph.D. in psycholinguistics from the University of Chicago. In the Land of Invented Languages was her first book. Okrent is fluent in American Sign Language and speaks or understands some level of Hungarian, Esperanto, and Brazilian Portuguese. She is also certified as having a basic understanding of Klingon by the Klingon Language Institute.
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In the Land of Invented Languages is a historiography of constructed languages that pays particular attention to six major examples: John Wilkins' unnamed 'philosophical language', Esperanto by L. L. Zamenhof, Blissymbols by Charles K. Bliss, Loglan by James Cooke Brown and its descendant Lojban, and the Klingon language designed by Marc Okrand for the Star Trek universe. The book opens with Okrent's surprise at discovering the Klingon-speaking community; most conlangs find little success even when explicitly intended for wide use, and Okrent had not anticipated that a language intended for fictional use had real-world speakers. She met Mark, a fluent Klingon speaker who lived in the same town as her, and began research on the history and popularity of conlangs. Okrent chronologies conlangs from the perspective that most of them were failed experiments, and introduces the book with conlang inventors who had expected their languages to see far greater success than they did.
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The first full section revolves around An Essay Towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language, Wilkins' explication of his "ideal language". John Wilkins was a clergyman and scholar who abetted many of the academics of his era but sought relatively little recognition himself. His greatest focus was his constructed language, which intended to fix what he considered the problem "that words tell you nothing about the things they refer to"; Okrent sees this through the lens of a seventeenth-century fad for conlanging in general, which she ascribes to an Enlightenment drive to bring order to unordered natural languages. She discusses contemporaries such as Thomas Urquhart, himself interested in language construction, who wrote a manuscript on his attempt titled "Gold out of Dung".
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The title referred to wherefrom he salvaged the pages—beneath the dead bodies of soldiers who had captured him in battle, who commandeered them for what he called "posterior uses".Wilkins endeavoured to catalogue subjects by their traits and build words accordingly; Okrent gives the example of zitα ("dog"), which is built from the particles for "clawed, rapacious, oblong-headed, land-dwelling beast of docile disposition". Okrent discusses the difficulty of translating between Wilkins' language and any other, due to his desire to represent every concept with an individual word. When she attempts to find a translation for "clear", she finds multiple relevant definitions across vastly different parts of Wilkins' phylogenetic language structure. She credits his work as influencing the thesaurus, library classification systems such as the Dewey Decimal System, and taxonomy in biology, but describes his attempt to create a philosophically perfect language as succeeding only at "show that it was a ridiculous idea".
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The second section of the book deals with Esperanto. Of all conlangs, Esperanto has by far the most users, including multi-generational native speakers. Okrent describes her experience attending an Esperantist convention, which she thought would be poorly attended and mostly conducted in English. She was surprised to find virtually all the attendees were fluent Esperanto speakers, and particularly surprised to meet the musician Kim J. Henriksen and his son, both native speakers.
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Esperanto and other auxiliary languages ("auxlangs") arose in a different landscape to previous philosophical languages. Though French had become the common language of international discourse by the 19th century, it was progressively displaced as industrialization brought wealth and international travel to broader sections of the population. Demand rose for a language comprehensible across European language barriers, bringing rise to such attempts as Universalglot and Volapük.
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The latter, as Okrent chronicles, was particularly important to the origin and popularity of Esperanto; it was the first widely popular auxlang and an inspiration for its successors, but Esperanto overtook it in the late 19th century due to ideological schisms in the Volapük movement. Okrent focuses on how Esperanto's success related to the popularity of Zamenhof as a figure and symbol of its movement. Though Esperanto too saw language schisms, resulting in the creation of Ido, it remained dominant due to its speakers' devotion to Zamenhof.
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Okrent is particularly interested in what she considers Esperanto's paradoxical success and failure. The purpose of Esperanto was to serve as a universal auxiliary language, a goal at which it has not yet succeeded; nonetheless, Esperanto speakers form a thriving community estimated to number hundreds of thousands of people. She singles out the Pasporta Servo service, which provides free lodgings to Esperanto-speaking travellers worldwide. Okrent quotes profiles from contemporary Pasporta Servo hosts, including a "gay vegetarian ornithologist" in Belgium, a founder of a "club of light and peace" in Mozambique, a "railroad lover" in Japan, and a Ukrainian host accepting "only hippies, punks, freaks, and cannabis smokers". She argues that Esperantists form a distinct culture, and draws parallels between it and Modern Hebrew, itself a consciously revived language.
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The third section of individual was In the Land of Invented Languages is about Blissymbols, invented by Charles K. Bliss, a chemical engineer who fled Europe after surviving the Buchenwald concentration camp. Bliss moved to Shanghai and developed an interest in Chinese characters. He attempted to learn them, thinking they could be a base for a "universal language", but felt after failed study that a pictogram system would be a better foundation for such a project.
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Bliss designed his Blissymbols writing system to minimize ambiguity, which he hoped would end falsehoods, propaganda, and other matters he considered flaws of language. When Bliss emigrated to Australia in the 1940s, he evangelized Blissymbols to linguists and academic publishers to little avail, and came to think his system would never receive the popularity he felt it deserved. In the late 1960s, Blissymbols were discovered by teachers at the Ontario Crippled Children's Centre working with nonverbal severely disabled children.
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They found the system revealed unexpected communicative capacities in children assumed to have profound intellectual impairments, and sought out Bliss to assist them with basing a formal education program around Blissymbols. While he was first overjoyed by the recognition, the relationship grew increasingly strained as the school diverged from what he considered the system's intent; Okrent gives the examples of him castigating the teachers for combining the "food" and "out" symbols to make "picnic", when he intended that combination to mean "restaurant", and of disparaging their use of formal grammatical concepts such as "nouns" and "verbs". As she put it, "he had created a "universal" language that no one else could figure out how to use". Okrent's view of Blissymbols is as a paradox; the system saw substantially more success than typical for contemporary conlangs, but its creator opposed and criticised that success.
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In the fourth section, Okrent discusses James Cooke Brown's invention of Loglan and its descendant Lojban. Loglan was an attempt at creating a "logical language" to test the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis, the conjecture that language shapes thought; if the hypothesis was correct, "speaking in logic" would facilitate logical thought itself. The language received substantial scholarly attention following its 1960 publication in Scientific American, which Okrent singles out as remarkable. She ascribes this attention to Brown's scientific mindset in presenting his language as a specific experiment, and to his more grounded claims than utopian predecessors.
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Despite these auspicious beginnings, Loglan was mired in controversy due to Brown's defensiveness of his language and alienation of its supporters. Lojban, a relexification, was created in a schism after Brown refused to permit use of Loglan dictionaries to people who disagreed with him.
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Lojban is an exceptionally specific language that Okrent compares to speech "filtered through the sensibilities of a bratty, literal-minded eight-year-old". When attempting to translate to it, as she did for Wilkins' language, she finds the task practically impossible. Not only is the vocabulary extremely precise (Okrent provides the example of arbitrary translating as "x is random/fortuitous/unpredictable under conditions y, with probability distribution z"), the "exhaustively defined" syntax means sentences can change drastically in meaning depending on their structure. When Okrent managed a grammatically-accurate translation of a single sentence, she reported it to a Lojbanist group at a convention, who informed her that it was incorrect. She notes that this is a common problem for Lojbanists, giving the example of an internet argument where a participant told his interlocutor in Lojban to "go fuck yourself"; a new argument ensued about his mistranslation of the exclamation.
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The book's final section returns to Klingon. Okrent overviews the language's creation by Marc Okrand, a linguist of Native American languages, and its features. She remarks on how its unusual features such as its extensive use of the agglutinative coexist with its similarity to natural languages, calling it "completely believable as a language, but somehow very, very odd". After discussing the Klingon convention she attended with Mark, where she met many of what she estimates to be the 20–30 people who can speak Klingon, Okrent focuses on the general concept of artistic languages or "artlangs". She discusses other fictional languages, such as the languages constructed by J. R. R. Tolkien, as well as languages she deems designed for artistic purposes, such as Toki Pona. According to later reviews, Okrent's discussion of artlangs was briefer than her discussion of other conlangs.
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In the Land of Invented Languages was published 19 May 2009 by Spiegel & Grau, at the time an imprint of Random House. It is 342 pages long. In the Land of Invented Languages was Okrent's first book; her second book Highly Irregular, about the history of English spelling, was published through Oxford University Press in July 2021.Upon its release, the book received generally positive reviews.
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Publishers Weekly gave it a starred review, conferred to books of "truly outstanding quality", and described it as a "delightful tour of linguistic hubris". Writing for the New York Times, the author Roy Blount Jr. described In the Land of Invented Languages as "a pleasure to read" while simultaneously providing a deep scholarly examination of constructed languages.
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The linguist Daniel Everett praised the book in a review for SFGATE. Everett depicted the concept of language creation as "misguided", but referred to the book as "humorous, intelligent, entertaining and highly informative"; he described Okrent as "subtly and humorously" explaining what he considered the shortcomings of creators and users of such languages. An in-depth review in the Zócalo Public Square referred to In the Land of Invented Languages as "fascinating, accessible, and offer interesting insights into what we say and how we say it".
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The review took note of Okrent's depth of research, including analyses of languages difficult or obscure enough to have very few speakers, such as Lojban. Edwin Turner of Biblioklept recommended the book, stating it "confidently traverses the thin line between pop nonfiction and academic linguistics".Graham M. Jones, associate professor of anthropology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, reviewed In the Land of Invented Languages in the Journal of Linguistic Anthropology. Though he noted that the book came from a popular perspective rather than an academic one, he nonetheless received it positively.
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Jones posited that Okrent's "wry" tone might be divisive, and referred to the book as "a cabinet of curiosity rather than a decorous museum". Another academic review by the writer Harley J. Sims in Mythlore first described In the Land of Invented Languages as "a long overdue gift to conlang enthusiasts and their burgeoning field", comparing it to The Search for the Perfect Language by Umberto Eco and Lunatic Lovers of Language by Marina Yaguello. Given the journal's focus on Tolkien studies, it paid particular attention to Okrent's handling of languages constructed by J. R. R. Tolkien.
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Sims found the book's discussion of such languages wanting, feeling it addressed artistic language as "a mere postscript" compared to conlangs intended for real-world use; he described this as "inexcusable" in an era where speculative fiction works are increasingly likely to include conlangs.In the Land of Invented Languages was positively received by users of constructed languages. Usona Esperantisto, the official publication of Esperanto-USA, described Okrent as an "icon" in an interview and focused on the book's positive reception in Esperantist circles. The book has reportedly been used in linguistics courses at several universities. == References ==
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In the animal kingdom, a maternity den is a lair where a mother gives birth and nurtures her young when they are in a vulnerable life stage. While dens are typically subterranean, they may also be snow caves or simply beneath rock ledges. Characteristically there is an entrance, and optionally an exit corridor, in addition to a principal chamber.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternity_den
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The polar bear (Ursus maritimus) creates a maternity den either in an earthen subterranean or in a snow cave. On the Hudson Bay Plain in Manitoba, Canada, many of these subterranean dens are situated in the Wapusk National Park, from which bears migrate to the Hudson Bay when the ice pack forms. The maternity den is the bear's shelter for most of the winter. When all the other polar bears are heading off to the openness of the ocean, the pregnant female polar bears begin looking for a maternity den.
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This maternity den is usually in a snow bank, or along an ice patch of ocean shore. It is here that the female polar bear will go into a hibernation type state.
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Female polar bears dig their own maternity den. It is important the the female polar bears have fed enough in the spring and summer before fall, because of the scarcity of food on land when winter comes. While in the maternity den, the mother polar bear will not eat, drink or defecate. The female polar bear will stay in the maternity den and give birth to her cubs.
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Pack members may guard the maternity den used by the alpha female; such is the case with the African wild dog, Lycaon pictus.
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The brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea) makes use of maternity dens as a means of nurturing and protecting their cubs. These dens are located in coastal or inland regions, most of them being caverns with narrow entrances. The brown hyena also collects bones and stores them within or around the entrance of these dens.
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The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) also creates maternity dens. After mating, foxes make a maternity den for raising their offspring. Most often, the mother and father will find and enlarge an old woodchuck burrow. Sometimes, a hollow log, streambank, rock pile, cave, or dense shrub will play the role as a den.
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The den is usually chosen at a place where there is raised ground so the red foxes can see all around. The main entrance will be approximately three feet wide, and the den will have one or two escape holes. The den is lined with grass and dry leaves.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternity_den
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Institute of Political Science of the Slovak Academy of Science (In Slovak: Ústav politických vied Slovenskej akadémie vied, ÚPV SAV) is a research institute of the Slovak Academy of Science. sk:Ústav politických vied Slovenskej akadémie vied
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Political_Science_of_SAS
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The institute was established in 2002 as a result of transformation of the Institute of Politology of the Slovak Academy of Science. Its Director since 1998 has been PhDr. Miroslav Pekník CSc. (born 1950). The actual address of the Institute is: Dúbravská cesta 9, Bratislava, Slovakia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Political_Science_of_SAS
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The mission of the Institute is a basic research of domestic politics, international relations and recent Slovak political history. It edited about 50 book publications. The best contactact on an international level it has with partners from Poland and Czech Republic. The staff of the Institute represents several prominent Slovak and Czech political scientists, historians and lawyers (e.g. Miroslav Peknik, Norbert Kmet, Peter Dinus, Jozef Jablonicky, Jozef Kiss, Oskar Krejci, Daniel Šmihula, Eva Jassova, Juraj Marusiak).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Political_Science_of_SAS
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The Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations (Polish: Zaręczenie Wzajemne Obojga Narodów), also Reciprocal Warranty of Two Nations, Mutual Pledge of the Two Nations and Mutual Assurance of the Two Nations, was an addendum, adopted on 20 October 1791 by the Great Sejm, to the Polish-Lithuanian Constitution of 3 May 1791. The Mutual Assurance of the Two Nations stated implementing principles that had not been spelled out in the Constitution. The document specified the nature of the Polish–Lithuanian union and affirmed "the unity and indivisibility", within a single state, of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
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The document was to be an integral part of the pacta conventa and thus binding on King Stanisław August Poniatowski and all subsequent monarchs of the Polish-Lithuanian state. The document defined the federal character of the state and asserted the equal representation within the bodies of state governance of its two constituents (the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania).The document declared that the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (now to be known as Rzeczpospolita Polska, the Polish Republic, or Polish Commonwealth) remained a union of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It specified that they shared a common government, military and treasury, but Lithuanian tax revenues were to be spent only within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The military and treasury commissions were to have equal numbers of Polish and Lithuanian members and were to be presided over by Polish and Lithuanian officials on an alternating basis.
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The membership of the Police Commission was to be two-thirds Polish-Crown and one-third Lithuanian. Poland and Lithuania were to have the same numbers of principal officials. In the view of historians Stanisław Kutrzeba, Oskar Halecki and Bogusław Leśnodorski, the legislation adopted by the Four-Year Sejm, including the Mutual Pledge of the Two Nations, replaced the erstwhile union of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which had existed since the Union of Lublin (1569), with a unitary Polish Commonwealth, or Polish Republic.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocal_Guarantee_of_Two_Nations
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The International Council on Social Welfare (ICSW) is a non-governmental organization whose activity is focused on undertaking research and organizing consultations for technical assistance and policy development aimed at improving social welfare, social justice and social development at the country and international levels..
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Council_on_Social_Welfare
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The ICSW has its origins in 1928 when the International Conference on Social Work, its immediate predecessor, was born in Paris, with the aim of strengthening cooperation between various countries in promoting human welfare. The first Conference had a high proportion of women participating in its preparation and discussions, with nearly two-thirds of the attendees being women. Alice Masarykova, the President of the Czechoslovakian Red Cross, was elected as the first President of the International Conference on Social Work and René Sand became the first Secretary General.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Council_on_Social_Welfare
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The International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW) and the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) also have their origins in the International Conference on Social Work. Moreover, the three participate in the publication of the journal International Social Work with SAGE Publications. Since its founding in 1928, ICSW has focused its activity on promoting social welfare, technical assistance and knowledge creation, both locally and globally. ICSW actively contributes to international debates and meetings on social welfare, such as the World Summit for Social Development held in Copenhagen in 1995, where strong leadership was proven; the United Nations Commission for Social Development (CSocD), which has among its main purposes the development and implementation of the Copenhagen Declaration and Programme of Action, with ICSW having consultative status with the CSocD; The Global Agenda for Social Work and Social Development (2010); or the 2022 Global People's Summit
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Council_on_Social_Welfare
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The main organs of the organization are the General Assembly, the Supervisory and Advisory Board, and the Management Committee. The General Assembly is responsible for adopting the four-year global program and the biennial budgetary framework, as well as electing the President, Vice President, Treasurer and two other members of the Management Committee. The term is for approximately four years.The current president (2020-2024) is Dr. Sang-Mok Suh, past president of the Korea National Council on Social Welfare and Minister of Health and Welfare in the Korean Government in 1993-95. The ICSW Executive Director position is currently occupied by Dr. Antonio López Peláez, Professor of Social Work and Social Services at the National Distance Education University (UNED), Spain.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Council_on_Social_Welfare
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In a physical examination, medical examination, or clinical examination, a medical practitioner examines a patient for any possible medical signs or symptoms of a medical condition. It generally consists of a series of questions about the patient's medical history followed by an examination based on the reported symptoms. Together, the medical history and the physical examination help to determine a diagnosis and devise the treatment plan. These data then become part of the medical record.
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The routine physical, also known as general medical examination, periodic health evaluation, annual physical, comprehensive medical exam, general health check, preventive health examination, medical check-up, or simply medical, is a physical examination performed on an asymptomatic patient for medical screening purposes. These are normally performed by a pediatrician, family practice physician, a physical therapist, physician assistant, a certified nurse practitioner or other primary care provider. This routine physical exam usually includes the HEENT evaluation. Nursing professionals such as Registered Nurse, Licensed Practical Nurses can develop a baseline assessment to identify normal versus abnormal findings.
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These are reported to the primary care provider. If necessary, the patient may be sent to a medical specialist for further, more detailed examinations. The term is generally not meant to include visits for the purpose of newborn checks, Pap smears for cervical cancer, or regular visits for people with certain chronic medical disorders (for example, diabetes).
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The general medical examination generally involves a medical history, a (brief or complete) physical examination and sometimes laboratory tests. Some more advanced tests include ultrasound and mammography. If done for a group of people the routine physical is a form of screening, as the aim of the examination is to detect early signs of diseases to prevent them.
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Although annual medical examinations are a routine practice in several countries, examinations performed on an asymptomatic patient are poorly supported by scientific evidence in the majority of the population. A Cochrane Collaboration meta-study found that routine annual physicals did not measurably reduce the risk of illness or death, and conversely, could lead to overdiagnosis and over-treatment; however, this article does not conclude that being in regular communication with a doctor is not important, simply that an actual physical examination may not be necessary.Some notable general health organisations recommend against annual examinations, and propose a frequency adapted to age and previous examination results (risk factors). The specialist American Cancer Society recommends a cancer-related health check-up annually in men and women older than 40, and every three years for those older than 20.A systematic review of studies until September 2006 concluded that the examination does result in better delivery of some other screening interventions (such as Pap smears, cholesterol screening, and faecal occult blood tests) and less patient worry. Evidence supports several of these individual screening interventions.
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The effects of annual check-ups on overall costs, patient disability and mortality, disease detection, and intermediate end points such a blood pressure or cholesterol, are inconclusive. A recent study found that the examination is associated with increased participation in cancer screening.Some employers require a mandatory health checkup before hiring a candidate, even though it is now well known that some of the components of the prophylactic annual visit may actually cause harm. For example, lab tests and exams that are performed on healthy patients (as opposed to people with symptoms or known illnesses) are statistically more likely to be "false positives"—that is, when test results suggest a problem that does not exist.
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Disadvantages cited include the time and money that could be saved by targeted screening (health economics argument), increased anxiety over health risks (medicalisation), overdiagnosis, wrong diagnosis (for example athletic heart syndrome misdiagnosed as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy) and harm, or even death, resulting from unnecessary testing to detect or confirm, often non-existent, medical problems or while performing routine procedures as a followup after screening. The lack of good evidence contrasts with population surveys showing that the general public is fond of these examinations, especially when they are free of charge. Despite guidelines recommending against routine annual examinations, many family physicians perform them.
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A fee-for-service healthcare system has been suggested to promote this practice. An alternative would be to tailor the screening interval to the age, sex, medical conditions and risk factors of each patient. This means choosing between a wide variety of tests.
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The routine physical is commonly performed in the United States and Japan, whereas the practice varies among South East Asia and mainland European countries. In Japan it is required by law for regular working employees to check once a year, with a much more thorough battery of tests than other countries.
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The roots of the periodic medical examination are not entirely clear. They seem to have been advocated since the 1920s. Some authors point to pleads from the 19th and early 20th century for the early detection of diseases like tuberculosis, and periodic school health examinations. The advent of medical insurance and related commercial influences seems to have promoted the examination, whereas this practice has been subject to controversy in the age of evidence-based medicine. Several studies have been performed before current evidence-based recommendation for screening were formulated, limiting the applicability of these studies to current-day practice.
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Comprehensive physical exams, also known as executive physicals, typically include laboratory tests, chest x-rays, pulmonary function testing, audiograms, full body CAT scanning, EKGs, heart stress tests, vascular age tests, urinalysis, and mammograms or prostate exams depending on gender.
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Pre-employment examinations are screening tests which judge the suitability of a worker for hire based on the results of their physical examination. This is also called pre-employment medical clearance. Some employers believe that by only hiring workers whose physical examination results pass certain exclusionary criteria, their employees collectively will have fewer absences due to sickness, fewer workplace injuries, and less occupational disease.
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A small amount of low-quality evidence in medical research supports this idea. Furthermore, the cost of staff health insurance will be lower. However, certain exams or tests that are requested by employers, such as a baseline low back x-ray, should not be performed, according to the American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine. Reasons for this include the legality and medical necessity of the test as well as the inability of such testing to predict future problems, the radiation exposure to the worker, and the cost of the exam.
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A physical examination may be provided under health insurance cover, required of new insurance customers. This is a part of insurance medicine. In the United States, physicals are also marketed to patients as a one-stop health review, avoiding the inconvenience of attending multiple appointments with different healthcare providers.
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