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The smartest highwayman in the Abruzzi is not better posted about the locale of the hard cash in a traveler's valise or pocket than these little Jews about any loose capital in the hands of a trader ... These small Jewish agents draw their supplies from the big Jewish houses ... and practice great ostensible devotion to the religion of their race." Karl Marx, "The Russian Loan", 1856 "What is the worldly religion of the Jew?
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Huckstering. What is his worldly God? Money.
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... Money is the jealous god of Israel, in face of which no other god may exist. Money degrades all the gods of man—and turns them into commodities. ... The bill of exchange is the real god of the Jew.
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His god is only an illusory bill of exchange. ... The chimerical nationality of the Jew is the nationality of the merchant, of the man of money in general." Karl Marx, "On the Jewish Question", 1844 "This splendid territory has the misfortune to be inhabited by a conglomerate of different races and nationalities, of which it is hard to say which is the least fit for progress and civilization.
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Slavonians, Greeks, Wallachians, Arnauts, twelve millions of men, are all held in submission by one million of Turks, and up to a recent period, it appeared doubtful whether, of all these different races, the Turks were not the most competent to hold the supremacy which, in such a mixed population, could not but accrue to one of these nationalities." Karl Marx, "The Russian Menace to Europe", 1853 "Thus we find every tyrant backed by a Jew, as is every Pope by a Jesuit. In truth, the cravings of oppressors would be hopeless, and the practicability of war out of the question, if there were not an army of Jesuits to smother thought and a handful of Jews to ransack pockets.
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... The fact that 1,855 years ago Christ drove the Jewish money-changers out of the temple, and that the money-changers of our age, enlisted on the side of tyranny, happen again to be Jews is perhaps no more than a historic coincidence." Karl Marx, "The Russian Loan", 1856 "The expulsion of a Leper people from Egypt, at the head of whom was an Egyptian priest named Moses. Lazarus, the leper, is also the basic type of the Jew."
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Karl Marx, letter to Friedrich Engels, May 10, 1861 "Abraham, Isaac and Jacob were fantasy-mongers, that the Israelites were idolators ... that the tribe of Simeon (exiled under Saul) had moved to Mecca where they built a heathenish temple and worshipped stones." Karl Marx, letter to Engels, June 16, 1864 "Indian society has no history at all, at least no known history. What we shall call its history is but the history of the successive invaders who founded their empires on the passive basis of that unresisting and unchanging society." Karl Marx, New York Daily Tribune, August 8, 1853 "Russia is a name usurped by the Muscovites. They are not Slavs, do not belong at all to the Indo-German race, but are des intrus , who must again be hurled back beyond the Dnieper, etc." Karl Marx, letter to Friedrich Engels, June 24, 1865
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Marx's theory of history attempts to describe the way in which humans change their environments and (in dialectical relation) their environments change them as well. That is: Not only do the objective conditions change in the act of reproduction, e.g. the village becomes a town, the wilderness a cleared field etc., but the producers change, too, in that they bring out new qualities in themselves, develop themselves in production, transform themselves, develop new powers and ideas, new modes of intercourse, new needs and new language. Further Marx sets out his "materialist conception of history" in opposition to "idealist" conceptions of history; that of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, for instance. "The first premise of all human history is, of course, the existence of living human individuals.
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Thus the first fact to be established is the physical organisation of these individuals and their consequent relation to the rest of nature." Thus:History does nothing, it "possesses no immense wealth", it "wages no battles".
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It is man, real, living man who does all that, who possesses and fights; "history" is not, as it were, a person apart, using man as a means to achieve its own aims; history is nothing but the activity of man pursuing his aims.So we can see that, even before we begin to consider the precise character of human nature, "real, living" humans, "the activity of man pursuing his aims" is the very building block of Marx's theory of history. Humans act upon the world, changing it and themselves; and in doing so they "make history". However, even beyond this, human nature plays two key roles. In the first place, it is part of the explanation for the growth of the productive forces, which Marx conceives of as the driving force of history. Secondly, the particular needs and drives of humans explain the class antagonism which is generated under capitalism.
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It has been held by several writers that it is Marx's conception of human nature which explains the "development thesis" concerning the expansion of the productive forces, which according to Marx, is itself the fundamental driving force of history. If true, this would make his account of human nature perhaps the most fundamental aspect of his work. Norman Geras wrote (italics in original): "historical materialism itself, this whole distinctive approach to society that originates with Marx, rests squarely upon the idea of a human nature."
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It highlights that specific nexus of universal needs and capacities which explains the human productive process and man's organized transformation of the material environment; which process and transformation it treats in turn as the basis both of the social order and of historical change. G.A. Cohen wrote: "The tendency's autonomy is just its independence of social structure, its rootedness in fundamental material facts of human nature and the human situation."
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Allen Wood wrote: "Historical progress consists fundamentally in the growth of people's abilities to shape and control the world about them. This is the most basic way in which they develop and express their human essence. "In his article "Reconsidering Historical Materialism", however, Cohen gives an argument to the effect that human nature cannot be the premise on which the plausibility of the expansion of the productive forces is grounded: Production in the historical anthropology is not identical with production in the theory of history.
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According to the anthropology, people flourish in the cultivation and exercise of their manifold powers, and are especially productive - which in this instance means creative - in the condition of freedom conferred by material plenty. But, in the production of interest to the theory of history, people produce not freely but because they have to, since nature does not otherwise supply their wants; and the development in history of the productive power of man (that is, of man as such, of man as a species) occurs at the expense of the creative capacity of the men who are agents and victims of that development.The implication of this is that hence "one might ... imagine two kinds of creature, one whose essence it was to create and the other not, undergoing similarly toilsome histories because of similarly adverse circumstances. In one case, but not the other, the toil would be a self-alienating exercise of essential powers".
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Hence, "historical materialism and Marxist philosophical anthropology are independent of, though also consistent with, each other". The problem is this: it seems as though the motivation most people have for the work they do isn't the exercise of their creative capacity; on the contrary, labour is alienated by definition in the capitalist system based on salary, and people only do it because they have to. They go to work not to express their human nature but to find theirs means of subsistence.
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So in that case, why do the productive forces grow – does human nature have anything to do with it? The answer to this question is a difficult one, and a closer consideration of the arguments in the literature is necessary for a full answer than can be given in this article. However, it is worth bearing in mind that Cohen had previously been committed to the strict view that human nature (and other "asocial premises") were sufficient for the development of the productive forces – it could be that they are only one necessary constituent.
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It is also worth considering that by 1988, Cohen appears to have considered that the problem was resolved.Some needs are far more important than others. In The German Ideology Marx writes that "life involves before everything else eating and drinking, a habitation, clothing and many other things". All those other aspects of human nature which he discusses (such as "self-activity") are therefore subordinate to the priority given to these. Marx makes explicit his view that humans develop new needs to replace old: "the satisfaction of the first need (the action of satisfying, and the instrument of satisfaction which has been acquired) leads to new needs".
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Geras said of Marx's work that: "Whatever else it is, theory and socio-historical explanation, and scientific as it may be, that work is a moral indictment resting on the conception of essential human needs, an ethical standpoint, in other words, in which a view of human nature is involved."
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Alienation, for Marx, is the estrangement of humans from aspects of their human nature. Since – as we have seen – human nature consists in a particular set of vital drives and tendencies, whose exercise constitutes flourishing, alienation is a condition wherein these drives and tendencies are stunted. For essential powers, alienation substitutes disempowerment; for making one's own life one's object, one's life becoming an object of capital. Marx believes that alienation will be a feature of all society before communism.
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One important criticism of Marx's "philosophical anthropology" (i.e. his conception of humans) is offered by Gerald Cohen, the leader of Analytical Marxism, in "Reconsidering Historical Materialism" (in Callinicos, ed., 1989). Cohen claims: "Marxist philosophical anthropology is one sided. Its conception of human nature and human good overlooks the need for self-identity than which nothing is more essentially human." (p.
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173, see especially sections 6 and 7). The consequence of this is held to be that "Marx and his followers have underestimated the importance of phenomena, such as religion and nationalism, which satisfy the need for self-identity. (Section 8.)".
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Cohen describes what he sees as the origins of Marx's alleged neglect: "In his anti-Hegelian, Feuerbachian affirmation of the radical objectivity of matter, Marx focused on the relationship of the subject to an object which is in no way subject, and, as time went on, he came to neglect the subject's relationship to itself, and that aspect of the subject's relationship to others which is a mediated (that is, indirect), form of relationship to itself. "Cohen believes that people are driven, typically, not to create identity, but to preserve that which they have in virtue, for example, of "nationality, or race, or religion, or some slice or amalgam thereof". Cohen does not claim that "Marx denied that there is a need for self-definition, but he failed to give the truth due emphasis." Nor does Cohen say that the sort of self-understanding that can be found through religion etc. is accurate. Of nationalism, he says "identifications take benign, harmless, and catastrophically malignant forms" and does not believe "that the state is a good medium for the embodiment of nationality".
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All the quotations from Marx in this article have used the translation employed by the Marxists Internet Archive. This means that you can follow the external reference links, and then search on that page using your browser's search function for some part of the text of the quotation in order to ascertain its context.
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The two texts in which Marx most directly discusses human nature are the Comments on James Mill and the piece on Estranged Labour in the Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 (published in 1932). Both of these pieces date from 1844, and as such were written by the young Marx; some analysts (Louis Althusser, etc.) assert that work from this period differs markedly in its ideas from the later work.
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In certain aspects, the views of many earlier writers on this topic are generally believed to have been superseded. Nevertheless, here is a selection of the best writing prior to 1978. Much of it addresses human nature through the strongly related concept of alienation: Erich Fromm, Marx's Concept of Man.
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With a Translation of Marx's Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts by T. B. Bottomore, (1961). Eugene Kamenka, The Ethical Foundations of Marxism (1962). The entire book can be read online.
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István Mészáros, Marx's Theory of Alienation (1970). Sections can be read online. Bertell Ollman, Alienation: Marx's Conception of Man in Capitalist Society (1971). Many chapters, including some directly relevant to human nature, can be read online. John Plamenatz, Karl Marx's Philosophy of Man, (1975).
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Marx and Human Nature: Refutation of a Legend by Norman Geras (1983) is a concise argument against the view that Marx did not believe there was something such as human nature, in particular the confusion surrounding the sixth of the Theses on Feuerbach. Wood, Allen (2004) . Karl Marx (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
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doi:10.4324/9780203543375. ISBN 9780415316989. OCLC 52937727.
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Part I provides a highly readable survey of the evidence concerning what Marx thought of human nature and his concept of alienation. See especially chapter 2. The preface to the second edition (2004) of Wood's book can be read online.
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The first edition was published in 1983. Marx and the Missing Link: Human Nature by W. Peter Archibald (1989). Marxism and Human Nature by Sean Sayers (1998).
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The young Karl Marx: German philosophy, Modern politics, and human flourishing by David Leopold (2007) See Chapter 4 for close reading of Marx's 1843 texts, relating human nature to human emancipation. Fellow Creatures: Our Obligations to the Other Animals by Christine M. Korsgaard (Oxford U. Press 2018) ISBN 978-0-19-875385-8, pp. 48–50, 67, 196.
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Pages 150–160 (i.e. chapter 6, section 4) of G.A. Cohen's seminal Karl Marx's Theory of History (KMTH) (1978) contain an account of the relation of human nature to historical materialism. Cohen argues that the former is necessary to explain the development of the productive forces, which Marx holds to drive history. This basic view is endorsed by Geras (1983) and (Wood 2004).
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The view, however, was criticised by Erik Olin Wright and Andrew Levine in an article entitled Rationality and Class Struggle, first published in the New Left Review. It can be found as chapter 1 of Marxist Theory (ed.
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Alex Callinicos, 1989). It was also criticised by Joshua Cohen, in a review of KMTH in the Journal of Philosophy.
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G.A. Cohen draws out some difficulties with his own presentation in KMTH in the article "Reconsidering Historical Materialism". (First published 1983 in Marxism: NOMOS XXVI, ed.
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Chapman and Pennock; now available in Marxist Theory ed. Alex Callinicos, 1989; and in History, Labour, and Freedom, G.A. Cohen, 1988).
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The article's contentions (for a five-point summary, see Callinicos pp. 173–4) concern the connection of Marx's historical materialism to his "philosophical anthropology" – basically, his conception of human nature. Chapter 5 of G.A.
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Cohen's History, Labour and Freedom (1988) is entitled Human Nature and Social Change in the Marxist Conception of History and is co-authored by Cohen and Will Kymlicka. (First published 1988 in the Journal of Philosophy.) The purpose of the chapter is to defend Cohen's contention in his KMTH that there is an autonomous tendency of the productive forces to develop, where "autonomous" means "independent of particular social relations".
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The text is a response to the criticisms of J. Cohen, Levine and Wright. That is, G.A. Cohen and Kymlicka seek to show that there are no grounds for an a priori denial' of the claim that "extra-social features of human nature and the human situation operate powerfully enough to generate an historical tendency capable of overcoming recaltricant social structures" (p.
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106). There may be thought to be a tension between the claims of this article and those of "Reconsidering Historical Materialism". == Footnotes ==
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Pauline Oliveros (May 30, 1932 – November 24, 2016) was an American composer, accordionist and a central figure in the development of post-war experimental and electronic music. She was a founding member of the San Francisco Tape Music Center in the 1960s, and served as its director. She taught music at Mills College, the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), Oberlin Conservatory of Music, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Oliveros authored books, formulated new music theories, and investigated new ways to focus attention on music including her concepts of "deep listening" and "sonic awareness", drawing on metaphors from cybernetics. She was an Eyebeam resident.
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Oliveros was born in Houston, Texas. She started to play music as early as kindergarten, and at nine years of age she began to play the accordion, received from her mother, a pianist, because of its popularity in the 1940s. She later went on to learn violin, piano, tuba and French horn for grade school and college music. At the age of sixteen she resolved to become a composer.Oliveros arrived in California and supported herself with a day job, and supplemented this by giving accordion lessons.
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From there Oliveros went on to attend Moores School of Music at the University of Houston, studying with Willard A. Palmer, and earned a BFA degree in composition from San Francisco State College, where her teachers included composer Robert Erickson, with whom she had private lessons and who mentored her for six to seven years. This is also where she met artists Terry Riley, Stuart Dempster and Loren Rush.When Oliveros turned 21, she obtained her first tape recording deck, which led to her creating her own pieces and future projects in this field. Oliveros was one of the original members of the San Francisco Tape Music Center, which was an important resource for electronic music on the U.S.
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West Coast during the 1960s. The Center later moved to Mills College, with Oliveros serving as its first director; it was renamed the Center for Contemporary Music.Oliveros often improvised with the Expanded Instrument System, an electronic signal processing system she designed, in her performances and recordings. Oliveros held Honorary Doctorates in Music from the University of Maryland (Baltimore County), Mills College (Oakland, California), and De Montfort University (Leicester, England, UK).
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In 1967, Oliveros left Mills to take a faculty music department position at the University of California, San Diego. There, Oliveros met theoretical physicist and karate master Lester Ingber, with whom she collaborated in defining the attentional process as applied to music listening. She also studied karate under Ingber, achieving black belt level. In 1973, Oliveros conducted studies at the university's one-year-old Center for Music Experiment; she served as the center's director from 1976 to 1979. In 1981, to escape creative constriction, she left her tenured position as full Professor of Music at University of California, San Diego and relocated to upstate New York to become an independent composer, performer, and consultant.
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In 1988, as a result of descending 14 feet into the Dan Harpole underground cistern in Port Townsend, Washington, to make a recording, Oliveros coined the term "deep listening"—a pun that has blossomed into "an aesthetic based upon principles of improvisation, electronic music, ritual, teaching and meditation. This aesthetic is designed to inspire both trained and untrained performers to practice the art of listening and responding to environmental conditions in solo and ensemble situations". Dempster, Oliveros and Panaiotis then formed the Deep Listening Band, and deep listening became a program of the Pauline Oliveros Foundation, founded in 1985. The Deep Listening program includes annual listening retreats in Europe, New Mexico and in upstate New York, as well as apprenticeship and certification programs.
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The Pauline Oliveros Foundation changed its name to Deep Listening Institute, Ltd., in 2005. The Deep Listening Band, which included Oliveros, David Gamper (1947–2011) and Stuart Dempster, specializes in performing and recording in resonant or reverberant spaces such as caves, cathedrals and huge underground cisterns.
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They have collaborated with Ellen Fullman and her long-string instrument, as well as countless other musicians, dancers and performers. The Center for Deep Listening at Rensselaer (CDL@RPI), initially under the direction of Tomie Hahn, is now established and is the steward of the former Deep Listening Institute. A celebratory concert was held on March 11, 2015, at the Experimental Media and Performing Arts Center (EMPAC) at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York. Stephanie Loveless is the current director of the CDL@RPI.
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Heidi Von Gunden names a new musical theory developed by Oliveros, "sonic awareness", and describes it as "the ability to consciously focus attention upon environmental and musical sound", requiring "continual alertness and an inclination to be always listening" and which she describes as comparable to John Berger's concept of visual consciousness (as in his Ways of Seeing). Oliveros discusses this theory in the "Introductions" to her Sonic Meditations and in articles. Von Gunden describes sonic awareness as "a synthesis of the psychology of consciousness, the physiology of the martial arts, and the sociology of the feminist movement", and describes two ways of processing information, "attention and awareness", or focal attention and global attention, which may be represented by a dot and circle, respectively, a symbol Oliveros commonly employs in compositions such as Rose Moon (1977) and El Rilicario de los Animales (1979).
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(The titles of Oliveros' pieces Rose Moon and Rose Mountain refer to her romantic partner Linda Montano having gone by Rose Mountain at one time.) Later this representation was expanded, with the symbol quartered and the quarters representing "actively making sound", "actually imagining sound", "listening to present sound" and "remembering past sound", with this model used in Sonic Meditations. Practice of the theory creates "complex sound masses possessing a strong tonal center".
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Oliveros taught at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and Mills College. She was born in Houston, Texas in 1932, and died in 2016 in Kingston, New York.While attending the University of Houston, she was a member of the band program and helped form the Tau chapter of Tau Beta Sigma Honorary Band Sorority. She was openly lesbian. In 1975 Oliveros met her eventual partner, performance artist Linda Montano.
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The titles of Oliveros' pieces Rose Moon and Rose Mountain refer to Montano having gone by Rose Mountain at one time.Annie Sprinkle’s 1992 production The Sluts and Goddesses Video Workshop – Or How To Be A Sex Goddess in 101 Easy Steps, which was co-produced and co-directed with videographer Maria Beatty, featured music by Oliveros. Oliveros received a 1994 Foundation for Contemporary Arts Grants to Artists award.In 2007, Oliveros received the Resounding Vision Award from Nameless Sound. She contributed a chapter to Sound Unbound: Sampling Digital Music and Culture (The MIT Press, 2008) edited by Paul D. Miller a.k.a.
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DJ Spooky. She was the 2009 recipient of the William Schuman Award, from Columbia University School of the Arts. Oliveros was the author of five books, Sounding the Margins: Collected Writings 1992–2009, Initiation Dream, Software for People, The Roots of the Moment, and Deep Listening: A Composer's Sound Practice. In 2012, Oliveros received the John Cage Award from the Foundation for Contemporary Arts.Some of her music was featured in the 2014 French video game NaissanceE.Oliveros' work Deep Listening Room was featured in the 2014 Whitney Biennial.Oliveros was a member of Avatar Orchestra Metaverse, a global collaboration of composers, artists and musicians that approaches the virtual reality platform Second Life as an instrument itself.She was also a patron of Soundart Radio in Dartington, Devon.
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Sonic Meditations: "Teach Yourself to Fly", etc. Sound Patterns for mixed chorus (1961), awarded the Gaudeamus International Composers Award in 1962, available on Extended Voices (Odyssey 32 16) 0156 and 20th Century Choral Music (Ars Nova AN-1005) I of IV, included in the collection New Sounds in Electronic Music, published by Odyssey Records, 1967 Music for Annie Sprinkle's The Sluts and Goddesses Video Workshop—Or How To Be A Sex Goddess in 101 Easy Steps (1992) Theater of Substitution series (1975–?). Oliveros was photographed as different characters, including a Spanish señora, a polyester clad suburban housewife, and a professor in robes. Jackson Mac Low played Oliveros at the New York Philharmonic's "A Celebration of Women composers" concert on November 10, 1975, and Oliveros has played Mac Low (see Mac Low's "being Pauline: narrative of a substitution", Big Deal, Fall 1976). (ibid, p. 141) Crone Music (1989) Six for New Time (1999), music score for Sonic Youth "the Space Between with Matthew Sperry", (2003) 482Music
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Oliveros, Pauline (2013). Sam Golter and Lawton Hall (ed.). Anthology of Text Scores by Pauline Oliveros 1971–2013. Kingston, New York: Deep Listening Publications.
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ISBN 9781889471228. — (2010). Lawton Hall (ed.).
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Sounding the Margins: Collected Writings 1992–2009. Kingston, New York: Deep Listening Publications. ISBN 978-1-889471-16-7.
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— (2005). Deep Listening: A Composer's Sound Practice. New York: iUniverse, Inc. ISBN 978-0-595-34365-2.
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— (1998). Roots of the Moment. New York: Drogue Press.
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ISBN 978-0-9628456-4-2. — (1984). Software for People: Collected Writings 1963–80.
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Baltimore: Printed Editions. ISBN 978-0-914162-59-9. — (1982).
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Initiation Dream. Los Angeles: Astro Artz. ISBN 978-0-937122-07-5.
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1976 – Music with Roots in the Aether: Opera for Television. Tape 5: Pauline Oliveros. Produced and directed by Robert Ashley. New York: Lovely Music.
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1993 – The Sensual Nature of Sound: 4 Composers – Laurie Anderson, Tania León, Meredith Monk, Pauline Oliveros. Directed by Michael Blackwood. 2001 – Roulette TV: Pauline Oliveros.
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Roulette Intermedium Inc. 2005 – Unyazi of the Bushveld. Directed by Aryan Kaganof. Produced by African Noise Foundation. 2020 – Sisters With Transistors. Directed by Lisa Rovner.
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Dear.John: A Canon on the Name of Cage on Larry Polansky's Home Page Epitonic.com: Deep Listening Band featuring a track from Deep Listening Art of the States: Pauline Oliveros, two works by the composer Excerpt from 2001 sound. at the Schindler House performance on YouTube at SASSAS
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The amity-enmity complex theory was introduced by Sir Arthur Keith in his work, A New Theory of Human Evolution (1948). He posited that humans evolved as differing races, tribes, and cultures, exhibiting patriotism, morality, leadership and nationalism. Those who belong are part of the in-group, and tolerated; all others are classed as out-group, and subject to hostility: "The code of enmity is a necessary part of the machinery of evolution.
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He who feels generous towards his enemy... has given up his place in the turmoil of evolutionary competition." Conscience in humans evolved a duality: to protect and save friends, and also to hate and fight enemies. Keith's work summarized earlier opinions on human tribalism by Charles Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace, and Herbert Spencer.
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United States; racial segregation: Keith suggested that racial segregation imposed by Jim Crow laws was a 'vast experiment' in which ten million “coloreds” were 'marked off (in 1948) from the rest by a frontier as sharply defined and jealously guarded as the frontiers of a kingdom'. Apartheid in South Africa: White 'dominance' was 'deeply seated in the primitive organization of the Human brain.' Keith alleged that Boer and British settlers both agree 'there is an impassable frontier between them and the native races of Africa and Asia'. Jews in Europe: 'The Jews maintain a racial frontier (in 1948), such as dominant races surround themselves with; they carry themselves as if racially distinct...the Jewish frontier may be strengthened by the faith which is (sic) the standard of the race.'
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amity-enmity_complex
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Keith alleged that Jews had a 'dual code; conduct towards their fellows is based on amity, that to all outside their circle is based on enmity. The use of the dual code is the mark of an evolving race.'
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amity-enmity_complex
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The Indian caste system. The dhimmi status imposed on non-muslims in areas submitted to islamic law. Peter Corning cites: Shia versus Sunni, Catholic versus Protestant, the American Civil War and World War I as further examples of this 'syndrome'.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amity-enmity_complex
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The amity-enmity complex maintains 'tribal spirit' and thus unity, of the community, 'as long as personal contact between its members is possible.' If the community grows beyond this limitation, then disruption, swarming and disintegration occur. Modern mass communication enables communities 'of 100 million' to remain intact.
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Keith expressed regret that this phenomenon, which explains so much, had not become common knowledge: "e eternally experience the misery... of each new manifestation of the complex, then invent some new 'ism' to categorize this behavior as an evil, dealing with a common behavioral trait piecemeal finally grasping and understanding the phenomenon."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amity-enmity_complex
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Colleges, sports teams, churches, trades unions, female fashions and political parties enable people to exhibit tribal loyalty within large, mass-communicating nations. 'In politics we have to take sides.' But all these 'petty manifestations' are cast aside in time of war. Bismarck, Abraham Lincoln and Lloyd George are cited as statesmen who knew how to exploit the tribal spirit for political ends.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amity-enmity_complex
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According to Peter Bowler, Konrad Lorenz, Robert Ardrey and Desmond Morris were successors to Keith in promoting the 'anthropology of aggression' theory. Ardrey pointed out that similar behavior can be observed in most primates, especially baboons and chimps. "Nationalism as such is no more than a human expression of the animal drive to maintain and defend a territory... the mentality of the single Germanic tribe under Hitler differed in no way from that of early man or late baboon. "The amity-enmity complex is a serious obstacle to world peace and world government, and may even lead to nuclear holocaust: "How can we get along without war?...
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if we fail to get along without war, the future will be as lacking in human problems as it will be remarkably lacking in men. "Desmond Morris makes a prescriptive point: "We must try to step outside our groups and look down on human battlefields with the unbiased eye of a hovering Martian."
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And he warns that "the truly violent species all appear to have exterminated themselves, a lesson we should not overlook." The inherited aggression of the amity-enmity rivalry between communities is rationalized under a "persistent cloak of ideology... a matter of ideals, moral principles, social philosophies or religious beliefs.... nly an immense amount of intellectual restraint will save the situation. "After World War II, a debate about the place of instinct and learning (the nature-versus-nurture debate) has occurred.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amity-enmity_complex
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According to Steven Pinker, the "bitter lessons of lynchings, world wars, and the Holocaust" have caused "prevailing theories of mind" to be "refashioned to make racism and sexism as untenable as possible. The doctrine of the blank slate became entrenched in intellectual life. "Pinker makes the point that "conflicts of interest are inherent to the human condition." Man is a product of nature, as much as malarial mosquitoes; both "are doing exactly what evolution designed them to do, even if the outcome makes people suffer... cannot call their behavior pathological... he belief that violence is an aberration is dangerous."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amity-enmity_complex
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Research by Dian Fossey and Jane Goodall raised awareness of a gentler side to the great apes in opposition to the 'anthropology of aggression' theory, but 'both sides of the debate were working with limited models of ape behaviour'.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amity-enmity_complex
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The Busselton Health Study is a long-term , on-going health cohort study of residents of the Western Australian city of Busselton. Over 20,000 Busselton residents have participated in surveys concerning such health topics as cardiovascular disease, pulmonary function, diabetes, and cancer, resulting in over 400 publications. The program was initiated by Kevin Cullen, a local general practitioner, and is administered by the Busselton Population Medical Research Institute, which was established in 2000 as the Busselton Population Medical Research Foundation, and the School of Population and Global Health, University of Western Australia. Data from the study was used in a 1996 paper in Nature showing some of the first genetic links to asthma, along with a 1999 paper in the New England Journal of Medicine that was the first to describe the impact of the newly discovered HFE gene causing HFE hereditary haemochromatosis on a population with normal rates of symptoms.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busselton_Health_Study
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The Busselton Health Survey has included the following projects: 1966, 1969, 1972, 1975, 1978, and 1981: Cross-sectional comprehensive surveys of all adults on the Electoral roll (3,400–4,000 participants) 1967, 1970, 1973, 1977, and 1983: Cross-sectional comprehensive surveys of school students (high-school only in 1977, in which there were 556 participants; about 1,600 in all other years) 1987: Cross-sectional comprehensive surveys of all people aged over 65 (1,120 participants) 1990: Cross-sectional respiratory questionnaire of all adults on the electoral roll (3,800 participants) 1992: Family asthma survey (250 families with two parents and two children) 1994–1995: Followup of all participants in cross-sectional surveys from 1966 to 1983 (5,715 participants) 2005–2008: Survey of the changing prevalence of asthma and Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (over 2,900 adults and 1,500 children) 2007–present: The Prevalence of Sleep Disordered Breathing 2007–2008: Participated in the international Burden of obstructive lung disease study (more than 600 participants aged over 40) 2008–2010: Busselton Diabetes Study, based on Fremantle Diabetes Study (200 people with diabetes and 200 matched controls 2010–2021: Busselton Healthy Ageing Study (over 5,100 people born between 1946 and 1964) 2019–2023: Busselton Respiratory Study (aiming to recruit over 3,000 adults)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busselton_Health_Study
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The Archaeological Institute of America (AIA) is North America's oldest society and largest organization devoted to the world of archaeology. AIA professionals have carried out archaeological fieldwork around the world and AIA has established research centers and schools in seven countries. As of 2019, the society had more than 6,100 members and more than 100 affiliated local societies in the United States and overseas. AIA members include professional archaeologists and members of the public.The AIA has established many archaeological organizations and protected many historical sites in the world.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America
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The AIA has hosted an annual meeting every year for over 120 years, where archaeologists present their latest work. The institute also has established scholarships for students and awarded archaeologists for their contributions to archaeology. The institute publishes a scholarly journal, the American Journal of Archaeology (AJA) and the magazine Archaeology.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America
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The Archaeological Institute of America was founded in Boston in 1879 by Charles Eliot Norton with his colleagues and friends. They formed the society "for furthering and directing the archaeological and artistic investigation and research". Norton was the AIA's first president. The institute subsequently expanded its reach through the establishment of schools of archaeology around the Mediterranean and in the southwestern United States.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America
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The Archaeological Institute of America is governed by the council. All representatives must be AIA members who know AIA rules, work throughout the year and vote on issues, and attend meetings. The Governing Board prepares and approves the organization's annual budget and oversees its investments and donations, also conducting fundraising activities. The board meets three times a year and consists of seven officers elected by the council and twenty-four to thirty governors.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America
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There are three types of trustees, representing different constituents of AIA: General Trustees, Academic Trustees, and Society Trustees. The executive committee of the governing board holds at least three meetings annually. Elizabeth S. Greene is the current president (term 2023 to 2026), and Brian I. Daniels is the first vice president (term 2023 to 2026).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America
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The AIA offers scholarships for young academic members and funds several students for excavation, research, publication, and site preservation. Its numerous awards recognize archaeologists and individuals and communities who have made outstanding contributions to the field and heritage conservation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America
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Former presidents of the AIA Charles Eliot Norton 1879–1889: Charles Eliot Norton (November 16, 1827 – October 21, 1908) was an American author, social critic, and professor of art based in New England. He was a progressive social reformer and a liberal activist whom many of his contemporaries considered the most cultivated man in the United States. Seth Low 1890–1896 John Williams White 1897–1902 Thomas Day Seymour 1903–1907 Francis Willey Kelsey 1908–1912 Harry Langford Wilson 1913 (died February 1913) F.W.
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Shipley 1913–1917 James Childester Egbert 1918–1921 Ralph Van Deman Magoffin 1922–1930 Louis Eleazar Lord 1931–1936 William Bell Dinsmoor 1937–1945 Sterling Dow 1946–1948 Hugh Hencken 1949–1951 Kenneth J. Conant 1952 Henry T. Rowell 1953–1956 George E. Mylonas 1957–1960 Jotham Johnson 1961–1964 Margaret Thompson 1965–1968 Rodney S. Young 1969–1972 James B. Pritchard 1973–1974 Frederick R. Matson 1975–1976 Robert H. Dyson, Jr. 1977–1980 Machteld J. Mellink 1981–1984 James R. Wiseman 1985–1988 Martha Sharp Joukowsky 1989–1992 James Russell 1993–1994 Stephen L. Dyson 1995–1998 Nancy C. Wilkie 1999–2002 Jane Waldbaum 2003–2006 C. Brian Rose 2007–2010 Elizabeth Bartman 2011–2013 Andrew M. T. Moore 2014–2016 Jodi Magness 2017–2019: Jodi Magness (born September 19, 1956) is an archaeologist, orientalist, and scholar of religion. She serves as the Kenan Distinguished Professor for Teaching Excellence in Early Judaism at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America
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She previously taught at Tufts University. Laetitia La Follette 2020–2022: Laetitia La Follette was elected to a three-year term as chairman of the Archaeological Institute of America. She got her Ph.D.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America
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from Harvard, studying classics. She earned a master's degree in art and archaeology and a doctorate from Princeton University and is an associate professor and head of the Department of Art and Architectural History at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. She studies the material culture of the ancient Mediterranean and the preservation of its cultural heritage. She has edited The Culture of Negotiation: Legacy, Ownership, and Intellectual Property.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America
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As tourism and archaeology become more closely linked, archaeologists and site managers must consider the behavior and needs of visitors when deciding how to preserve and present sites. This requires consideration of issues such as how tourism will affect archaeological sites and impact research. In 2009, The Archaeological Institute of America partnered with the Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA) to develop a set of guidelines for people interested in organizing trips to archaeological sites.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America
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International Archaeology Day has been celebrated annually on the third Saturday of October by the AIA and is held throughout the month. This archaeological activity is suitable for all ages and interests. The event features archaeologist's lectures, tours of archaeological sites, and archaeological fairs. IAD Scavenger Hunt is an online Scavenger Hunt game published by AIA, and the ArchaeoDoodles Contest is a doodle event held by AIA in which participants create illustrations and graphics using 15 words or phrases recommended by AIA to help update AIA's list of terms and definitions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America
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The Felicia A. Holton Book Award, also known as the Holton Award, has been awarded annually to "a writer who, through a major work of non-fiction, represents the importance and excitement of archaeology to the general public". It is named after journalist and writer Felicia A. Holton, who co-wrote Koster: Americans in Search of Their Prehistoric Past with archaeologist Stuart Struever in 1979.In 2020 it was won by Australian historian and writer Billy Griffiths, for his 2018 work Deep Time Dreaming: Uncovering Ancient Australia, and in 2014 by British archaeologist Joyce Tyldesley for Tutankhamen's Curse (Tutankhamen in the US).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Institute_of_America
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Panethnicity is a political neologism used to group various ethnic groups together based on their related cultural origins; geographic, linguistic, religious, or 'racial' (i.e. phenotypic) similarities are often used alone or in combination to draw panethnic boundaries. The term panethnic was used extensively during mid-twentieth century anti-colonial/national liberation movements. In the United States, Yen Le Espiritu popularized the term and coined the nominal term panethnicity in reference to Asian Americans, a racial category composed of disparate peoples having in common only their origin in the continent of Asia.It has since seen some use as a replacement of the term race; for example, the aforementioned Asian Americans can be described as "a panethnicity" of various unrelated peoples of Asia, which are nevertheless perceived as a distinguishable group within the larger multiracial North American society. More recently the term has also come to be used in contexts outside multiculturalism in US society, as a general replacement for terms like ethnolinguistic group or racial group.The concept is to be distinguished from "pan-nationalism", which similarly groups related ethnicities but in the context of either ethnic nationalism (e.g. Pan-Arabism, Pan-Celticism, Pan-Germanism, Pan-Iranism, Pan-Slavism, Pan-Turkism, Pan Chinese), or civic nationalism (e.g. Pan-Africanism).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panethnicity
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Panethnicity has allowed Asian Americans to unite based on similar historical relations with the US (such as - in some cases - US military presence in their native countries). The Asian American panethnic identity has evolved to become a means for immigrant groups such as Asian Americans to unite in order to gain political strength in numbers. Similarly, one can speak of a "panethnic European American category".The term "American" has become one of the more widespread panethnic concepts.Mainstream institutions and political policies often play a big role in the labeling of panethnic groups. They often enact policies that deal with specific groups of people, and panethnic groups are one way to group large numbers of people.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panethnicity
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Public policy might dole out resources or make deals with multiple groups, viewing them all as one large entity.Panethnic labels are often, though not always, created and employed by outsiders of the group that is being defined panethnically. In the case of the Asian American Movement of the 1960s and 1970s, the panethnic label "Asian American" was not created by outsiders; rather, it was coined by professor Yuji Ichioka and his spouse, Emma Gee, in order to consolidate Asian activists that they had seen at various political demonstrations of the time. The manner in which the two garnered support for the alliance sheds light on the expressly panethnic approach that was at the core of this new Asian American identity: they went through the roster of the Peace and Freedom Party, a majority white anti-war organization that was protesting the Vietnam War at the time, and telephoned all the individuals they could find with “Asian” surnames.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panethnicity
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Though the Asian American identity was initially not inclusive of many Asian ethnicities, new waves of Asian immigrants since the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act have accelerated the expansion of the identity. At the time of the U.S. Census of 2000, 88% of Asian America was made up of six Asian ethnicities: Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Filipino, Indian, and Vietnamese.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panethnicity
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The use of "Asian American" as a panethnic racial label is often criticized, due to the term only encompassing some of the diverse peoples of Asia, and for grouping together the racially and culturally different South Asians with East Asians as the same “race”. Americans of West Asian descent, such as the Iranians, Israelis, Lebanese and the Armenians are notably excluded from the term despite Western Asia being geographically part of Asia. As well as West Asians having racial and cultural similarities with South Asians. The common justification for grouping together South and East Asians is because of Buddhism's origins in India, but the religion has "practically died out" in South Asia.Although the panethnic term refers to Americans of East, Southeast and South Asian ancestry, "Asian American" is usually synonymous for people of East Asian ancestry and or appearance, which has caused some to highlight the general exclusion of Southeast Asians and South Asians.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panethnicity
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