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In 2009, members of the Bernstein Network founded a non-profit association, the Bernstein Association Computational Neuroscience, aiming at promoting science, research, and teaching in Computational Neuroscience and the communication of research contents and results to the public. The Bernstein Network Computational Neuroscience is open to all researchers in the field or related subjects. Individual membership must be supported by two active Bernstein members. Further information.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernstein_Network
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Peter Dayan, Larry F. Abbott: "Theoretical neuroscience: computational and mathematical modeling of neural systems". MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass 2001, ISBN 0-262-04199-5. William Bialek, Fred Rieke, David Warland, Rob de Ruyter van Steveninck: "Spikes: exploring the neural code". MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass 1999, ISBN 0-262-68108-0.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernstein_Network
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David Sterratt, Bruce Graham, Andrew Gillies, David Willshaw: "Principles of Computational Modelling in Neuroscience". Cambridge University Press, 2011, ISBN 978-0521877954 Sonja Grün, Stefan Rotter (eds. ): „Analysis of Parallel Spike Trains“, Springer Series in Computational Neuroscience, 2010.
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ISBN 978-1441956743 Hanspeter A. Mallot: "Computational Neuroscience: A first course", Springer Series in Bio-/Neuroinformatics, 2013. ISBN 978-3319008608 James M. Bower (ed. ): "20 years of Computational Neuroscience", Springer Series in Computational Neuroscience, 2013. ISBN 978-1461414230
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Website of the Bernstein Network Computational Neuroscience Website of the Bernstein Conference German Neuroinformatics Node of the INCF (G-Node) International Neuroinformatics Coordinating Facility (INCF) == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernstein_Network
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Dead on arrival (DOA), also dead in the field and brought in dead (BID), are terms which indicate that a patient was found to be already clinically dead upon the arrival of professional medical assistance, often in the form of first responders such as emergency medical technicians, paramedics, firefighters, or police.In some jurisdictions, first responders must consult verbally with a physician before officially pronouncing a patient deceased, but once cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is initiated, it must be continued until a physician can pronounce the patient dead. Dead on arrival can also mean that a person is said by a doctor to be dead upon their arrival at a hospital, emergency room, clinic, or ward. A person can be pronounced dead on arrival if cardiopulmonary resuscitation or mouth-to-mouth resuscitation is found to be futile.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_on_arrival
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When presented with a patient, medical professionals are required to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) unless specific conditions are met that allow them to pronounce the patient as deceased. In most places, these are examples of such criteria: Injuries not compatible with life. These include but are not necessarily limited to decapitation, catastrophic brain trauma, incineration, severing of the body, or injuries that do not permit effective administration of CPR. If a patient has sustained such injuries, it should be intuitively obvious that the patient is non-viable.
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Rigor mortis, indicating that the patient has been dead for at least a few hours. Rigor mortis can sometimes be difficult to determine, so it is often reported along with other determining factors. Obvious decomposition Livor mortis (lividity), indicating that the body has been pulseless and in the same position long enough for blood to sink and collect within the body, creating purplish discolorations at the lowest points of the body (with respect to gravity) Stillbirth.
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If it can be determined without a doubt that an infant died prior to birth, as indicated by skin blisters, an unusually soft head, and an extremely offensive odor, resuscitation should not be attempted. If there is even the slightest hope that the infant is viable, CPR should be initiated; some jurisdictions maintain that life-saving efforts should be attempted on all infants to assure parents that all possible actions were performed to save their child, futile as the medical professionals may have known them to be. Identification of valid do not resuscitate orders This list may not be a comprehensive picture of medical practice in all jurisdictions or conditions.
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For example, it may not represent the standard of care for patients with terminal diseases such as advanced cancer. In addition, jurisdictions such as Texas permit withdrawal of medical care from patients who are deemed unlikely to recover. Regardless of the patient, a pronouncement of death must always be made with absolute certainty and only after it has been determined that the patient is not a candidate for resuscitation. This type of decision is rather sensitive and can be difficult to make. Legal definitions of death vary from place to place; for example, irreversible brain-stem death, prolonged clinical death, etc.
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When, as with computers, product complexity is high and diagnostics are involved, the medical metaphor is perhaps appropriate, as complex diagnostics might be required to determine if the product "is really dead". In another context, "dead on arrival" may be used to describe an idea or product that is considered to be fundamentally flawed, and therefore viewed as an utter failure from the start. In politics, the term is often used to describe incumbent politicians who are believed to have little or no chance of re-election.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_on_arrival
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The United States' National Science Digital Library (NSDL) is an open-access online digital library and collaborative network of disciplinary and grade-level focused education providers operated by the Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education. NSDL's mission is to provide quality digital learning collections to the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education community, both formal and informal, institutional and individual. NSDL's collections are refined by a network of STEM educational and disciplinary professionals.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Digital_Library
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Their work is based on user data, disciplinary knowledge, and participation in the evolution of digital resources as major elements of effective STEM learning. Resource types available via NSDL include instructional materials, activities, lesson plans, audio/video materials, images, web sites, simulations, visualizations, tools, and services. NSDL also provides annotation collection and paradata (usage data) collections: comments, ratings, or usage information attached to existing resources in the NSDL.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Digital_Library
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Learning Registry: The NSDL is a partner in the national Learning Registry project to facilitate the exchange of resources, metadata about resources, and paradata about their use in learning environments. NSDL is contributing to this multi-agency federal project designed to make learning resources produced by federal funding more accessible. NSDL STEM Exchange: concept for a web service to capture and share social media-generated information and other networked associations about educational resources (tagged, recommended, commented, discussed, clicked, viewed, downloaded, favorited, shared, etc.) Learning Application Readiness - an NSDL initiative that refers to how closely educational resources, collections, and their related metadata are aligned to educational goals, curriculum, or professional development needs of users, and how readily those can be embedded in tools and services that teachers and students use. Repositioning NSDL for the Next Generation of Digital Learning - An NSDL NSF-funded project building on and leveraging the lessons of prior work (NSDL network partners collaborations;; Learning Registry collaboration; ; Common Core Mathematics collection) to bring pilot level projects to scale and to integrate new STEM education services into NSDL. These efforts contribute to NSDL's sustainability through diffusion and adoption of resources into a wider range of instructional settings and teacher peer-to-peer networks.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Digital_Library
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The National Science Digital Library (NSDL) was established in 2000 by the National Science Foundation (NSF) to provide an organized point of access to STEM content aggregated from a variety of other digital libraries, NSF-funded projects, and other national STEM stakeholder providers. Key collaborations with disciplinary communities and audience-focused providers grew out of the NSDL, providing a social and technical infrastructure for collaboration in the delivery and use of digital resources in STEM education . NSDL also provides access to services and tools that enhance the use of this content in a variety of contexts. NSDL is designed primarily for K-16 educators, but anyone can access NSDL.org and search the library at no cost, and without creating a user account, although some content providers require a nominal fee or subscription to retrieve their specific resources.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Digital_Library
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From 2000 – 2011, the National Science Foundation sponsored an NSDL grant-making program in the Division of Undergraduate Education (DUE) of the Education and Human Resources Directorate. The National STEM Distributed Learning (NSDL) program offered grants to support major collection-building efforts, services development, and targeted research that built and extended library services. In February 2011, the NSF ended the NSDL grant-making program in DUE, and did not issue an NSDL program solicitation for FY2011.Originally a collaboration between Cornell University, Columbia University, and the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR), the NSDL became entirely hosted at UCAR, in Boulder, Colorado. In 2014, the NSDL was transferred to the Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Digital_Library
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The size of the brain is a frequent topic of study within the fields of anatomy, biological anthropology, animal science and evolution. Brain size is sometimes measured by weight and sometimes by volume (via MRI scans or by skull volume). Neuroimaging intelligence testing can be used to study the volumetric measurements of the brain.
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Regarding "intelligence testing", a question that has been frequently investigated is the relation of brain size to intelligence. This question is controversial and will be addressed further in the section on intelligence. The measure of brain size and cranial capacity is not just important to humans, but to all mammals.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_size
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In humans, the right cerebral hemisphere is typically larger than the left, whereas the cerebellar hemispheres are typically closer in size. The adult human brain weighs on average about 1.5 kg (3.3 lb). In men the average weight is about 1370 g and in women about 1200 g. The volume is around 1260 cm3 in men and 1130 cm3 in women, although there is substantial individual variation. Yet another study argued that adult human brain weight is 1,300-1,400g for adult humans and 350-400g for newborn humans.
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There is a range of volume and weights, and not just one number that one can definitively rely on, as with body mass. It is also important to note that variation between individuals is not as important as variation within species, as overall the differences are much smaller. The mechanisms of interspecific and intraspecific variation also differ.
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From early primates to hominids and finally to Homo sapiens, the brain is progressively larger, with exception of extinct Neanderthals whose brain size exceeded modern Homo sapiens. The volume of the human brain has increased as humans have evolved (see Homininae), starting from about 600 cm3 in Homo habilis up to 1680 cm3 in Homo neanderthalensis, which was the hominid with the biggest brain size. Some data suggest that the average brain size has decreased since then, including a study concluding the decrease "was surprisingly recent, occurring in the last 3,000 years". However, a reanalysis of the same data suggests that brain size has not decreased, and that the conclusion was made using datasets that are too dissimilar to support quantitative comparison.Proponents of recent changes in brain size draw attention to the gene mutation that causes microcephaly, a neural developmental disorder that affects cerebral cortical volume. Similarly, sociocultural explanations draw attention to externalization of knowledge and group decision-making, partly via the advent of social systems of distributed cognition, social organization, division of labor and sharing of information as possible causes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_size
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Homo floresiensis is a hominin from the island of Flores in Indonesia with fossils dating from 60,000-100,000 years ago. Despite its relatively derived position in the hominin phylogeny, CT imaging of its skull reveals that its brain volume was only 417 cm3, less than that of even Homo habilis, which is believed to have gone extinct far earlier (around 1.65 million years ago.). The reason for this regression in brain size is believed to be island syndrome in which the brains of insular species become smaller due to reduced predation risk. This is beneficial as it reduces the basal metabolic rate without significant increases in predation risk.
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Exceptional cases of hydrocephalus, such as what was reported by John Lorber in 1980 and by a study with rats, suggest that relatively high levels of intelligence and relatively normal functioning are possible even with very small brains. It is unclear what conclusions could be drawn from such reports – such as about brain capacities, redundancies, mechanics and size requirements.
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Efforts to find racial or ethnic variation in brain size are generally considered to be a pseudoscientific endeavor and have traditionally been tied to scientific racism and attempts to demonstrate a racial intellectual hierarchy.The majority of efforts to demonstrate this have relied on indirect data that assessed skull measurements as opposed to direct brain observations. These are considered scientifically discredited.A large-scale 1984 survey of global variation in skulls has concluded that variation in skull and head sizes is unrelated to race, but rather climatic heat preservation, stating "We find little support for the use of brain size in taxonomic assessment (other than with paleontological extremes over time). Racial taxonomies which include cranial capacity, head shape, or any other trait influenced by climate confound ecotypic and phyletic causes. For Pleistocene hominids, we doubt that the volume of the braincase is any more taxonomically 'valuable' than any other trait."
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A human baby's brain at birth averages 369 cm3 and increases, during the first year of life, to about 961 cm3, after which the growth rate declines. Brain volume peaks at the teenage years, and after the age of 40 it begins declining at 5% per decade, speeding up around 70. Average adult male brain weight is 1,345 grams (47.4 oz), while an adult female has an average brain weight of 1,222 grams (43.1 oz).
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(This does not take into account neuron density nor brain-to-body mass ratio; men on average also have larger bodies than women.) Males have been found to have on average greater cerebral, cerebellar and cerebral cortical lobar volumes, except possibly left parietal. The gender differences in size vary by more specific brain regions.
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Studies have tended to indicate that men have a relatively larger amygdala and hypothalamus, while women have a relatively larger caudate and hippocampi. When covaried for intracranial volume, height, and weight, Kelly (2007) indicates women have a higher percentage of gray matter, whereas men have a higher percentage of white matter and cerebrospinal fluid. There is high variability between individuals in these studies, however.However, Yaki (2011) found no statistically significant gender differences in the gray matter ratio for most ages (grouped by decade), except in the 3rd and 6th decades of life in the sample of 758 women and 702 men aged 20–69.
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The average male in their third decade (ages 20–29) had a significantly higher gray matter ratio than the average female of the same age group. In contrast, among subjects in their sixth decade, the average woman had a significantly larger gray matter ratio, though no meaningful difference was found among those in their 7th decade of life. Total cerebral and gray matter volumes peak during the ages from 10–20 years (earlier in girls than boys), whereas white matter and ventricular volumes increase.
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There is a general pattern in neural development of childhood peaks followed by adolescent declines (e.g. synaptic pruning). Consistent with adult findings, average cerebral volume is approximately 10% larger in boys than girls. However, such differences should not be interpreted as imparting any sort of functional advantage or disadvantage; gross structural measures may not reflect functionally relevant factors such as neuronal connectivity and receptor density, and of note is the high variability of brain size even in narrowly defined groups, for example children at the same age may have as much as a 50% differences in total brain volume.
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Young girls have on average relative larger hippocampal volume, whereas the amygdalae are larger in boys. However, multiple studies have found a higher synaptic density in males: a 2008 study reported that men had a significantly higher average synaptic density of 12.9 × 108 per cubic millimeter, whereas in women it was 8.6 × 108 per cubic millimeter, a 33% difference. Other studies have found an average of 4 billion more neurons in the male brain, corroborating this difference, as each neuron has on average 7,000 synaptic connections to other neurons.
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Significant dynamic changes in brain structure take place through adulthood and aging, with substantial variation between individuals. In later decades, men show greater volume loss in whole brain volume and in the frontal lobes, and temporal lobes, whereas in women there is increased volume loss in the hippocampi and parietal lobes. Men show a steeper decline in global gray matter volume, although in both sexes it varies by region with some areas exhibiting little or no age effect. Overall white matter volume does not appear to decline with age, although there is variation between brain regions.
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Adult twin studies have indicated high heritability estimates for overall brain size in adulthood (between 66% and 97%). The effect varies regionally within the brain, however, with high heritabilities of frontal lobe volumes (90-95%), moderate estimates in the hippocampi (40-69%), and environmental factors influencing several medial brain areas. In addition, lateral ventricle volume appears to be mainly explained by environmental factors, suggesting such factors also play a role in the surrounding brain tissue. Genes may cause the association between brain structure and cognitive functions, or the latter may influence the former during life. A number of candidate genes have been identified or suggested, but they await replication.
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Studies demonstrate a correlation between brain size and intelligence, larger brains predicting higher intelligence. It is however not clear if the correlation is causal. The majority of MRI studies report moderate correlations around 0.3 to 0.4 between brain volume and intelligence. The most consistent associations are observed within the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, the hippocampus, and the cerebellum, but only account for a relatively small amount of variance in IQ, which suggests that while brain size may be related to human intelligence, other factors also play a role.
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In addition, brain volumes do not correlate strongly with other and more specific cognitive measures. In men, IQ correlates more with gray matter volume in the frontal lobe and parietal lobe, which is roughly involved in sensory integration and attention, whereas in women it correlates with gray matter volume in the frontal lobe and Broca's area, which is involved in language.Research measuring brain volume, P300 auditory evoked potentials, and intelligence shows a dissociation, such that both brain volume and speed of P300 correlate with measured aspects of intelligence, but not with each other. Evidence conflicts on the question of whether brain size variation also predicts intelligence between siblings, as some studies find moderate correlations and others find none.
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A recent review by Nesbitt, Flynn et al. (2012) points out that crude brain size is unlikely to be a accurate measure of IQ. Brain size is known to differ between men and women, for example (men on average have larger bodies than women), but without well documented differences in IQ.A discovery in recent years is that the structure of the adult human brain changes when a new cognitive or motor skill, including vocabulary, is learned. Structural neuroplasticity (increased gray matter volume) has been demonstrated in adults after three months of training in a visual-motor skill, as the qualitative change (i.e. learning of a new task) appear more critical for the brain to change its structure than continued training of an already-learned task. Such changes (e.g. revising for medical exams) have been shown to last for at least 3 months without further practicing; other examples include learning novel speech sounds, musical ability, navigation skills and learning to read mirror-reflected words.
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The largest brains are those of sperm whales, weighing about 8 kg (18 lb). An elephant's brain weighs just over 5 kg (11 lb), a bottlenose dolphin's 1.5 to 1.7 kg (3.3 to 3.7 lb), whereas a human brain is around 1.3 to 1.5 kg (2.9 to 3.3 lb). Brain size tends to vary according to body size.
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The relationship is not proportional, though: the brain-to-body mass ratio varies. The largest ratio found is in the shrew. Averaging brain weight across all orders of mammals, it follows a power law, with an exponent of about 0.75.
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There are good reasons to expect a power law: for example, the body-size to body-length relationship follows a power law with an exponent of 0.33, and the body-size to surface-area relationship follows a power law with an exponent of 0.67. The explanation for an exponent of 0.75 is not obvious; however, it is worth noting that several physiological variables appear to be related to body size by approximately the same exponent—for example, the basal metabolic rate.This power law formula applies to the "average" brain of mammals taken as a whole, but each family (cats, rodents, primates, etc.) departs from it to some degree, in a way that generally reflects the overall "sophistication" of behavior. Primates, for a given body size, have brains 5 to 10 times as large as the formula predicts.
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Predators tend to have relatively larger brains than the animals they prey on; placental mammals (the great majority) have relatively larger brains than marsupials such as the opossum. A standard measure for assessing an animal's brain size compared to what would be expected from its body size is known as the encephalization quotient. The encephalization quotient for humans is between 7.4-7.8.When the mammalian brain increases in size, not all parts increase at the same rate.
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In particular, the larger the brain of a species, the greater the fraction taken up by the cortex. Thus, in the species with the largest brains, most of their volume is filled with cortex: this applies not only to humans, but also to animals such as dolphins, whales or elephants. The evolution of Homo sapiens over the past two million years has been marked by a steady increase in brain size, but much of it can be accounted for by corresponding increases in body size.
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There are, however, many departures from the trend that are difficult to explain in a systematic way: in particular, the appearance of modern man about 100,000 years ago was marked by a decrease in body size at the same time as an increase in brain size. Even so, it is noteworthy that Neanderthals, which became extinct about 40,000 years ago, had larger brains than modern Homo sapiens.Not all investigators are happy with the amount of attention that has been paid to brain size. Roth and Dicke, for example, have argued that factors other than size are more highly correlated with intelligence, such as the number of cortical neurons and the speed of their connections.
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Moreover, they point out that intelligence depends not just on the amount of brain tissue, but on the details of how it is structured. It is also well known that crows, ravens, and grey parrots are quite intelligent even though they have small brains. While humans have the largest encephalization quotient of extant animals, it is not out of line for a primate. Some other anatomical trends are correlated in the human evolutionary path with brain size: the basicranium becomes more flexed with increasing brain size relative to basicranial length.
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Cranial capacity is a measure of the volume of the interior of the skull of those vertebrates who have a brain. The most commonly used unit of measure is the cubic centimetre (cm3). The volume of the cranium is used as a rough indicator of the size of the brain, and this in turn is used as a rough indicator of the potential intelligence of the organism. Cranial capacity is often tested by filling the cranial cavity with glass beads and measuring their volume, or by CT scan imaging.
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A more accurate way of measuring cranial capacity, is to make an endocranial cast and measure the amount of water the cast displaces. In the past there have been dozens of studies done to estimate cranial capacity on skulls. Most of these studies have been done on dry skull using linear dimensions, packing methods or occasionally radiological methods.Knowledge of the volume of the cranial cavity can be important information for the study of different populations with various differences like geographical, racial, or ethnic origin.
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Other things can also affect cranial capacity such as nutrition. It is also used to study correlating between cranial capacity with other cranial measurements and in comparing skulls from different beings. It is commonly used to study abnormalities of cranial size and shape or aspects of growth and development of the volume of the brain.
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Cranial capacity is an indirect approach to test the size of the brain. A few studies on cranial capacity have been done on living beings through linear dimensions.However, larger cranial capacity is not always indicative of a more intelligent organism, since larger capacities are required for controlling a larger body, or in many cases are an adaptive feature for life in a colder environment. For instance, among modern Homo sapiens, northern populations have a 20% larger visual cortex than those in the southern latitude populations, and this potentially explains the population differences in human brain size (and roughly cranial capacity).
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Neurological functions are determined more by the organization of the brain rather than the volume. Individual variability is also important when considering cranial capacity, for example the average Neanderthal cranial capacity for females was 1300 cm3 and 1600 cm3 for males.
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Neanderthals had larger eyes and bodies relative to their height, thus a disproportionately large area of their brain was dedicated to somatic and visual processing, functions not normally associated with intelligence. When these areas were adjusted to match anatomically modern human proportions it was found Neanderthals had brains 15-22% smaller than in anatomically-modern humans. When the neanderthal version of the NOVA1 gene is inserted into stem cells it creates neurons with fewer synapses than stem cells containing the human version.Parts of a cranium found in China in the 1970s show that the young man had a cranial capacity of around 1700 cm3 at least 160,000 years ago.
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This is greater than the average of modern humans.In an attempt to use cranial capacity as an objective indicator of brain size, the encephalization quotient (EQ) was developed in 1973 by Harry Jerison. It compares the size of the brain of the specimen to the expected brain size of animals with roughly the same weight. This way a more objective judgement can be made on the cranial capacity of an individual animal. A large scientific collection of brain endocasts and measurements of cranial capacity has been compiled by Holloway.Examples of cranial capacity Apes Orangutans: 275–500 cm3 (16.8–30.5 cu in) Chimpanzees: 275–500 cm3 (16.8–30.5 cu in) Gorillas: 340–752 cm3 (20.7–45.9 cu in)Hominids Anatomically-modern human: average 1473 cm3 Neanderthals: 1500-|1740 cm3 Xujiayao 6 (160 to 200 ka ago): ca. 1700 cm3 Homo erectus; 850 – 1100 cm3 Australopithecus anamensis; 365–370 cm3 Australopithecus afarensis; 438 cm3 Australopithecus africanus 452 cm3 Paranthropus boisei 521 cm3 Paranthropus robustus 530 cm3
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The Orient-Institut Beirut (OIB) (Arabic: المعهد الألماني للأبحاث الشرقية) is one of ten German Humanities Institutes Abroad which belong to the Max Weber Foundation. The OIB was established in 1961 by the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft (German Oriental Society) and is part of the Max Weber Foundation since 2003. The OIB supports and promotes independent research on the historical and contemporary Middle East and the Arab world in cooperation with researchers and academic institutions throughout the region.
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The Orient-Institut Beirut was founded in 1961 by the German Oriental Society (Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft), an academic association founded in 1845 to promote the study of the languages and cultures of the “Orient”. It was financed by the German Federal Ministry of Research and Technology, the Fritz Thyssen Foundation, the VolkswagenStiftung and the German Research Association (DFG). In 1963, the institute gained the legal recognition of the Lebanese government and moved to its present premises in the former Villa Maud Farajallah in the quarter of Zokak al-Blat, near the downtown area of Beirut.
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Since 2003 the Orient-Institut Beirut belongs to the Max Weber Foundation – German Humanities Institutes Abroad. After the German staff had to be temporarily evacuated to Istanbul in 1987, the Orient-Institut Istanbul (OI Istanbul) – which had been a branch of the Beirut institute for 20 years – became an independent institution inside the Max Weber Foundation in 2009. The OIB, which conducts and supports research on historical and contemporary issues related to Lebanon and the Arab world, has increased his cooperation with academic partners in Egypt since 2010 and maintained an office in Cairo.
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The OIB is an interdisciplinary research institute. The study of social, religious, and intellectual history, as well as the study of literature, language and politics figures among the various projects undertaken at the institute. It is part of the OIB's mission to support young academic researchers.
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The Orient-Institut Beirut employs research associates and supports PhD students, post-docs, research projects, affiliated researchers, and scholars working on the Middle East. The OIB cooperates with numerous academic institutions and organizes academic events (lectures, seminars, workshops, symposia, international conferences and congresses) on a wide variety of issues related to the MENA region. Local and international partnerships are crucial in designing and funding the institute’s projects. In particular, the OIB is at the forefront of facilitating research collaborations between institutions in the Arab world and institutions in Germany and Europe. It thereby seeks to encourage innovative academic perspectives on the region.
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The library of the OIB is open for public use and offers around 140.000 volumes and 1.700 periodicals. Its collection includes studies on religion, philosophy, and law as well as on literature, history and contemporary themes related to the Middle East. Material is gathered in Western languages, in Arabic and occasionally in Persian and Turkish. All this is supplemented by academic literature from various related disciplines, including political science, social anthropology and sociology. One of the richest resources of the OIB is its collections of periodicals covering politics, religion, and culture as well as several literary magazines published in the Middle East.
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The OIB publishes two series of publications and one online-publication. In the series Bibliotheca Islamica (Arabic: النشرات الإسلامية) manuscripts dating back from the 11th century onwards are edited as books. These critical editions include Arabic, Persian and Turkish texts - on topics ranging from history, prosopography, philosophy, literature and theology to Sufism.
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In the series Beiruter Texte und Studien (Beirut Texts and Studies) academic studies, monographs, and conference proceedings are published in German, English, Arabic and French. In cooperation with the Orient-Institut Istanbul, the OIB publishes the online series Orient-Institut Studies on perspectivia.net. This series is meant to combine regional and trans-regional perspectives in Middle Eastern and Euro-Asian Studies.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-Institut_Beirut
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1961 – 1963 Hans Robert Roemer 1963 – 1968 Fritz Steppat 1968 – 1973 Stefan Wild 1974 – 1978 Peter Bachmann 1979 – 1980 Ulrich Haarmann 1981 – 1984 Gernot Rotter 1984 – 1989 Anton Heinen 1989 – 1994 Erika Glassen 1994 – 1999 Angelika Neuwirth 1999 – 2007 Manfred Kropp 2007 - 2017 Stefan Leder 2017 - 2022 Birgit Schäbler 2022 - Now Thomas Würtz
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient-Institut_Beirut
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In agricultural policy, the intervention price is the price at which national intervention agencies in the EU are obliged to purchase any amount of a commodity offered to them regardless of the level of market prices (assuming that these commodities meet designated specifications and quality standards). Thus, the intervention price serves as a floor for market prices. Intervention purchases have constituted one of the principal policy mechanisms regulating EU markets in sugar, cereal grains, butter and skimmed milk powder, and (until 2002) beef.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intervention_prices
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Spontaneous remission, also called spontaneous healing or spontaneous regression, is an unexpected improvement or cure from a disease that usually progresses. These terms are commonly used for unexpected transient or final improvements in cancer. Spontaneous remissions concern cancers of the haematopoietic system (blood cancer, e.g., leukemia), while spontaneous regressions concern palpable tumors; however, both terms are often used interchangeably.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_remission
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The spontaneous regression and remission from cancer was defined by Everson and Cole in their 1966 book as "the partial or complete disappearance of a malignant tumour in the absence of all treatment, or in the presence of therapy which is considered inadequate to exert significant influence on neoplastic disease."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_remission
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It has long been assumed that spontaneous regressions, let alone cures, from cancer are rare phenomena, and that some forms of cancer are more prone to unexpected courses (melanoma, neuroblastoma, lymphoma) than others (carcinoma). Frequency was estimated to be about 1 in 100,000 cancers; however, this proportion might be an under- or an overestimate. For one, not all cases of spontaneous regression can be apprehended, either because the case was not well documented or the physician was not willing to publish, or simply because the patient ceased to attend a clinic any more. On the other hand, for the past 100 years almost all cancer patients have received some form of treatment, and the influence of that treatment cannot always be excluded. It is likely that the frequency of spontaneous regression in small tumors has been drastically underrated. In a carefully designed study on mammography it was found that 22% of all breast cancer cases underwent spontaneous regression.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_remission
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Everson and Cole offered as explanation for spontaneous regression from cancer:In many of the collected cases it must be acknowledged that the factors or mechanisms responsible for spontaneous regression are obscure or unknown in the light of present knowledge. However, in some of the cases, available knowledge permits one to infer that hormonal influences probably were important. In other cases, the protocols strongly suggest that an immune mechanism was responsible.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_remission
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Challis and Stam, even more at a loss, concluded in 1989, "In summary, we are left to conclude that, although a great number of interesting and unusual cases continue to be published annually, there is still little conclusive data that explains the occurrence of spontaneous regression. "Apoptosis (programmed cell death) and angiogenesis (growth of new blood vessels) are sometimes discussed as possible causes of spontaneous regression. But both mechanisms need appropriate biochemical triggers and cannot initiate on their own.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_remission
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Indeed, in many cancer cells apoptosis is defective, and angiogenesis is activated, both of these effects being caused by mutations in cancer cells; cancer exists because both mechanisms are malfunctioning.There are several case reports of spontaneous regressions from cancer occurring after a fever brought on by infection, suggesting a possible causal connection. If this coincidence in time would be a causal connection, it should as well precipitate as prophylactic effect, i.e. feverish infections should lower the risk to develop cancer later. This could be confirmed by collecting epidemiological studies.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_remission
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Rohdenburg (1918) summarized 185 spontaneous regressions Fauvet reported 202 cases between 1960 and 1964 Boyd reported 98 cases in 1966 Everson and Cole described 176 cases between 1900 and 1960 Challis summarized 489 cases between 1900 and 1987 O'Regan Brendan, Carlyle Hirschberg collected over 3,500 references from the medical literature Hobohm, in a meta-analysis, investigated about 1000 cases Turner, in a qualitative research study, conducted interviews with 20 patients with spontaneous remissions Surviving Against All Odds - re sole survivor in "a gamma interferon study"
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_remission
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A test drive is the driving of a motor vehicle to assess its drivability or roadworthiness, and general operating state. A person who tests vehicles for a living, either for an automobile company, automotive media for review purposes, or a motorsports team, is called a test driver. The first test drives of a new production vehicle are made by mainstream automobile magazines and other third parties (not customers) for initial evaluation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_drive
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Once vehicles are for sale, test drives are also usually allowed by vehicle traders (dealerships) or manufacturers to enable prospective customers to determine the suitability of the vehicle to their driving style. Test drives can also be taken before vehicle repairs to assist in diagnosis or after repair works to ensure that the vehicle has been fully restored. In a broader sense, "test drive" can be used to refer to the testing of anything, such as a computer program, an idea or process, a pair of shoes, etc.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test_drive
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Some Marxists posit what they deem to be Karl Marx's theory of human nature, which they accord an important place in his critique of capitalism, his conception of communism, and his materialist conception of history. Marx does not refer to human nature as such, but to Gattungswesen, which is generally translated as "species-being" or "species-essence". According to a note from Marx in the Manuscripts of 1844, the term is derived from Ludwig Feuerbach's philosophy, in which it refers both to the nature of each human and of humanity as a whole.In the sixth Theses on Feuerbach (1845), Marx criticizes the traditional conception of human nature as a species which incarnates itself in each individual, instead arguing that human nature is formed by the totality of social relations. Thus, the whole of human nature is not understood, as in classical idealist philosophy, as permanent and universal: the species-being is always determined in a specific social and historical formation, with some aspects being biological.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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The sixth of the Theses on Feuerbach, written in 1845, provided an early discussion by Marx of the concept of human nature. It states: Feuerbach resolves the essence of religion into the essence of man . But the essence of man is no abstraction inherent in each single individual. In reality, it is the ensemble of the social relations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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Feuerbach, who does not enter upon a criticism of this real essence is hence obliged: 1. To abstract from the historical process and to define the religious sentiment regarded by itself, and to presuppose an abstract — isolated - human individual.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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2. The essence therefore can by him only be regarded as 'species', as an inner 'dumb' generality which unites many individuals only in a natural way. Thus, Marx appears to say that human nature is no more than what is made by the "social relations".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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Norman Geras's Marx and Human Nature (1983), however, offers an argument against this position. In outline, Geras shows that, while the social relations are held to "determine" the nature of people, they are not the only such determinant. However, Marx makes statements where he specifically refers to a human nature which is more than what is conditioned by the circumstances of one's life.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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In Capital, in a footnote critiquing utilitarianism, he says that utilitarians must reckon with "human nature in general, and then with human nature as modified in each historical epoch". Marx is arguing against an abstract conception of human nature, offering instead an account rooted in sensuous life. While he is quite explicit that "s individuals express their life, so they are.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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Hence what individuals are depends on the material conditions of their production", he also believes that human nature will condition (against the background of the productive forces and relations of production) the way in which individuals express their life. History involves "a continuous transformation of human nature", though this does not mean that every aspect of human nature is wholly variable; what is transformed need not be wholly transformed. Marx did criticise the tendency to "transform into eternal laws of nature and of reason, the social forms springing from your present mode of production and form of property".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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For this reason, he would likely have wanted to criticise certain aspects of some accounts of human nature. Some people believe, for example, that humans are naturally selfish – Immanuel Kant and Thomas Hobbes, for example. (Both Hobbes and Kant thought that it was necessary to constrain our human nature in order to achieve a good society – Kant thought we should use rationality, Hobbes thought we should use the force of the state – Marx, as we shall see, thought that the good society was one which allows our human nature its full expression.)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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Most Marxists will argue that this view is an ideological illusion and the effect of commodity fetishism: the fact that people act selfishly is held to be a product of scarcity and capitalism, not an immutable human characteristic. For confirmation of this view, we can see how, in The Holy Family Marx argues that capitalists are not motivated by any essential viciousness, but by the drive toward the bare "semblance of a human existence". (Marx says "semblance" because he believes that capitalists are as alienated from their human nature under capitalism as the proletariat, even though their basic needs are better met.)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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In the 1844 Manuscripts the young Marx wrote: Man is directly a natural being. As a natural being and as a living natural being he is on the one hand endowed with natural powers, vital powers – he is an active natural being. These forces exist in him as tendencies and abilities – as instincts. On the other hand, as a natural, corporeal, sensuous objective being he is a suffering, conditioned and limited creature, like animals and plants.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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That is to say, the objects of his instincts exist outside him, as objects independent of him; yet these objects are objects that he needs – essential objects, indispensable to the manifestation and confirmation of his essential powers. In the Grundrisse Marx says his nature is a "totality of needs and drives". In The German Ideology he uses the formulation: "their needs, consequently their nature".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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We can see then, that from Marx's early writing to his later work, he conceives of human nature as composed of "tendencies", "drives", "essential powers", and "instincts" to act in order to satisfy "needs" for external objectives. For Marx then, an explanation of human nature is an explanation of the needs of humans, together with the assertion that they will act to fulfill those needs. (c.f.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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The German Ideology, chapter 3). Norman Geras gives a schedule of some of the needs which Marx says are characteristic of humans: ...for other human beings, for sexual relations, for food, water, clothing, shelter, rest and, more generally, for circumstances that are conducive to health rather than disease. There is another one ... the need of people for a breadth and diversity of pursuit and hence of personal development, as Marx himself expresses these, 'all-round activity', 'all-round development of individuals', 'free development of individuals', 'the means of cultivating gifts in all directions', and so on. Marx says "It is true that eating, drinking, and procreating, etc., are ... genuine human functions. However, when abstracted from other aspects of human activity, and turned into final and exclusive ends, they are animal."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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In several passages throughout his work, Marx shows how he believes humans to be essentially different from other animals. "Men can be distinguished from animals by consciousness, by religion or anything else you like. They themselves begin to distinguish themselves from animals as soon as they begin to produce their means of subsistence, a step which is conditioned by their physical organisation."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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In this passage from The German Ideology, Marx alludes to one difference: that humans produce their physical environments. But do not a few other animals also produce aspects of their environment as well? The previous year, Marx had already acknowledged: It is true that animals also produce.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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They build nests and dwellings, like the bee, the beaver, the ant, etc. But they produce only their own immediate needs or those of their young; they produce only when immediate physical need compels them to do so, while man produces even when he is free from physical need and truly produces only in freedom from such need; they produce only themselves, while man reproduces the whole of nature; their products belong immediately to their physical bodies, while man freely confronts his own product. Animals produce only according to the standards and needs of the species to which they belong, while man is capable of producing according to the standards of every species and of applying to each object its inherent standard; hence, man also produces in accordance with the laws of beauty.In the same work, Marx writes: The animal is immediately one with its life activity. It is not distinct from that activity; it is that activity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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Man makes his life activity itself an object of his will and consciousness. He has conscious life activity. It is not a determination with which he directly merges.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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Conscious life activity directly distinguishes man from animal life activity. Only because of that is he a species-being. Or, rather, he is a conscious being – i.e., his own life is an object for him, only because he is a species-being.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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Only because of that is his activity free activity. Estranged labour reverses the relationship so that man, just because he is a conscious being, makes his life activity, his essential being, a mere means for his existence.Also in the segment on estranged labour: Man is a species-being, not only because he practically and theoretically makes the species – both his own and those of other things – his object, but also – and this is simply another way of saying the same thing – because he looks upon himself as the present, living species, because he looks upon himself as a universal and therefore free being.More than twenty years later, in Capital, he came to muse on a similar subject: A spider conducts operations that resemble those of a weaver, and a bee puts to shame many an architect in the construction of her cells. But what distinguishes the worst architect from the best of bees is this, that the architect raises his structure in imagination before he erects it in reality.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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At the end of every labour-process, we get a result that already existed in the imagination of the labourer at its commencement. He not only effects a change of form in the material on which he works, but he also realises a purpose of his own that gives the law to his modus operandi, and to which he must subordinate his will.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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And this subordination is no mere momentary act.From these passages we can observe something of Marx's beliefs about humans. That they characteristically produce their environments, and that they would do so, even were they not under the burden of "physical need" – indeed, they will produce the "whole of nature", and may even create "in accordance with the laws of beauty". Perhaps most importantly, though, their creativity, their production is purposive and planned.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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Humans, then, make plans for their future activity, and attempt to exercise their production (even lives) according to them. Perhaps most importantly, and most cryptically, Marx says that humans make both their "life activity" and "species" the "object" of their will. They relate to their life activity, and are not simply identical with it. Michel Foucault's definition of biopolitics as the moment when "man begins to take itself as a conscious object of elaboration" may be compared to Marx's definition hereby exposed.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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To say that A is the object of some subject B, means that B (specified as an agent) acts upon A in some respect. Thus if "the proletariat smashes the state" then "the state" is the object of the proletariat (the subject), in respect of smashing. It is similar to saying that A is the objective of B, though A could be a whole sphere of concern and not a closely defined aim. In this context, what does it mean to say that humans make their "species" and their "lives" their "object"?
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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It's worth noting that Marx's use of the word object can imply that these are things which humans produces, or makes, just as they might produce a material object. If this inference is correct, then those things that Marx says about human production above, also apply to the production of human life, by humans. And simultaneously, "As individuals express their life, so they are.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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What they are, therefore, coincides with their production, both with what they produce and with how they produce. The nature of individuals thus depends on the material conditions determining their production.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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"To make one's life one's object is therefore to treat one's life as something that is under one's control. To raise in imagination plans for one's future and present, and to have a stake in being able to fulfill those plans. To be able to live a life of this character is to achieve "self-activity" (actualisation), which Marx believes will only become possible after communism has replaced capitalism.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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"Only at this stage does self-activity coincide with material life, which corresponds to the development of individuals into complete individuals and the casting-off of all natural limitations. The transformation of labour into self-activity corresponds to the transformation of the earlier limited intercourse into the intercourse of individuals as such".What is involved in making one's species one's object is more complicated. In one sense, it emphasises the essentially social character of humans, and their need to live in a community of the species. In others, it seems to emphasise that we attempt to make our lives expressions of our species-essence; further that we have goals concerning what becomes of the species in general. The idea covers much of the same territory as "making one's life one's object": it concerns self-consciousness, purposive activity, and so forth.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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It is often said that Marx conceived of humans as homo faber, referring to Benjamin Franklin's definition of "man as the tool-making animal" – that is, as "man, the maker", though he never used the term himself. It is generally held that Marx's view was that productive activity is an essential human activity, and can be rewarding when pursued freely. Marx's use of the words work and labour in the section above may be unequivocally negative; but this was not always the case, and is most strongly found in his early writing.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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However, Marx was always clear that under capitalism, labour was something inhuman, and dehumanising. "labour is external to the worker – i.e., does not belong to his essential being; that he, therefore, does not confirm himself in his work, but denies himself, feels miserable and not happy, does not develop free mental and physical energy, but mortifies his flesh and ruins his mind". While under communism, "In the individual expression of my life I would have directly created your expression of your life, and therefore in my individual activity I would have directly confirmed and realised my true nature, my human nature, my communal nature".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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There are multiple examples of racism in Marx works, with adverse references to people of colour including those of Black African heritage, Indians, Slavs and Jews. For example;: "The Jewish n(word) Lassalle who, I'm glad to say, is leaving at the end of this week, has happily lost another 5,000 talers in an ill-judged speculation. The chap would sooner throw money down the drain than lend it to a 'friend,' even though his interest and capital were guaranteed. ... It is now quite plain to me—as the shape of his head and the way his hair grows also testify—that he is descended from the negroes who accompanied Moses' flight from Egypt (unless his mother or paternal grandmother interbred with a n(word)).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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Now, this blend of Jewishness and Germanness, on the one hand, and basic negroid stock, on the other, must inevitably give rise to a peculiar product. The fellow's importunity is also n(word)-like."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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Karl Marx, "Marx to Friedrich Engels in Manchester", 1862 Tremaux "proved that the common Negro type is the degenerate form of a much higher one ... a very significant advance over Darwin." Karl Marx, letter to Friedrich Engels, August 7, 1866 "Take Amsterdam, for instance, a city harboring many of the worst descendants of the Jews whom Ferdinand and Isabella drove out of Spain and who, after lingering a while in Portugal, were driven out of there too and eventually found a place of retreat in Holland. ... Here and there and everywhere that a little capital courts investment, there is ever one of these little Jews ready to make a little suggestion or place a little bit of a loan.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx's_theory_of_human_nature
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