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The museum was designed by Austen Harrison, chief architect of the Mandatory Department of Public Works, who drew up blueprints for a white limestone building integrating eastern and western architectural elements. The cornerstone of the new museum was laid on June 19, 1930, but construction was delayed due to the discovery of tombs dating to the fifth century B.C. at the building site.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockefeller_Archeological_Museum
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The museum features a stone bas-relief of the meeting of Asia and Africa above the main entrance together with ten stone reliefs illustrating different cultures and a gargoyle fountain in the inner courtyard carved in 1934 by the British sculptor Eric Gill (1882–1940). Gill also produced stone carved signage throughout the museum in English, Hebrew, and Arabic. The Palestine Archaeological Museum opened to the public on January 13, 1938. Until the final days of the Mandate period, the museum was administered by the British Palestine Government. On 1 April 1948, it was closed to the public.
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On 20 April 1948, the High Commissioner appointed a council of international trustees to administer the museum. The council consisted of twelve members: two representing the High Commissioner, one from the British Academy, one from the British Museum, one from the French National Academy, one from the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, two from the Antiquities Departments of the Egyptian, Syrian, Lebanese, Iraqi or Transjordanian governments; one from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, one from the Royal Swedish Academy, one from the American Institute of Archaeology, and one from the American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem. The board ran the museum until 1966. In the 1950s, controversies arose about objects removed both to Amman and to the Israeli side.After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the museum also became a secondary headquarters of the Jordanian Department of Antiquities, headed by Gerald Lankester Harding until 1956. In 1966, the museum was nationalized by King Hussein during the Jordanian annexation of the West Bank.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockefeller_Archeological_Museum
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Seven months later, when the 1967 Six-Day War broke out, the museum was captured by an Israeli paratroop brigade. Its hexagonal tower was used as a lookout. Fierce fighting took place here between Israeli and Jordanian forces, culminating in an Israeli victory. The Museum was then officially renamed as the Rockefeller Museum.The Museum's most priced collection, the ancient Dead Sea Scrolls, were moved by Israel from the Museum to the Israel Museum, in West Jerusalem, with the ownership of the scrolls having been heavily contested ever since. Part of the scrolls, including the Copper Scroll, had been taken to the Jordan Museum in Amman.Since 1967, the museum has been jointly managed by the Israel Museum and the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums (later reorganized as the Israel Antiquities Authority).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockefeller_Archeological_Museum
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The museum's first curator was John H. Iliffe, who arranged the artifacts in chronological order, from two million years ago to 1700 AD. Among the museum's prized possessions are 8th-century wooden panels from the Jami Al-Aqsa and 12th-century (Crusader-period) marble lintels from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Most of the collection consists of finds from the 1920s and 1930s. On display are artifacts unearthed in Jerusalem, Megiddo, Ashkelon, Lachish, Sebastia, and Jericho.
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One of the Lachish letters is on permanent display at the museum, as are the statuary and stucco decorations from the Umayyad Hisham's Palace. Upon their discovery at Qumran between 1947 and 1956, the ancient Dead Sea Scrolls were housed in the Rockefeller Museum. In 1967, following the Israeli capture of East Jerusalem, Israel relocated the scrolls to the Shrine of the Book, a specially designed building on the grounds of the Israel Museum, in West Jerusalem, with the ownership of these scrolls having been heavily contested ever since.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockefeller_Archeological_Museum
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Part of the scrolls, including the Copper Scroll, had been taken to the Jordan Museum in Amman. Currently, the Rockefeller Museum holds thousands of artifacts ranging from prehistoric times to the Ottoman period. It includes the largest of the Beisan steles (considered "the most impressive find from Egypt's rule over Canaan") a 9,000-year-old statue from Jericho (one of the oldest representations of a human figure ever found), as well as gold jewelry from the Bronze Age.
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The museum regularly hosts special exhibitions, such as the 2019/2021 exhibition of Armenian ceramics in Jerusalem.
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Inside what was to have been the rear courtyard of the museum stood (until it died after nearly 300 years in 1998) one of the oldest pine trees in the country. According to Arab legend, on the site of this pine tree, Ezra the Scribe sat and wrote the Torah for Israel. The stump may still be seen behind the museum.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockefeller_Archeological_Museum
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The Uganda Communications Commission (UCC) is the government regulatory body of the communications sector in Uganda. Although owned by the Ugandan government, it acts independently. Its mandated responsibilities include licensing, regulation, communications infrastructure development and the expansion of rural communications service.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Communications_Commission
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The headquarters of the UCC are located at 42-44 Spring Road, in Bugoloobi, a neighborhood in Nakawa Division, in Kampala, the capital of Uganda and the largest city in that country. Other regional offices are located in Gulu, Mbale, Masindi and Mbarara.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Communications_Commission
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UCC was created by the Communications Act enacted in 1997, by the Ugandan Parliament. That instrument, split the then Ugandan parastatal, Uganda Posts and Telecommunications Company Limited (UPTCL), into four entities: Uganda Communications Commission (UCC) – The communications industry regulator Uganda Post Limited – Also known as Posta Uganda PostBank Uganda – A government-owned financial institution Uganda Telecom – An information technology and communication network company.In January 2021, Uganda Communications Commission ordered the shutdown of the Internet in Uganda, amid elections.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Communications_Commission
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The organizational structure of the commission, is laid out in detail at the Communications Commission's web site.The Communications Commission runs a film festival to promote the country's film industry.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Communications_Commission
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The Rural Communications Development Fund (RCDF), was founded in 2003 and is responsible for the development of communications infrastructure outside of Uganda's urban centers. The RCDF has set standards for its work in the 112 districts of the country. RCDF's scope of work includes: (a) creation of internet points of presence (b) internet training centers (c) creation of internet cafes at every district headquarters (d) creation of web portals for every district (e) maintenance of pay telephones at the ratio of at least one for every 2500 people (f) development of postal projects, Multi-purpose Community Telecentres (MCTs), internet development for schools & health care facilities and (g) development of call centres.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Communications_Commission
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The chairman of the seven-member communications board is Eng Dr Dorothy Okello. Other board members include; Evelyn Piloya, Jane Kabbale, Rajab Wardah Gyagenda, William Byaruhanga, Norah Muliira and Charles Lwanga Auk. The executive director is Irene Sewankambo.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Communications_Commission
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Uganda Film Festival - A five-day annual event aimed at promoting and developing the Ugandan film industry. The festival started in 2013. Workshops, trainings, screenings and outreach projects and the Uganda Film Festival Awards are part of the festival.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda_Communications_Commission
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Subject librarians, also known as specialist librarians or academic liaison librarians and sometimes bibliographers in US-English are librarians responsible for a section of a library in regards to a particular academic subject. They are mainly in acadamic libraries and specialist libraries (such as legal libraries or medical libraries), but are also found in large non-academic libraries such as national or state libraries. In academic libraries, they work together with the faculty of their specialist subject to ensure the quality of their collection and manage required recommended course readings.Subject librarianship as a specific role developed in the 1960s, when many academic institutions began to put more funding into their libraries.
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Subject librarians need both academic knowledge of their subject as well as skills in library science. While some argue about whether formal education in the specialist subject is necessary, while others believe it is a vital component of a subject librarian's education.In Australia, most subject librarians have an undergraduate degree in their specialist subject and further education in an accredited library sciences course, such as a Master of Information Management.
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While subject librarians would generally not work at the enquiry desk, they may answer online queries related to their specialist topic.
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Having knowledge in a subject gives a subject librarian a strong advantage over a general librarian in knowing what resources are advantageous to have for students and researchers. Their responsibilities for sections of the library collection that fall within their topic may include acquiring relevant materials, based on classes if at a university, cataloguing and classification of topics, and weeding out-of-date or unused resources.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_librarian
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As suggested in the name "academic liaison librarian", subject librarians play an important role in ensuring good communication between the library and the professors in a university. This can include: Choosing required/recommended course readings based on what resources the library already has available Analysing cost/benefit for acquiring new resources as requested by faculty members, and acquiring said resources if applicable Providing online resources for faculty and students Encouraging professors to make students aware of the library's resources Help students and researchers find resources in specific topics related to their subject
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Having knowledge of a subject, the existing classes relating to it, and what information is available through the library allows subject librarians in universities to assist in creating course plans based on what information is available to students. == References ==
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subject_librarian
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Proprioception ( PROH-pree-oh-SEP-shən, -ə-), also called kinaesthesia (or kinesthesia), is the sense of self-movement, force, and body position.Proprioception is mediated by proprioceptors, mechanosensory neurons located within muscles, tendons, and joints. Most animals possess multiple subtypes of proprioceptors, which detect distinct kinematic parameters, such as joint position, movement, and load. Although all mobile animals possess proprioceptors, the structure of the sensory organs can vary across species. Proprioceptive signals are transmitted to the central nervous system, where they are integrated with information from other sensory systems, such as the visual system and the vestibular system, to create an overall representation of body position, movement, and acceleration. In many animals, sensory feedback from proprioceptors is essential for stabilizing body posture and coordinating body movement.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception
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In vertebrates, limb movement and velocity (muscle length and the rate of change) are encoded by one group of sensory neurons (type Ia sensory fiber) and another type encode static muscle length (group II neurons). These two types of sensory neurons compose muscle spindles. There is a similar division of encoding in invertebrates; different subgroups of neurons of the Chordotonal organ encode limb position and velocity. To determine the load on a limb, vertebrates use sensory neurons in the Golgi tendon organs: type Ib afferents.
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These proprioceptors are activated at given muscle forces, which indicate the resistance that muscle is experiencing. Similarly, invertebrates have a mechanism to determine limb load: the Campaniform sensilla. These proprioceptors are active when a limb experiences resistance.A third role for proprioceptors is to determine when a joint is at a specific position.
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In vertebrates, this is accomplished by Ruffini endings and Pacinian corpuscles. These proprioceptors are activated when the joint is at a threshold position, usually at the extremes of joint position. Invertebrates use hair plates to accomplish this; a field of bristles located within joints that detects the relative movement of limb segments through the deflection of the associated cuticular hairs.
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The sense of proprioception is ubiquitous across mobile animals and is essential for the motor coordination of the body. Proprioceptors can form reflex circuits with motor neurons to provide rapid feedback about body and limb position. These mechanosensory circuits are important for flexibly maintaining posture and balance, especially during locomotion. For example, consider the stretch reflex, in which stretch across a muscle is detected by a sensory receptor (e.g., muscle spindle, chordotonal neurons), which activates a motor neuron to induce muscle contraction and oppose the stretch. During locomotion, sensory neurons can reverse their activity when stretched, to promote rather than oppose movement.
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In humans, a distinction is made between conscious proprioception and nonconscious proprioception: Conscious proprioception is communicated by the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway to the cerebrum. Nonconscious proprioception is communicated primarily via the dorsal spinocerebellar tract and ventral spinocerebellar tract, to the cerebellum. A nonconscious reaction is seen in the human proprioceptive reflex, or righting reflex—in the event that the body tilts in any direction, the person will cock their head back to level the eyes against the horizon. This is seen even in infants as soon as they gain control of their neck muscles. This control comes from the cerebellum, the part of the brain affecting balance.
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Proprioception is mediated by mechanically sensitive proprioceptor neurons distributed throughout an animal's body. Most vertebrates possess three basic types of proprioceptors: muscle spindles, which are embedded in skeletal muscles, Golgi tendon organs, which lie at the interface of muscles and tendons, and joint receptors, which are low-threshold mechanoreceptors embedded in joint capsules. Many invertebrates, such as insects, also possess three basic proprioceptor types with analogous functional properties: chordotonal neurons, campaniform sensilla, and hair plates.The initiation of proprioception is the activation of a proprioceptor in the periphery. The proprioceptive sense is believed to be composed of information from sensory neurons located in the inner ear (motion and orientation) and in the stretch receptors located in the muscles and the joint-supporting ligaments (stance).
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There are specific nerve receptors for this form of perception termed "proprioceptors", just as there are specific receptors for pressure, light, temperature, sound, and other sensory experiences. Proprioceptors are sometimes known as adequate stimuli receptors.Members of the transient receptor potential family of ion channels have been found to be important for proprioception in fruit flies, nematode worms, African clawed frogs, and zebrafish.
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PIEZO2, a nonselective cation channel, has been shown to underlie the mechanosensitivity of proprioceptors in mice. Humans with loss-of-function mutations in the PIEZO2 gene exhibit specific deficits in joint proprioception, as well as vibration and touch discrimination, suggesting that the PIEZO2 channel is essential for mechanosensitivity in some proprioceptors and low-threshold mechanoreceptors.Although it was known that finger kinesthesia relies on skin sensation, recent research has found that kinesthesia-based haptic perception relies strongly on the forces experienced during touch. This research allows the creation of "virtual", illusory haptic shapes with different perceived qualities.
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Proprioception of the head stems from the muscles innervated by the trigeminal nerve, where the general somatic afferent fibers pass without synapsing in the trigeminal ganglion (first-order sensory neuron), reaching the mesencephalic tract and the mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve. Proprioception of limbs often occurs due to receptors in connective tissue near joints.
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An important role for proprioception is to allow an animal to stabilize itself against perturbations. For instance, for a person to walk or stand upright, they must continuously monitor their posture and adjust muscle activity as needed to provide balance. Similarly, when walking on unfamiliar terrain or even tripping, the person must adjust the output of their muscles quickly based on estimated limb position and velocity. Proprioceptor reflex circuits are thought to play an important role to allow fast and unconscious execution of these behaviors, To make control of these behaviors efficient, proprioceptors are also thought to regulate reciprocal inhibition in muscles, leading to agonist-antagonist muscle pairs.
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When planning complex movements such as reaching or grooming, an animal must consider the current position and velocity of its limb and use that information to adjust dynamics to target a final position. If the animal's estimate of its limb's initial position is wrong, then a deficiency in the movement can result. Furthermore, proprioception is crucial in refining the movement if it deviates from the trajectory.
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In adult fruit flies, each proprioceptor class arises from a specific cell lineage (i.e. each chordotonal neuron is from the chordotonal neuron lineage, although multiple lineages give rise to sensory bristles). After the last cell division, proprioceptors send out axons toward the central nervous system and are guided by hormonal gradients to reach stereotyped synapses. The mechanisms underlying axon guidance are similar across invertebrates and vertebrates.In mammals with longer gestation periods, muscle spindles are fully formed at birth. Muscle spindles continue to grow throughout post-natal development as muscles grow.
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Proprioceptors transfer the mechanical state of the body into patterns of neural activity. This transfer can be modeled mathematically, for example to better understand the internal workings of a proprioceptor or to provide more realistic feedback in neuromechanical simulations.Various proprioceptor models of complexity have been developed. They range from simple phenomenological models to complex structural models, in which the mathematical elements correspond to anatomical features of the proprioceptor. The focus has been on muscle spindles, but Golgi tendon organs and insects' hair plates have been modeled too.
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Poppelle and Bowman used linear system theory to model mammalian muscle spindles Ia and II afferents. They obtained a set of de-afferented muscle spindles, measured their response to a series of sinusoidal and step function stretches, and fit a transfer function to the spike rate. They found that the following Laplace transfer function describes the firing rate responses of the primary sensory fibers for a change in length: H ( s ) = K 1 s ( s + 0.44 ) ( s + 11.3 ) ( s + 44 ) ( s + 0.04 ) ( s + 0.816 ) {\displaystyle H(s)=K_{1}{\frac {s(s+0.44)(s+11.3)(s+44)}{(s+0.04)(s+0.816)}}} The following equation describes the response of secondary sensory fibers: H ( s ) = K 2 ( s + 0.44 ) ( s + 11.3 ) s + 0.816 {\displaystyle H(s)=K_{2}{\frac {(s+0.44)(s+11.3)}{s+0.816}}} More recently, Blum et al. showed that the muscle spindle firing rate is modeled better as tracking the force of the muscle, rather than the length. Furthermore, muscle spindle firing rates show history dependence which cannot be modeled by a linear time-invariant system model.
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Houk and Simon provided one of the first mathematical models of a Golgi tendon organ receptor, modeling the firing rate of the receptor as a function of the muscle tension force. Just as for muscle spindles, they find that, as the receptors respond linearly to sine waves of different frequencies and has little variance in response over time to the same stimulus, Golgi tendon organ receptors may be modeled as linear time-invariant systems. Specifically, they find that the firing rate of a Golgi tendon organ receptor may be modeled as a sum of 3 decaying exponentials: r ( t ) = K u ( t ) {\displaystyle r(t)=Ku(t)} where r ( t ) {\displaystyle r(t)} is the firing rate and u ( t ) {\displaystyle u(t)} is a step function of force. The corresponding Laplace transfer function for this system is: H ( s ) = K ( 1 + A s s + a + B s s + b + C s s + c ) {\displaystyle H(s)=K\left(1+{\frac {As}{s+a}}+{\frac {Bs}{s+b}}+{\frac {Cs}{s+c}}\right)} For a soleus receptor, Houk and Simon obtain average values of K=57 pulses/sec/kg, A=0.31, a=0.22 sec−1, B=0.4, b=2.17 sec−1, C=2.5, c=36 sec−1 . When modeling a stretch reflex, Lin and Crago improved upon this model by adding a logarithmic nonlinearity before the Houk and Simon model and a threshold nonlinearity after.
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Proprioception, a sense vital for rapid and proper body coordination, can be permanently lost or impaired as a result of genetic conditions, disease, viral infections, and injuries. For instance, patients with joint hypermobility or Ehlers–Danlos syndromes, genetic conditions that result in weak connective tissue throughout the body, have chronic impairments to proprioception. Moreover, proprioception may be chronically impaired in physiological aging (presbypropria), autism spectrum disorder, and Parkinson's disease. In regards to Parkinson's disease, it remains unclear whether the proprioceptive-related decline in motor function occurs due to disrupted proprioceptors in the periphery or signaling in the spinal cord or brain.
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In rare cases, viral infections result in a loss of proprioception. Ian Waterman and Charles Freed are two such people that lost their sense of proprioception from the neck down from supposed viral infections (i.e. gastric flu and a rare viral infection). After losing their sense of proprioception, Ian and Charles could move their lower body, but could not coordinate their movements.
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However, both individuals regained some control of their limbs and body by consciously planning their movements and relying solely on visual feedback. Interestingly, both individuals can still sense pain and temperature, indicating that they specifically lost proprioceptive feedback, but not tactile and nociceptive feedback. The impact of losing the sense of proprioception on daily life is perfectly illustrated when Ian Waterman stated, "What is an active brain without mobility".Proprioception is also permanently lost in people who lose a limb or body part through injury or amputation.
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After the removal of a limb, people may have a confused sense of that limb's existence on their body, known as phantom limb syndrome. Phantom sensations can occur as passive proprioceptive sensations of the limb's presence, or more active sensations such as perceived movement, pressure, pain, itching, or temperature. There are a variety of theories concerning the etiology of phantom limb sensations and experience. One is the concept of "proprioceptive memory", which argues that the brain retains a memory of specific limb positions and that after amputation there is a conflict between the visual system, which actually sees that the limb is missing, and the memory system which remembers the limb as a functioning part of the body. Phantom sensations and phantom pain may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, such as after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain), or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome).
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Proprioception is occasionally impaired spontaneously, especially when one is tired. Similar effects can be felt during the hypnagogic state of consciousness, during the onset of sleep. One's body may feel too large or too small, or parts of the body may feel distorted in size. Similar effects can sometimes occur during epilepsy or migraine auras.
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These effects are presumed to arise from abnormal stimulation of the part of the parietal cortex of the brain involved with integrating information from different parts of the body. Proprioceptive illusions can also be induced, such as the Pinocchio illusion. Temporary impairment of proprioception has also been known to occur from an overdose of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine and pyridoxamine).
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Most of the impaired function returns to normal shortly after the amount of the vitamin in the body returns to a level that is closer to that of the physiological norm. Impairment can also be caused by cytotoxic factors such as chemotherapy. It has been proposed that even common tinnitus and the attendant hearing frequency-gaps masked by the perceived sounds may cause erroneous proprioceptive information to the balance and comprehension centers of the brain, precipitating mild confusion.
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Temporary loss or impairment of proprioception may happen periodically during growth, mostly during adolescence. Growth that might also influence this would be large increases or drops in bodyweight/size due to fluctuations of fat (liposuction, rapid fat loss or gain) and/or muscle content (bodybuilding, anabolic steroids, catabolisis/starvation). It can also occur in those that gain new levels of flexibility, stretching, and contortion. A limb's being in a new range of motion never experienced (or at least, not for a long time since youth perhaps) can disrupt one's sense of location of that limb. Possible experiences include suddenly feeling that feet or legs are missing from one's mental self-image; needing to look down at one's limbs to be sure they are still there; and falling down while walking, especially when attention is focused upon something other than the act of walking.
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Impaired proprioception may be diagnosed through a series of tests, each focusing on a different functional aspect of proprioception. The Romberg's test is often used to assess balance. The subject must stand with feet together and eyes closed without support for 30 seconds. If the subject loses balance and falls, it is an indicator for impaired proprioception.
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For evaluating proprioception's contribution to motor control, a common protocol is joint position matching. The patient is blindfolded while a joint is moved to a specific angle for a given period of time and then returned to neutral. The subject is then asked to move the joint back to the specified angle.
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Recent investigations have shown that hand dominance, participant age, active versus passive matching, and presentation time of the angle can all affect performance on joint position matching tasks.For passive sensing of joint angles, recent studies have found that experiments to probe psychophysical thresholds produce more precise estimates of proprioceptive discrimination than the joint position matching task. In these experiments, the subject holds on to an object (such as an armrest) that moves and stops at different positions. The subject must discriminate whether one position is closer to the body than another.
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From the subject's choices, the tester may determine the subject's discrimination thresholds. Proprioception is tested by American police officers using the field sobriety testing to check for alcohol intoxication. The subject is required to touch his or her nose with eyes closed; people with normal proprioception may make an error of no more than 20 mm (0.79 in), while people with impaired proprioception (a symptom of moderate to severe alcohol intoxication) fail this test due to difficulty locating their limbs in space relative to their noses.
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Proprioception is what allows someone to learn to walk in complete darkness without losing balance. During the learning of any new skill, sport, or art, it is usually necessary to become familiar with some proprioceptive tasks specific to that activity. Without the appropriate integration of proprioceptive input, an artist would not be able to brush paint onto a canvas without looking at the hand as it moved the brush over the canvas; it would be impossible to drive an automobile because a motorist would not be able to steer or use the pedals while looking at the road ahead; a person could not touch type or perform ballet; and people would not even be able to walk without watching where they put their feet.Oliver Sacks reported the case of a young woman who lost her proprioception due to a viral infection of her spinal cord. At first she could not move properly at all or even control her tone of voice (as voice modulation is primarily proprioceptive).
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Later she relearned by using her sight (watching her feet) and inner ear only for movement while using hearing to judge voice modulation. She eventually acquired a stiff and slow movement and nearly normal speech, which is believed to be the best possible in the absence of this sense. She could not judge effort involved in picking up objects and would grip them painfully to be sure she did not drop them.
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The proprioceptive sense can be sharpened through study of many disciplines. Juggling trains reaction time, spatial location, and efficient movement. Standing on a wobble board or balance board is often used to retrain or increase proprioceptive abilities, particularly as physical therapy for ankle or knee injuries.
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Slacklining is another method to increase proprioception. Standing on one leg (stork standing) and various other body-position challenges are also used in such disciplines as yoga, Wing Chun and tai chi. The vestibular system of the inner ear, vision and proprioception are the main three requirements for balance. Moreover, there are specific devices designed for proprioception training, such as the exercise ball, which works on balancing the abdominal and back muscles.
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In 1557, the position-movement sensation was described by Julius Caesar Scaliger as a "sense of locomotion".In 1826, Charles Bell expounded the idea of a "muscle sense", which is credited as one of the first descriptions of physiologic feedback mechanisms. Bell's idea was that commands are carried from the brain to the muscles, and that reports on the muscle's condition would be sent in the reverse direction. In 1847, the London neurologist Robert Todd highlighted important differences in the anterolateral and posterior columns of the spinal cord, and suggested that the latter were involved in the coordination of movement and balance.At around the same time, Moritz Heinrich Romberg, a Berlin neurologist, was describing unsteadiness made worse by eye closure or darkness, now known as the eponymous Romberg's sign, once synonymous with tabes dorsalis, that became recognised as common to all proprioceptive disorders of the legs.In 1880, Henry Charlton Bastian suggested "kinaesthesia" instead of "muscle sense" on the basis that some of the afferent information (back to the brain) comes from other structures, including tendons, joints, and skin.In 1889, Alfred Goldscheider suggested a classification of kinaesthesia into three types: muscle, tendon, and articular sensitivity.In 1906, the term proprio-ception (and also intero-ception and extero-ception) is attested in a publication by Charles Scott Sherrington involving receptors. He explains the terminology as follows: Today, the "exteroceptors" are the organs that provide information originating outside the body, such as the eyes, ears, mouth, and skin.
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The interoceptors provide information about the internal organs, and the "proprioceptors" provide information about movement derived from muscular, tendon, and articular sources. Using Sherrington's system, physiologists and anatomists search for specialised nerve endings that transmit mechanical data on joint capsule, tendon and muscle tension (such as Golgi tendon organs and muscle spindles), which play a large role in proprioception.Primary endings of muscle spindles "respond to the size of a muscle length change and its speed" and "contribute both to the sense of limb position and movement". Secondary endings of muscle spindles detect changes in muscle length, and thus supply information regarding only the sense of position. Essentially, muscle spindles are stretch receptors. It has been accepted that cutaneous receptors also contribute directly to proprioception by providing "accurate perceptual information about joint position and movement", and this knowledge is combined with information from the muscle spindles.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception
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Proprioception is from Latin proprius, meaning "one's own", "individual", and capio, capere, to take or grasp. Thus to grasp one's own position in space, including the position of the limbs in relation to each other and the body as a whole.The word kinesthesia or kinæsthesia (kinesthetic sense) refers to movement sense, but has been used inconsistently to refer either to proprioception alone or to the brain's integration of proprioceptive and vestibular inputs. Kinesthesia is a modern medical term composed of elements from Greek; kinein "to set in motion; to move" (from PIE root *keie- "to set in motion") + aisthesis "perception, feeling" (from PIE root *au- "to perceive").
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception
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Although they lack neurons, systems responding to stimuli (analogous to the sensory system in animals with a nervous system, which includes the proprioception) have also been described in some plants (angiosperms). Terrestrial plants control the orientation of their primary growth through the sensing of several vectorial stimuli such as the light gradient or the gravitational acceleration. This control has been called tropism. A quantitative study of shoot gravitropism demonstrated that, when a plant is tilted, it cannot recover a steady erected posture under the sole driving of the sensing of its angular deflection versus gravity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception
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An additional control through the continuous sensing of its curvature by the organ and the subsequent driving an active straightening process are required. Being a sensing by the plant of the relative configuration of its parts, it has been called proprioception. This dual sensing and control by gravisensing and proprioception has been formalized into a unifying mathematical model simulating the complete driving of the gravitropic movement.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception
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This model has been validated on 11 species sampling the phylogeny of land angiosperms, and on organs of very contrasted sizes, ranging from the small germination of wheat (coleoptile) to the trunk of poplar trees.Further studies have shown that the cellular mechanism of proprioception in plants involves myosin and actin, and seems to occur in specialized cells. Proprioception was then found to be involved in other tropisms and to be central also to the control of nutation.The discovery of proprioception in plants has generated an interest in the popular science and generalist media. This is because this discovery questions a long-lasting a priori that we have on plants.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception
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In some cases this has led to a shift between proprioception and self-awareness or self-consciousness. There is no scientific ground for such a semantic shift. Indeed, even in animals, proprioception can be unconscious; so it is thought to be in plants.Recent studies suggest that bacteria have control systems that may resemble proprioception.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception
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The Parque de La Granja is a park in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain. It was built between 1969 and 1976. It is a wide area designated for sports, games, rides to admire the flora and more. It is one of the largest urban parks in the Canary Islands.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parque_de_La_Granja
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The Parque de La Granja has a very broad extension of facilities for outdoor sports. It has wide roads of asphalt and gravel, surrounded by garden plots. Many Santa Cruz residents associate sports with this park, which can be accessed from Avenida de Madrid or Avenida Benito Pérez Armas. The Parque de la Granja, built in 1969, is somewhat larger than the García Sanabria Park and inside there are groups of royal palms and reed beds, large areas of grass, a children's playground and several sculptures, one of them erected by Belén Morales in homage to Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parque_de_La_Granja
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Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome (PMDS) is the presence of Müllerian duct derivatives (fallopian tubes, uterus, and/or the upper part of the vagina) in what would be considered a genetically and otherwise physically normal male animal by typical human based standards. In humans, PMDS typically is due to an autosomal recessive congenital disorder and is considered by some to be a form of pseudohermaphroditism due to the presence of Müllerian derivatives.Typical features include undescended testes (cryptorchidism) and the presence of a small, underdeveloped uterus in an XY infant or adult. This condition is usually caused by deficiency of fetal anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) effect due to mutations of the gene for AMH or the anti-Müllerian hormone receptor, but may also be as a result of insensitivity to AMH of the target organ.PMDS can also present in non-human animals.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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The first visible signs of PMDS after birth is cryptorchidism (undescended testes) either unilaterally or bilaterally. Along with cryptorchidism, is also inguinal hernias which may be presented unilaterally (affects one testicle) or bilaterally (affects both testicles). Adults who have been oblivious to this condition may be presented with haematuria, which is when blood appears in urine because of hormonal imbalances.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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PMDS Type I, is also referred to as hernia uteri inguinalis, which exhibits one descended testis that has also pulled the fallopian tube and sometimes uterus, through the inguinal canal. The descended testes, fallopian tube and uterus all fall in the same inguinal canal, causing an inguinal hernia. Altogether when the aforementioned conditions occur, it is called transverse testicular ectopia.Under the microscope, some samples taken for biopsies displayed results where testicular tissue was at a stage of immaturity, and showed dysplasia.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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Mutation in AMH gene (PMDS Type 1) or AMHR2 gene (PMDS Type 2) are the primary causes of PMDS. AMH, or sometimes referred to as Müllerian inhibiting substance (MIS), is secreted by Sertoli cells during an individual's whole life. It is essential during the foetal period as it functions to regress the Müllerian ducts. However, AMH also functions in the last trimester of pregnancy, after birth, and even during adulthood in minimal amounts.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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The Sertoli cells in males secrete AMH, through the presence of a Y chromosome.The role of the AMH gene in reproductive development, is the production of a protein that contributes to male sex differentiation. During development of male foetuses, the AMH protein is secreted by cells within the testes. AMHs bind to the AMH Type 2 Receptors, which are present on cells on the surface of the Müllerian duct.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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The binding of AMH to its receptors on the Müllerian duct induces the apoptosis of the Müllerian duct cells, thus the regression of the Müllerian duct within males. However, for females who originally do not produce AMH proteins during foetal development, the Müllerian duct eventually becomes the uterus and fallopian tubes as normal. With the AMH gene mutation (PMDS Type 1), the AMH is either not produced, produced in deficient amounts, defective, secreted at the wrong critical period for male differentiation or the Müllerian ducts manifested a resistance to AMH.AMHR2 contains the instructions for generating the receptors that AMH binds to.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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If there is a mutation in the AMHR2 gene, the response to AMH molecules binding to the receptor cannot be properly reciprocated. Other possibilities include an absence of the receptors, such that the AMH molecules cannot induce differentiation. Mutation in the AMHR2 is critical to proper male sex differentiation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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The genetic mutational cause of PMDS, is a 27 base-pair deletion of the Anti-Müllerian Type 2 Receptor gene. The 27-base-pair deletion that occurs PMDS is in exon 10 on one allele.PMDS is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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The male individuals inherit mutated copies of the X chromosomes from the maternal and paternal genes, implying the parents are carriers and do not show symptoms. Females inheriting two mutated genes do not display symptoms of PMDS, though remain as carriers. Males are affected genotypically with the karyotype (46, XY) and phenotypically.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome (PMDS), also known as persistent oviduct syndrome, is a congenital disorder related to male sexual development. PMDS usually affects phenotypically normal male individuals with the karyotype (46, XY) and is a form of pseudohermaphroditism.The condition occurs in males and consists of normal-functioning reproductive organs and gonads, but also female reproductive organs such as the uterus and the fallopian tubes. The fetus has two sets of tubes which give rise to accessory reproductive organs - the (Wolffian) mesonephric ducts and the (Müllerian) paramesonephric ducts. Usually, the Wolffian duct gives rise to male reproductive organs (specifically the testicle, epididymis and vas deferens) while the Müllerian to female (the fallopian tubes, the uterus and the vagina), while the other duct regresses.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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In PMDS, an abnormality in the anti-Müllerian hormone signaling pathway causes the in-males-redundant Müllerian duct to persist and give rise to variously developed female reproductive organs.PMDS has various causes related to AMH or receptor abnormalities. For example, AMH has failed to synthesize, failed to release or was secreted at the wrong time. Normally, both the Müllerian and Wolffian ducts are present during the 7th week of gestation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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At approximately the end of the 7th and the beginning of the 8th week of gestation, the Sertoli cell's secretion of AMH occurs, causing male sex differentiation during fetal development. The AMH molecules bind to AMHRII (anti-Müllerian hormone receptor type II) regressing the Müllerian duct.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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The Leydig cells secrete testosterone to aid the male differentiation process by inducing structures such as the epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicles. However, with PMDS individuals, the Müllerian duct persists instead of regressing, either due to AMH secretion (PMDS Type I) or AMH receptors (PMDS Type II). PMDS is usually coincidentally found during surgery for inguinal hernia, or when searching for adult male infertility causes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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Another method for the confirmation of PMDS is genetic testing. It is not usually preferred because of its processing period and cost. With image screenings such as ultrasound and MRI, the condition can be efficiently confirmed.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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Genetic tests can identify those who hold the mutated gene, identify the family member's chances and risks, and advise those who are trying to get pregnant. Genetic counseling and further genetic testing is offered to confirm the chances and risks of an individual's offspring obtaining the pair of mutated genes. Further research into the family tree and inheritance is possible as well.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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An ELISA test is a form of immunoassay, a technique which uses an antibody or antigen to identify the presence of particular substances. For PMDS, ELISA tests can be used to determine the levels of AMH within the male individual's serum, but this is only effective before the individual reaches puberty as it normally increases during this period. PMDS patients display low levels of AMH within the serum, and low levels of testosterone.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome does not cause any physical complications, and does not pose any danger to a newborn child. Surgeries on newborn infants have a high rate of failure, and uterine tissue tends to be healthy. The World Health Organization (WHO) standard of care is to delay surgery until the child is old enough to participate in informed consent, performing intersex genital surgeries on newborn infants is considered a human rights violation, including by the WHO.The main form of treatment is laparotomy, a modern and minimally invasive type of surgery. Laparotomy properly positions the testes within the scrotum (orchidopexy) and remove Müllerian structures, the uterus and fallopian tubes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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Occasionally they are unsalvageable if located high in the retroperitoneum. During this surgery, the uterus is usually removed and attempts made to dissect away Müllerian tissue from the vas deferens and epididymis to improve the chance of fertility. If the person has male gender identity and the testes cannot be retrieved, testosterone replacement will be usually necessary at puberty should the affected individual choose to pursue medical attention.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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Recently, laparoscopic hysterectomy is offered to patients as a solution to both improve the chances of fertility and to prevent the occurrence of neoplastic tissue formation. Having a target age for surgery reduces the risks of damaging the vas deferens. The vas deferens is in close proximity to the Müllerian structures, and is sometimes lodged in the uterine wall.PMDS patients have a possibility of infertility in the future if not promptly operated on.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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When the affected males are adults, those who are not aware of the condition may find the presence of blood in their semen (hematospermia). The Müllerian structures and cryptorchidism can also develop into cancer, although this is incredibly rare.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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If PMDS is found during adulthood, or if Müllerian structures had to be left behind due to risks in surgery, biopsies of the remaining Müllerian structures can be performed. Upon pathohistological observation, the endometrial tissues appear atrophied, and the fallopian tubes have begun to congest showing signs of fibrosis. There have been recorded cases of pregnancy in Persistent Müllerian duct syndrome, such as Mikey Chanel who was assigned male at birth but later transitioned to female and was found to have fully functioning female reproductive organs.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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PMDS is a relatively rare congenital disease. From current data, approximately 45% of the known cases are caused by mutations in the AMH gene, being a mutation on chromosome 19 (Type I PMDS). Approximately, 40% are AMHR2 mutations, on the AMH receptor type 2 gene, which is on chromosome 12 (Type 2 PMDS). The remaining unknown 15% are referred to as idiopathic PMDS.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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Especially before the 21st century, these conditions were hard to diagnose due to the lack of modern imaging capabilities. For this reason, the older population, or those in poorer countries found out later. PMDS was usually overlooked because the external symptoms, such as the cryptorchidism and inguinal hernias, were assumed to be the only complication. A case reported in 2013, involves a 50-year-old male with a history of low testosterone levels, high cholesterol and the congenital absence of his right testis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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Imaging revealed that the patient had three cystic masses, with structures similar to the uterus and ovaries, thus PMDS. During the operation, the surgeons found malignant degeneration of the Müllerian remnants which occurs if PMDS is unnoticed for a long period of time. The cause of the complications presented in the male patient was due to the unidentified bilateral cryptorchidism since birth, as doctors at that time assumed the complication was just the "congenital absence of his right testis". Overlooking the symptoms of PDMS can cause permanent negative effects such as infertility and future malignancies, as shown by this male patient. The malignant degeneration of the Müllerian structures is supportive evidence for the cause of the male patient's infertility.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_Müllerian_duct_syndrome
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Electrolyte imbalance, or water-electrolyte imbalance, is an abnormality in the concentration of electrolytes in the body. Electrolytes play a vital role in maintaining homeostasis in the body. They help to regulate heart and neurological function, fluid balance, oxygen delivery, acid–base balance and much more.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance
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Electrolyte imbalances can develop by consuming too little or too much electrolyte as well as excreting too little or too much electrolyte. Examples of electrolytes include calcium, chloride, magnesium, phosphate, potassium, and sodium. Electrolyte disturbances are involved in many disease processes and are an important part of patient management in medicine.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance
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The causes, severity, treatment, and outcomes of these disturbances can differ greatly depending on the implicated electrolyte. The most serious electrolyte disturbances involve abnormalities in the levels of sodium, potassium or calcium. Other electrolyte imbalances are less common and often occur in conjunction with major electrolyte changes. The kidney is the most important organ in maintaining appropriate fluid and electrolyte balance, but other factors such as hormonal changes and physiological stress play a role.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance
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Calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium ions are cations (+), while chloride, and phosphate ions are anions (−).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance
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Chronic laxative abuse or severe diarrhea or vomiting can lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalance.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance
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People with malnutrition are at especially high risk for an electrolyte imbalance. Severe electrolyte imbalances must be treated carefully as there are risks with overcorrecting too quickly, which can result in arrhythmias, brain herniation, or refeeding syndrome depending on the cause of imbalance.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance
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Electrolytes are important because they are what cells (especially nerve, heart and muscle cells) use to maintain voltages across their cell membranes. Electrolytes have different functions, and an important one is to carry electrical impulses between cells. Kidneys work to keep the electrolyte concentrations in blood constant despite changes in the body. For example, during heavy exercise, electrolytes are lost in sweat, particularly in the form of sodium and potassium.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance
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The kidneys can also generate dilute urine to balance sodium levels. These electrolytes must be replaced to keep the electrolyte concentrations of the body fluids constant. Hyponatremia, or low sodium, is the most commonly seen type of electrolyte imbalance.Treatment of electrolyte imbalance depends on the specific electrolyte involved and whether the levels are too high or too low.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance
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The level of aggressiveness of treatment and choice of treatment may change depending on the severity of the disturbance. If the levels of an electrolyte are too low, a common response to electrolyte imbalance may be to prescribe supplementation. However, if the electrolyte involved is sodium, the issue is often water excess rather than sodium deficiency.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance
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Supplementation for these people may correct the electrolyte imbalance but at the expense of volume overload. For newborn children, this has serious risks. Because each individual electrolyte affects physiological function differently, they must be considered separately when discussing causes, treatment, and complications.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance
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Though calcium is the most plentiful electrolyte in the body, a large percentage of it is used to form the bones. It is mainly absorbed and excreted through the GI system. The majority of calcium resides extracellularly, and it is crucial for the function of neurons, muscle cells, function of enzymes, and coagulation. The normal range for calcium concentration in the body is 8.5 - 10.5 mg/dL. The parathyroid gland is responsible for sensing changes in calcium concentration and regulating the electrolyte with parathyroid hormone.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance
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Hypercalcemia describes when the concentration of calcium in the blood is too high. This occurs above 10.5 mg/dL.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance
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The most common causes of hypercalcemia are certain types of cancer, hyperparathyroidism, hyperthyroidism, pheochromocytoma, excessive ingestion of vitamin D, sarcoidosis, and tuberculosis. Hyperparathyroidism and malignancy are the predominant causes. It can also be caused by muscle cell breakdown, prolonged immobilization, dehydration.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolyte_imbalance
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