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Individualistic cultures are characterized by individualism, which is the prioritization or emphasis of the individual over the entire group. In individualistic cultures people are motivated by their own preference and viewpoints. Individualistic cultures focus on abstract thinking, privacy, self-dependence, uniqueness, and personal goals.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualistic_culture
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The term individualistic culture was first used in the 1980s by Dutch social psychologist Geert Hofstede to describe countries and cultures that are not collectivist, Hofstede created the term individualistic culture when he created a measurement for the five dimensions of cultural values.People in individualistic cultures see each other as loosely connected and have a diverse population of different races, ethnicities, languages, and cultures. Individuals gain the most happiness from three key factors: personal satisfaction, internal happiness, and family satisfaction. People living in individualistic cultures use direct communication, low-power distance communication, self-expression of emotions, and a variety of conflict resolution strategies. There has been a global increase in individualism in the recent years and individualistic culture is on the rise in many countries around the world due to wealth and urbanization. Highly individualistic countries are often Western countries, like Australia, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United States.
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The rise of Individualistic culture is a result of the integration of diverse cultures. The migration and meeting of cultures on a global level flourish in countries with political ideologies that allow freedom of self expression. A fertile atmosphere of freedom encourages the individual in self pursuit of personal growth. Individualistic culture has its focus on the individual mentality in society as opposed to the societal structure of the collective mentality.
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There has been much discussion about individualistic culture as opposed to a collectivism culture. One, the individualistic culture, promotes individualism or independent pursuits not associated with a group, while, in contrast, collectivism discourages the independence of the individual to develop a oneness of the masses with shared goals and ideology as in a group.
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Many thoughts and observations on individualism have been shared by noted intellectuals in philosophy, psychology and economics. In each of these schools of thought are Friedrich Nietzsche, Ludwig Mises, and Geert Hofstede. Among the 3 of these scholars Geert Hofstede is most notable. It was Hofstede's study of culture and society in various countries which resulted in the term "Individualistic Culture", as a concept of social psychology solely attributed to him.
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Low-power distance includes power distance which is the degree to which unequal distribution of power is accepted and present in a culture. Individualistic cultures are referred to as low-power distance cultures that contains a hierarchy system, that strives for equality, and rejects inequality. Low-power distance countries are Austria, Costa Rica, New Zealand, and South Africa. Low-power distance countries challenge authority, encourage a reduction of power differences between management and employees, promote the distribution and use of power fairly, and focus on the unique skill of a person.
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People in low-power distance cultures challenge social norms, are creative, and outspoken. Though low-power distance cultures challenge authority, their appreciation of diversity allows people to perform better in group work than collectivist cultures. People from low-power distance cultures appreciate abstract thinking and combine their different opinions and ideas to work together and develop solutions to problems in group work.Low-Power Distance behavior, as a characteristic, is more evident and commonly associated with diverse cultural backgrounds. The rights of the individual take precedence over the collective, and instead, minimizes the juxtaposition of the power distance relationship in individualistic culture resulting in the Low-Power distance dimension as set forth by Geert Hofstede’s observations on cultural dimensions.
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Individualistic cultures tend to prioritize the individual person over the group, and this can be seen in how the display rules vary from a collectivist culture compared to an individualistic culture. Display rules are the rules that exist in different cultures that determine how emotion should be displayed publicly.In an individualistic culture, self-expression is highly valued, making the display rules less strict and allowing people to display intense emotion such as: happiness, anger, love, etc. While in a collectivist culture, moderation and self-control is highly valued for the well-being of the group, and collectivist cultures therefore tend to restrain from showing emotion in public.
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In 1994 Ruth K. Chao, argued that "parenting styles developed on North American samples cannot be simply translated to other cultures, but instead must reflect their sociocultural contexts". Many cultures have different styles of parenting and the dynamics those families are also different. People from individualistic cultures usually look out for themselves and their immediate family only. While people from collectivistic cultures look out for their community or group, as well as their family.
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Harald Wallbott and Klaus Scherer suggest that in cultures that are collectivist and high in power parents use real shame in their parenting styles. Whereas in individualistic cultures that are low in power, and are uncertainty-avoidance, shame more closely resembles guilt in their parent style. For example, in Asian collectivistic cultures shame is a highly valued emotional response. So much so, that in Japan, which is considered to be a collectivistic culture, many people commit suicide after dishonoring or bringing shame to their family or community.
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One's cultural style can also interfere with work-family relationship dynamics between different cultures. In Shan Xu research he found that employees from more individualistic cultures are more sensitive to how their work interferes with their family life. These employees are more concerned about their own individual family dynamics and structure. While people from more collectivistic cultures are more concerned about how their work provides material, social, and cognitive resources such as intelligence and experience which will help their families. These employees are more focused on the overall and harmony of all those little factors and how they affect their families.
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Conflict strategies are methods used to resolve different problems. There are different approaches to resolving a conflict and depending on the culture a person is brought up in, the more likely it is for them to use a certain approach. Since individualistic culture sets greater value to personal achievement, contrary to collectivist cultures who value harmony, it is more likely for a person from an individualistic culture to use competition as their method of resolving conflict. When using competition as an approach to resolving conflict, a person is more confrontational and seeks to achieve his or her own goals with no regard of the goals of others. Using this approach, a person seeks domination, which means to get others to do what the person wants instead of what they initially wanted. On the contrary, a collectivist culture would more likely use a less confrontational approach such as accommodation to end the conflict with compromise so that each party is benefited.
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Non-verbal leakage is a form of non-verbal behavior that occurs when a person verbalizes one thing, but their body language indicates another, common forms of which include facial movements and hand-to-face gestures. The term "non-verbal leakage" got its origin in literature in 1968, leading to many subsequent studies on the topic throughout the 1970s (including multiple studies by American psychologist Paul Ekman), with related studies continuing today.Non-verbal leakage is a prominent concept in the study of body language. Others are often able to pick up any incongruity between your verbal and non-verbal messages, which can be confusing and can cause cognitive dissonance.Even when an individual attempts to suppress his own non-verbal leakage, there are some aspects that are out of his voluntary control and will still be expressed despite efforts to the contrary. As many as 98.3% of participants in studies of deception and facial expressions have been seen to express emotional leakage in some capacity, especially when trying to conceal a high-intensity emotion.
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In an early article on nonverbal leakage, Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen discuss many bodily and facial movements associated with non-verbal leakage, especially in the context of deception. Ekman and Wallace focus mostly on non-verbal leakage expressed through movements of the face, hands, and feet. They describe areas like the face as parts of the body that have a high sending capacity, meaning the signals that this body part sends are easily visible and quickly received by the observer. Areas like the feet and the hands, therefore, are areas with lower sending capacities.
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The high sending capacity and clear visibility of the face can make non-verbal leakage obvious when it is expressed in the face, and such emotions expressed in the face are more discernible because of the complex musculature and movements of the face compared with movements of the feet or hands. It is also much easier for an individual to put his hands in his pockets, for example, than it is to hide his face and mask non-verbal facial expressions. However, facial expressions are also some of the first expressions to be masked when one is telling a lie.
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People tend to be more aware of how obvious their facial expressions are, so individuals are therefore most likely to mask those expressions first. In other words, non-verbal leakage can be most obvious in the face, but because of one's awareness of his own facial expressions, the face can also produce confusing non-verbal leakage. Areas like the hands and feet are less visible in expressing emotion, but also appear to be less consciously controlled and can therefore also be indicative of an individual's true emotions or intentions.
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Some studies have found that females tend to be more responsive to non-verbal cues in comparison to verbal cues. Knowing a person's sex can also give insight into a person's non-verbal leakage, as males and females tend to display particular non-verbal leakage when telling the truth, which can also help to indicate when someone is telling a lie, as such behaviors would be suppressed. In a study in which participants rated actors' recorded verbal and non-verbal cues in a scripted video, the non-verbal cues were seen to be significantly more influential than the verbal cues in participants' assessments of the actors' performances. Dominant conversational behavior also seems to be connected to differences in non-verbal leakage; people who dominate conversations more also express unique non-verbal leakage compared to those who are less-dominant in conversation.In relation to age, children can successfully manipulate their non-verbal expressions, even enough to deceive adults in one study.
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However, some other studies have found results supporting the idea that children are not as good at controlling their non-verbal expressions and leakage until they reach a certain age.Emotional intelligence has also been found to play a role in one's detection of emotional leakage. Females and people with higher emotional intelligence tend to be better at perceiving verbal leakages. Women also tend to be higher in emotional intelligence compared to men, giving women a better ability to detect verbal leakage in comparison to men, with women performing better in tasks of facial decoding and emotional intelligence in a study of emotional intelligence of communicative expressions.Professional dancers and actors, skilled lawyers, negotiators, and successful second-hand car salesmen have less non-verbal leakage during deception.
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Because of their professions, dancers and actors are trained for using their body movements to convey information to the audience. They are more aware of their body language, have more control over the movements, and are better at disguising through the non-verbal channel.
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The causes of negotiators and salesmen to be good non-verbal liars are more ambiguous. It might be the case that they develop skills in their careers, or they may have innate personalities that determine their career choices. It is also possible that under certain circumstances, they do not feel guilty when lying and hence leak little information. However, in one study it is suggested that lawyers do not receive enough training on conveying information to their clients using body languages, indicating that they may not gain their non-verbal deception skills from their professions.
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One study found that non-verbal leakage may be more easily detectable in face-to-face communications compared to when viewed in a video, although people can still detect non-verbal expressions when examining someone's communications in a video recording. In the context of face-to-face versus video-recorded communications, the authors of this study were able to examine the amount of information participants are receiving from videos of communications (with gestures and speech) versus only speech (audio recording only). People tend to gain more information when viewing communication on video with gestures and speech compared to those presented with only the audio recordings. However, this study also showed that people gain more information from speech when compared to gestures alone, although there is clearly still meaning that can be understood in gestures alone.
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In summary, people tend to get the most information from communicating with someone using both non-verbal gestures and speech, indicating that non-verbal leakage is an important aspect of communication and can enhance speech communication.There may not necessarily be universal indicators of non-verbal leakage, especially those that indicate deception, because of non-verbal cue differences among demographics such as culture and age. Facial movements can be the most telling, but also the most confusing, because those are the movements that people will most actively try to mask if they are trying to hide an emotion or truth. Other parts of the body, including the legs, can also be sources of non-verbal leakage.
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These parts of the body are under less conscious control when communicating, so it is harder to hide non-verbal leakage in parts of the body like the hands or legs; people can more easily leak non-verbal expressions through these parts of the body. In summary, although the face is the most expressive in terms of non-verbal expression, it is also one of the most easily controlled, so its levels of non-verbal leakage can be relatively low with conscious control of facial expressions.Indicators of facial leakage include facial expressions that last too long, that are too intensive, or that are too monotonous, lacking the natural combination of various emotions. For instance, a liar may exhibit an abnormally long-lasting smile, an extremely serious frown, or an expression of fear without any surprise.
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Compared with faces, hands and legs are less obvious in sending deception cues, but are also under weaker control of the deceiver. Liars may consciously control facial expression to reveal confidence and comfort, but their hands and feet can speak out fear and discomfort. Leakage in hand movements includes tearing at fingernails, poking of cheeks, defensive holding of knees, tight fists, anxious tapping of cigarettes, or snapping of a pencil.
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Leakage in feet and legs movements includes restless foot kicks, frequent leg shifts and squeezing, and repetitive or flirtatious leg and foot acts.Experiments conducted by Ekman and Friesen supported the idea that body cues are more revealing of deception compared with face and head cues. Psychiatric patients engaging in deception during the medical consultation were filmed. The clips were shown to two groups of naive observers, who had not been trained for detecting deception cues.
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One group of observers could only see the patient's head and face, and the other group could only view the body movements below the neck. It was found that the group of observers who only saw the body cues were better at detecting patients' concealed anxiety and delusion, while the group that viewed the face cues was more misled by the patient's deception of a healthy and happy status.A meta-analysis found that one does not need special training to be able to detect non-verbal leakage, as humans seem to have some natural ability to gain a great deal of information based on another person's non-verbal behaviors. Another study assessed human's ability to detect leakage through gaze cues in human-like robots. Groups of people participated in guessing games with near-human robots. When the robots leaked information through gaze, people performed much better in the guessing game, even though few people reported identifying the leakage cue, demonstrating that humans subconsciously pick up and respond to non-verbal leakage cues.
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Non-verbal leakage can be telling of deception even when one consciously attempts to control non-verbal behaviors. Multiple methods have been used in order to study behavioral differences in truthful versus deceptive language and communication, including deception detection accuracy and cue leakage. Such methods can employ processes that measure levels of arousal, as someone who is being purposefully deceptive experiences an arousal response. For example, investigators can measure pupil dilation, pitch, and errors in speech as indicators of arousal due to deceptive behaviors, because these non-verbal behaviors and physiological responses have been seen in deceptive individuals.
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Multiple studies have used such methods of detecting deception and non-verbal leakage, along with others involving outside raters and subjective questionnaires. One study found that there may be differences in non-verbal cues indicating deception based on the level of deception that the person is attempting, or the level of emotion that they are trying to suppress. There seem to be clear differences in the amount of cognitive control it takes to mask different types of non-verbal cues when producing deceptive information.
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Liars tend to have to put more effort into their responses, especially when they were not prepared to answer a question. Liars tend to pause more and take more time in preparing a response in comparison to truth-tellers, giving insight into the cognitive processing and non-verbal leakage that liars are trying to control.Ekman suggests that deception can be detected when a person's internal feedback loop about their own non-verbal behavior has problems, causing the non-verbal behaviors that they are purposefully producing to actually give information on their deceptive processes, which can be examined through the non-verbal leakage that is exposed. Investigators have been able to pick up on some of the common verbal leakage that is expressed when someone is being deceptive.
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For example, people who are less dominant in conversations (those who tend to hesitate or comment less frequently in conversation compared to conversation-dominant individuals) tend to hesitate less and appear more dominant when they are telling a rehearsed lie. In one study, liars tended to smile more, whether fake or from embarrassment. Based on multiple studies and some of the proposed theories behind non-verbal leakage (below), it is clear that it does not necessarily take any training to be able to detect non-verbal leakage and to be able to pick up on another person's subtle non-verbal expressions.
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However, potentially because of experience in detecting lies, prisoners have been found to be exceptionally successful in detecting verbal leakage and uncovering dishonesty compared to non-prisoners.In their studies, Wacewicz and Żywiczyński suggest that it is hard to detect deception from any single non-verbal behavior. Rather, the detection of deception relies on the understanding of deception demeanor, which includes groups of non-verbal cues. A single non-verbal behavior can be treated as a cue, and a combination of cues gives rise to inference about deception.
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For example, liars usually lean back and avoid to face the interrogator directly when they are talking. Turning away from the interrogator at an angle of more than 45 degrees is typically regarded as a deception cue. Other deception demeanor includes gaze aversion and unnatural body movements.
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Deceivers usually avoid eye contacts with the interrogator, blink more frequently and their pupils enlarge at a micro level. They also scratch, rub and pinch themselves more often to relieve fear and anxiety.In detecting emotion, non-verbal leakage through non-verbal behaviors has more of an effect than verbal cues in indicating someone's emotional state, particularly in communicating positive or negative affect. In psychology, affect refers to the experience of feelings and emotions. Positive affect is usually transmitted through more controllable non-verbal channels such as faces, while negative affect is transmitted through less controllable channels such as hands and feet. One study found that biased teachers, who judge students stereotypically, have more dogmatic teaching practices, and are more negative toward students with low ethnic and socioeconomic status, showed more non-verbal leakage through the less controllable channels than did unbiased teachers.
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Being able to detect pain expressed through non-verbal expression and leakage could help provide information in the clinical setting that cannot always be expressed clearly verbally or in any other manner. In one study, participants were able to accurately discriminate another person's levels of pain in electric shock scenarios based on non-verbal expression alone, so it seems as though such expressions could potentially be used to form a sensitive and accurate pain index that does not solely rely on verbal information. In a similar study involving deliverance of electric shocks and pain expression and evaluation, the author found that there are measurable, topographic changes that occur in the face when someone is experiencing pain. Such measurable responses can give insight into a person's levels of pain in a strictly non-verbal manner. Based on such results, some scientists believe that non-verbal leakage and detection may have clinical value in evaluating and treating pain, especially in the absence of verbal expression.
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Wacewicz and Żywiczyński tried to explain the existence of leakage cues. From an evolutionary perspective, behaviors that leak the liar's intention should be selected against and removed over time. Instead, "poker faces" should be favored by natural selection as they leak little information during deception. There are two potential explanations for this from not happening.
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The first explanation is that lying imposes pressure on people's cognitive system and changes their physiological state, leading to an increasing number of cues including those that are hard to suppress. The second explanation is the signal cost associated with deception.Some scientists believe that people may express and detect non-verbal attitudes and communications because of an innate emotional understanding of such processes. In support of this innate hypothesis, in a meta-analysis of interpersonal behaviors, authors came to the conclusion that it is evolutionarily advantageous for emotional non-verbal expressions (such as non-verbal leakage) to be judged quickly, as such processes can help an individual adapt to a new environment or understand a situation.One of the theories behind deceptive non-verbal leakage in particular is that the person lying is experiencing emotions such as guilt or shame, and those emotions associated with lying are what cause the person to exhibit non-verbal leakage that goes against the expressions that he is consciously trying to control.In investigating why women seem to be better at detecting and interpreting non-verbal leakage, some authors have proposed that women may be more attentive to explicit emotional processes and may be more socially motivated to pay attention to subtle emotions or non-verbal communications, whereas men are more attentive to emotions based on implicit experiences.In detecting pain through non-verbal stimuli, one study also found that non-verbal leakage can give others clues as to whether or not a person is exaggerating their pain response or not. Observers found that people who were exaggerating their pain levels tended to show more unnatural facial changes than those who were responding at a natural and appropriate level to the intensity of electric shock experienced.
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Charles Darwin hypothesized that humans cannot consciously control strong emotions and therefore cannot inhibit the facial muscles associated with intense emotions, thus limiting our ability to voluntary control our non-verbal facial cues associated with intense emotion. The results of multiple studies of non-verbal leakage have been seen to support Darwin's inhibition hypothesis. Studies have also found that it may be impossible to completely hide one's emotions because of the non-verbal leakage that is involuntarily expressed, especially in the face, when one is creating a falsified emotion.In going with Darwin's inhibition hypothesis, Ekman proposed that those facial movements that cannot be voluntary controlled when one is experiencing intense emotions can be seen through micro-expressions; such expressions are almost impossible to see with the naked eye because of their usual expression time of less than half of a second.
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Emotional leakage has been found to be very difficult to prevent or conceal, and high-intensity emotions are much more likely to result in unintended emotional leakage compared to low-intensity emotions.
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Non-verbal leakage has also been studied in some study participants with mental disorders, particularly those with anxiety or depression, and authors have found unique characteristics of some of the non-verbal leakage expressed in individuals with these disorders. When exposed to non-verbal cues only, study participants have been able to detect another person's anxiety, especially because of movement in the anxious person's hands, eyes, mouth, and torso. Through this process, participants were able to relatively accurately gauge the other person's anxiety levels as well. Although some non-verbal cues expressed in subjects with each disorder are very similar (such as eye contact), there also seem to be unique characteristics of the non-verbal cues associated with each disorder.
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In participants with anxiety, non-verbal leakage tends to consist of increases in non-signaling gestures, such as tremors and twitching. Hand gestures have been found to be the most telling in non-verbal cues associated with anxiety, followed by eyes, mouth, and torso. Common observations of the hands include nervous twitching, unnatural stiffness, and clammy hands, along with other aspects such as darting eyes, increased eye movements, licking lips, irregular breathing, and a stiff upper body.
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For depression, the most telling non-verbal leakage can be observed most clearly in the eyes, followed by mouth movements, head angle, and lastly hand movement. Although these movements may be similar to those seen in individuals with anxiety, the patterns of such movements seem to be unique with each disorder. == References ==
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Xenoglossy (), also written xenoglossia () and sometimes also known as xenolalia, is the supposedly paranormal phenomenon in which a person is allegedly able to speak, write or understand a foreign language that they could not have acquired by natural means. The term derives from the Ancient Greek xenos (ξένος), "foreigner" and glōssa (γλῶσσα), "tongue" or "language". The term xenoglossy was first used by French parapsychologist Charles Richet in 1905. Claims of xenoglossy are found in the New Testament, and contemporary claims have been made by parapsychologists and reincarnation researchers such as Ian Stevenson. Doubts have been expressed that xenoglossy is an actual phenomenon, and there is no scientifically admissible evidence supporting any of the alleged instances of xenoglossy.Two types of xenoglossy are distinguished. Recitative xenoglossy is the use of an unacquired language incomprehensibly, while responsive xenoglossy refers to the ability to intelligibly employ the unlearned language as if already acquired.
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This phenomenon is mentioned in Acts of the Apostles chapter 2 at Pentecost, when the first disciples of Jesus Christ, gathered together, numbering one hundred and twenty, and of the tongues of fire landed on each of them, formalizing the coming of the Spirit in an episode of inspired communication that allows the disciples to express themselves in languages other than Galilean and to be understood by strangers. Several accounts of miraculous abilities of some people to read, write, speak or understand a foreign language as mentioned in the Bible have been related in similar Christian accounts in the Middle Ages. Similar claims were also made by some Pentecostal theologians in 1901.
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Claims of mediums speaking foreign languages were made by Spiritualists in the 19th century. More recent claims of xenoglossy have come from reincarnation researchers who have alleged that individuals were able to recall a language spoken in a past life. Some reports of xenoglossy have surfaced in the popular press, such as Czech speedway rider Matěj Kůs who in September 2007 supposedly awoke after a crash and was able to converse in perfect English; however press reports of his fluency in English were based entirely on anecdotal stories told by his Czech teammates. Xenoglossy has been claimed to have occurred during exorcisms.
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Canadian parapsychologist and psychiatrist at the University of Virginia Ian Stevenson claimed there were a handful of cases that suggested evidence of xenoglossy. These included two where a subject under hypnosis could allegedly converse with people speaking the foreign language, instead of merely being able to recite foreign words. Sarah Thomason, a linguist at the University of Michigan, reanalyzed these cases, concluding that "the linguistic evidence is too weak to provide support for the claims of xenoglossy". When Stevenson investigated an American housewife known as "T. E" who exhibited the male personality of a Swedish farmer named "Jensen Jacoby" while under hypnosis, he reported that the subject was able to converse in Swedish, albeit not fluently.
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However, Thomason's reanalysis concluded that "Jensen" could not convincingly be claimed to speak Swedish; writing that though "Jensen" had a total vocabulary of about 100 words, "this is not very impressive when compared with the thousands of words known by any native speaker of any natural language, even taking into account the limited contexts in which Jensen spoke Swedish." Thomason found that "Jensen" gave no complex sentences, mostly giving one or two word answers, and concluded, " demonstration that there was no fraud in the case is convincing, but his claim that Jensen had the capacity to speak Swedish is not."
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Linguist William Samarin drew the same conclusion as Thomason. Stevenson investigated another American woman named Dolores Jay who exhibited the personality of a German teenage girl named "Gretchen" while hypnotized. He claimed that the subject was able to converse in German.
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Thomason's reanalysis, while acknowledging that the evidence against fraud was convincing, concluded that "Gretchen" could not converse fluently in German and that her speech was largely the repetition of German questions with different intonation, or utterances of one or two words. Thomason found that the German vocabulary of "Gretchen" was "minute" and her pronunciation was "spotty", adding that Dolores Jay had some previous exposure to German in TV programs and had looked at a German book.William J. Samarin, a linguist from the University of Toronto, argues that Stevenson interacted with linguists in a selective and unprofessional manner, noting that Stevenson corresponded with one linguist for a period of six years "without raising any discussion about the kinds of thing that linguists would need to know," and that most of Stevenson's collaborators were "fellow believers" in the paranormal.In a review of Stevenson's Unlearned Language: New Studies in Xenoglossy (1984), William Frawley wrote that Stevenson was too uncritically accepting of a paranormal interpretation of the cases. In one case, a female subject could only answer yes-or-no questions in German, which Frawley found unimpressive.
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In another, the female subject could speak Bengali with poor pronunciation. Frawley noted that she was raised in the language of Marathi (related to Bengali), had studied Sanskrit from which both Marathi and Bengali derive, and was living in a town with thousands of Bengalis. He concluded: "Stevenson does not consider enough linguistic evidence in these cases to warrant his metaphysics. "Psychologist David Lester evaluated Stevenson's cases and wrote the subjects made grammatical mistakes, mispronounced words, and did not show a wide vocabulary of words in foreign language; he thus concluded that they cannot be considered evidence for xenoglossy.
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In the early 20th century, Alfred Hulme, a self-proclaimed Egyptologist, investigated a young girl named Ivy Carter Beaumont (also known as "Rosemary") from Blackpool, England, who claimed to be under the influence of the personality of a Babylonian princess. Hulme was convinced she spoke in an ancient Egyptian dialect. However, according to linguist Karen Stollznow, "Several scholars examined the data independently and concluded that Hulme's analyses were grossly inaccurate. Hulme had confused Middle Egyptian and Late Egyptian" and likely "falsified many results."
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In 1791 Eberhardt Gmelin, a German physician often credited with discovering dissociative identity disorder, published a report entitled Materialien für die Anthropologie, in which he described a case of a 20-year-old German woman from the town of Stuttgart who would "exchange" her personality for that of a French aristocrat. During these "French" states, as Gmelin termed them, she was able to speak French perfectly, despite never having visited a francophone country or been taught the language, and speak her own native tongue, German, with a French accent. However, this cannot be accepted as an example of xenoglossy, as the woman had probably picked up bits of the language from aristocratic refugees who had arrived at Stuttgart in 1789, the beginning of the French Revolution.
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Most cases of recitative xenoglossy have been interpreted as instances of cryptomnesia, where memories of a language acquired earlier in life re-enter the consciousness in certain exceptional circumstances.
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Hindu nationalism has been collectively referred to as the expression of social and political thought, based on the native spiritual and cultural traditions of the Indian subcontinent. "Hindu nationalism" is a simplistic translation of हिन्दू राष्ट्रवाद (IAST: Hindū rāṣṭravāda). It is better described as "Hindu polity".The native thought streams became highly relevant in Indian history when they helped form a distinctive identity in relation to the Indian polity and provided a basis for questioning colonialism.
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These also provided inspiration to Indian nationalists during the independence movement based on armed struggle, coercive politics, and non-violent protests. They also influenced social reform movements and economic thinking in India.Today, Hindutva (meaning "Hinduness") is a dominant form of Hindu nationalist politics in India. As a political ideology, the term Hindutva was articulated by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in 1923.
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The Hindutva movement has been described as a variant of "right-wing extremism" and as "almost fascist in the classical sense", adhering to a concept of homogenised majority and cultural hegemony. Some analysts dispute the "fascist" label, and suggest Hindutva is an extreme form of "conservatism" or "ethnic absolutism". Some have also described Hindutva as a separatist ideology. Hindutva is championed by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Hindu Nationalist volunteer organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), Sanatan Sanstha, the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), and other organisations in an ecosystem called the Sangh Parivar.
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In the first half of the 20th century, factions of Indian National Congress continued to be identified with "Hindu politics" and ideas of a Hindu nation. The word "Hindu", throughout history, had been used as an inclusive description that lacked a definition and was used to refer to the native traditions and people of India. It was only in the late 18th century that the word "Hindu" came to be used extensively with religious connotation, while still being used as a synecdoche describing the indigenous traditions. Hindu nationalist ideologies and political languages were very diverse both linguistically and socially.
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Since Hinduism does not represent an identifiable religious group, the terms such as 'Hindu nationalism', 'Hindu', are considered problematic in the case of religious and nationalism discourse. As Hindus were identifiable as a homogeneous community, some individual Congress leaders were able to induce a symbolism with "Hindu" meaning inside the general stance of a secular nationalism.The diversity of Indian cultural groups and moderate positions of Hindu nationalism have sometimes made it regarded as cultural nationalism than a religious one. Historian Baij Nath Puri writes that Vijayanagar empire (1336–1646) "was the result of the Hindu nationalist movement against Muslim intrusion and domination of the south".
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The empire also administered on the basis of Hindu dharmasastras, and Vedas were the major sources of the prevailing law.Shivaji with his quests is noted to have founded a firm footing for Hindu nationalism in with the foundation of Maratha Empire. Shivaji was also an inspiration for Hindu nationalist activists such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar writes that Shivaji had 'electrified' minds of Hindus all over India by defeating the forces of Aurangzeb.
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Maharajadhiraja Prithvi Narayan Shah proclaimed the newly unified Kingdom of Nepal as Asal Hindustan ("Real Land of Hindus") due to the fact that North India was ruled by the Islamic Mughal rulers. The proclamation was made to enforce the Hindu social code Dharmaśāstra over his reign and refer to his country as being inhabitable for Hindus. He also referred to the rest of Northern India as Mughlan (Country of Mughals) and called the region infiltrated by Muslim foreigners.
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After the Gorkhali conquest of the Kathmandu valley, King Prithvi Narayan Shah expelled Christian Capuchin missionaries from Patan and renamed Nepal as Asali Hindustan (real land of Hindus). The Tagadharis enjoyed a privileged status in the Nepalese capital and they were also given greater access to the authorities after these events. Subsequently, Hinduisation became the main policy of the Kingdom of Nepal. Prof. Harka Gurung speculates that the presence of Islamic Mughal rule and Christian British rule in India compelled the foundation of Hindu Nationalism in the Kingdom of Nepal, to build a haven for Hindus there.
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The policies of the old Bharadari governments of the Gorkha Kingdom were derived from ancient Hindu texts such as the Dharmashastra and the Manusmriti. The King was considered an incarnation of Lord Vishnu and was the chief authority over legislative, judiciary and executive functions. The judiciary functions were decided based on the principles of Hindu Dharma codes of conduct.
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The king had full rights to expel any person who offended the country and also to pardon the offenders and grant their return to the country. The government in practicality was not an absolute monarchy due to the dominance of Nepalese political clans such as the Pande family and the Thapa family, making the Shah monarch a puppet ruler. These basic Hindu templates provide the evidence that Nepal was administered as a Hindu state.
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The Nepali civil code, Muluki Ain, was commissioned by Jung Bahadur Rana after his European tour and enacted in 1854. It was rooted in traditional Hindu Law and codified social practices for several centuries in Nepal. The law also comprised Prāyaścitta (avoidance and removal of sin) and Ācāra (the customary law of different communities). It was an attempt to include the entire Hindu as well as the non-Hindu population of Nepal of that time into a single hierarchic civic code from the perspective of the Khas rulers.
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The Nepalese jati arrangement in terms of Hindu Varnashrama takes the Tagadhari to be the highest in the hierarchy. The ethnolinguistic group of people of Tamang, Sherpa and Tharu origin were tagged under the title Matwali ("Liquor Drinkers"), while those of Khas, Newari and Terai origin were termed Tagadhari ("Wearers of the Sacred Thread"). The Tagadhari castes could not be enslaved following any criminal punishment unless they had been expelled from the caste. The main broad caste categories in Nepal are Tagadharis (sacred thread bearers), Matwalis (liquor drinkers) and Dalits (or untouchables).
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Many Hindu reform movements originated in the nineteenth century. These movements led to the fresh interpretations of the ancient scriptures of Upanishads and Vedanta and also emphasised on social reform. The marked feature of these movements was that they countered the notion of the superiority of Western culture during the colonial era. This led to the upsurge of patriotic ideas that formed the cultural and an ideological basis for the independence movement in Colonial India.
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The Brahmo Samaj was started by a Bengali scholar, Ram Mohan Roy in 1828. Ram Mohan Roy endeavoured to create from the ancient Upanishadic texts, a vision of rationalist 'modern' India. Socially, he criticized the ongoing superstitions, and believed in a monotheistic Vedic religion.
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His major emphasis was social reform. He fought against Caste discrimination and advocated equal rights for women. Although the Brahmos found favourable response from the British government and Westernized Indians, they were largely isolated from the larger Hindu society due to their intellectual Vedantic and Unitarian views. But their efforts to systematise Hindu spirituality based on rational and logical interpretation of the ancient Indian texts would be carried forward by other movements in Bengal and across India.
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Arya Samaj is considered one of the overarching Hindu renaissance movements of the late nineteenth century. Swami Dayananda, the founder of Arya Samaj, rejected idolatry, caste restriction and untouchability, child marriage and advocated equal status and opportunities for women. He opposed "Brahmanism" (which he believed had led to the corruption of the knowledge of Vedas) as much as he opposed Christianity and Islam. Although Arya Samaj was often considered as a social movement, many revolutionaries and political leaders of the Indian Independence movement like Ramprasad Bismil, Bhagat Singh, Shyamji Krishnavarma, Bhai Paramanand and Lala Lajpat Rai were to be inspired by it.
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Another 19th-century Hindu reformer was Swami Vivekananda. Vivekananda as a student was educated in contemporary Western thought. He joined Brahmo Samaj briefly before meeting Ramakrishna, who was a priest in the temple of the goddess Kali in Calcutta and who was to become his guru. Under the influence of Orientalism, Perennialism and Universalism, Vivekananda re-interpreted Advaita Vedanta, presenting it as the essence of Hindu spirituality, and the development of human's religiosity.
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This project started with Ram Mohan Roy of Brahmo Samaj, who collaborated with the Unitarian Church, and propagated a strict monotheism. This reinterpretation produced neo-Vedanta, in which Advaita Vedanta was combined with disciplines such as yoga and the concept of social service to attain perfection from the ascetic traditions in what Vivekananda called the "practical Vedanta". The practical side essentially included participation in social reform.He made Hindu spirituality, intellectually available to the Westernized audience.
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His famous speech at the Parliament of the World's Religions at Chicago on 11 September 1893, followed huge reception of his thought in the West and made him a well-known figure in the West and subsequently in India too. His influence can still be recognised in popular western spirituality, such as nondualism, New Age and the veneration of Ramana Maharshi. A major element of Vivekananda's message was nationalist.
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He saw his effort very much in terms of a revitalisation of the Hindu nation, which carried Hindu spirituality and which could counter Western materialism. The notions of the superiority of Western culture against the culture of India, were to be questioned based on Hindu spirituality. It also became a main inspiration for Hindu nationalism today. One of the most revered leaders of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), Babasaheb Apte's lifelong pet sentence was "Vivekananda is like Gita for the RSS." Some historians have observed that this helped the nascent Independence movement with a distinct national identity and kept it from being the simple derivative function of European nationalisms.
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Sri Aurobindo was a nationalist and one of the first to embrace the idea of complete political independence for India. He was inspired by the writings of Swami Vivekananda and the novels of Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. He "based his claim for freedom for India on the inherent right to freedom, not on any charge of misgovernment or oppression". He believed that the primary requisite for national progress, national reform, is the free habit of free and healthy national thought and action and that it was impossible in a state of servitude.
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He was part of the Anushilan Samiti, a revolutionary group working towards the goal of Indian independence In his brief political career spanning only four years, he led a delegation from Bengal to the Indian National Congress session of 1907 and contributed to the revolutionary newspaper Bande Mataram. In his famous Uttarpara Speech, he outlined the essence and the goal of India's nationalist movement thus: "I say no longer that nationalism is a creed, a religion, a faith; I say that it is the Sanatan Dharma which for us is nationalism. This Hindu nation was born with the Sanatan Dharma, with it, it moves and with it, it grows.
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When the Sanatan Dharma declines, then the nation declines, and if the Sanatan Dharma were capable of perishing, with the Sanatan Dharma it would perish." In the same speech, he also gave a comprehensive perspective of Hinduism, which is at variance with the geocentric view developed by the later day Hindu nationalist ideologues such as Veer Savarkar and Deendayal Upadhyay: "But what is the Hindu religion? What is this religion which we call Sanatan, eternal?
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It is the Hindu religion only because the Hindu nation has kept it, because in this Peninsula it grew up in the seclusion of the sea and the Himalayas, because in this sacred and ancient land it was given as a charge to the Aryan race to preserve through the ages.But it is not circumscribed by the confines of a single country, it does not belong peculiarly and forever to a bounded part of the world. That which we call the Hindu religion is really the eternal religion, because it is the universal religion which embraces all others. If a religion is not universal, it cannot be eternal.
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A narrow religion, a sectarian religion, an exclusive religion can live only for a limited time and a limited purpose. This is the one religion that can triumph over materialism by including and anticipating the discoveries of science and the speculations of philosophy."
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In 1910, he withdrew from political life and spent his remaining life doing spiritual exercises and writing. But his works kept inspiring revolutionaries and struggles for independence, including the famous Chittagong Uprising. Both Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo are credited with having founded the basis for a vision of freedom and glory for India in the spirituality and heritage of Hinduism.
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The influence of the Hindu renaissance movements was such that by the turn of the 20th century, there was a confluence of ideas of the Hindu cultural nationalism with the ideas of Indian nationalism. Both could be spoken synonymous even by tendencies that were seemingly opposed to sectarian communalism and Hindu majoritism. The Hindu renaissance movements held considerable influence over the revolutionary movements against the British rule and formed the philosophical basis for the struggles and political movements that originated in the first decade of the twentieth century.
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Anushilan Samiti was one of the prominent revolutionary movements in India in the early part of the twentieth century. It was started as a cultural society in 1902, by Aurobindo and the followers of Bankim Chandra to propagate the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita. But soon the Samiti had its goal to overthrow British colonial rule in India Various branches of the Samiti sprung across India in the guise of suburban fitness clubs but secretly imparted arms training to its members with the implicit aim of using them against the British colonial administration.On 30 April 1908 at Muzaffarpur, two revolutionaries, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki, threw bombs at a British convoy aimed at British officer Kingsford. Both were arrested trying to flee.
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Aurobindo was also arrested on 2 May 1908 and sent to Alipore Jail. The report sent from Andrew Fraser, the then Lt Governor of Bengal to Lord Minto in England declared that although Sri Aurobindo came to Calcutta in 1906 as a Professor at the National College, "he has ever since been the principal advisor of the revolutionary party. It is of utmost importance to arrest his potential for mischief, for he is the prime mover and can easily set tools, one to replace another".
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But charges against Aurobindo were never proved and he was acquitted. Many members of the group faced charges and were transported and imprisoned for life. Others went into hiding.In 1910, when, Aurobindo withdrew from political life and decided to live a life of renounciate, the Anushilan Samiti declined.
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One of the revolutionaries, Bagha Jatin, who managed to escape the trial started a group which would be called Jugantar. Jugantar continued with its armed struggle against the colonial government, but the arrests of its key members and subsequent trials weakened its influence. Many of its members were imprisoned for life in the notorious Andaman Cellular jail.
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A revolutionary movement was started by Shyamji Krishnavarma, a Sanskritist and an Arya Samajist, in London, under the name of India House in 1905. The brain behind this movement was said to be V D Savarkar. Krishnaverma also published a monthly "Indian Sociologist", where the idea of an armed struggle against the British colonial government was openly espoused. The movement had become well known for its activities in the Indian expatriates in London.
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When Gandhi visited London in 1909, he shared a platform with the revolutionaries where both the parties politely agreed to disagree, on the question of adopting a violent struggle and whether Ramayana justified such violence. Gandhi, while admiring the "patriotism" of the young revolutionaries, had "dissented vociferously" from their "violent blueprints" for social change. In turn, the revolutionaries disliked his adherence to constitutionalism and his close contacts with moderate leaders of Indian National Congress.
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Moreover, they considered his method of "passive resistance" effeminate and humiliating.The India House had soon to face closure following the assassination of William Hutt Curzon Wyllie by the revolutionary Madan Lal Dhingra, who was close to India House. Savarkar also faced charges and was transported. Shyamji Krishna Varma fled to Paris.
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India House gave formative support to ideas that were later formulated by Savarkar in his book named 'Hindutva'. Hindutva was to gain relevance in the run-up to the Indian Independence and form the core ideology of the political party Hindu Mahasabha, of which Savarkar became president in 1937. It also formed the key ideology, under the euphemistic relabelling Rashtriyatva (nationalism), for the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh founded in 1925, and of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (the present-day ruling Bharatiya Janata Party) under another euphemistic relabelling Bharatiyata (Indianness).
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"Lal-Bal-Pal" is the phrase that is used to refer to the three nationalist leaders Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal who held the sway over the Indian Nationalist movement and the independence struggle in the early parts of twentieth century. Lala Lajpat Rai belonged to the northern province of Punjab. He was influenced greatly by the Arya Samaj and was part of the Hindu reform movement.
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He joined the Indian National Congress in 1888 and became a prominent figure in the Indian Independence Movement. He started numerous educational institutions. The National College at Lahore started by him became the centre for revolutionary ideas and was the college where revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh studied.
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While leading a procession against the Simon Commission, he was fatally injured in the lathi charge. His death led the revolutionaries like Chandrashekar Azad and Bhagat Singh to assassinate the British police officer J. P. Saunders, who they believed was responsible for the death of Lala Lajpat Rai.Bal Gangadhar Tilak was a nationalist leader from the Central Indian province of Maharashtra. He has been widely acclaimed the "Father of Indian unrest" who used the press and Hindu occasions like Ganesh Chaturthi and symbols like the Cow to create unrest against the British administration in India.
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Tilak joined the Indian National Congress in 1890. Under the influence of such leaders, the political discourse of the Congress moved from polite accusation that colonial rule was "un-British" to the forthright claim of Tilak that "Swaraj is my birthright and I will have it".Bipin Chandra Pal of Bengal was another prominent figure of the Indian nationalist movement, who is considered a modern Hindu reformer, who stood for Hindu cultural nationalism and was opposed to sectarian communalism and Hindu majoritism. He joined the Indian National Congress in 1886 and was also one of the key members of revolutionary India House.
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Though Mahatma Gandhi never called himself a "Hindu nationalist"; he believed in and propagated concepts like Dharma and introduced the concept of "Rāma Rājya" (Rule of Lord Rāma) as part of his social and political philosophy. Gandhi said "By political independence I do not mean an imitation to the British House of commons, or the soviet rule of Russia or the Fascist rule of Italy or the Nazi rule of Germany. They have systems suited to their genius. We must have ours suited to ours.
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What that can be is more than I can tell. I have described it as Ramarajya i.e., sovereignty of the people based on pure moral authority. "Gandhi emphasised that "Rāma Rājya" to him meant peace and justice, adding that "the ancient ideal of Ramarajya is undoubtedly one of true democracy in which the meanest citizen could be sure of swift justice without an elaborate and costly procedure".
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He also emphasised that it meant respect for all religions: "My Hinduism teaches me to respect all religions. In this lies the secret of Ramarajya".While Gandhi had clarified that "by Ram Rajya I do not mean Hindu Raj. I mean by Ram Rajya, Divine Raj, the kingdom of God," his concept of "Rama Rajya" became a major concept in Hindu nationalism.
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Madan Mohan Malviya, an educationist and a politician with the Indian National Congress was also a vociferous proponent of the philosophy of Bhagavad Gita (Bhagavad Gītā). He was the president of the Indian National Congress in the year 1909 and 1918. He was seen as a 'moderate' in the Congress and was also considered very close to Gandhi. He popularized the Sanskrit phrase "Satyameva Jayate" (Truth alone triumphs), from the Mundaka Upanishad, which today is the national motto of the Republic of India. He founded the Benaras Hindu University in 1919 and became its first Vice-Chancellor.
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Another leader of prime importance in the ascent of Hindu nationalism was Keshav Baliram Hedgewar of Nagpur. Hedgewar as a medical student in Calcutta had been part of the revolutionary activities of the Hindu Mahasabha, Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar. He was charged with sedition in 1921 by the British Administration and served a year in prison. He was briefly a member of Indian National Congress.
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In 1925, he left the Congress to form the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) with the help of Hindu Mahasabha Leader B. S. Moonje, Bapuji Soni, Gatate Ji etc., which would become the focal point of Hindu movements in Independent India. The Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh started by him became one of the most prominent Hindu organisation with its influence ranging in the social and political spheres of India. In 1930, when Mahatma Gandhi started Satyagraha movement against the British Government, Hedgewar participated in the movement in his individual capacity and did not let the RSS join the freedom movement officially.
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The RSS portrayed itself as a social movement rather than a political party, and did not play central role in any of the Indian independence movement. However, the RSS emphatically rejected the Congress policy of cooperation with the Muslims. Subsequently, in 1934, the Congress banned its members from joining RSS, Hindu Mahasabha or Muslim League.After death of Hedgewar in 1940, M. S. Golwalkar became head of the organization.
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RSS continued to avoid participation in anti-British activities, as Golwalkar did not want to give the British colonial administration any excuse to ban the RSS. : 60 After the Muslim League passed the Lahore Resolution demanding a separate Pakistan, the RSS campaigned for a Hindu nation, but stayed away from the independence struggle. When the British colonial government banned military drills and use of uniforms in non-official organizations, Golwalkar terminated the RSS military department. : 60 RSS had played no role in the Quit India Movement and nor the naval revolt.
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The Bengali Hindu Homeland Movement refers to the movement of the Bengali Hindu people for the Partition of Bengal in 1947 to create a homeland for themselves within India, in the wake of Muslim League's proposal and campaign to include the entire province of Bengal within Pakistan, which was to be a homeland for the Muslims of British India. The movement began in late 1946, especially after the Great Calcutta Killing and Noakhali genocide, gained significant momentum in April 1947 and in the end met with success on 20 June 1947 when the legislators from the Hindu majority areas returned their verdict in favour of Partition and the Bengal Presidency was divided into West Bengal and East Pakistan.
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