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The CoLang Advisory Circle provides long-term stewardship of the Institute and guidance to the Local Organizing Committee for each individual Institute; it also seeks to develop public awareness of CoLang and the institute's commitment toward preserving and sustaining language diversity.
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Current as of February 2017 Fakhruddin Akhunzada (2020) Aaron Broadwell (2020) Ewa Czaykowska-Higgins (2018) (co-convener) Susan Gehr (2018) (co-convener) Spike Gildea (2020) Seunghun J. Lee (2020) Megan Lukaniec (2018) Leroi Morgan (2020) Carolyn O'Meara (2020) Jean-Luc Pierite (2020) Heather Powell (2020) Keren Rice (2018) Kris Stenzel (2020) Alice Taff (2020) Adrienne Tsikewa (2018) Kevin Martens Wong (2018)
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Analytic philosophy is a branch and tradition of philosophy using analysis, popular in the Western world and particularly the Anglosphere, which began around the turn of the 20th century in the contemporary era in the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Scandinavia, and continues today. Analytic philosophy is often contrasted with continental philosophy, coined as a catch-all term for other methods, prominent in Europe.Central figures in this historical development of analytic philosophy are Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, G. E. Moore, and Ludwig Wittgenstein. Other important figures in its history include the logical positivists (particularly Rudolf Carnap), W. V. O. Quine, and Karl Popper.
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After the decline of logical positivism, Saul Kripke, David Lewis, and others led a revival in metaphysics. Elizabeth Anscombe, Peter Geach, Anthony Kenny, and others developed an analytic approach to Thomism. Analytic philosophy is characterized by an emphasis on language, known as the linguistic turn, and for its clarity and rigor in arguments, making use of formal logic and mathematics, and, to a lesser degree, the natural sciences.
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It also takes things piecemeal, in "an attempt to focus philosophical reflection on smaller problems that lead to answers to bigger questions".Analytic philosophy is often understood in contrast to other philosophical traditions, most notably continental philosophies such as existentialism, phenomenology, and Hegelianism. The analytic tradition has been the dominant tradition in Western philosophy since the latter half of the 20th century. The tradition is often critiqued for ahistoricism and aloofness towards alternative disciplines and outsiders.
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The history of analytic philosophy (taken in the narrower sense of "20th-/21st-century analytic philosophy") is usually thought to begin with the rejection of British idealism, a neo-Hegelian movement.British idealism as taught by philosophers such as F. H. Bradley (1846–1924) and T. H. Green (1836–1882), dominated English philosophy in the late 19th century. Since its beginning, a basic goal of analytic philosophy has been conceptual clarity, in the name of which Moore and Russell rejected Hegelianism for being obscure—see for example Moore's "A Defence of Common Sense" and Russell's critique of the doctrine of internal relations. Inspired by developments in modern formal logic, the early Russell claimed that the problems of philosophy can be solved by showing the simple constituents of complex notions. An important aspect of British idealism was logical holism—the opinion that there are aspects of the world that can be known only by knowing the whole world.
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This is closely related to the opinion that relations between items are internal relations, that is, properties of the nature of those items. Russell, along with Wittgenstein, in response promulgated logical atomism and the doctrine of external relations—the belief that the world consists of independent facts.Russell, during his early career, along with his collaborator Alfred North Whitehead, was much influenced by Gottlob Frege (1848–1925), who developed predicate logic, which allowed a much greater range of sentences to be parsed into logical form than was possible using the ancient Aristotelian logic. Frege was also influential as a philosopher of mathematics in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century.
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In contrast to Edmund Husserl's 1891 book Philosophie der Arithmetik, which argued that the concept of the cardinal number derived from psychical acts of grouping objects and counting them, Frege argued that mathematics and logic have their own validity, independent of the judgments or mental states of individual mathematicians and logicians (which were the basis of arithmetic according to the "psychologism" of Husserl's Philosophie). Frege further developed his philosophy of logic and mathematics in The Foundations of Arithmetic (1884) and The Basic Laws of Arithmetic (German: Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, 1893–1903), where he provided an alternative to psychologistic accounts of the concept of number. Like Frege, Russell argued that mathematics is reducible to logical fundamentals in The Principles of Mathematics (1903).
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Later, his book written with Whitehead, Principia Mathematica (1910–1913), encouraged many philosophers to renew their interest in the development of symbolic logic. Additionally, Russell adopted Frege's predicate logic as his primary philosophical method, a method Russell thought could expose the underlying structure of philosophical problems. For example, the English word "is" has three distinct meanings which predicate logic can express as follows: For the sentence 'the cat is asleep', the is of predication means that "x is P" (denoted as P(x)). For the sentence 'there is a cat', the is of existence means that "there is an x" (∃x). For the sentence 'three is half of six', the is of identity means that "x is the same as y" (x=y).Russell sought to resolve various philosophical problems by applying such logical distinctions, most famously in his analysis of definite descriptions in "On Denoting" (1905).
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From about 1910 to 1930, analytic philosophers like Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein emphasized creating an ideal language for philosophical analysis, which would be free from the ambiguities of ordinary language that, in their opinion, often made philosophy invalid. During this phase, Russell and Wittgenstein sought to understand language (and hence philosophical problems) by using logic to formalize how philosophical statements are made.
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Russell became an advocate of logical atomism. Wittgenstein developed a comprehensive system of logical atomism in his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (German: Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung, 1921). He thereby argued that the universe is the totality of actual states of affairs and that these states of affairs can be expressed by the language of first-order predicate logic. Thus a picture of the universe can be constructed by expressing facts in the form of atomic propositions and linking them using logical operators.
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During the late 1920s to 1940s, a group of philosophers of the Vienna Circle and the Berlin Circle developed Russell and Wittgenstein's formalism into a doctrine known as "logical positivism" (or logical empiricism). Logical positivism used formal logical methods to develop an empiricist account of knowledge. Philosophers such as Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach, along with other members of the Vienna Circle, claimed that the truths of logic and mathematics were tautologies, and those of science were verifiable empirical claims.
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These two constituted the entire universe of meaningful judgments; anything else was nonsense. The claims of ethics, aesthetics, and theology were consequently reduced to pseudo-statements, neither empirically true nor false and therefore meaningless. In reaction to what he considered excesses of logical positivism, Karl Popper insisted on the role of falsification in the philosophy of science—although his general method was also part of the analytic tradition.
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With the coming to power of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in 1933, many members of the Vienna and Berlin Circles fled to Britain and the US, which helped to reinforce the dominance of logical positivism and analytic philosophy in anglophone countries. Logical positivists typically considered philosophy as having a minimal function. For them, philosophy concerned the clarification of thoughts, rather than having a distinct subject matter of its own. The positivists adopted the verification principle, according to which every meaningful statement is either analytic or is capable of being verified by experience. This caused the logical positivists to reject many traditional problems of philosophy, especially those of metaphysics or ontology, as meaningless.
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After World War II, during the late 1940s and 1950s, analytic philosophy became involved with ordinary-language analysis. This resulted in two main trends. One continued Wittgenstein's later philosophy, which differed dramatically from his early work of the Tractatus. The other, known as "Oxford philosophy", involved J. L. Austin.
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In contrast to earlier analytic philosophers (including the early Wittgenstein) who thought philosophers should avoid the deceptive trappings of natural language by constructing ideal languages, ordinary-language philosophers claimed that ordinary language already represents many subtle distinctions not recognized in the formulation of traditional philosophical theories or problems. While schools such as logical positivism emphasize logical terms, supposed to be universal and separate from contingent factors (such as culture, language, historical conditions), ordinary-language philosophy emphasizes the use of language by ordinary people. The most prominent ordinary-language philosophers during the 1950s were the aforementioned Austin and Gilbert Ryle. Ordinary-language philosophers often sought to dissolve philosophical problems by showing them to be the result of ordinary misunderstanding language. Examples include Ryle, who tried to dispose of "Descartes' myth", and Wittgenstein.
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Although contemporary philosophers who self-identify as "analytic" have widely divergent interests, assumptions, and methods—and have often rejected the fundamental premises that defined analytic philosophy before 1960—analytic philosophy today is usually considered to be determined by a particular style, characterized by precision and thoroughness about a specific topic, and resistance to "imprecise or cavalier discussions of broad topics".During the 1950s, logical positivism was challenged influentially by Wittgenstein in the Philosophical Investigations, Quine in "Two Dogmas of Empiricism", and Sellars in Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind. After 1960, anglophone philosophy began to incorporate a wider range of interests, opinions, and methods. Still, many philosophers in Britain and America still consider themselves "analytic philosophers".
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They have done so largely by expanding the notion of "analytic philosophy" from the specific programs that dominated anglophone philosophy before 1960 to a much more general notion of an "analytic" style.Many philosophers and historians have attempted to define or describe analytic philosophy. Those definitions often include an emphasis on conceptual analysis: A.P. Martinich draws an analogy between analytic philosophy's interest in conceptual analysis and analytic chemistry, which aims to determine chemical compositions.
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Steven D. Hales described analytic philosophy as one of three types of philosophical method practiced in the West: "n roughly reverse order by number of proponents, they are phenomenology, ideological philosophy, and analytic philosophy".Scott Soames agrees that clarity is important: analytic philosophy, he says, has "an implicit commitment—albeit faltering and imperfect—to the ideals of clarity, rigor and argumentation" and it "aims at truth and knowledge, as opposed to moral or spiritual improvement the goal in analytic philosophy is to discover what is true, not to provide a useful recipe for living one's life". Soames also states that analytic philosophy is characterized by "a more piecemeal approach. There is, I think, a widespread presumption within the tradition that it is often possible to make philosophical progress by intensively investigating a small, circumscribed range of philosophical issues while holding broader, systematic questions in abeyance".A few of the most important and active topics and subtopics of analytic philosophy are summarized by the following sections.
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Motivated by the logical positivists' interest in verificationism, logical behaviorism was the most prominent theory of mind of analytic philosophy for the first half of the 20th century. Behaviorists tended to opine either that statements about the mind were equivalent to statements about behavior and dispositions to behave in particular ways or that mental states were directly equivalent to behavior and dispositions to behave. Behaviorism later became much less popular, in favor of type physicalism or functionalism, theories that identified mental states with brain states. During this period, topics of the philosophy of mind were often related strongly to topics of cognitive science such as modularity or innateness.
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Finally, analytic philosophy has featured a certain number of philosophers who were dualists, and recently forms of property dualism have had a resurgence; the most prominent representative is David Chalmers.John Searle suggests that the obsession with the philosophy of language during the 20th century has been superseded by an emphasis on the philosophy of mind, in which functionalism is currently the dominant theory. In recent years, a central focus of research in the philosophy of mind has been consciousness. While there is a general consensus for the global neuronal workspace model of consciousness, there are many opinions as to the specifics. The best known theories are Daniel Dennett's heterophenomenology, Fred Dretske and Michael Tye's representationalism, and the higher-order theories of either David M. Rosenthal—who advocates a higher-order thought (HOT) model—or David Armstrong and William Lycan—who advocate a higher-order perception (HOP) model. An alternative higher-order theory, the higher-order global states (HOGS) model, is offered by Robert van Gulick.
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Due to the commitments to empiricism and symbolic logic in the early analytic period, early analytic philosophers often thought that inquiry in the ethical domain could not be made rigorous enough to merit any attention. It was only with the emergence of ordinary language philosophers that ethics started to become an acceptable area of inquiry for analytic philosophers. Philosophers working with the analytic tradition have gradually come to distinguish three major types of moral philosophy. Meta-ethics which investigates moral terms and concepts; Normative ethics which examines and produces normative ethical judgments; Applied ethics, which investigates how existing normative principles should be applied to difficult or borderline cases, often cases created by new technology or new scientific knowledge.
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Twentieth-century meta-ethics has two origins. The first is G.E. Moore's investigation into the nature of ethical terms (e.g., good) in his Principia Ethica (1903), which identified the naturalistic fallacy. Along with Hume's famous is/ought distinction, the naturalistic fallacy was a major topic of investigation for analytical philosophers.
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The second is in logical positivism and its attitude that unverifiable statements are meaningless. Although that attitude was adopted originally to promote scientific investigation by rejecting grand metaphysical systems, it had the side effect of making (ethical and aesthetic) value judgments (as well as religious statements and beliefs) meaningless. But because value judgments are of significant importance in human life, it became incumbent on logical positivism to develop an explanation of the nature and meaning of value judgments.
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As a result, analytic philosophers avoided normative ethics and instead began meta-ethical investigations into the nature of moral terms, statements, and judgments. The logical positivists opined that statements about value—including all ethical and aesthetic judgments—are non-cognitive; that is, they cannot be objectively verified or falsified. Instead, the logical positivists adopted an emotivist theory, which was that value judgments expressed the attitude of the speaker.
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For example, in this view, saying, "Killing is wrong", is equivalent to saying, "Boo to murder", or saying the word "murder" with a particular tone of disapproval. While analytic philosophers generally accepted non-cognitivism, emotivism had many deficiencies. It evolved into more sophisticated non-cognitivist theories such as the expressivism of Charles Stevenson, and the universal prescriptivism of R.M.
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Hare, which was based on J.L. Austin's philosophy of speech acts.
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These theories were not without their critics. Philippa Foot contributed several essays attacking all these theories. J.O.
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Urmson's article "On Grading" called the is/ought distinction into question. As non-cognitivism, the is/ought distinction, and the naturalistic fallacy began to be called into question, analytic philosophers showed a renewed interest in the traditional questions of moral philosophy. Perhaps the most influential being Elizabeth Anscombe, whose monograph Intention was called by Donald Davidson "the most important treatment of action since Aristotle". A favorite student and friend of Ludwig Wittgenstein, her 1958 article "Modern Moral Philosophy" introduced the term "consequentialism" into the philosophical lexicon, declared the "is-ought" impasse to be unproductive, and resulted in a revival of virtue ethics.
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The first half of the 20th century was marked by skepticism toward and neglect of normative ethics. Related subjects, such as social and political philosophy, aesthetics, and philosophy of history, became only marginal topics of English-language philosophy during this period. During this time, utilitarianism was the only non-skeptical type of ethics to remain popular. However, as the influence of logical positivism began to decrease mid-century, analytic philosophers had renewed interest in ethics.
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G.E.M. Anscombe's 1958 "Modern Moral Philosophy" sparked a revival of Aristotle's virtue ethical approach and John Rawls's 1971 A Theory of Justice restored interest in Kantian ethical philosophy. Today, contemporary normative ethics is dominated by three schools: consequentialism, virtue ethics, and deontology.
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A significant feature of analytic philosophy since approximately 1970 has been the emergence of applied ethics—an interest in the application of moral principles to specific practical issues. The philosophers following this orientation view ethics as involving humanistic values, which involve practical implications and applications in the way people interact and lead their lives socially.Topics of special interest for applied ethics include environmental issues, animal rights, and the many challenges created by advancing medical science. In education, applied ethics addressed themes such as punishment in schools, equality of educational opportunity, and education for democracy.
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In Analytic Philosophy of Religion, James Franklin Harris noted that analytic philosophy has been a very heterogeneous 'movement'.... some forms of analytic philosophy have proven very sympathetic to the philosophy of religion and have provided a philosophical mechanism for responding to other more radical and hostile forms of analytic philosophy. : 3 As with the study of ethics, early analytic philosophy tended to avoid the study of philosophy of religion, largely dismissing (as per the logical positivists) the subject as part of metaphysics and therefore meaningless. The demise of logical positivism renewed interest in philosophy of religion, prompting philosophers like William Alston, John Mackie, Alvin Plantinga, Robert Merrihew Adams, Richard Swinburne, and Antony Flew not only to introduce new problems, but to re-study classical topics such as the nature of miracles, theistic arguments, the problem of evil, (see existence of God) the rationality of belief in God, concepts of the nature of God, and many more.Plantinga, Mackie and Flew debated the logical validity of the free will defense as a way to solve the problem of evil. Alston, grappling with the consequences of analytic philosophy of language, worked on the nature of religious language.
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Adams worked on the relationship of faith and morality. Analytic epistemology and metaphysics has formed the basis for some philosophically sophisticated theistic arguments, like those of the reformed epistemologists like Plantinga.
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Analytic philosophy of religion has also been preoccupied with Wittgenstein, as well as his interpretation of Søren Kierkegaard's philosophy of religion. Using first-hand remarks (which was later published in Philosophical Investigations, Culture and Value, and other works), philosophers such as Peter Winch and Norman Malcolm developed what has come to be known as contemplative philosophy, a Wittgensteinian school of thought rooted in the "Swansea tradition", and which includes Wittgensteinians such as Rush Rhees, Peter Winch, and D.Z. Phillips, among others.
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The name "contemplative philosophy" was first coined by D.Z. Phillips in Philosophy's Cool Place, which rests on an interpretation of a passage from Wittgenstein's Culture and Value. This interpretation was first labeled, "Wittgensteinian Fideism", by Kai Nielsen but those who consider themselves Wittgensteinians in the Swansea tradition have relentlessly and repeatedly rejected this construal as a caricature of Wittgenstein's considered position; this is especially true of D.Z.
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Phillips. Responding to this interpretation, Kai Nielsen and D.Z. Phillips became two of the most prominent philosophers on Wittgenstein's philosophy of religion.
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Current analytic political philosophy owes much to John Rawls, who in a series of papers from the 1950s onward (most notably "Two Concepts of Rules" and "Justice as Fairness") and his 1971 book A Theory of Justice, produced a sophisticated defense of a generally liberal egalitarian account of distributive justice. This was followed soon by Rawls's colleague Robert Nozick's book Anarchy, State, and Utopia, a defence of free-market libertarianism. Isaiah Berlin also had a lasting influence on both analytic political philosophy and liberalism with his lecture "Two Concepts of Liberty".
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During recent decades there have also been several critiques of liberalism, including the feminist critiques of Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin, the communitarian critiques of Michael Sandel and Alasdair MacIntyre (although neither of them endorses the term), and the multiculturalist critiques of Amy Gutmann and Charles Taylor. Although not an analytic philosopher, Jürgen Habermas is another prominent—if controversial—author of contemporary analytic political philosophy, whose social theory is a blend of social science, Marxism, neo-Kantianism, and American pragmatism. Consequentialist libertarianism also derives from the analytic tradition.
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Another development of political philosophy was the emergence of the school of analytical Marxism. Members of this school seek to apply techniques of analytic philosophy and modern social science such as rational choice theory to clarify the theories of Karl Marx and his successors. The best-known member of this school is G. A. Cohen, whose 1978 work, Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence, is generally considered to represent the genesis of this school. In that book, Cohen used logical and linguistic analysis to clarify and defend Marx's materialist conception of history.
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Other prominent analytical Marxists include the economist John Roemer, the social scientist Jon Elster, and the sociologist Erik Olin Wright. The work of these later philosophers have furthered Cohen's work by bringing to bear modern social science methods, such as rational choice theory, to supplement Cohen's use of analytic philosophical techniques in the interpretation of Marxian theory. Cohen himself would later engage directly with Rawlsian political philosophy to advance a socialist theory of justice that contrasts with both traditional Marxism and the theories advanced by Rawls and Nozick. In particular, he indicates Marx's principle of from each according to his ability, to each according to his need.
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Communitarians such as Alasdair MacIntyre, Charles Taylor, Michael Walzer, and Michael Sandel advance a critique of liberalism that uses analytic techniques to isolate the main assumptions of liberal individualists, such as Rawls, and then challenges these assumptions. In particular, communitarians challenge the liberal assumption that the individual can be considered as fully autonomous from the community in which he lives and is brought up. Instead, they argue for a conception of the individual that emphasizes the role that the community plays in forming his or her values, thought processes and opinions. Communitarianism has a complex relationship with the analytic tradition, as its major exponents often engage at length with figures generally considered continental, notably G. W. F. Hegel and Friedrich Nietzsche.
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One striking difference with respect to early analytic philosophy was the revival of metaphysical theorizing during the second half of the 20th century. Philosophers such as David Kellogg Lewis and David Armstrong developed elaborate theories on a range of topics such as universals, causation, possibility and necessity, and abstract objects.Among the developments that resulted in the revival of metaphysical theorizing were Quine's attack on the analytic–synthetic distinction, which was generally considered to weaken Carnap's distinction between existence questions internal to a framework and those external to it. Important also for the revival of metaphysics was the further development of modal logic, including the work of Saul Kripke, who argued in Naming and Necessity and elsewhere for the existence of essences and the possibility of necessary, a posteriori truths.Metaphysics remains a fertile topic of research, having recovered from the attacks of A.J. Ayer and the logical positivists.
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Although many discussions are continuations of old ones from previous decades and centuries, the debate remains active. The philosophy of fiction, the problem of empty names, and the debate over existence's status as a property have all become major concerns, while perennial issues such as free will, possible worlds, and the philosophy of time have been revived.Science has also had an increasingly significant role in metaphysics. The theory of special relativity has had a profound effect on the philosophy of time, and quantum physics is routinely discussed in the free will debate. The weight given to scientific evidence is largely due to widespread commitments among philosophers to scientific realism and naturalism.
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Philosophy of language is a topic that has decreased in activity during the last four decades, as evidenced by the fact that few major philosophers today treat it as a primary research topic. Indeed, while the debate remains fierce, it is still strongly influenced by those authors from the first half of the century: Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, J.L. Austin, Alfred Tarski, and W.V.O. Quine.
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In Saul Kripke's publication Naming and Necessity, he argued influentially that flaws in common theories of proper names are indicative of larger misunderstandings of the metaphysics of necessity and possibility. By wedding the techniques of modal logic to a causal theory of reference, Kripke was widely regarded as reviving theories of essence and identity as respectable topics of philosophical discussion. Another influential philosopher, Pavel Tichý initiated Transparent Intensional Logic, an original theory of the logical analysis of natural languages—the theory is devoted to the problem of saying exactly what it is that we learn, know and can communicate when we come to understand what a sentence means.
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Reacting against both the verificationism of the logical positivists as well as the critiques of the philosopher of science Karl Popper, who had suggested the falsifiability criterion on which to judge the demarcation between science and non-science, discussions of philosophy of science during the last 40 years were dominated by social constructivist and cognitive relativist theories of science. Thomas Samuel Kuhn with his formulation of paradigm shifts and Paul Feyerabend with his epistemological anarchism are significant for these discussions. The philosophy of biology has also undergone considerable growth, particularly due to the considerable debate in recent years over the nature of evolution, particularly natural selection. Daniel Dennett and his 1995 book Darwin's Dangerous Idea, which defends Neo-Darwinism, stand at the foreground of this debate.
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Owing largely to Gettier's 1963 paper "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge? ", epistemology resurged as a topic of analytic philosophy during the last 50 years. A large portion of current epistemological research is intended to resolve the problems that Gettier's examples presented to the traditional justified true belief model of knowledge, including developing theories of justification to deal with Gettier's examples, or giving alternatives to the justified true belief model. Other and related topics of contemporary research include debates between internalism and externalism, basic knowledge, the nature of evidence, the value of knowledge, epistemic luck, virtue epistemology, the role of intuitions in justification, and treating knowledge as a primitive concept.
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As a result of what seemed like rejections of the traditional aesthetic notions of beauty and sublimity from post-modern thinkers, analytic philosophers were slow to consider art and aesthetic judgment. Susanne Langer and Nelson Goodman addressed these problems in an analytic style during the 1950s and 1960s. Since Goodman, aesthetics as a discipline for analytic philosophers has flourished. Rigorous efforts to pursue analyses of traditional aesthetic concepts were performed by Guy Sircello in the 1970s and 1980s, resulting in new analytic theories of love, sublimity, and beauty.
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Tal Al-Farani (Arabic: تل الفراني), a place mentioned in the Torah located in Israel, about 3.5 km to the east of the Mediterranean Sea, between Ashdod and Ashkelon, and an area of about 10 hectares, was inhabited and populated during the first three stages of the ancient Bronze Age and only during the third phase of Ancient Bronze Age. Tal Al-Farani is considered one of the archaeological sites in the town of Hamama, where this landmark is an archeological hill where the remains of a population from the Canaanite era until the Byzantine era. The excavations revealed Canaanite fortifications on this hill. The Farani Hill is located in the north-east of Hamama, Al-Abtah to the west directly from the railway line between Lod and Gaza, and this hill is located in the property of the Farani family (Hamamiya).
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The International Council of Onomastic Sciences (ICOS) is an international academic organization of scholars with a special interest in onomastics, the scientific study of names (e.g. place-names, personal names, and proper names of all other kinds). The official languages of ICOS are English, French, and German.
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Members research: the origin and history of names, the personal name-systems used by different cultures, the demographic patterns of names in different societies, the use and significance of names of characters in literature, brand-name creation, many related topics in the naming of persons, places, institutions, works of art, and other miscellaneous objects.They are also involved in practical projects such as the international standardization of geographical names. One of the aims of ICOS, unlike many national societies for name-study, is the advancement, representation and co-ordination of name-research on an international level and in an interdisciplinary context. To achieve this goal, it is committed to the publication of research and the development of research tools. Thus, its members come from diverse disciplines such as linguistics, philology, history, sociology, anthropology, psychology, geography and literary research. This organization replaced the former International Committee of Onomastic Sciences, which was composed exclusively of representatives of member countries and did not welcome individual researchers as this new structure allows.
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ICOS publishes the annual journal Onoma, which is its official publication. Onoma is managed by a General Editor in conjunction with an Editorial Board. It contains topical research reports as well as basic theoretical articles concerning all areas of scholarly name research. ICOS also publishes an irregular newsletter. ISSN 0078-463X.
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ICOS has two active working groups, striving: to create an international bibliography of name-study to help create an internationally agreed technical terminology for name-study
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The International Congress of Onomastic Sciences, which is normally held every three years, is a major academic conference organised on behalf of ICOS by one of its members. The General Assembly of ICOS, which also functions as its business meeting, and at which its officers are elected, is usually held at these congresses. The ordinary business of ICOS is transacted by the elected board of directors. Until the present, the following congresses have been run: Paris, 1938 Paris, 1947 Bruxelles , 1949 Uppsala, 1952 Salamanca, 1955 München , 1958 Firenze , 1961 Amsterdam, 1963 London, 1966 Wien , 1969 Sofia, 1972 Bern, 1975 Kraków, 1978 Ann Arbor, 1981 Leipzig, 1984 Québec, 1987 Helsinki, 1990 Trier, 1993 Aberdeen, 1996 Santiago de Compostela, 1999 Uppsala, 2002 Pisa, 2005 York University, Toronto, 2008 Barcelona, 2011 Glasgow, 2014 Debrecen, 2017 Kraków, 2021 (postponed from 2020 due to the Covid-19 pandemic) Helsinki, 2024The proceedings of each congress are available at the ICOS website.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Council_of_Onomastic_Sciences
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Professor Hendrik Jozef van de Wijer (Leuven), 1950–1968 Professor Henri Draye (Leuven), 1969-1983 Professor Karel Roelandts (Leuven), 1984–1990 Professor Wilhelm F.H. Nicolaisen (New York / Aberdeen), 1990–1996 Professor Robert Rentenaar (Amsterdam), 1996–1999 Professor Isolde Hausner (Vienna), 1999–2002 Dr. Mats Wahlberg (Uppsala), 2002–2005 Professor Maria Giovanna Arcamone (Pisa), 2005–2008 Professor Sheila Embleton (Toronto), 2008–2011 Professor Carole Hough (Glasgow), 2011–2014 Dr. Milan Harvalík (Prague), 2014–2017 Dr. Paula Sjöblom (Turku), 2017–2021 Dr. Katalin Reszegi (Debrecen), 2021–2024
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Council_of_Onomastic_Sciences
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In Australian politics, a leadership spill (or simply spill) is a colloquialism referring to a declaration that the leadership of a parliamentary party is vacant and open for contest. A spill may involve all or some of the leadership positions (leader and deputy leader in both houses). Where a rival to the existing leader calls for a spill it may also be called a leadership challenge. When successful, it is often said that the former leader has been "rolled".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_spill
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In Australian English the colloquial use of the word "spill" seems to have begun in the mid-1940s with the contest to replace Prime Minister John Curtin after his death on 5 July 1945.When a leadership vacancy arises due to the voluntary resignation or death of the incumbent, the resulting leadership ballot may not be popularly called a leadership spill. For example, the 1968 Liberal Party leadership ballot after the disappearance of Harold Holt was not known as a leadership spill, despite the contest involving four candidates. If the party in question is in government, the election of a new leader will result in a new Prime Minister, Premier or Chief Minister; if the party is the opposition, the election of a new leader will result in a new Opposition Leader.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_spill
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There were 72 leadership spills between 1970 and 2015; the phenomenon became increasingly common in the early 21st century. None occurred in the 1960s, 10 in the 1970s, 18 in the 1980s, 13 in the 1990s, and 31 between 2000 and 2015. Spills are three times more likely to occur when a party is in opposition compared to when it holds government. The frequent leadership spills and political instability in the 21st century – which saw five changes of Prime Ministers between 2010 and 2018 – has led to Australia being dubbed "coup capital of the democratic world".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_spill
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In the Westminster system of government, the leader of the party which forms government becomes the prime minister, while the leader of the largest party not in government becomes leader of the Opposition. Contenders for the role of leader of a major party usually (but not always) come from the cabinet or shadow cabinet. A leadership spill occurs when a member or members of the parliamentary party feel that the leader is taking the party in an undesirable direction or is simply not delivering on promises made to those who elected the leader, and does not have the numbers to back his or her position. A spill may be triggered by consistently poor opinion polls.A spill can be initiated by the party leader in office, usually in the hope of gaining a fresh mandate to quell dissenting voices in the party. It may occur at any time, leaving the person in the leadership position always 'on notice'.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_spill
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Following his return to the leadership of the Australian Labor Party in 2013, Prime Minister Kevin Rudd sought changes to the party's rules so that leadership spills would be more difficult to launch in future. The changes included the requirement for 75% support within the Australian Labor Party Caucus for a special leadership ballot against a sitting Labor prime minister, or 60% against an opposition leader. Another change was that future leadership ballots would include equally weighted voting rights between the caucus and party rank and file members with each block being counted separately and worth 50% of the total.The rule that a Labor prime minister can only be removed if 75 per cent of MPs agree to force a ballot (or 60 per cent of caucus for an opposition leader) is a caucus-approved rule and was not included in the 2018 National Platform.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_spill
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Following the oustings of two Liberal Prime Ministers in 3 years, Scott Morrison, who won the leadership spill of 24 August 2018 introduced a new threshold to trigger a Liberal Party leadership change in government, requiring two-thirds of the partyroom vote to trigger a spill motion. The change was introduced at an hour long party room meeting on the evening of 3 December 2018. Morrison said the changes, which were drafted with feedback from former prime ministers John Howard and Tony Abbott, would only apply to leaders who lead the party to victory at a federal election.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_spill
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Historically, a governing party's replacement of its leader fails to improve its electoral fortunes. Across state and federal politics between 1970 and 2014, over 90% of governing parties that replaced their leader lost their majority at the subsequent election. The chances of success are higher when the party is in opposition, leading to success at the subsequent election about 50% of the time.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_spill
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The following spill motions occurred during a parliamentary term, rather than in the aftermath of an election loss. Colours denote the party holding the leadership spill motion. Blue represents the Liberal Party, red the Labor Party, and green the National Party.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_spill
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An episode of the American TV series Madam Secretary, "The Common Defense", featured a fictional Australian Prime Minister and one of the main characters Jay Whitman (Sebastian Arcelus) commented that Australia throws Prime Ministers out like confetti. The episode was originally aired on March 24, 2019, and it is an allusion to the real life frequency of Prime Ministers between 2010 and 2018 as a result of leadership spills against the sitting Prime Minister, which caused there to be five Prime Ministers in just eight years (Julia Gillard, Kevin Rudd, Tony Abbott, Malcolm Turnbull and Scott Morrison).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_spill
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The Home bias in trade puzzle is a widely discussed problem in macroeconomics and international finance, first documented by John T. McCallum in an article from 1995.McCallum showed that for the United States and Canada, inter-province trade is 20 times larger than international trade, holding other determinants of trade fixed. Subsequent estimates by John F. Helliwell and others have whittled this bias down to a factor from 6 to 12. This home bias in trade has later been documented among OECD countries. The preferred explanation for this finding has been the presence of formal and informal trade barriers following national borders.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_bias_in_trade_puzzle
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Another possible solution to the fact that domestic trade is 20 times larger than international trade could be that domestically traders speak the same language. If presence of formal and informal trade barriers following national borders was the sole reason for this puzzle, home bias should not exist on the subnational level. Wolf (2000) finds, however, that home bias is present also within U.S.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_bias_in_trade_puzzle
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states. Maurice Obstfeld and Kenneth Rogoff identify this as one of the six major puzzles in international economics. The others are the Feldstein-Horioka puzzle, the equity home bias puzzle, the consumption correlations puzzle, the purchasing power and exchange rate disconnect puzzle, and the Baxter-Stockman neutrality of exchange rate regime puzzle. == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_bias_in_trade_puzzle
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Yield mapping or yield monitoring is a technique in agriculture of using GPS data to analyze variables such as crop yield and moisture content in a given field. It was developed in the 1990s and uses a combination of GPS technology and physical sensors, such as speedometers, to track crop yields, grain elevator speed, and combine speed. This data produces a yield map that can be used to compare yield distribution within the field from year to year.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yield_mapping
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This allows farmers to determine areas of the field that, for example, may need to be more heavily irrigated or are not yielding any crop at all. It also allows farmers to show the effects of a change in field-management techniques, to develop nutrient strategies for their fields, and as a record of crop yield to use in securing loans or renters. == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yield_mapping
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Cerence Inc. is an American multinational software company that develops artificial intelligence (AI) assistant technology primarily for automobiles.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerence
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Cerence was founded in October of 2019, after Nuance Communications decided to turn its automotive division into an independent company. Nuance had provided voice recognition technology to car manufacturers for twenty years prior to the spin-off, and its technology was built into half of the new cars shipped globally in the first six months of 2019. Cerence's first official trading day on the Nasdaq exchange was October 2, 2019.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerence
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The company assumed control of previously Nuance-held contracts with approximately 60 automakers including BMW, Ford, and Toyota. Since becoming its own entity, Cerence signed new deals to install voice recognition and assistance technology in Fiat Chrysler and Mercedes-Benz vehicles. In January of 2020, LG announced that it would start integrating Cerence’s voice assistant into its in-car infotainment systems.As of August 2021, Cerence’s AI assistant technology had been installed on over 400 million cars worldwide.Cerence received an Automotive News PACE Award in September 2021 for Cerence Pay, a technology that allows drivers to pay for fuel via voice commands.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerence
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Cerence develops automotive AI products, primarily focusing on voice assistant technology. Its voice assistant technology is not device-specific, and is white-labeled for auto manufacturers. The company's products integrate into a car's operating system and allow drivers to use speech for a variety of actions, for example to control their GPS, entertainment system, and climate settings rather than using manual controls. Cerence's technology also incorporates facial recognition and customized responses to individual drivers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerence
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As of 2021, Cerence's speech recognition software recognizes 70 different languages and dialects. The technology can work with other voice assistant and AI devices such as those developed by Apple Inc. and Google. Drivers using the voice technology in their car can make a request and the Cerence software would help route it appropriately to the right system or virtual assistant that can best respond, essentially acting as a "switchboard" to access information from other AI and voice assistants.The company is also developing technology that provides drivers with the ability to control some in-car systems with brief glances or gestures.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerence
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Hygge (, H(Y)OO-gə; Danish: ; Norwegian: ) is a word in Danish and Norwegian that describes a cosy, contented mood evoked by comfort and conviviality. As a cultural category with its sets of associated practices hygge has more or less the same meaning in both places and in both languages; however, the emphasis on hygge as a core part of Danish culture is a recent phenomenon, dating to the late 20th century. In the 21st century, the concept has also been familiarized abroad.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygge
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By convention, the word hygge is thought to originate from a Danish word meaning "to give courage, comfort, joy." Hygge stems from hyggja, which means "to think" in Old Norse. Hygge is derived from the Old Norse hugr, later hug, which means the soul, mind, consciousness.But it is speculated that hygge may derive from a homograph hug, originating in the 1560s word hugge, which means "to embrace." Hugge is of unknown origin but is highly associated with an Old Norse term, hygga, "to comfort," which comes from hugr, meaning "mood."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygge
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In turn, hugr is a cognate of the Old English hycgan, and comes from the Germanic hugyan, meaning, like Old Norse hyggja, "to think, consider. "It first appeared in Danish writing in the 19th century and has since evolved into the cultural idea known in Denmark and Norway today. While hygge has exactly the same meaning in Norwegian as in Danish and is a widely used word in both Norway and Denmark (including in its derived forms, such as hyggelig), the emphasis specifically on "hygge" as an important part of cultural identity is mostly Danish; in Norway "hygge" is just a word, similar in status to "cosy."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygge
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In both Danish and Norwegian, hygge refers to "a form of everyday togetherness", "a pleasant and highly valued everyday experience of safety, equality, personal wholeness and a spontaneous social flow".The noun hygge includes something nice, cozy, safe and known, referring to a psychological state. The Happiness Research Institute in Copenhagen has studied the positive effect of hygge on Danish society.Collins English Dictionary defines the word as "a concept, originating in Denmark, of creating cosy and convivial atmospheres that promote wellbeing".In "Cultural Semantics and Social Cognition: a Case Study on Danish Universe of Meaning", De Gruyter Mouton addresses how translating hygge into English is highly problematic. The difference in translation has led to different interpretations of the word.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygge
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Hygge is a way of life for Danes that embodies a sense of coziness, simplicity, and being present. Researchers Smoyer and Miking define hygge as a "restorative practice" and emphasize Danes' strong commitment to it. Meik Wiking, the author of The Little Book of Hygge, created the Hygge Manifesto, which quantifies hygge into ten ideals: atmosphere, presence, pleasure, equality, gratitude, comfort, togetherness, harmony, truce, and shelter.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygge
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Wiking believes that these ten ideals are key qualities for living a happy life.Many different Danish traditions are influenced by hygge. For instance, in winter months Danes often make home-cooked food, such as cakes or meatballs, from scratch. Additionally, hygge inspires Danish interior design throughout the year.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygge
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Since pie, yuletide, sweaters, hot cocoa and soup are Yuletide traditions, autumn and winter may seem to be the sole seasons of hygge. However, moments of hygge happen throughout the year, including in summer. Examples of hot-weather outdoor activities considered hygge include picnics, barbecues, concerts, street fairs and cycling.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygge
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In Lindsey Robert's article "6 Ways to get that Hygge feeling, even in the Summer Swelter", she suggests giving furniture a second life, adding plants indoors, cleaning one's space, alternating textile, picking statement pieces, and designing outdoor areas.Hygge also influences jails in Denmark. In "Hygge: Food and the Construction of Safety among Incarcerated Women in Denmark", researchers Smoyer and Minke interviewed such women and found that they are permitted to wear their own clothes and attempt to make their cells as simple and cosy as possible. The research concluded that hygge benefited these women.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygge
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The concept of hygge has been adopted in countries outside of Denmark. For instance, in an article called "Home with Hygge", Broyles says that Americans often dream of bigger things, and yet, per the World Happiness Report, rank only eighteenth, while Danes consistently rank in the top three. Some have begun to incorporate the Hygge Manifesto into their lives as a means to simplify. Hygge has likewise affected India through its distinct interior design. Ashok Mohanni, vice president of the National Real Estate Development Council west, says developers in Indian cities are suggesting that architects incorporate hygge's simplistic and cosy style of design into new builds.Sweden has a similar culture concept, Lagom, described as "not too much, not too little", so embodying similar values to Hygge's "less is more" attitude.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygge
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Collins English Dictionary named hygge the runner-up (after Brexit) as word of the year in the UK in 2016. This followed a period during which several books focusing on hygge had been marketed in the UK, such as Meik Wiking's The Little Book of Hygge, Marie Tourell Søderberg's Hygge: The Danish Art of Happiness, and Louisa Thomsen Brits's The Book of Hygge: The Danish Art of Living Well.The concept of hygge gained popularity with an international audience in late 2017, resulting in an increase of online searches and the rise of the hashtag "#Hygge" on Instagram.In Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, there is a Hygge & Happiness walking tour.Act II of the Broadway musical Frozen opens with the song "Hygge", which is all about being comfortable, happy, and together. In the Australian soap opera Neighbours, Jemima Davies-Smythe incorporates hygge into a redesign of her half-brother Karl Kennedy's living room.A UK housing development in the town of Keynsham, Somerset, was named "Hygge Park" by developer Crest Nicholson in 2019.Swedish-owned ferry company Stena Line offers a series of premium relaxation lounges on its Irish Sea ferry services called "Hygge Lounges". In November 2020, The Hygge Suite brand of vacation rentals opened in Giants Ridge, Minnesota; and later two more in Lutsen, Minnesota, aimed at getting people away from the cities to relax and unwind with their loved ones. In September 2022, Hotel Hygge opened in Buellton, California.The second episode of the second series of BBC sitcom Motherland, "Soft Opening", saw Amanda open a concept store called "Hygge Tygge" which, unbeknown to her, means "cosy chewing" in Danish.The Ghost and Molly McGee episode "Ready, Set, Snow" sees Molly trying to get the most out of a snow day while her family and Libby stay inside to experience hygge.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygge
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The Dutch words gezellig and gezelligheid have a similar concept to hygge, also pertaining to comfort and cosiness, but the Dutch words are often more socially oriented. In German Gemütlichkeit means the state of warmth, friendliness and belonging. The Norwegian adjective koselig is used to describe a feeling of warmth, intimacy and getting together in an agreeable environment. The Swedish adjective mysig (and its associated noun mys) describes a pleasant and warm atmosphere of togetherness in a pleasant setting. The Japanese adjective/verb まったり (mattari) suggests a feeling of calm relaxation. In Yiddish, the adjective היימיש (heimish) conveys the sense of "familiar, homey, informal, cozy, warm".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygge
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Mild androgen insensitivity syndrome (MAIS) is a condition that results in a mild impairment of the cell's ability to respond to androgens. The degree of impairment is sufficient to impair spermatogenesis and / or the development of secondary sexual characteristics at puberty in males, but does not affect genital differentiation or development. Female genital and sexual development is not significantly affected by the insensitivity to androgens; as such, MAIS is only diagnosed in males. The clinical phenotype associated with MAIS is a normal male habitus with mild spermatogenic defect and / or reduced secondary terminal hair.MAIS is one of three types of androgen insensitivity syndrome, which is divided into three categories that are differentiated by the degree of genital masculinization: complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS) is indicated when the external genitalia is phenotypically female, mild androgen insensitivity syndrome (MAIS) is indicated when the external genitalia is phenotypically male, and partial androgen insensitivity syndrome (PAIS) is indicated when the external genitalia is partially, but not fully masculinized.Androgen insensitivity syndrome is the largest single entity that leads to 46,XY undermasculinization.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome
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Individuals with mild (or minimal) androgen insensitivity syndrome (grade 1 on the Quigley scale) are born phenotypically male, with fully masculinized genitalia; this category of androgen insensitivity is diagnosed when the degree of androgen insensitivity in an individual with a 46,XY karyotype is great enough to impair virilization or spermatogenesis, but is not great enough to impair normal male genital development. MAIS is the mildest and least known form of androgen insensitivity syndrome.The existence of a variant of androgen insensitivity that solely affected spermatogenesis was theoretical at first. Cases of phenotypically normal males with isolated spermatogenic defect due to AR mutation were first detected as the result of male infertility evaluations. Until then, early evidence in support of the existence of MAIS was limited to cases involving a mild defect in virilization, although some of these early cases made allowances for some degree of impairment of genital masculinization, such as hypospadias or micropenis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome
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It is estimated that 2-3% of infertile men have AR gene mutations. It's also estimated that MAIS is responsible for 40% of male infertility.Examples of MAIS phenotypes include isolated infertility (oligospermia or azoospermia), mild gynecomastia in young adulthood, decreased secondary terminal hair, high pitched voice, or minor hypospadias repair in childhood. The external male genitalia (penis, scrotum, and urethra) are otherwise normal in individuals with MAIS.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome
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Internal genitalia, including Wolffian structures (the epididymides, vasa deferentia, and seminal vesicles) and the prostate, is also normal, although the bitesticular volume of infertile men (both with and without MAIS) is diminished; male infertility is associated with reduced bitesticular volume, varicocele, retractile testes, low ejaculate volume, male accessory gland infections (MAGI), and mumps orchitis. The incidence of these features in infertile men with MAIS is similar to that of infertile men without MAIS. MAIS is not associated with Müllerian remnants.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome
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Spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA), also known as Kennedy's disease, is a severe neurodegenerative syndrome that is associated with a particular mutation of the androgen receptor's polyglutamine tract called a trinucleotide repeat expansion. SBMA results when the length of the polyglutamine tract exceeds 40 repetitions.Although technically a variant of MAIS, SBMA's presentation is not typical of androgen insensitivity; symptoms do not occur until adulthood and include neuromuscular defects as well as signs of androgen inaction. Neuromuscular symptoms include progressive proximal muscle weakness, atrophy, and fasciculations. Symptoms of androgen insensitivity experienced by men with SBMA are also progressive and include testicular atrophy, severe oligospermia or azoospermia, gynecomastia, and feminized skin changes despite elevated androgen levels.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome
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Disease onset, which usually affects the proximal musculature first, occurs in the third to fifth decades of life, and is often preceded by muscular cramps on exertion, tremor of the hands, and elevated muscle creatine kinase. SBMA is often misdiagnosed as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) (also known as Lou Gehrig's disease).The symptoms of SBMA are thought to be brought about by two simultaneous pathways involving the toxic misfolding of proteins and loss of AR functionality. The polyglutamine tract in affected pedigrees tends to increase in length over generations, a phenomenon known as "anticipation", leading to an increase in the severity of the disease as well as a decrease in the age of onset for each subsequent generation of a family affected by SBMA.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome
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All forms of androgen insensitivity are associated with infertility, though exceptions have been reported for both the mild and partial forms. Lifespan is not thought to be affected by AIS.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome
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The androgen receptor gene contains two polymorphic trinucleotide microsatellites in exon 1. The first microsatellite (nearest the 5' end) contains 8 to 60 repetitions of the glutamine codon "CAG" and is thus known as the polyglutamine tract. The second microsatellite contains 4 to 31 repetitions of the glycine codon "GGC" and is known as the polyglycine tract. The average number of repetitions varies by ethnicity, with Caucasians exhibiting an average of 21 CAG repeats, and Blacks 18.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome
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Disease states are associated with extremes in polyglutamine tract length; prostate cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, and intellectual disabilities are associated with too few repetitions, while spinal and bulbar muscular atrophy (SBMA) is associated with a CAG repetition length of 40 or more. Some studies indicate that the length of the polyglutamine tract is inversely correlated with transcriptional activity in the AR protein, and that longer polyglutamine tracts may be associated with infertility and undermasculinized genitalia. However, other studies have indicated that no such correlation exists. A comprehensive meta-analysis of the subject published in 2007 supports the existence of the correlation, and concluded that these discrepancies could be resolved when sample size and study design are taken into account. Longer polyglycine tract lengths have also been associated with genital masculinization defects in some, but not all, studies.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome
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MAIS is only diagnosed in normal phenotypic males, and is not typically investigated except in cases of male infertility. MAIS has a mild presentation that often goes unnoticed and untreated; even with semenological, clinical and laboratory data, it can be difficult to distinguish between men with and without MAIS, and thus a diagnosis of MAIS is not usually made without confirmation of an AR gene mutation. The androgen sensitivity index (ASI), defined as the product of luteinizing hormone (LH) and testosterone (T), is frequently raised in individuals with all forms of AIS, including MAIS, although many individuals with MAIS have an ASI in the normal range. Testosterone levels may be elevated despite normal levels of luteinizing hormone. Conversion of testosterone (T) to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) may be impaired, although to a lesser extent than is seen in 5α-reductase deficiency. A high ASI in a normal phenotypic male, especially when combined with azoospermia or oligospermia, decreased secondary terminal hair, and/or impaired conversion of T to DHT, can be indicative of MAIS, and may warrant genetic testing.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome
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Due to its mild presentation, MAIS often goes unnoticed and untreated. Management of MAIS is currently limited to symptomatic management; methods to correct a malfunctioning androgen receptor protein that result from an AR gene mutation are not currently available. Treatment includes surgical correction of mild gynecomastia, minor hypospadias repair, and testosterone supplementation. Supraphysiological doses of testosterone have been shown to correct diminished secondary sexual characteristics in men with MAIS, as well as to reverse infertility due to low sperm count.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome
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As is the case with PAIS, men with MAIS will experience side effects from androgen therapy (such as the suppression of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis) at a higher dosage than unaffected men. Careful monitoring is required to ensure the safety and efficacy of treatment. Regular breast and prostate examinations may be necessary due to comorbid association with breast and prostate cancers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mild_androgen_insensitivity_syndrome
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Maize miller is the processing of maize (corn) for safe and palatable consumption as food. Processing can be by machine-milling in either large- or small-scale mills, or by hand-milling in domestic or community settings. The maize is first cleaned and then "conditioned", or "tempered", by soaking the kernels in water. This facilitates the separation of the seed coat and pericarp from the endosperm. Further processing consists of separating components of the grain, and grinding it into various grades.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize_milling
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Cleaning and conditioning of the maize is an important step in the process and refers to the removal of foreign material and all that is not maize kernels from the to-be milled grain that lowers the quality of the product such as husk, straw, dust, sand, and everything too big or too small and lighter than a maize kernel. It also refers to the removal of poisonous seeds, and material harmful to the milling equipment such as metal and stones. Conditioning refers to the addition of moisture to the maize to allow the bran to be peeled off in flakes during milling with plate or roller mills, allowing easy separation in a sifter and, most importantly, to add mass to the meal.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize_milling
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