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ince it was unacceptable for a communist party to rule a western country during the [[Cold war]]. The system had been nicknamed the ''imperfect bipolarism'', referring to more proper bipolarism in other western countries (the [[United States]], [[Germany]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]] etc.) where right-wing and left-wing parties alternated in government.
==== The Socialists enter the Government ====
The main event in the First Republic was the entry of the Socialist party in the government in the sixties, after the reducing edge of the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]] (DC) had forced them to accept this alliance; attempts to incorporate the [[Fascism|fascist]] [[Italian Social Movement]] (MSI) in the [[Fernando Tambroni|Tambroni]] government led to [[riot]]s, and were short-lived.
[[Aldo Moro]], a relatively left-leaning Christian democrat, was the inspirator of this alliance. He would later try to include the Communist Party as well, with a deal called the ''[[Historic Compromise|historical compromise]]''. This was however stopped by the [[kidnap]]ping and [[murder]] of Moro in 1978 by the [[Red Brigades]], an extremist left-wing [[terrorism|terrorist]] organisation.
The Communist party was at this point the largest communist party in western Europe, and remained such for the rest of its existence. This was largely due their non-extremistic and pragmatic stance, and to their growing independence from [[Moscow]] (see [[eurocommunism]]). The communist party was especially strong in areas like [[Emilia Romagna]], where they had stable government positions and matured practical experience, which may have contributed to a more pragmatic approach to politics.
==== The Lead Years ====
''See also: [[Strategy of tension]]''
The ''lead years'' (''anni di piombo'') spans from the December 1969 [[Piazza Fontana bombing]] to at least the 1980 [[Bologna bombing]].
On [[December 12]], [[1969]], a roughly [[decade]]-long period of left and right-wing political terrorism known as ''the lead years'' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''anni di piombo'') began with the [[Piazza Fontana bombing]] in the centre of [[Milan]], which neofascist [[Vincenzo Vinciguerra]] later declared to be an attempt to push the Italian state to declare a [[state of emergency]], which would lead to a more authoritative state. A bomb left in a bank killed about twenty, and was immediately blamed on [[anarchism|anarchists]]. This was hotly contested by left-wing circles, especially the [[Maoist]] Student Movement, very strong in those years in Milan's [[university|universities]], who considered the bombing to be of fascist brand; their guess was proved to be correct, but only after many years of difficult investigations.
Some left-wing extremists, then dubbed ''extraparlamentarians'' since they referred to no institutional party, formed the terrorist organization [[Red Brigades]], while fascist "black terrorism" (''[[Ordine Nuovo]]'' or [[National Vanguard (Italy)|''Avanguardia Nazionale'']]) was also in activity, following a sort of "[[strategy of tension]]", in which occult and foreign forces (such as the [[Propaganda Due]] masonic lodge (aka "P2"), [[Gladio]], NATO's "stay-behind" paramilitary organizations, and the [[CIA]]) have allegedly been involved. The Red Brigades killed socialist journalist [[Walter Tobagi]], and, in their most famous operation, kidnapped and assassinated - under obscure circumstances - [[Aldo Moro]], president of the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]], who was trying to involve the [[Italian Communist Party|Communist Party]] into the government through the ''[[historic compromise|compromesso storico]]'' ("historic compromise"). P2 was allegedly being behind Aldo Moro's murder, either by directly manipulating the Second Red Brigades, led by [[Mario Moretti]], or by refusing negotiations with his captors. The head of Italian intelligence services was accused of negligence. As a member of "P2", this has caused suspicions about the possible involvement of P2's headmaster, [[Licio Gelli]], in this affair. The Red Brigades notably met fierce resistance among the Communist Party and the [[trade union]]s; some left-wing politicians used the condescending expression "comrades who are mistaken" (Italian: ''Compagni che sbagliano''). In fact, some have alleged that the Red Brigades (at least the 2nd Red Brigades) were actually been exploited by right-wing or possibly foreign forces to destabilize Italy or to discredit the Communist Party and impede the historic compromise.
The last and largest of the bombings, known as the [[Bologna massacre]], destroyed the city's railway station in [[1980]]. This was also found to be a neofascist bombing, in which Propaganda Due was involved.
On [[October 24]], [[1990]], Prime minister [[Giulio Andreotti]] (DC) would reveal to the Parliament the existence of [[Gladio]], NATO's secret "stay-behind" paramilitary organizations. Further juridical and parliamentary investigations in the 1990s would lead to the conclusion that the "strategy of tension" was supported by the United States in order to impede the Communist Party from governing. In 2000, a Parliament Commission report from the [[Olive Tree]] (left-wing) coalition concluded that the strategy of tension followed by Gladio had been supported by the United States to "stop the PCI, and to a certain degree also the PSI [Italian Socialist Party], from reaching executive power in the country".
==== The Eighties ====
With the end of the lead years, the communist party gradually increased their votes under the leadership of [[Enrico Berlinguer]]. The Socialist party, led by [[Bettino Craxi]], became more and more critical of the communists and of the [[Soviet Union]]; Craxi himself pushed in favour of [[Ronald Reagan]]'s positioning of [[MGM-31 Pershing|Pershing]] missiles in Italy, a move the communists hotly contested.
As the socialist party moved to more moderate positions, it attracted many reformists, irritaded by the insuffcient attempts of modernization of communists, who were seen as old and out of fashion by many, while Craxi and the socialists seemed to represent a new liberal-socialism. The Communist party surpassed the Christian Democracy only in the [[Italian European elections, 1984|European elections of 1984]], barely two days after Berlinguer's death, that likely drew sympathy in the population. That was to be the only time the Christian Democracy was not the largest party in a nation-wide election they participated in.
In these years, [[political corruption|corruption]] began to be more extensive, a fact that would be unveiled in the early nineties and nicknamed [[Tangentopoli]]. With the [[Mani Pulite]] investigation, starting just one year after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the whole power structure faltered, and seemingly indestructible parties like the Christian Democracy and the Socialist party disbanded; the communist party changed their name to [[Democratic Party of the Left]] take the role of the socialist party as the main [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party in Italy. What was to follow was then called the transition to the ''Second Republic''.
=== Second Republic ===
[[Image:Craxi coins.jpg|thumb|[[Bettino Craxi]] contested by students.]]
From [[1992]] to [[1997]], Italy faced significant challenges as voters (disenchanted with past political paralysis, massive government debt, extensive corruption, and organized crime's considerable influence collectively called [[Tangentopoli]] after being uncovered by [[Mani pulite]]) demanded political, economic, and ethical reforms.
In the [[referendum in Italy|Italian referenda]] of [[1993]], voters approved substantial changes, including moving from a proportional to an [[Additional Member System]] which is largely dominated by a [[First Past the Post electoral system|majoritarian electoral system]] and the abolishment of some ministries (some of which have however been reintroduced with only partly modified names, as the ''Ministry of Agriculture'' being renamed ''Ministry of Agricultural Resources'').
Major political parties, beset by scandal and loss of voter confidence, underwent far-reaching changes. New political forces and new alignments of power emerged in March [[1994]] national elections. The election saw a major turnover in the new parliament, with 452 out of 630 deputies and 213 out of 315 senators elected for the first time.
[[Image:SilvioB.jpg|thumb|[[Silvio Berlusconi]], media magnate and leader of the Italian right wing of politics since 1994.]]
The [[1994]] elections also swept media magnate [[Silvio Berlusconi]] (leader of "[[Pole of Freedoms]]" coalition) into office as Prime Minister. Berlusconi, however, was forced to step down in December [[1994]] when the [[Lega Nord]] withdrew support. The Berlusconi government was succeeded by a [[technical government]] headed by Prime Minister [[Lamberto Dini]], which left office in early [[1996]].
[[Image:Prodi.jpg|thumb|[[Romano Prodi]], professor and leader of the Italian left wing of politics since 1996.]]
A series of center-left coalitions dominated Italy's political landscape between [[1996]] and [[2001]]. In April 1996, national elections led to the victory of a center-left coalition, the [[Olive Tree]]) under the leadership of [[Romano Prodi]]. Prodi's government became the third-longest to stay in power before he narrowly lost a vote of confidence, by three votes, in October [[1998]].
In May [[1999]], the Parliament selected [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]] as the [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Republic]]. Ciampi, a former Prime Minister and Minister of the Treasury, and before the governor of the [[Bank of Italy]], was elected on the first ballot with an easy margin over the required two-thirds votes.
A new gover |
[National Technical University of Athens]]
#[[National Technical University of Ukraine "KPI"]]
#[[National Technological University]]
#[[National Tsing-Hua University]]
#[[National University of San Marcos|National University of Saint Mark]]
#[[National University in San Diego]]
#[[National University of Colombia]]
#[[National University of Defence Science and Technology (Alumni)]]
#[[University College Cork|National University of Ireland, Cork]]
#[[University College Dublin|National University of Ireland, Dublin]]
#[[National University of Ireland, Galway]]
#[[National University of Ireland, Maynooth]]
#[[National University of Laos]]
#[[National University of Singapore]]
#[[National Yang Ming University]]
#[[National Yunlin Institute of Technology]]
#[[National-Louis University]]
#[[Navajo Community College]]
#[[Naval Postgraduate School]]
#[[Navarro College]]
#[[Nazarene Bible College]]
#[[Nazarene Theological Seminary]]
#[[Nazareth College of Rochester]]
#[[Near East University]]
#[[Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University]]
#[[Nesna College]]
#[[Netaji Subhas Open University]]
#[[Neumann College]]
#[[New England Institute of Technology]]
#[[New England Technical Institute]]
#[[New Hampshire College]]
#[[New Jersey Institute of Technology]]
#[[New Mexico Highlands University]]
#[[New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology]]
#[[New Mexico State University]]
#[[New Mexico State University - Alamogordo]]
#[[New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary]]
#[[New River Community College]]
#[[New School for Social Research]]
#[[New School for Social Research - Distance Learning]]
#[[New York College of Podiatric Medicine]]
#[[New York Institute of Technology]]
#[[New York University]]
#[[New York University - Tirana]]
#[[New York University Graduate School of Arts and Science]]
#[[Newberry College]]
#[[Newbury College]]
#[[Newcastle College]]
#[[Newport University]]
#[[Ngee Ann Polytechnic]]
#[[Niagara University]]
#[[Niagara County Community College]]
#[[Nicholls State University]]
#[[Nicolaus Copernicus University]]
#[[Nihon University]]
#[[Niigata University]]
#[[Nijenrode University]]
#[[Nipissing University]]
#[[Nippon Bunri University]]
#[[Nippon Dental University]]
#[[Nippon Medical School]]
#[[Nizhni Novgorod State University]]
#[[Noordelijke Hogeschool Leeuwarden]]
#[[Nord-Trondelag College]]
#[[Norges Teknisk-Naturvitenskapelige Universitet]]
#[[Normandale Community College]]
#[[North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University]]
#[[North Carolina Central University]]
#[[North Carolina Community College System]]
#[[North Carolina State University]]
#[[North Carolina Wesleyan College]]
#[[North Central Bible College]]
#[[North Country Community College]]
#[[North Dakota State University]]
#[[North Dakota University System]]
#[[North East Wales Institute of Higher Education]]
#[[North Georgia College]]
#[[North Greenville College]]
#[[North Harris Montgomery Community College District]]
#[[North Hennepin Community College]]
#[[North Iowa Area Community College]]
#[[North Lake College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
#[[North Park Theological Seminary]]
#[[North Park University]]
#[[North Seattle Community College]]
#[[North Tyneside College]]
#[[North-West University]]
#[[Northeast Louisiana University]]
#[[Northeast Missouri State University]]
#[[Northeast State Technical Community College]]
#[[Northeastern Illinois University]]
#[[Northeastern Illinois University College of Business and Management]]
#[[Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine]]
#[[Northeastern State University]]
#[[Northeastern University, Boston]]
#[[Northeastern University, China]]
#[[Northern Arizona University]]
#[[Northern College of Applied Arts and Technology]]
#[[Northern Illinois University]]
#[[Northern Jiaotong University]]
#[[Northern Kentucky University]]
#[[Northern Michigan University]]
#[[Northern Nevada Community College]]
#[[Northern State University]]
#[[Northern Territory University]]
#[[Northern University of Malaysia]]
#[[Northern Virginia Community College]]
#[[Northland College]]
#[[Northland Pioneer College]]
#[[Northwest College]]
#[[Northwest Community College]]
#[[Northwest Missouri State University]]
#[[Northwest Nazarene University]]
#[[Northwestern College (IA)|Northwestern College]] (Iowa)
#[[Northwestern College (MN)|Northwestern College]] (Minnesota)
#[[Northwestern Michigan College]]
#[[Northwestern Polytechnical University]]
#[[Northwestern State University]]
#[[Northwestern University]]
#[[Northwood University]]
#[[Norwalk State Technical Community College]]
#[[Norwegian College of Fishery Science]]
#[[Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration]]
#[[Norwegian School of Management]]
#[[Norwegian University of Science and Technology]]
#[[Norwich University]]
#[[Notre Dame University, Western Australia]]
#[[Notre Dame Women's College]]
#[[Nottingham Business School]]
#[[Nottingham Trent University]]
#[[Nottingham University]]
#[[Nottingham University Business School]]
#[[Nova Scotia Agricultural College]]
#[[Nova Scotia College of Art and Design]]
#[[Nova Scotia Community College]]
#[[Nova Scotia Gaelic College]]
#[[Nova Southeastern University]]
#[[Novgorod State University]]
#[[Novosibirsk State Technical University]]
#[[Novosibirsk State University]]
#[[NSS College of Engineering]], [[Palakkad]]
#[[Nunavut Arctic College]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|N]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with O</title>
<id>6488</id>
<revision>
<id>35577956</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-17T19:56:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vizcarra</username>
<id>116263</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- '''O''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[ORT Uruguay]]
#[[Oakland University]]
#[[Oberlin College]]
#[[Occidental College]]
#[[Odense University]]
#[[Odessa College]]
#[[Odessa State Politechnic University]]
#[[Oglethorpe University]]
#[[Ohio College of Podiatric Medicine]]
#[[Ohio Northern University]]
#[[Ohio State University]] ([[Columbus, Ohio]])
#[[Ohio University]]
#[[Ohio Wesleyan University]]
#[[Oita University]]
#[[Okanagan University College]]
#[[Okayama Prefectural University]]
#[[Oklahoma Baptist University]]
#[[Oklahoma City University]]
#[[Oklahoma State University]]
#[[Oklahoma University]]
#[[Old Dominion University]]
#[[Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering|Olin College of Engineering]]
#[[Olivet Nazarene University]]
#[[Omega School of Theology]]
#[[Onondaga Community College]]
#[[Ontario Institute for Studies in Education]]
#[[Open Learning Agency]]
#[[Open University]]
#[[Open University (UK)]]
#[[Open University of Israel]]
#[[Open University of the Netherlands]] ([[Heerlen]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Oppland College]]
#[[Oral Roberts University]]
#[[Orange Coast College]]
#[[OGI School of Science and Engineering]] (Oregon Graduate Institute)
#[[Oregon Health and Science University]]
#[[Oregon Institute of Technology]]
#[[Oregon State University]]
#[[Oriental Institute of Technology]]
#[[Osaka City University]]
#[[Osaka Kyoiku University]]
#[[Osaka Medical College]]
#[[Osaka Prefecture University]]
#[[Osaka University]]
#[[Osaka University of Foreign Studies]]
#[[Osmania University]]
#[[Ostfold College]]
#[[Otterbein College]]
#[[Otto von Guericke Universitat, Magdeburg]]
#[[Oulu Institute of Technology]]
#[[Our Lady of the Lake University]]
#[[Oviedo University]]
#[[Owensboro Community College]]
#[[Oxford Brookes University]]
#[[Oxford University]]
:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|O]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>List of colleges and universities starting with P</title>
<id>6489</id>
<revision>
<id>38433587</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T07:26:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.64.223.203</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- |
e ridicule, especially as neither are held to be strongly religious.
Beckham became a [[UNICEF]] [[List of UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors|goodwill amabassador]] in January 2005, having supported the charity for a number of years.{{ref|unicef}}
Real Madrid had another disappointing season, finishing second in the league to [[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]] and only reaching the last sixteen in the Champions League.
===2005-06 season: three sendings off===
In [[October 2005]], while playing in the World Cup Qualifying match against [[Austria national football team|Austria]], Beckham became the first England captain to be sent off, and the first player to be sent off twice while playing for England. Nonetheless, England held on to win the match 1-0 and later qualified for the [[Football World Cup, 2006|2006 tournament]] due to results elsewhere. Four days later they beat [[Poland national football team|Poland]] 2-1 to top the qualifying group.
Shortly afterwards, Beckham was sent off while playing in a league match for Real Madrid against [[Valencia CF|Valencia]]. Having received a [[yellow card]], he appeared to sarcastically applaud the referee and was given a second yellow card, causing an automatic dismissal, athough the dismissal was cancelled on appeal two days later.
On [[December 3]] [[2005]], in the Real Madrid v Getafe match in the Spanish league, Beckham was again sent off in the 58th minute for a rash tackle.
Beckham established two football academies bearing his name, one in [[Los Angeles]] and one in East [[London]]. He owns a company called Footwork Productions Ltd. The turnover of the company equates to David Beckham earning almost £47,500 every day, before expenses.
In January, Beckham was [http://www.thebookstandard.com/bookstandard/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001842661 named a judge for the 2006 British Book Awards].
==Milestones==
Beckham made his 85th appearance for England in [[2005]] and is expected to captain the team at the {{Wc|2006}} in Germany. If so, he would become only the sixth England player to represent his country at three World Cup competitions (although [[Sol Campbell]] and [[Michael Owen]] are expected to achieve this feat at the same time), and the fourth (after [[Billy Wright (footballer)|Billy Wright]], [[Bobby Moore]] and [[Bryan Robson]]) to captain the team at more than one World Cup. Beckham is also a reasonable candidate to record 100 appearances for his country. He captained his country for a landmark 50th time in the friendly international against Argentina in November 2005. Beckham is one of only four players to have appeared 100 times in the Champions League.{{ref|100apps}}
==Miscellaneous==
Early on in his career Beckham secured a number of lucrative sponsorship deals including [[Brylcreem]], [[Adidas]], [[Vodafone]] (which ended in July 2005) and [[Diesel (clothing company)|Diesel]]. Despite the USA's [[Soccer in the United States|uneven acceptance of soccer,]] Beckham's recognition in the USA is strong enough to enable him to appear in print and television advertising for various sponsors, including [[Global Gillette|Gillette razors]].
Following his move to Real Madrid and the disappointment of Euro 2004, British media interest in the Beckham's has faded despite an alleged affair with [[Rebecca Loos]], his former personal assistant. For the first time, the Beckham 'brand' had been tainted.
He has become more well known in [[North America]] since the success of the British [[film]] ''[[Bend It Like Beckham]]''. It is about a British [[Sikh]] girl who idolises David Beckham and harbours ambitions of being a football player.
Allegedly, in May 2003 Manchester United manager [[Sir Alex Ferguson]] ordered Beckham not to wear his hair band during matches. It has been speculated that he believed it to be too [[effeminate]]. Beckham is viewed by some as the most famous example of [[metrosexual|metrosexuality]], a type of personality which combines feminine and masculine characteristics.
He has bought a multi-million dollar home in [[The Palm]], [[Jumeirah]], in [[Dubai]], [[United Arab Emirates]].
Some regarded Beckham as instrumental in the success of the Olympic bid for [[London 2012]].
At the opening ceremony of the [[2002 Commonwealth Games]], Beckham escorted the then six-year-old [[Kirsty Howard]] as she presented the Jubilee Baton to the Queen. Howard’s public notability first arose after having held Beckham’s hand as he led England onto the pitch for their crucial [[2002 World Cup]] qualifier against Greece (October 06, 2001; Old Trafford, 2-2). The pair have continued to enjoy a long-standing association.
==Quotations {{fact}}==
"10 heroic lions, one stupid boy" &mdash; ''Daily Mirror'' headline after Beckham's sending off against Argentina.
"David Beckham is Britain's finest striker of a football not because of God-given talent but because he practises with a relentless application that the vast majority of less gifted players wouldn't contemplate" &mdash; [[Sir Alex Ferguson]] (1999){{ref|mml137}}
"He cannot kick with his left foot, he cannot head a ball, he cannot tackle, and he doesn't score many goals. Apart from that he's alright." — [[George Best]]
"Without being too harsh on David Beckham, he cost us the match." - [[Ian Wright]], former England striker
"David Beckham must never go near a penalty kick again!" — [[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]
"We may be a small country but we're a great one, too. The country of Shakespeare, Churchill, the Beatles, Sean Connery, Harry Potter. David Beckham's right foot. David Beckham's left foot."
- From the film ''[[Love Actually]]'', said by [[Hugh Grant]], posed as Britain's [[Prime Minister]]
"It's the time for Manchester United with BECKHAM! That's absolutely brilliant! Take a bow David Beckham. A goal you'll see over and over again. From his half, certainly it was on the half way line. And ''that'' is truly outstanding!''-[[Martin Tyler]] commentating on [[August 21]] [[1996]], [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] vs. [[Wimbledon F.C.|Wimbledon]]''
==References==
===Books===
* {{cite book
| last = Beckham | first = David
| title = David Beckham: My Side
| publisher = HarperCollinsWillow
| year = 2002
| id = ISBN 0007157320
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Beckham | first = David
| coauthors = Freeman, Dean
| title = Beckham: My World
| publisher = Hodder & Stoughton Ltd
| year = 2001
| id = ISBN 0340792701
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Beckham | first = David
| coauthors = Watt, Tom
| title = Beckham: Both Feet on the Ground
| publisher = HarperCollins
| year = 2003
| id = ISBN 0060570938
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Crick | first = Michael
| title = The Boss — The Many Sides of Alex Ferguson
| publisher = Pocket Books
| year = 2003
| id = ISBN 0-7434-2991-5
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Ferguson | first = Alex
| coauthors = McIlvanney, Hugh
| title = Managing My Life — My Autobiography
| publisher = Hodder & Stoughton
| year = 1999
| id = ISBN 0-340-72855-8
}}
===Online===
* {{cite web
| title = Biography on manutd.com
| url = http://www.manutd.com/bio/bio.sps?iBiographyID=2533
| accessdate = October 3
| accessyear = 2005
}}
* {{cite web
| title = Biography on fifa.com
| url = http://www.fifa.com/en/mens/awards/index/0,2419,33127,00.html?articleid=33127
| accessdate = October 3
| accessyear = 2005
}}
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/ BBC News]
*[http://www.dispatch.co.uk/ Dispatch Online]
*[http://www.soccernet.com/ ESPN Soccernet]
*[http://www.manchesteronline.co.uk Manchester Online]
*[http://www.newstatesman.com/ New Statesman]
==Notes==
<!-- How to add a footnote:
NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body.
4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] that explains how to do that.
NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
-->
<div style="font-size: 85%">
#{{note|googlehits}} {{cite web
| title = 2003 Year-End Google Zeitgeist
| work = Google.com
| url = http://www.google.com/press/zeitgeist2003.html
| accessdate = October 9
| accessyear = 2005
}}, {{cite web
| title = 2004 Year-End Google Zeitgeist
| work = Google.com
| url = http://www.google.com/press/zeitgeist2004.html
| accessdate = October 9
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|villadefeat}} The most famous comment was [[Alan Hansen]]'s "You can't win anything with kids.", quoted in ''The Boss'' 405. Beckham scored United's goal from a distance of around 30 metres.
#{{note|notconcentrating}} {{cite web
| title = Beckham Blasts Hoddle
| work = Dispatch Online, [[29 June]] [[1998]]
| url = http://www.dispatch.co.za/1998/06/29/sport/HODDLE.HTM
| accessdate = October 5
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|simeoneconfession}} {{cite web
| title = Simeone admits trying to get Beckham sent off
| work = Rediff Sports, [[19 May]] [[2002]]
| url = http://www.rediff.com/sports/2002/may/19wc3.htm
| accessdate = October 26
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|dartboard}} {{cite web
| title = Beckham's Darkest Hour
| work = Article on official UEFA website
| url = http://en.uefa.com/news/newsId=27844,printer.htmx
| accessdate = October 6
| accessyear = 2005
}}
#{{note|wedding}} {{cite web
| title = Wedded spice
| work = BBC News, [[5 July]] [[1999]]
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1999/07/99/the_posh_wedding/385866.stm
| accessdate = December 2
| accessyear = 2005 |
most of the Ghorid lands were conquered by the [[Shah]] of the [[Khwarezmid Empire]], whose empire would, in turn, be defeated by the Mongols in [[1220]].
== Mongol Rule, [[1220]]-[[1506]] ==
[[Image:TimurExhumed2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Reconstruction of Timur from exhumation of his tomb.]]
Followings years of conquest in China and Central Asia, the [[Mongol Empire]] had emerged as a major world power of its day and attempted to co-exist with some of their neighbors including the empire the [[Khwarezmia]] Shah (which included what is today Afghanistan) and sent emissaries to establish diplomatic and trading links. As either a bluff to dissuade the Mongols from aggression or as simply a haughty sign of disrespect, the Khwarezmia Shah [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm|Ala ad-Din Muhammad II]] had the diplomats executed and sent their heads back to the Mongols and this prompted a military confrontation. In [[1220]], the [[Islam|Islamic]] lands of [[Central Asia]] were overrun by the armies of the [[Mongol]] invader [[Genghis Khan]] (ca. [[1155]]-[[1227]]), who laid waste to many cities and settlements and created an empire that stretched from [[China]] to the [[Caucasus]]. The Mongols under [[Genghis Khan]] responded with great severity to the insults they had taken from Muhammad II and took out their revenge against the inhabitants of Khwarezmia including, for example, exterminating every human being, including women and children, in the cities of Herat and Balkh. This devastation had severe consequences for the natives of Afghanistan as the destruction caused by the Mongols depopulated many of the major cities and caused much of the population to revert to an agrarian rural society. Thus, Afghanistan became dominated by cattlebreeding tribes who also specialized in horseback riding. [[Genghis Khan]] failed to extinguish or even particularly hamper Islam in Central Asia, if that was even his intent, as the religion continued to define many local inhabitants culturally. In fact, by the end of the 13th century, Genghis Khan's descendants had themselves become Muslims (many speculate that the [[Hazara]]s of Afghanistan are in fact the descendents of Genghis Khan and his Mongol hordes) and even the title of 'khan' became a not so uncommon name adopted by many local inhabitants. From the death of Genghis Khan in [[1227]] until the rise of [[Timur Lenk]] (Tamerlane) in the [[1380s]], Central Asia went through a period of fragmentation.
A product of both [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] and Mongol descent, Timur claimed Genghis Khan as an ancestor. From his capital of [[Samarkand]], Timur created an empire that, by the late fourteenth century, extended from northern [[India]] to eastern [[Turkey]]. The turn of the sixteenth century brought an end to the [[Timurid Empire]] when another Central Asian ruler of Turkic-Mongol extraction, [[Muhammad Shaybani]], overwhelmed the weakened Timurid ruler in [[Herat]]. Shaybani (also a descendant of Genghis Khan) and his successors ruled the area around the [[Amu Darya]] for about a century, while to the south and west of what is now [[Afghanistan]] two powerful dynasties began to compete for influence.
== Mughal-Safavid Rivalry, ca. [[1500]]-[[1747]] ==
Early in the sixteenth century, [[Babur]], who was descended from [[Timur]] on his father's side and from [[Genghis Khan]] on his mother's, was driven out of his father's kingdom in the [[Ferghana Valley]] (which straddles contemporary [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]] and [[Kyrgyzstan]]) by the [[Uzbeks|Shaybani Uzbeks]], who had wrested [[Samarkand]] from the [[Timurid Empire|Timurids]]. After several unsuccessful attempts to regain Ferghana and Samarkand, Babur crossed the [[Amu Darya]] and captured [[Kabul]] from the last of its [[Mongol]] rulers in 1504. In his invasion of [[Delhi Sultanate]] of [[India]] in 1526, Babur's army of 12,000 defeated a less mobile force of 100,000 at the [[First Battle of Panipat]], about forty-five kilometers northwest of [[Delhi]]. The [[Delhi Sultanate]] was itself ruled by ex-patriot Afghan/Pashtun rulers, the [[Lodhi dynasty]]. Although the [[Mughal Empire]] would shift largely to India, Babur's memoirs, as related in the ''Baburnameh'' stressed his love for Kabul - both as a commercial strategic center as well as a beautiful highland city with an "extremely delightful" climate and was the Mughal Empire's first capital until being moved to Lahore and Delhi by later emperors.
Although Mughal rule technically lasted in parts of Afghanistan until the early 18th century, it came under constant challenge from local Pashtun tribesmen. The Mughals originally had come from [[Central Asia]], but once they had taken India, the area that is now southeastern [[Afghanistan]] and western [[North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan|Pakistan]] was relegated to a mere outpost of the empire as even the name of a prominent Afghan city, Peshawar literally translates from Persian to ''City on the Frontier''. Indeed, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, much of Afghanistan was hotly contested between the Mughals of India and the [[Safavids]] of [[Iran]]. The Safavids had held Herat and much of western and northern Afghanistan during the same time period that the Mughals controlled Kabul, Kandahar, and Peshawar. Just as Kabul dominates the high road from Central Asia into India, [[Kandahar]] commands the only approach towards India that skirts the Hindu Kush. The strategically important Kabul-Kandahar axis was the primary focus of competition between the Mughals and the Safavids, and Kandahar itself changed hands several times during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Safavids and the Mughals were not the only contenders, however. Less powerful but closer at hand were the [[Uzbek|Uzbeks]] of Central Asia, who fought for control of [[Herat]] in western Afghanistan and for the northern regions as well where neither the Mughals nor the Safavids were able to effectively challenge them. Many of the Uzbeks of Afghanistan arrived during this phase of northern Afghanistan's history.
The Mughals sought not only to block the historical western invasion routes into India but also to control the fiercely independent [[Pashtun]] tribes who accepted only nominal control from Delhi in their mountain strongholds between the Kabul-Kandahar axis and the [[Indus River]] - especially in the [[Pashtun]] area of the [[Suleiman Mountains|Suleiman Range]]. As the area around Kandahar changed hands back and forth between the two great empires on either side, the local Pashtun tribes exploited the situation to their advantage by extracting concessions from both sides. By the middle of the seventeenth century, the Mughals had abandoned the Hindu Kush north of Kabul to the Uzbeks, and in 1622 they lost Kandahar to the Safavids for the third and final time.
Toward the end of the seventeenth century, as the power of the Safavids waned, native groups began to assert themselves in Afghanistan. Early in the eighteenth century, a clan of the [[Ghilzai|Ghilzai Pashtuns]], later known as the [[Hotaki]] dynasty, overturned Safavid rule in Kandahar by 1708, and subsequently took-over and ruled most of Safavid Persia and Afghanistan from 1722 until 1736. The Ghilzai Pashtuns managed to briefly hold the Safavid capital of [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], and two members of this tribe ascended the throne before the Ghilzai were evicted from Iran by the Turko-Iranian conqueror, [[Nadir Shah]], who became known by some in the West as the "Persian Napoleon."
Nadir Shah conquered Kandahar and Kabul in 1738 along with defeating a formidable Mughal army in India, plundering Delhi, and massacring thousands of its people. He returned home with vast treasures, including the [[Peacock Throne]], which thereafter served as a symbol of Iranian imperial might. Nadir Shah, as a Sunni Muslim, had surrounded himself with other Sunnis most notably those of Turkic and Pashtun background. One notable military officer was [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah Abdali]], an ethnic Pashtun who would come to shape the modern history of Afghanistan following the end of Nadir Shah's reign.
==See also==
*[[Islamic conquests]]
*[[Crusades]]
*[[Reconquista]]
==External links==
* ''The Guardian'': "[http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,5217828-103595,00.html Lost Tribe Struggles for Survival]"
[[Category:History of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]
[[Category:Middle Ages]]
[[Category:History of Pakistan]]
[[no:Den islamske erobringen av Afghanistan]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Durrani Empire</title>
<id>3070</id>
<revision>
<id>41994989</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:41:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tombseye</username>
<id>207755</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Afghanistan}}
<!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Durrani Empire.gif|200px|thumb|left|Map of the Afghan Durrani Empire]] -->
The '''Durrani Empire''' was a state in present day [[Afghanistan]]. From [[1747]] until [[1823]] [[Ahmad Shah]] and his sons and grandsons held the monarchy. The name "Afghanistan" is mentioned since 1801 in the Anglo-Persian peace treaty for the first time officially. They were the first [[Pashtun]] rulers of Afghanistan, from the [[Sadozai]] line of the Abdali or [[Durrani]] group of clans. It was under the leadership of Ahmad Shah that the nation of Afghanistan began to take shape following centuries of fragmentation and exploitation. Even before the death of the Turko-[[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] ruler [[Nadir Shah]], tribes in the [[Afghanistan]] had been growing stronger and were beginning to take advantage of the waning power of their distant rulers.
== Reign of Ahmad Shah ([[1747]]-[[1772]]) ==
[[Image:Ahmad_Shah_Durrani.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Ahmad Shah Durrani]]
[[Nadir Shah]]'s rule abruptly e |
wards]] in [[2002]] and again in [[2006]]. In 2002, they opened the Brits Awards in style. Gorillaz were silhoutted against giant screens and joined on stage by Phi Life Cypher for a unique perfomance of their hit, Clint Eastwood. In 2006, they performed, Dirty Harry, with Bootie Brown and the Children's Choir San Fernandez.
===Future world tour===
{{Future}}
Albarn and Hewlett originally had plans for a Gorillaz world tour in 2007&ndash;2008 which would also use the [[Pepper's ghost]] technology like that used at the Grammys and the MTV EMAs. These shows were to be pre-recorded and Damon Albarn had stated that he would not even be there when the performances happened. As of late, rumor had it that the tour had been canceled. However, this has been proven false, much to the joy of fans across the globe.
==Gorilla Bites==
[[Image:Phase One Celebrity Take Down.jpg|thumb|right|170px|DVD cover of ''[[Phase One: Celebrity Take Down]]'']]
There is a series of animated shorts, called '''Gorilla Bites''', starring the Gorillaz. They are available at various places, some on the [[enhanced CD]], DVD versions of the records or as bonus content available upon buying the "Feel Good Inc." single (as an album) on [[ITunes Music Store|iTunes]], others on the band's official homepage. Most of them were released on the DVD ''Phase One: Celebrity Take Down''.
*"The Eel"
*"Hey! Our Toys Have Arrived"
*"Fancy Dress"
*"Free Tibet Campaign"
*"Game Of Death"
*"Gorillaz Talent Quest"
*"Gorillaz On Set"
*"[[Jump The Gut]]"
==Discography==
:''For a more detailed discography, including chart positions, promotional interview CDs, mixtapes and Gorillaz songs on various compilations, see [[Gorillaz discography]].
===Albums===
*''[[Gorillaz (album)|Gorillaz]]'' (2001)
*''[[G-Sides]]'' (2002)
*''[[Laika Come Home]]'' (2002)
*''[[Demon Days]]'' (2005)
*''[[Demon Days Live]]'' (2006)
===Singles===
*"[[Clint Eastwood (song)|Clint Eastwood]]" (2001)
*"[[19-2000]]" (2001)
*"[[Rock the House]]" (2001)
*"[[911 (song)|911]]" (with [[D12 (band)|D12]] feat. [[Terry Hall (singer)|Terry Hall]]) (2001)
*"[[Tomorrow Comes Today (single)|Tomorrow Comes Today]]" (2002)
*"[[Lil' Dub Chefin']]" (2002)
*"[[Feel Good Inc.]]" (2005)
*"[[DARE (song)|DARE]]" (2005)
*"[[Dirty Harry (song)|Dirty Harry]]" (2005)
*"[[El Mañana / Kids With Guns|El Mañana"/"Kids With Guns]]" (2006)
===EPs===
*''[[Tomorrow Comes Today]]'' (2000)
Several of the singles listed above have also been released as EPs in certain regions.
===DVDs===
*''[[Phase One: Celebrity Take Down]]'' (2002)
*''[[Demon Days Live]]'' (2006)
==External links==
* [http://www.gorillaz.com Gorillaz.com] (Official website)
* [http://fans.gorillaz.com Fans.Gorillaz.com] (Official fansite)
* [http://www.rejectfalseicons.com Reject False Icons] (Official website)
*{{musicbrainz artist|id=e21857d5-3256-4547-afb3-4b6ded592596|name=Gorillaz}}
* [http://www.gorillaz-unofficial.com Gorillaz-Unofficial] (Unofficial fansite, includes lyrics)
* [http://www.kidrobot.com/search.php?keyword=gorillaz Official Gorillaz Figures by Kidrobot]
{{Gorillaz}}
[[Category:British musical groups]]
[[Category:2000s music groups]]
[[Category:Animated musical groups]]
[[Category:Supergroups]]
[[Category:Dance Top 40 acts in United States|Gorillaz]]
[[Category:World record holders]] <!-- Most Successful Virtual Band -->
[[Category:Alternative hip hop musicians]]
[[Category:Active musical groups]]
[[Category:Hip hop groups]]
[[de:Gorillaz]]
[[es:Gorillaz]]
[[fr:Gorillaz]]
[[it:Gorillaz]]
[[he:גורילז]]
[[nl:Gorillaz]]
[[ja:ゴリラズ]]
[[no:Gorillaz]]
[[pl:Gorillaz]]
[[fi:Gorillaz]]
[[sv:Gorillaz]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gayo Music</title>
<id>13085</id>
<revision>
<id>15910726</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gayo]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gayo</title>
<id>13086</id>
<revision>
<id>36817497</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T18:03:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Purodha</username>
<id>300219</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Gayo language]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{korean name hanja|
hangul=가요|
hanja=歌謠|
rr=Gayo|
mr=Kayo|
}}
'''Gayo''' is:
# the [[Gayo language]], [[ISO 639-2]] Code [[gay]].
# the [[Korean language|Korean]] term for [[pop music]] native to [[South Korea]].
==See also==
* [[Korean pop music]]
* [[South Korean music]]
* [[Contemporary culture of South Korea]]
* [[List of Korea-related topics]]
==External links==
*http://koreanrock.com
{{Music-genre-stub}}
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Korean styles of music]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>GW-BASIC</title>
<id>13087</id>
<revision>
<id>41472005</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T16:04:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wernher</username>
<id>19431</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cat ASCIIsort fix</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GW-BASIC 3.22.png|right|thumb|300px|GW-BASIC 3.22 displaying the [[Hello world program]]]]
'''GW-BASIC''' was a dialect of [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] developed by [[Microsoft]] from [[BASICA]], originally for [[Compaq]].
It is compatible with Microsoft/[[IBM]] [[Microsoft BASICA|BASICA]], but was disk based and did not require the resources of the [[Read-only memory|ROM]] included on IBM's machines. It was bundled with [[MS-DOS]] [[operating system]]s on [[IBM PC compatible]]s by Microsoft. Like other early microcomputer versions of BASIC, GW-BASIC lacked many of the structures needed for [[structured programming]] such as local variables, and GW-BASIC programs executed relatively slowly, due to the fact that it was an [[interpreted programming language]]. It did have a large number of [[2D computer graphics|graphics]] commands.
Still, it had enough flexibility to allow one to write simple games, business programs and the like. Since it was available on any PC, it was also a cheap way for would-be [[programmer]]s to learn the rudiments of [[computer programming]]. It also provided a way to develop impressive science fair projects for aspiring students willing to deal with the frustrations of programming in such a spartan system.
GW-BASIC has a [[command line]]-based [[Integrated Development Environment| Integrated Development Environment (IDE)]] system based on the original introduced at [[Dartmouth College]]; all program lines must be numbered, all non-numbered lines are considered to be commands in direct mode (ie, to be executed immediately). The user interface is almost completely command line, except for the [[function key]] shortcuts at the bottom and an initial [[copyright]] notice at the top of the screen. Files are normally saved in a GW-BASIC binary compressed format with [[token]]s replacing commands; however, it has an option to save programs in [[ASCII]] text form.
The GW-BASIC IDE has commands to <code>RUN,LOAD,SAVE,LIST</code> the current program, or quit to the operating <code>SYSTEM</code>. Although they may all be used as program statements such use is rare for all commands except <code>SYSTEM</code>.
There is little support for [[structured programming]] in GW-BASIC and therefore it is very much up to GW-BASIC programmers, themselves, to provide a good structure for their programs. All <code>IF/THEN/ELSE</code> [[conditional statement]]s must be written on one line, although <code>WHILE/WEND</code> statements may group multiple lines. [[subroutine|Functions]] can only be defined using the single line <code>DEF FNf(x)=</code><mathematical function of x> statement (e.g., <code>DEF FNLOG(base,number)=LOG(number)/LOG(base)</code>). [[Variable]]s are often typed via a type symbol at the end of their name: <code>A$</code> is a [[literal string|string]], <code>A%</code> is an [[integer]], etc. Groups of undeclared variables can also be set to default types based on the initial letter of their name by use of the <code>DEFINT, DEFSTR</code>, etc., statements. The default type for undeclared variables not identified by such typing statements, is single-precision [[floating-point]].
Because many GW-BASIC programmers were without formal training, they often failed to see the need for simple structuring and as a result made extensive, undisciplined use of <code>[[GOTO]]s</code> rather than using them as replacements for the missing structural statements. See [[spaghetti code]].
GW-BASIC allowed for the [[joystick]]s and [[pen-input]] devices of its time, but not for [[computer mouse|mice]]. (It is possible to use pen-input commands for mice, but the reliability of the mouse responding properly to pen requests is poor.) GW-BASIC can read from and write to files, [[LPT port]]s, and [[Serial port|COM port]]s; it can also do event trapping for ports. It cannot handle [[tape device]]s. It is able to play simple sheet music using the <code>PLAY</code> statement, requiring a [[literal string|string]] of notes (e.g. <code>PLAY "edcdeee2dfedc4"</code>). More low-level control is possible with the <code>SOUND</code> statement, which takes the arguments of a frequency in [[hertz]] and a length in clock ticks for the standard internal [[PC speaker]] in IBM machines. Consequently sound is limited to single channel beeps and whistles as befits a 'business' machine.
GW-BASIC's place in |
world-class museum. The [[Heritage Library Museum]] was established in 1968, and is viewed as one of the largest collections of Alaska artifacts.
=== Other cultural institutions ===
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Alaska_Statehood_Monument_in_Downtown_Anchorage.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Alaska Statehood Monument in downtown Anchorage.]] -->
The [[Alaska Zoo]], opened as a children's zoo in 1969, is home to just under 100 [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s. The [[Alaska Wildlife Conservation Center]], opened to the public in 1993, is a [[refuge]] for the [[orphaned]], injured wildlife, a [[non-profit organization]]. The [[Alaska Native Heritage Center]], opened in 1999, is a gathering place that celebrates, perpetuates and shares Alaska Native cultures. The [[Alaska Botanical Garden]] contains over 900 species of hardy perennials and 150 native plant species.
=== Local attractions ===
The [[H2Oasis Indoor Waterpark]], opened in 2003, is literally and figuratively the hottest spot in Alaska for fun and adventure. [[Alpenglow at Arctic Valley]] is a [[ski resort]] that is located on Ski Bowl Road in the [[Chugach State Park]] near [[Fort Richardson]]. The [[Alyeska Resort]] is a ski resort that is located in [[Girdwood, Alaska|Girdwood]]. The [[Hilltop Ski Area]] is located on the gentle slopes of southeast Anchorage that weave against the base of Chugach State Park. The Nordic Skiing Association of Anchorage [http://www.anchoragenordicski.com] is a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting all forms of [[nordic skiing]].
=== Media ===
Anchorage's leading [[newspaper]]s are the [[Anchorage Daily News]] [http://www.adn.com/], the [[Alaska Star]] [http://www.alaskastar.com], the [[Insurgent49]] [http://www.insurgent49.com], the [[Anchorage Press]] [http://www.anchoragepress.com] and the [[Petroleum News]] [http://www.petroleumnews.com/].
Anchorage is also well served by [[television]] and [[radio]]. Anchorage's major network television affiliates are [[KIMO]] 13[[American Broadcasting Company|(ABC)]], [[KTVA]] 11[[CBS|(CBS)]], [[KAKM]] 7[[Public Broadcasting Service|(PBS)]], [[KTBY]] 4[[Fox Broadcasting Company|(FOX)]], [[KTUU-TV]] 2[[NBC|(NBC)]], [[KYES]] 5[[UPN|(UPN)]] and [[KDMD]] 33[[I (TV network)|(PAX/Shopping)]]. [[ARCS]]: The Alaska Rural Communications Service, which provides some original programming and also "cherry-picks" retransmissions from among the broadcast stations in Anchorage, though usually not KIMO except in very rare occasions (such as [[Iditarod]] coverage), to provide television service to remote areas.
Leading [[radio]] stations include AM Stations [[KTZN]] 550-Clear Channel Communications, [[KHAR]] 590, [[KENI]] 650-Clear Channel Communications, [[KBYR]] 700, [[KFQD]] 750 and [[KUDO]] 1080. FM Stations [[KRUA]] 88.1-[[University of Alaska, Anchorage]], [[KAKL]] 88.5-"Positive, Encouraging K-Love", Christian Music, K-Love, EMF Broadcasting, [[KATB]] 89.3, [[KNBA]] 90.3, [[KSKA]] 91.1, [[KFAT-FM|KFAT]] 92.9-New Northwest Broadcasters, [[KAFC]] 93.7, [[KEAG]] 97.3, [[KLEF]] 98.1, [[KYMG]] 98.9-Clear Channel Communications, [[KBFX-FM|KBFX]] 100.5- Clear Channel Communications, [[KGOT]] 101.3-Clear Channel Communications, [[KDBZ]] 102.1-New Northwest Broadcasters, [[KMXS]] 103.1, [[KBRJ]] 104.1, [[KNIK]] 105.7, [[KWHL]] 106.5 and [[KASH]] 107.5-Clear Channel Communications.
=== Sports ===
{| class="wikitable"
! Club
! Sport
! League
! Stadium
! Logo
|-
| [[Alaska Aces]]
| [[Ice Hockey]]
| [[ECHL]]
| [[Sullivan Arena]]
| [[Image:Alaska Aces.jpg|30px|Alaska Aces Logo]]
|-
| [[Anchorage Bucs Baseball Club]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[Alaska Baseball League]]
| [[Mulcahy Stadium]]
| [[Image:Anchorage Bucs Baseball Club.jpg|30px|Anchorage Bucs Baseball Club]]
|-
| [[Anchorage Glacier Pilots]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[Alaska Baseball League]]
| [[Mulcahy Stadium]]
| [[Image:Anchorage Glacier Pilots.jpg|30px|Anchorage Glacier Pilots]]
|-
| [[Great Alaska Shootout]]
| [[Basketball]]
| N/A
| [[Sullivan Arena]]
| [[Image:Great Alaska Shootout.jpg|30px|Great Alaska Shootout]]
|}
Anchorage is home to the [[Alaska Aces]] of the ECHL hockey league. The [[Anchorage Bucs Baseball Club]] is a summer collegiate baseball team, attracting players from universities throughout the world. The [[Anchorage Glacier Pilots]] is a member of the [[National Baseball Congress]]. Anchorage is also home to the [[Great Alaska Shootout]], an annual [[college basketball]] tournament that features colleges from all over the U.S.
The best ski jumper from the U.S. in the past 15 years is from Anchorage, Alan Alborn. He has finished 4th in a stage of the World Cup in [[Engelberg]], [[Switzerland]], and has a 11th place from the [[2002 Olympics]] in [[Salt Lake City, Utah]]. He also holds the US skiflying record with 221,5 meters from 2002 in [[Planica]], [[Slovenia]].
== Infrastructure ==
=== Transportation ===
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Anc-downtown-night-1072.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Downtown Anchorage at night.]] -->
Anchorage is usually the starting or ending point of most visitors' Alaska vacations, and it serves as the airline hub for the state, being serviced by [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]]. Anchorage is served by some national airlines, primarily Seattle-based [[Alaska Airlines]], as well as a number of international airlines. The [[Alaska Railroad]] offers daily summer service to [[Seward]], [[Talkeetna]], [[Denali National Park]], and [[Fairbanks]]. These communities are also served by inter-city bus line from Anchorage. Transportation to downtown Anchorage is convenient by taxicab, airport shuttle, or hotel courtesy shuttles. Upon arrival, visitors can stop by the Anchorage Convention & Visitors Bureau Visitor Information Center or the Alaska Visitors Center for direction. Diamond Airport Parking offers long-term parking with free 24-hour shuttle service to the airport. [[Cruise]] passengers with a few hours or a full day to explore Anchorage can store their luggage (and fish) at the airport. The Ship Creek Shuttle connects key downtown Anchorage locations with the Ship Creek area, including stops at the Alaska Railroad Depot.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Tourist_returning_to_Anchorage_from_Denali_National_Park.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Alaska Railroad tourist returning to Anchorage from [[Denali National Park]].]] -->
Anchorage also has a [[public transit|bus system]] called People Mover [http://www.muni.org/transit], with a central hub in downtown Anchorage and satellite hubs at [[Dimond Center]] and [[Muldoon Mall]]. People Mover also provides point-to-point van services to seniors and those with disabilities, as well as car pool organization services.
There is only one officially designated [[Interstate Highway]] in Alaska. Unlike the Interstate routes in [[Hawaii]], it is unsigned as such. The route, officially [[Interstate A-1]] runs along the Seward and Glenn Highways. The highway is numbered [[Alaska State Highway 1]]. About 10 miles of the [[Seward Highway]], (known as the New Seward Highway) is built to [[freeway]] standards. The [[Glenn Highway]], also built to freeway standards goes northeast from Anchorage, six lanes carrying commuter traffic to and from Eagle River, Chugiak, and the Matanuska Valley towns of [[Palmer]] and [[Wasilla]]. The highway is four lanes wide from Eagle River to the junction with the Parks Highway ([[Alaska State Highway 3]]) near Wasilla. Anchorage's roads and the state's highways are all asphalt. They are plowed when necessary in the winter. Highway construction and maintenance is limited to the warm months, so expect some delays.
As of 2005, Anchorage has a long-range transportation plan. Building the Highway to Highway Connection as a limited-access highway link between the Glenn and Seward highways could be the backbone that efficiently delivers traffic to many destinations throughout the city.
Today, traffic is heavy all day long 5th-6th Avenues, Ingra and Gambell, and spills into East Anchorage neighborhoods to avoid congestion. In the Fairview, Mountain View, and Midtown neighborhoods, the new road link would be dug down, out of sight and covered in some areas to allow easy pedestrian and vehicle access across.
=== Medical centers and hospitals ===
[[Providence Alaska Medical Center]] on Providence Drive in Anchorage is the largest hospital in Alaska and is part of [[Providence Health System]] in [[Alaska]], [[Washington]], [[Oregon]] and [[California]]. It features the state's most comprehensive range of services. Providence Health System has a history of serving Alaska, beginning when the Sisters of Providence first brought health care to [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] in 1902. As the territory grew during the following decades, so did efforts to provide care. Their hospitals were opened in [[Fairbanks]] in 1910 and Anchorage in 1937.
[[Alaska Regional Hospital]] on DeBarr Road in Anchorage was born in 1963 as Anchorage Presbyterian Hospital, located at 8th and L Street downtown. This predecessor to Alaska Regional was a joint venture between local [[physicians]] and the Presbyterian Church. In 1976 the hospital moved to it's present location on DeBarr Road, and is now a 254-bed licensed and accredited facility. Alaska Regional has expanded services and in 1994, Alaska Regional joined with [[HCA]], one of the nation's largest [[healthcare]] providers.
[[Alaska Native Medical Center]] on Tudor Road, provides medical care and therapeutic health care to Native Alaskans - 229 tribes of [[Eskimos]] and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indians]] - at the Anchorage site and at 15 satellite facilities throughout the state. ANMC specialists also travel to clinics in the bush to provide care. The 150-bed hospital is also a teaching center for the [[University of Washington]]'s regional medical education program. ANMC houses an office of the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]. The Alaska |
e Führer has decided to make a clean sweep. The world war is here, the annihilation of the Jews must be the necessary result.”
After this decision, plans were made to put the Final Solution into effect. For example, on [[December 16]], at a meeting of the officials of the General Government, [[Hans Frank]] referred to Hitler's speech as he described the coming annihilation of the Jews:
<blockquote>As for the Jews, well, I can tell you quite frankly that one way or another we have to put an end to them. The Führer once put it this way: if the combined forces of Judaism should again succeed in unleashing a world war, that would mean the end of the Jews in Europe. .... I urge you: Stand together with me ... on this idea at least: Save your sympathy for the German people alone. Don't waste it on anyone else in the world, . . . I would therefore be guided by the basic expectation that they are going to disappear. They have to be gotten rid of. At present I am involved in discussions aimed at having them moved away to the east. In January there is going to be an important meeting in Berlin to discuss this question. I am going to send State Secretary Dr. Buhler to this meeting. It is scheduled to take place in the offices of the RSHA in the presence of Obergruppenführer Heydrich. Whatever its outcome, a great Jewish emigration will commence. But what is going to happen to these Jews? Do you imagine there will be settlement villages for them in the Ostland? In Berlin we were told: Why are you making all this trouble for us? There is nothing we can do with them here in the Ostland or in the Reich Commissariat. Liquidate them yourselves! .... Here are 3.5 million Jews that we can't shoot, we can't poison. But there are some things we can do, and one way or another these measures will successfully lead to a liquidation. They are related to the measures under discussion with the Reich.... Where and how this will all take place will be a matter for offices that we will have to establish and operate here. I will report to you on their operation at the appropriate time.</blockquote>
By [[1 November]] [[1941]] the first extermination camps were being built; first [[Belzec]], then [[Sobibor]] and finally [[Treblinka]], the mass execution of Jews began in early 1942.
==Cultural References==
::See [[The Holocaust in art and literature]]
==References==
* Browning, Christopher R. The Origins of the Final Solution, William Heinemann, London, 2004.
* Gerald Fleming, Hitler and the Final Solution, University of California Press, Berkley, 1984.
* Christian Gerlach. The Wannsee Conference, the Fate of German Jews, and Hitler's decision in principle to exterminate all European Jews, The Journal of Modern History. Chicago: Dec 1998.Vol.70, Iss. 4; pg. 759, 54 pgs
* Longerich, Peter. The Unwritten Order – Hitler's Role in The Final Solution, Tempus Publishing Limited, Stroud, 2003.
==External links==
* [http://www.holocaust-history.org/hitler-final-solution When did Hitler decide on the Final Solution?]
* [http://www.deathcamps.org/reinhard/finalsolution.html The Emergence of the Final Solution]
* [http://www.shoaheducation.com/endlosung.html The Final Solution of the Jewish Question in the Holocaust]
[[Category:Holocaust]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany]]
[[ar:حل أخير]]
[[da:Endlösung]]
[[de:Endlösung der Judenfrage]]
[[es:Solución final]]
[[eo:Fina solvo]]
[[ga:Freagra Deireanach]]
[[id:Solusi terakhir]]
[[it:Soluzione finale della questione ebraica]]
[[he:הפתרון הסופי]]
[[nl:Endlösung]]
[[no:Den endelige løsning]]
[[pl:Endlösung]]
[[pt:Solução final]]
[[sl:Dokončna rešitev]]
[[fi:Lopullinen ratkaisu]]
[[sv:Den slutgiltiga lösningen]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>EndlÃösung</title>
<id>10161</id>
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<timestamp>2006-01-15T21:33:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sceptre</username>
<id>274040</id>
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<minor />
<comment>dblredir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Final Solution]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>EndlÃf¶sung</title>
<id>10162</id>
<revision>
<id>35314849</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T21:33:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Sceptre</username>
<id>274040</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dblredir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Final Solution]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Eusebius (disambiguation)</title>
<id>10163</id>
<revision>
<id>36119088</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T19:43:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>JASpencer</username>
<id>11096</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Eusebius''' is the name of several significant historical people (arrangement is chronological):
* [[Eusebius of Myndus]], 4th century BC philosopher.
* [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]], 4th century bishop of [[Nicomedia]].
* [[Eusebius of Rome]] (died c. 357), a priest and martyr, Saint
* [[Eusebius of Samosata]] (died c. 380), bishop of [[Samosata]], Saint
* [[Eusebius of Vercelli]] (c. 283&ndash;381), bishop of [[Vercelli]], Saint
* [[Eusebius of Laodicea]] (died c. 268), bishop of [[Laodicea]]. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05623a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
* [[Pope Eusebius]], Pope 309&ndash;310.
* [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] (c. 260&ndash;c. 341), "the" Eusebius: the famous historian of the Christian Church.
* [[Eusebius of Emesa]], 4th century bishop.
* [[Eusebius of Dorylaeum]], 5th century bishop.
* [[Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus]], ca. 340-420 better known as [[Saint Jerome]].
* [[Eusebius of Alexandria]], 6th century author of the Eastern Christian Church.
* [[Eusebius of Angers]], 11th century bishop.
{{disambig}}
[[cs:Eusebius]]
[[de:Eusebius]]
[[nl:Eusebius]]
[[fi:Eusebius]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Eurystheus</title>
<id>10164</id>
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<id>39360614</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-12T17:26:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wetman</username>
<id>21492</id>
</contributor>
<comment>labours are expressly linked to and needn't be fully worked over here; added details concerning Eurystheus</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], '''Eurystheus''' was king of [[Tiryns]], one of three [[Mycenaean]] strongholds in the [[Argolid]]: [[Sthenelus]] was his father and the "horsewoman" '''Nykippe''' his mother, and he was a grandson of the hero [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]], as was his opponent [[Heracles]]. In the contest of wills between [[Hera]] and [[Zeus]] over whom the the hero would be, who would defeat the remaining creatures representing an old order and bring about the reign of the [[Twelve Olympians]], Eurystheus ("wide strength") was Hera's candidate and [[Heracles]]&mdash;though his name implies that at one archaic stage of myth-making he had been "Hera's man"&mdash; was the candidate of Zeus. The arena for the actions that would bring about this deep change are the [[Twelve Labors]] imposed on [[Heracles]], by Eurystheus. The immediate necessity for the Labours of Heracles is as penance for Heracles' murder of his own family, in a fit of madness&ndash;that was sent by Hera, however; further human rather than mythic motivation is supplied by mythographers who note that their repective families families had been rivals for the throne of [[Mycenae]]. Details on the Twelve Labours are to be found at the article on [[Heracles]], but Hera was connected with all of the opponents Heracles had to overcome
Heracles' human step-father [[Amphitryon]] was also a grandson of Perseus, and since Amphitryon's father ([[Alcaeus]]) was older than Eurystheus' father ([[Sthenelus]]), he might have received the kingdom, but Sthenelus had banished Amphitryon for accidentally murdering (a familiar [[mytheme]]) the eldest son in the family ([[Electryon]]). When [[Zeus]] proclaimed the next born descendant of Perseus should get the kingdom shortly before his son Heracles was born, [[Hera]] thwarted his ambitions by delaying [[Alcmene]]'s labour and having her candidate Eurystheus born prematurely.
Heracles first task was to slay the [[Nemean Lion]] and bring back its skin, which Heracles decided to wear. Eurystheus was so scared by Heracles' fearsome guise that he hid in a subterranean bronze winejarjar and from that moment forth all labors were communicated to Heracles through a [[herald]], [[Copreus]].
For his second labour, to slay the [[Lernaean Hydra]], Heracles took with him his nephew, [[Iolaus]], as a charioteer. When Eurystheus found out that Heracles' nephew had helped him he declared that the labour had not been completed alone and as a result did not count towards the ten labours set for him.
Eurystheus' third task did not involve killing a beast, but to capture the [[Cerynian Hind]], a golden-horned stag sacred to [[Artemis]]. Heracles knew that he had to return the hind as he had promised to Artemis, so he agreed to hand it over on the condition that Eurystheus himself came out and took it from him. Eurystheus came out, but the moment Heracles let the hind go, it sprinted back to her mistress, and Heracles left saying that Eurystheus had not been quick enough.
When Heracles returned with the [[Erymanthian Boar]], Eurystheus was frightened and hid again in his jar and begged Heracles to get rid of the beast; Heracles obliged.
For his seventh labour Heracles captured the [[Cretan Bull]]. Heracles used a [[lasso]] and rode it back to his cousin. Eurystheus wanted to sacrifice the bull to [[Hera]] his patron, who hated Heracles. She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Heracles. The bull was released and wandered to Marathon, becoming known as the [[Marathonian Bull]].
|
ain 1911 edition of ''The New Century Book of Facts'' published by the King-Richardson Company, Springfield, Massachusetts. (This reference gives a death date of 78 BC, but consensus seems to be 76 BC.)
==External links==
*[http://www.biblicalmites.com Leptons and Prutahs of Alexander Jannaeus]
*[http://dougsmith.ancients.info/feac47wid.html Coinage of King Alexander Jannaeus, "Widow's Mites".]
*[http://images.google.co.jp/images?q=Alexander%20Jannaeus%20coins&hl=ja&lr=&sa=N&tab=wi Coins of King Alexander Jannaeus]
*[http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/HellenicMacedonia/en/img_A1a.html Miniature 'shield' showing the 8-spoked star of the Argead]
[[Category:Hasmoneans]]
[[Category:High Priests of Israel]]
[[he:&#1488;&#1500;&#1499;&#1505;&#1504;&#1491;&#1512; &#1497;&#1504;&#1488;&#1497;]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander IV</title>
<id>1607</id>
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<contributor>
<username>Korg</username>
<id>263660</id>
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<minor />
<comment>{{hndis}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander IV''' may refer to either of the following;
*[[Pope Alexander IV]]
*King [[Alexander IV of Macedon]], the son of [[Alexander the Great]]
{{hndis}}
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[[es:Alejandro IV]]
[[fr:Alexandre IV]]
[[it:Alessandro IV]]
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<page>
<title>Alexander V</title>
<id>1608</id>
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<timestamp>2005-04-21T03:35:52Z</timestamp>
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<username>John Kenney</username>
<id>10512</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Alexander V]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Alexander VI</title>
<id>1609</id>
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<id>15900076</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope_Alexander_VI]]
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<page>
<title>Alexander VII</title>
<id>1610</id>
<revision>
<id>15900077</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope_Alexander_VII]]
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<page>
<title>Alexander VIII</title>
<id>1611</id>
<revision>
<id>15900078</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope_Alexander_VIII]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Alexandrists</title>
<id>1612</id>
<revision>
<id>28050100</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-11T19:41:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bluebot</username>
<id>527862</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Alexandrists''' were a school of [[Renaissance]] philosophers who, in the great controversy on the subject
of personal immortality, adopted the explanation of the ''De Anima'' given by Alexander of Aphrodisias.
According to the orthodox [[Thomism]] of the Roman Catholic Church, [[Aristotle]] rightly regarded reason as a facility of the individual soul. Against this, the Averroists, led by [[Agostino Nito]], introduced the modifying theory that universal reason in a sense individualizes itself in each soul and then absorbs the active reason into itself again. These two theories respectively evolved the doctrine of individual and universal immortality, or the absorption of the individual into the eternal One.
The Alexandrists, led by Pietro Pomponazzi, boldly assailed these beliefs and denied that either was rightly attributed to Aristotle. They held that Aristotle considered the soul as a material and therefore a mortal entity which operates during life only under the authority of universal reason. Hence the Alexandrists denied the possibility of any form of immortality, holding that, since the soul is organically connected with the body, the dissolution of the latter involves the extinction of the former.
==References==
*{{1911}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Alexius I Comnenus</title>
<id>1613</id>
<revision>
<id>40205479</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T23:19:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deville</username>
<id>364144</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguate [[Epirus]] to [[Despotate of Epirus]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Alexius I.jpg|thumb|Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus]]
'''Alexius I''' (Greek: Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός or Alexios I Komnenos) ([[1048]] &ndash; [[August 15]], [[1118]]), [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[List of Byzantine Emperors|emperor]] ([[1081]]&ndash;[[1118]]), was the third son of John Comnenus, the nephew of [[Isaac I Comnenus]] (emperor 1057&ndash;1059).
His father declined the throne on the abdication of Isaac, who was accordingly succeeded by four emperors of other families between [[1059]] and [[1081]]. Under one of these emperors, [[Romanus IV|Romanus IV Diogenes]] ([[1067]]&ndash;[[1071]]), he served with distinction against the [[Seljuk Turks]]. Under [[Michael VII]] Parapinaces ([[1071]]&ndash;[[1078]]) and [[Nicephorus III]] Botaniates ([[1078]]&ndash;[[1081]]) he was also employed, along with his elder brother Isaac, against rebels in [[Asia Minor]], [[Thrace]] and in [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] in [[1071]].
The success of the [[Comnenus|Comneni]] roused the jealousy of Botaniates and his ministers, and the Comneni were almost compelled to take up arms in self-defence. Botaniates was forced to abdicate and retire to a [[monastery]], and Isaac declined the crown in favour of his younger brother Alexius, who then became emperor at the age of 33.
By that time Alexius was the lover of the Empress [[Maria Bagrationi]], a daughter of [[monarch|king]] [[Bagrat IV of Georgia]] who was successively married to [[Michael VII]] Ducas and his successor Botaniates, and was renowned for her beauty. Alexius and Maria lived almost openly together at the Palace of Mangana, and Alexius had [[Michael VII]] and Maria's young son, the prince Constantine Ducas, adopted and proclaimed heir to the throne. The affair conferred to Alexius a degree of dynastic legitimacy, but soon his mother Anna Dalassena consolidated the Ducas family connection by arranging the Emperor's wedding with [[Irene Ducaena]] or Doukaina, granddaughter of the ''caesar'' John Ducas, head of a powerful feudal family and the "kingmaker" behind [[Michael VII]].
Alexius' involvement with Maria continued and shortly after his daughter [[Anna Comnena]] was born, she was betrothed to [[Constantine Ducas]] and moved to live at the Mangana Palace with him and Maria. The situation however changed drastically when [[John II Comnenus]] was born: Anna's engagement to Constantine was dissolved, she was moved to the main Palace to live with her mother and grandmother, Constantine's status as heir was terminated and Alexius became estranged with Maria, now stripped of her imperial title. Shortly afterwards, the teenager Constantine died and Maria was confined to a convent.
[[Image:Histamenon nomisma-Alexius I-sb1776.jpg|thumb|300px|This coin was struck by Alexius during his war against [[Robert Guiscard]].]]
Alexius' long reign of nearly 37 years was full of struggle. At the very outset he had to meet the formidable attack of the [[Normans]] ([[Robert Guiscard]] and his son [[Bohemund I of Antioch|Bohemund]]), who took [[Durrës|Dyrrhachium]] and [[Corfu]], and laid siege to [[Larissa]] in [[Thessaly]] (see [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|Battle of Dyrrhachium]]). The Norman danger ended for the time with Robert Guiscard's death in [[1085]], and the conquests were reversed.
He had next to repel the invasions of [[Pechenegs]] and [[Kypchaks|Cumans]] in Thrace, with whom the [[Manichaean]] sect of the [[Bogomils]] made common cause; and thirdly, he had to cope with the fast-growing power of the [[Seljuk Turks]] in Asia Minor.
Above all he had to meet the difficulties caused by the arrival of the [[knight]]s of the [[First Crusade]], which had been, to a great degree, initiated as the result of the representations of his own ambassadors, whom he had sent to [[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Piacenza]] in [[1095]]. The help which he wanted from the West was simply [[mercenary]] forces and not the immense hosts which arrived, to his consternation and embarrassment. The first group, under [[Peter the Hermit]], he dealt with by sending them on to Asia Minor, where they were massacred by the Turks in [[1096]].
The second and much more serious host of knights, led by [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], he also led into Asia, promising to supply them with provisions in return for an oath of homage, and by their victories recovered for the Byzantine Empire a number of important cities and islands&mdash;[[Nicaea]], [[Chios]], [[Rhodes]], [[Izmir|Smyrna]], [[Ephesus]], [[Philadelphia (Alasehir)|Philadelphia]], [[Sardis]], and in fact most of Asia Minor ([[1097]]&ndash;[[1099]]). This is ascribed by his daughter [[Anna Comnena|Anna]] as a credit to his policy and diplomacy, but by the Latin historians of the crusade as a sign of his treachery and falseness. The crusa |
* [[Jolene Sugarbaker]]
* [[Julia Sweeney]]
* [[Eric Sykes]]
* [[Wanda Sykes]]
=== T ===
* [[Masashi Tashiro]] (1956-)
* [[Dave Thomas (actor)|Dave Thomas]]
* [[Mark Thomas]]
* [[Terry-Thomas]]
* [[Greg Thomey]]
* [[Scott Thompson]]
* [[Kai Tier]]
* [[Tommy Tiernan]]
* [[Christopher Titus]]
* [[Sandi Toksvig]]
* [[Lily Tomlin]]
* [[Barry Took]]
* [[Ben Turpin]]
=== U ===
* [[Tracey Ullman]]
* [[Stanley Unwin (comedian)|Stanley Unwin]]
=== V ===
* [[Johnny Vegas]]
* [[Billy Van]]
* [[Colin Van Benga]]
* [[Thomas Vitale]]
* [[Dan Vitale]]
=== W ===
* [[Christopher Walken]]
* [[Max Wall]]
* [[Ruth Wallis]]
* [[Greg Walloch]]
* [[Bradley Walsh]]
* [[Mary Walsh]]
* [[Eric Wareheim]]
* [[Ruby Wax]]
* [[Damon Wayans]]
* [[Keenan Ivory Wayans]]
* [[Morgan Webb]]
* [[Frank Welker]]
* [[Ron White]] (1956-)
* [[Paul Whitehouse]]
* [[June Whitfield]]
* [[Daniel Whitney]] (Larry the Cable Guy) (1963-)
* [[Gene Wilder]]
* [[Bert Williams]]
* [[Kenneth Williams]]
* [[Robin Williams]]
* [[Dave Willis]]
* [[Jonathan Winters]]
* [[Norman Wisdom]]
* [[Victoria Wood]]
* [[Glenn Wool]]
* [[Harry Worth]]
* [[Steven Wright]]
=== Y ===
* [["Weird Al" Yankovic]]
* [[Gina Yashere]]
=== Z ===
* [[Andy Zaltzman]]
* [[Monty Zuma]]
* [[Pete Zedlacher]]
==Groups of comedians==
* [[Abbott and Costello]]
* [[The Art Stars]]
* [[Beyond the Fringe]]
* [[Bloodhound Gang]]
* [[Bob and Ray]]
* The [[Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band]]
* [[Broken Lizard]]
* [[Les Charlots]]
* [[Cheech and Chong]]
* [[The Comedy Store Players]]
* [[The Comic Strip]]
* [[The Consultants]]
* [[Corky and the Juice Pigs]]
* [[The Crazy Gang]]
* [[The Firesign Theatre]]
* [[French and Saunders]]
* [[Gallagher & Shean]]
* [[The Goons]]
* [[Gröûp X]]
* [[The Grumbleweeds]]
* [[Laurel and Hardy]]
* The [[League of Gentlemen]]
* The [[Marijuana Logues]]
* The [[Marx Brothers]]
* The [[Bob & Doug McKenzie|McKenzie Brothers]] (Bob & Doug)
* [[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]
* [[The O'Debra Twins]]
*[[Upright Citizens Brigade]]
* [[Morecambe and Wise]]
* [[Pete and Dud]]
* [[Punt and Dennis]]
* [[Rowan and Martin's Laugh-in]]
* The [[Royal Canadian Air Farce]]
* The [[Smothers Brothers]]
* [[This Hour Has 22 Minutes]]
* [[Not Ready for Prime-Time Players]] (''[[Saturday Night Live]]'')
* The [[Three Stooges]]
* [[The Trap]]
* [[Reeves and Mortimer]]
* [[Wayne and Shuster]]
* The [[Whimsical Icebox]]
==Comedy writers==
* [[Woody Allen]]
* [[Chesney and Wolfe]]
* [[Roy Clarke]]
* [[Clement and La Frenais]]
* [[David Croft]]
* [[Harry Driver]]
* [[Esmonde and Larbey]]
* [[W. S. Gilbert]]
* [[Galton and Simpson]]
* [[Willis Hall]]
* [[Anthony Jay]]
* [[Carla Lane]]
* [[Jeremy Lloyd]]
* [[David Nobbs]]
* [[Muir and Norden]]
* [[S. J. Perelman]]
* [[Jimmy_Perry_%28comedy_writer%29|Jimmy Perry]]
* [[David Renwick]]
* [[Jack Rosenthal]]
* [[Johnny Speight]]
* [[John Sullivan (writer) |John Sullivan]]
* [[Peter Tinniswood]]
* [[Keith Waterhouse]]
==See also==
*[[List of humorists]]
*[[List of musical comedians]]
*[[List of Dr Demento's radio show comedians]]
*[[List of American comedians]]
*[[List of British comedians]]
*[[List of Hispanic or Latinamerican comedians]]
*[[List of Italian comedians]]
*[[List of Norwegian comedians]]
*[[List of Portuguese comedians]]
*[[List of Puerto Rican comedians]]
*[[List of Quebec comedians]]
*[[List of entertainer pairs]]
[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Comedians]]
[[Category:Comedians| ]]
[[sq:Lista e komedianve]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Compact space</title>
<id>6042</id>
<revision>
<id>41931306</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:31:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fell Collar</username>
<id>1014813</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History and motivation */ changed wording, clarified</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a subset of [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> is called '''compact''' if it is [[closed set|closed]] and [[bounded set|bounded]]. For example, in '''R''', the closed [[unit interval]] [0, 1] is compact, but the set of [[integer]]s '''Z''' is not (it is not bounded) and neither is the half-open interval <nowiki>[0, 1)</nowiki> (it is not closed).
A more modern approach is to call a [[topological space]] '''compact''' if each of its [[open cover]]s has a finite subcover. The [[Heine–Borel theorem]] affirms that this coincides with "closed and bounded" for subsets of Euclidean space.
Note: Some authors such as [[Bourbaki]] use the term "'''quasi-compact'''" instead and reserve the name "compact" for topological spaces that are [[Hausdorff spaces|Hausdorff ]] and compact.
== History and motivation ==
The term ''compact'' was introduced by [[Maurice René Fréchet|Fréchet]] in [[1906]].
It has long been recognized that a property like compactness is necessary to prove a lot of useful theorems. It used to be that "compact" meant "sequentially compact" (every [[sequence]] has a convergent subsequence). This was when primarily [[metric space]]s were studied. The "covering compact" definition surpassed it because it allows us to consider the general topological space, and many of the old results about metric spaces can be generalized.
One of the main reasons for studying compact spaces is because they are in some ways very similar to [[finite set]]s. In other words, there are many results which are easy to show for finite sets, the proofs of which carry over with minimal change to compact spaces. It is often said that "compactness is the next best thing to finiteness". Here is an example:
* Suppose ''X'' is a [[Hausdorff space]], and we have a point ''x'' in ''X'' and a finite subset ''A'' of ''X'' not containing ''x''. Then we can [[separated sets|separate]] ''x'' and ''A'' by [[neighbourhood (topology)|neighbourhood]]s: for each ''a'' in ''A'', let ''U''(''x'') and ''V''(''a'') be disjoint neighbourhoods containing ''x'' and ''a'', respectively. Then the intersection of all the ''U''(''x'') and the union of all the ''V''(''a'') are the required neighbourhoods of ''x'' and ''A''.
Note that if ''A'' is [[infinite]], the proof fails, because the intersection of arbitrarily many neighbourhoods of ''x'' might not be a neighbourhood of ''x''. The proof can be "rescued", however, if ''A'' is compact: we simply take a finite subcover of the cover {''V''(''a'')} of ''A''. In this way, we see that in a Hausdorff space, any point can be separated by neighbourhoods from any compact set not containing it. In fact, repeating the argument shows that any two disjoint compact sets in a Hausdorff space can be separated by neighbourhoods -- note that this is precisely what we get if we replace "point" (i.e. [[singleton set]]) with "compact set" in the Hausdorff [[separation axiom]]. Many of the arguments and results involving compact spaces follow such a pattern.
== Definitions ==
=== Compactness of subsets of '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>===
For any [[subset]] of [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>, the following four conditions are equivalent:
* Every open cover has a finite subcover. This is the definition most commonly used.
* Every [[sequence]] in the set has a [[convergent]] subsequence, the limit point of which belongs to the set.
* Every infinite subset of the set has an [[accumulation point]] in the set.
* The set is [[Closed_set|closed]] and [[bounded set|bounded]]. This is the condition that is easiest to verify, for example a closed [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] or closed ''n''-ball.
In other spaces, these conditions may or may not be equivalent, depending on the properties of the space.
=== Compactness of topological spaces ===
The "finite subcover" property from the previous paragraph is more abstract than the "closed and bounded" one, but it has the distinct advantage that it can be given using the [[subspace topology]] on a subset of '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>, eliminating the need of using a metric or an ambient space. Thus, compactness is a [[topological property]]. In a sense, the closed unit interval [0,1] is intrinsically compact, regardless of how it is embedded in '''R''' or '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup>.
The general definition goes as follows. A topological space is called compact [[iff]] all its open covers have a finite subcover. Formally, this means that
:for every arbitrary collection <math>\{U_i\}_{i\in I}</math> of open subsets of <math>X</math> such that <math>\cup_{i\in I} U_i = X</math>, there is a finite subset <math>J\subset I</math> such that <math>\cup_{i\in J} U_i = X</math>.
An often used equivalent definition is given in terms of the [[finite intersection property]]: if any collection of closed sets satisfying the finite intersection property has nonempty intersection, then the space is compact. This definition is dual to the usual one stated in terms of open sets.
Some authors require that a compact space also be [[Hausdorff space|Hausdorff]], and the non-Hausdorff version is then called '''quasicompact'''.
== Examples of compact spaces ==
* The [[empty set]].
* The closed [[unit interval]] [0, 1] is compact. (But not the half-open interval <nowiki>[</nowiki>0, 1)).
* For every [[natural number]] ''n'', the ''n''-[[sphere]] is compact.
* The [[Cantor set]] is compact. Since the [[p-adic numbers|''p''-adic integers]] are [[homeomorphic]] to the Cantor set, they also form a compact set.
* Any finite [[topological space]], including the [[empty set]], is compact. Slightly more generally, any space with a finite topology (only finitely many open sets) is compact; this includes in particular the trivial topology.
* Any space carrying the [[cofinite topology]] is compact.
* The [[spectrum o |
Brassicales
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Brassicales'''
| ordo_authority = [[Edward Ffrench Bromhead|Bromhead]]
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
See text.
}}
The '''Brassicales''' are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[flowering plant]]s, belonging to the [[rosid]] group of [[dicotyledon]]s. The following families are included here:
* Family [[Brassicaceae]] ([[Mustard plant|mustard]] family)
* Family [[Tovariaceae]]
* Family [[Gyrostemonaceae]]
* Family [[Resedaceae]] ([[mignonette]] family)
* Family [[Pentadiplandraceae]]
* Family [[Bataceae]]
* Family [[Salvadoraceae]]
* Family [[Koeberliniaceae]]
* Family [[Limnanthaceae]]
* Family [[Setchellanthaceae]]
* Family [[Caricaceae]] ([[papaya]] family)
* Family [[Moringa|Moringaceae]]
* Family [[Akaniaceae]]
* Family [[Tropaeolaceae]]
Under the older [[Cronquist system]], the Brassicales were called the '''Capparales''', and included among the Dileniidae. The only families included were the Brassicaceae and [[Capparaceae]], no longer treated separately, and the Tovariaceae, Resedaceae, and Moringaceae. Other forms now included here were placed in various different orders.
[[Category:Brassicales]]
[[da:Korsblomst-ordenen]]
[[de:Kreuzblütlerartige]]
[[es:Brassicales]]
[[fr:Brassicales]]
[[la:Brassicales]]
[[nl:Brassicales]]
[[no:Brassicales]]
[[pt:Brassicales]]
[[fi:Brassicales]]
[[sv:Brassicales]]
[[zh:白花菜目]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Bulletin board system</title>
<id>3430</id>
<revision>
<id>41692409</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T02:27:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ozzmosis</username>
<id>433159</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rm far too much info</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''bulletin board system''' or '''BBS''' is a [[computer]] system running [[Computer software|software]] that allows users to dial into the system over a [[public switched telephone network|phone line]] and, using a [[terminal program]], perform functions such as downloading software and data, uploading data, playing games, reading news, and exchanging [[message]]s with other [[user]]s. During their heyday (from the early [[1980s]] to the mid [[1990s]]), many BBSes were run as a [[hobby]] free of charge by the "[[sysop|SysOp]]" (system operator), while other BBSes charged their users a subscription fee for access.
In current usage (primarily in [[Japan]] and [[China]]) the term BBS may be used to refer to any online forum or message board. See [[Internet forum]].
Bulletin board systems were in many ways a precursor to the modern form of the [[World Wide Web]] and other aspects of the [[Internet]]. BBSes were a highly [[social]] [[phenomenon]] and were used for meeting [[person|people]] and having discussions in [[message board]]s as well as for publishing articles, downloading software, playing games and many more things using a single application. The BBS was also a local phenomenon, as one had to dial into a BBS with a phone line and would have to pay long distance charges for a BBS out of the local area. Thus, many [[user]]s of a BBS lived in the same area and it was common for activities such as ''BBS Meets'' or ''Get Togethers'' (GTs), where everyone from the same board would gather and meet face to face.
Also during this era, several realtime text chat systems existed. These were the precursors to the instant message systems of the 2000's. One noteable chat system from the 1980's was [[Freelancin' Roundtable]].
==History==
The first BBS, [[CBBS]], went online on [[February 16]], [[1978]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. The first BBS in the UK was in Hull, East Yorkshire, it opened in 1980 and was called Forum 80.
With the original 110 and 300 [[baud]] modems of the early [[1980s]], BBSes were painfully slow, but speed improved with the introduction of 1200 [[Bits per second|bit/s]] modems in the early 1980s, and this led to a substantial increase in [[popularity]]. The lack of [[autodial]] and [[autoanswer]] capabilities in many 110-300 bit/s modems was also an obstacle to their use in unattended BBS installations.
Most of the [[information]] was presented using ordinary text or [[ANSI art]], though some offered graphics, particularly after the rise in popularity of the [[GIF]] image format. Such use of [[graphics]] taxed available [[bandwidth]], which in turn propelled demand for faster modems. Towards the early [[1990s]], the BBS industry became so popular that it spawned two monthly magazines, ''[[Boardwatch]]'' and ''[[BBS Magazine]]'', which devoted extensive coverage of the software and technology innovations and people behind them, and listings to u.s. and worldwide BBSs. In addition, a major monthly magazine, "[[Computer Shopper]]", carried a list of BBSes along with a brief abstract of each of their offerings.
Before commercial Internet access became common, [[computer network|networks]] of BBSes provided regional and international e-mail and message bases. Some even provided [[gateway]]s by which [[member]]s could send/receive e-mail to/from the [[Internet]]. Elaborate schemes allowed users to download binary files, search [[Gopher protocol|gopher]]space, and interact with distant [[Computer program|program]]s, all using plaintext e-mail. Most BBS networks were not linked in realtime. Instead, each would dial up the next in line, and/or a regional hub, at preset intervals to exchange files and messages. The largest BBS network was [[FidoNet]], which is still used, to some extent, especially outside of the United States. Many other BBS networks followed the example of Fidonet, using the same standards and the same software. They were called '''FTN''' (Fidonet Technology Networks). They were usually smaller and targeted at selected audiences.
With the rise of the [[world wide web]] function of the [[Internet]] in the middle/late [[1990s]] BBSes rapidly declined in popularity in the west. In China and Taiwan, however, BBSes have gained a considerable increase in popularity since 2000. Several largest BBS sites once had tens of thousands of online users at any time, such as [[SMTH]], [[YTHT]], etc. However, those BBSes located in China have been limited on access or closed since 2004.
Several BBS systems connected directly to the Internet, removing the necessity of direct dial-up and consequently attracting a more geographically diverse user base. Most of these systems ran on derivations of a free code package called [[Citadel (software)|Citadel]]. A few are still in existence ([[as of 2004]], including the likely largest [[ISCABBS]]).
Some general purpose bulletin board systems had special levels of access that were given to those who paid extra money or knew the sysop personally. BBSs that charged money usually had something special to offer their users such as [[door games]], a large user base, or [[pornography]]. While many pay BBSes had pornography, some of the largest BBSs charged users merely for discussion boards. Pay BBSes such as The [[WELL]] and Echo NYC (both of which exist to this day), and [[MindVox]] (which folded in 1996) were admired for their tightly-knit communities and quality discussion forums. However some "free" BBSes maintained close knit communities and some even had annual or bi-annual events where users would travel great distances to see meet face-to-face their on-line friends. Even today [[ISCABBS]] still has bi-annual [[ISCANIC]] and annual [[CampNic]] events.
Some BBSs, called ''elite boards,'' were exclusively used for distributing pirated software. These BBSes often had multiple modems and phone lines, allowing several users to upload and download files at once. Most elite BBSes used some form of new user verification, where new users would have to apply for membership and attempt to prove that they weren't a law enforcement officer or a ''[[lamer]].'' The largest elite boards accepted users by invitation only.
Today, BBSing survives as a niche hobby for those who enjoy running BBSes and those users who remember BBSing as an enjoyable pastime. Many BBSes are now accessible over [[telnet]] through software such as [[Synchronet]], and typically offer free [[email]] accounts, web interfaces, ftp file downloads, irc chat and all of the protocols commonly used on the Internet. Revival of the hobby that most presume to be from a "dead era" long since left buried under the sands of time -- has been gaining massive awareness by nostalgic people who were in what is referred as "the hey-days". Others, including the newer generations of the 21st Century -- are finding out about not only the "old school" BBS Technology -- but its modern day inheritor technology as well. Some BBSes are Web-enabled and have a Web-based user interface, allowing people who have never used a BBS before to use one easily via their favorite web browser. For those more nostalgic for the true BBS experience, one can use [[DOSBox]] and its modem emulation via TCP/IP to dial up Telnet BBS's with 1980's and 1990's era modem software, like [[Telix]], [[Qmodem]] and [[Procomm Plus]].
The website ''[[textfiles.com]]'' serves as a collection point of historical data involving the history of the BBS. The owner of this site produced [[BBS: The Documentary]], a program on [[DVD]] that features interviews with well-known people (mostly from the [[United States]]) from the "hey-day BBS" era.
==Shareware==
Much of the "[[Shareware]]" movement was started via sharing software through BBSes. A notable example was [[Phil Katz]]'s PKARC (and later [[PKZIP]], using the same ".zip" [[algorithm]] that [[WinZip]] and other popular archivers now use); also ''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' and ''[[Doom]]'' from [[id Software]] and many [[Apogee Software|Apogee]] games.
''See also:'' [[ANSI escape code]], [[B |
a reticulata''''') is one of the most popular [[List of freshwater aquarium fish species|freshwater aquarium fish species]] in the world. It is a small member of the [[Poecilidae]] family (females 3 centimetres long, males 2 centimetres long) and like all other members of the family, is [[live-bearing aquarium fish|live-bearing]]. It prefers a [[hard water]] [[aquarium]] and can withstand a surprising degree of [[salinity]]. Its most famous characteristic is its propensity for breeding.
The female guppy is drab brown to grey in colour. The much smaller male naturally has a colourful [[caudal fin]] (tailfin), showing wide variety in the wild, depending on where the stock comes from. These colourful variations have been considerably enhanced in shape and colour by [[selective breeding]].
In its natural environment in Central and South America, guppies are often found as isolated breeding populations. There is a great deal of variety between the populations, many with distinctive coloring or patterning. Those that live in habitats where predators are common tend to be less vividly decorated. Populations that deal with less predators are much more colorful. Recent studies suggest that vividly colored males are favored via sexual selection while natural selection via predation favors subdued tones. As a result, the dominant phenotypes observed within a reproductively isolated community is a function of the relative importance each factor has in a particular environment.
[[Robert John Lechmere Guppy]] (1836-1916) discovered this tiny fish in [[Trinidad]] in [[1866]], although the fish was known to German aquarists prior to that time. The guppy escaped from captivity and lives in a feral condition in much of the warmer regions of the world. It has been introduced to some areas to keep down the [[mosquito]] population and help fight [[malaria]], usually with mixed or negative results to the local ecosystem. The guppy can be found in its native habitat in small streams and ponds of virtually any size. In Trinidad they are commonly known as "millions" for obvious reasons.
Guppy breeding by aquarists produces variations in appearance ranging from color consistency to fantails and "spike" swordtails. Selective breeding has created an avid "fancy guppy" collector group, while the "wild" guppy maintains its popularity as one of the hardiest aquarium fish. The gestation period of a guppy is 22-26 days. When the female guppy becomes fertilized, a dark area near the anus, known as the gravid spot, will enlarge and darken . This area is like a window into the guppy, and it is actually the eyes of the unborn fry when near birth. Guppies prefer water temperatures of about 72 degrees F for reproduction. After giving birth, the female is ready for conception within a few hours. If a male does not mate with the female soon after birth, the female can use stored sperm from the previous mating. For people breeding their own guppies, be aware that the adults will eat their young if they are hungry.
This fish has been introduced to the [[Netherlands]] where it lives in the cooling water of the [[Corus_Group|Corus]] Steelmill near [[IJmuiden]]. The result has been extraodinary; the fish thrive and have increased in size. Fish of 12 cm are the norm.
Over time, many species are assigned a different [[Taxonomy|taxonomic]] name. The guppy is no exception:
*Lebistes reticulatus
*Acanthocephalus guppii
*A. reticulatus
*Girardinus guppii
*G. petersi
*G. poeciloides
*G. reticulatus
*Haridichthys reticulatus
*Heterandria guppyi
*Lebistes poecilioides
*Poecilia poeciloides
*Poecilioides reticulatus.
*For now: '''Poecilia reticulata'''
{{commons|Poecilia reticulata}}
[[Category:Live-bearers]]
[[de:Guppy]]
[[es:Poecilia reticulata]]
[[eo:Gupio]]
[[fr:Guppy]]
[[he:גופי]]
[[nl:Guppy]]
[[ja:グッピー]]
[[pl:Gupik]]
[[fi:Miljoonakala]]
[[sv:Guppy]]
[[tr:Lepistes]]
[[zh:孔雀鱼]]
[[ru:Гуппи]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geza, king of Hungary</title>
<id>13129</id>
<revision>
<id>15910761</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-29T23:32:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam78</username>
<id>36204</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Géza of Hungary]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Géza of Hungary</title>
<id>13131</id>
<revision>
<id>40265938</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T09:57:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Eskimbot</username>
<id>477460</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: fr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Note: This article is about the ruling prince. There was also a king called [[Géza I of Hungary]] (1040-1077).''
'''Géza''' of Hungary (born around [[940]]-[[945]], died in [[997]]) (possibly ''Gyécsa'' in Old Hungarian, ''Gejza'' in Slovak), was the ''[[Hungarian nobility|fejedelem]]'' (ruling prince) of the [[Magyars]] from c. [[970]] to 997.
Géza was the son of [[Taksony of Hungary|Taksony]], ruling prince of the Magyars and his [[Cuman]] wife, and was the great-grandson of [[Árpád]], who gave his name to the ruling dynasty. Although still a [[Paganism|pagan]] when he became ruler, the alliance concluded between the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and [[Byzantium]] in [[972]] forced Géza to convert to [[Christianity]] in order to secure a lasting peace for Hungary. He turned to the Holy Roman Emperor [[Otto the Great|Otto I]], who ordained a [[Benedictine]] monk, Bruno of Sankt Gallen, as bishop and sent him to Hungary to baptise Géza (this occurred in [[985]] according to some sources). However, although he was mainly accepted as a Christian ruler it is doubtful that he was a Christian at heart. According to the Bishop of Merseburg he continued to worship pagan gods; a chronicle claims that when he was questioned about this he stated he is rich enough to sacrifice to both the old gods and the new one.
Although overshadowed by his son, King [[Stephen I of Hungary]], Géza made considerable achievements during his reign. He established centralised rule over the entire country, except for [[Transylvania]] which remained under the separate authority of the [[gyula]]. This allowed him to collect taxes and duties far more successfully than his predecessors and thus increase his personal wealth.
Géza's wife was Sarolt, daughter of [[Gyula]] of Transylvania, who was brought up as a Christian. Géza had a brother named [[Michael of Hungary|Michael]] (born in [[955]] at Esztergom), who became Regent of [[Poland]] and died about [[978]].
{{Succession|preceded=[[Taksony of Hungary|Taksony]]|office=[[List of Hungarian rulers|Ruling Prince of Hungary]]|succeeded=[[Stephen I of Hungary|Stephen I]]}}
[[Category:940s births|Geza]]
[[Category:997 deaths|Geza]]
[[Category:997 deaths|Geza of Hungary]]
[[Category:History of Hungary|Geza]]
[[Category:History of Slovakia|Geza]]
[[Category:Hungarian nobility|Geza of Hungary]]
[[de:Géza (Ungarn)]]
[[fr:Géza de Hongrie]]
[[he:גזה שליט הונגריה]]
[[hu:Géza fejedelem]]
[[pl:Gejza]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Geza</title>
<id>13133</id>
<revision>
<id>15910765</id>
<timestamp>2005-04-29T23:32:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Adam78</username>
<id>36204</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Géza of Hungary]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gecko</title>
<id>13134</id>
<revision>
<id>41507534</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:00:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dawson</username>
<id>229166</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the animal. For the rendering engine by Mozilla, see [[Gecko (layout engine)]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Geckos
| image = Housegecko.jpg
| image_caption = House gecko on vertical surface
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Reptile|Reptilia]]
| ordo = [[Squamata]]
| subordo = [[Sauria]]
| familia = '''Gekkonidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1825
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies
| subdivision =
[[Aeluroscalabotinae]]<br>
[[Eublepharinae]]<br>
[[Gekkoninae]]<br>
[[Teratoscincinae]]<br>
[[Diplodactylinae]]
}}
'''Geckos''' are small to moderately large [[lizard]]s belonging to the family '''Gekkonidae''' and found in warm climates throughout the world. Geckos are unique among lizards in their vocalizations, making chirping sounds in social interactions with other geckos. Geckos are unusual in other respects as well. Many species have specialized toe pads that enable them to climb smooth vertical surfaces and even cross indoor ceilings with ease. These antics are well-known to people who live in warm regions of the world where several species of geckos make their home inside human habitations. These species (for example the House gecko) become part of the indoor menagerie and are seldom really discouraged because they feed on insect [[Pest (animal)|pest]]s.
Most geckos are tan to dark grey, subtly patterned, and somewhat rubbery looking. Some species can change color to blend in with their surroundings or with temperature differences. However others can be brightly colored.
Some species are [[parthenogenesis|parthenogenic]], the females capable of reproducing without copulating with a male. This improves the geckos' ability to spread to new islands.
The toes of the gecko have attracted a lot of attention, as they adhere to a wide variety of surfaces, without the use of liquids or surface tension. Recent studies of the [[seta|setae]] on gecko footpads demonstrates that the attractive for |
nterpretive theory, then [[structuralism]], Lacanian psychoanalysis, [[post-structuralism]], and [[deconstruction]] as well as Continental philosophy, especially [[phenomenology]] and [[hermeneutics]], and critical social theory and various other forms of neo-Marxian theory. Thus literary criticism became highly theoretical and some of those practicing it began referring to the theoretical dimension of their work as "critical theory", i.e. philosophically inspired theory of literary criticism. And thus incidentally critical theory in the sociological sense also became, especially among literary scholars of left-wing sympathies, one of a number of influences upon and streams within critical theory in the literary sense.
Furthermore, along with the expansion of the mass media and mass/popular culture in the 1960s and 1970s and the blending of social and cultural criticism and literary criticism, the methods of both kinds of critical theory sometimes intertwined in the analysis of phenomena of popular culture, as in the emerging field of [[cultural studies]], in which concepts deriving from Marxian theory, post-structuralism, semiology, psychoanalysis and feminist theory would be found in the same interpretive work. Both strands were often present in the various modalities of [[Postmodern philosophy|postmodern theory]].
==Language and construction==
The two points at which there is the greatest overlap or mutual impingement of the two versions of critical theory are in their interrelated foci on language, symbolism, and communication and in their focus on construction.
===Language and communication===
From the 1960s and 1970s onward, language, symbolism, text, and meaning became foundational to theory in the humanities and social sciences, through the short-term and long-term influences of [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], [[George Herbert Mead]], [[Noam Chomsky]], [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]], [[Roland Barthes]], [[Jacques Derrida]] and other thinkers in the traditions of linguistic and analytic philosophy, structural linguistics, symbolic interactionism, hermeneutics, semiology, linguistically oriented psychoanalysis (Lacan, Lorenzer), deconstruction. When, in the 1970s and 1980s, Habermas also redefined critical social theory as a theory of communication, i.e. communicative competence and communicative rationality on the one hand, distorted communication on the other, the two versions of critical theory began to overlap or intertwine to a much greater degree than before.
===Construction===
Both versions of critical theory have focused on the processes of synthesis, production, or construction by which the phenomena and objects of human communication, culture, and consciousness come about. Whether it is through the transformational rules by which the deep structure of language becomes its surface structure (Chomsky), the universal pragmatic principles through which mutual understanding is generated (Habermas), the semiotic rules by which objects of daily usage or of fashion obtain their meanings (Barthes), the psychological processes by which the phenomena of everyday consciousness are generated (psychoanalytic thinkers), the ''[[episteme]]'' that underlies our cognitive formations (Foucault), and so on, there is a common interest in the processes (often of a linguistic or symbolic kind) that give rise to observable phenomena. Here there is significant mutual influence among aspects of the different versions of critical theory. Ultimately this emphasis on production and construction goes back to the revolution wrought by [[Kant]] in philosophy, namely his focus in the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' on synthesis according to rules as the fundamental activity of the mind that creates the order of our experience.
== See also ==
*Lists:
** [[List of major critical theorists]]
** [[List of works in critical theory]]
*Related subjects:
** [[Continental philosophy]]
** [[Cultural studies]]
** [[Culture theory]]
** [[Critical management studies]]
** [[Literary theory]]
** [[Political philosophy]]
** [[Comparative Literature]]
==References==
*An accessible primer for the literary aspect of critical theory is Jonathan Culler's ''Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction'' ISBN 019285383X
*A survey of and introduction to the current state of critical social theory is Craig Calhoun's ''Critical Social Theory: Culture, History, and the Challenge of Difference'' (Blackwell, 1995) ISBN 1557862885
*[[Otto Maria Carpeaux]]. The collected essays and his History cover and discuss in depth critical theories from all european and american movements up to the late 70's.
==External links ==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/ "Critical Theory", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* [http://www.nplusonemag.com/theory.html "Death is Not the End"] [[N+1]] magazine's short history of academic critical theory.
[[Category:Critical theory]]
[[Category:Postmodernism]]
[[de:Kritische Theorie]]
[[pt:Teoria Crítica]]
[[zh:&#25209;&#21028;&#29702;&#35542;]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Cro-hook</title>
<id>7530</id>
<revision>
<id>41231819</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T23:17:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Samosa Poderosa</username>
<id>536325</id>
</contributor>
<comment>remove broken link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''cro-hook''' is a special double-ended [[crochet hook]] used to make double-sided [[crochet]]. Because the hook has two ends, two colours of thread can be handled at once and freely interchanged.
[[Category:Crochet]]
{{tool-stub}}</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Clavichord</title>
<id>7531</id>
<revision>
<id>41882177</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T09:33:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Missmarple</username>
<id>207003</id>
</contributor>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The clavichord is a European [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] used in early [[European classical music|classical]], and [[Baroque]] music. Its musical sound is produced by a hammer striking strings, upon command of the player who presses keys in order to push the hammer.
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Mozart's_Clavichord.jpg|thumb|right|222|Mozart's clavichord]] -->
==History and Use==
The clavichord was invented in the early fifteenth century, and was made in large numbers, especially in the mid-18th century when it flourished in German-speaking lands, [[Scandinavia]], and the [[Iberian Peninsula]], until it fell out of use in the 1840s. [[Arnold Dolmetsch]] revived clavichord construction in the early 1900s. Although most of the instruments built before the 1730s were small, (around 4 x 1 x 1/3 ft.) and four octaves in range, the latest instruments were built up to seven feet long with a six octave range.
Today clavichords are played within modern Baroque chamber music groups. They maintain a level of interest amongst buyers, and are manufactured worldwide. A modern clavichord can range in price from $1,000, to as much as $12,000. There are now numerous clavichord societies around the world, and some 400 recordings of the instrument have been made in the past 70 years. Leading modern exponents of the instrument include [[Derek Adlam]], [[Christopher Hogwood]], [[Paul Simmonds]], [[Richard Troeger]], and [[Miklos Spanyi]], and fine modern copies have been made by makers including [[Peter Bavington]], [[Martin Kather]], [[Joris Potvleighe]], [[Karin Richter]], [[Ronald Haas]], [[Paul Irvin]], and [[Thomas Steiner]].
The clavichord has also gained attention in other genres of music, like [[Rock_(music)|rock]] in the form of the [[clavinet]], which is essentially an electric clavichord which uses a magnetic pickup to provide a signal for amplification.
==Structure==
In the clavichord strings run transversely from an anchorage at the left-hand end to tuning pegs on the right. Towards the right end they pass over a curved wooden bridge. The action is simple, with the keys being levers with a small brass 'tangent' at the far end which strikes the strings above. Each note usually is made up of two strings which are struck simultaneously. The note is sustained as long as the tangent is in contact with the string. The volume of the note can be changed by striking harder or softer, and the pitch can also be affected by varying the force of the tangent against the string (known as ''[[bebung]]'') and can be used to give a form of [[vibrato]].
Since the string vibrates from the bridge only as far as the tangent, multiple keys with multiple tangents can be assigned to the same string (like a [[monochord]]). This is called a ''fretted clavichord''. This technique simplifies the construction since fewer strings are required, but it limits the abilities of the instrument, since only one note can be played at a time on each string. As a result there are rarely more than two notes assigned to each string. They are usually chosen so that notes which are rarely heard together (such as C and C#) are on the one string. In the late 18th century, clavichords were often built ''unfretted'', with a separate pair of strings for each key.
Instruments were built with one or two [[manual (music)|manual]]s and pedals, for the practice use of [[pipe organ|organists]]. This use was common in the days before the invention of the electric blower, and there is speculation that some practice [[etude]]s labeled ''organ'' by the composers and now regarded as organ repertoire were in fact more accurately written for the pedal clavichord.
==Music==
Much of the music written for [[harpsichord]], [[piano]], and [[organ (music)|organ]] from the period circa 1400-1800 can be played on the clavichord; however, it is too quiet to use in any but the smallest ense |
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<page>
<title>Falsifiability</title>
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<username>Chcknwnm</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''For the falsification of documents, see [[Forgery]].''
'''Falsifiability''' is an important concept in the [[philosophy of science]] that amounts to the principle that a [[proposition]] or [[theory]] cannot be considered scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false.
''Falsifiable'' does not mean ''false''. For a proposition to be falsifiable, it must be at least in principle possible to make an [[observation]] that would show the proposition to be false, even if that observation had not been made. For example, the proposition "All crows are black" would be falsified by observing one white crow. A falsifiable theory must make a statement concerning what is, or will be, forbidden.
[[Falsificationism|Falsificationists]] claim that any theory that is not falsifiable is unscientific. [[Psychoanalytic]] theory, for example, is held up by the proponents of [[Karl Popper|Popper's]] philosophy as an example of an [[ideology]] rather than a [[science]]. A patient regarded by his psychoanalyst as "[[in denial]]" about his [[sexual orientation]] may be viewed as confirming he is homosexual simply by denying that he is; and if he has sex with women, he may be accused of trying to buttress his denials. In other words, there is no way the patient could convincingly demonstrate his heterosexuality to the analyst. This is an example of what Popper called a "[[closed circle]]". The proposition that the patient is homosexual is not falsifiable. This has found its way into several [[Dystopia|dystopian]] novels.
== Naïve falsification ==
Falsifiability was first developed by [[Karl Popper]] in the [[1930s]]. Popper noticed that two types of statements are of particular value to [[scientists]]. The first are statements of observations, such as 'this is a white swan'. [[logic|Logicians]] call these statements [[existential quantification|singular existential statements]], since they assert the existence of some particular thing. They can be parsed in the form: ''There is an x which is a swan and x is white''.
The second type of statement of interest to scientists categorizes all instances of something, for example 'All swans are white'. Logicians call these statements [[universal quantification|universal]]. They are usually parsed in the form: ''For all x, if x is a swan then x is white''.
[[Scientific law]]s are commonly supposed to be of the second type. Perhaps the most difficult question in the [[scientific method|methodology of science]] is: how does one move from observations to laws? How can one validly infer a universal statement from any number of existential statements?
[[Induction (philosophy)|Inductivist]] methodology supposed that one can somehow move from a series of singular existential statements to a universal statement. That is, that one can move from 'this is a white swan', 'that is a white swan', and so on, to a universal statement such as 'all swans are white'. This method is clearly ''logically'' invalid, since it is always possible that there may be a non-white swan that has somehow avoided observation. Yet some philosophers of science claim that science is based on such an inductive method.
Popper held that science could not be grounded on such an invalid inference. He proposed falsification as a solution to the [[problem of induction]]. Popper noticed that although a singular existential statement such as 'there is a white swan' cannot be used to affirm a universal statement, it can be used to show that one is false: the singular existential observation of a black swan serves to show that the universal statement 'all swans are white' is false - in logic this is called [[modus tollens]]. 'There is a black swan' implies 'there is a non-white swan' which in turn implies 'there is something which is a swan and which is not white', hence 'all swans are white' is false, because that is the same as 'there is ''nothing'' which is a swan and which is not white'.
[[Image:Mute.swan.slimb.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|A white [[mute swan]], common to [[Eurasia]] and [[North America]].]]
Although the logic of naïve falsification is valid, it is rather limited. Popper drew attention to these limitations in ''The Logic of Scientific Discovery'', in response to anticipated criticism from [[Pierre Duhem|Duhem]] and [[Rudolf Carnap|Carnap]]. [[W. V. Quine]] is also well-known for his observation in his influential essay, "[[Two Dogmas of Empiricism]]" (which is reprinted in ''From a Logical Point of View''), that nearly any statement can be made to fit with the data, so long as one makes the requisite "compensatory adjustments". In order to logically falsify a [[universal]], one must find a true falsifying singular statement. But Popper pointed out that it is always possible to ''change'' the universal statement or the existential statement so that falsification does not occur. On hearing that a [[black swan]] has been observed in Australia, one might introduce the [[ad hoc]] hypothesis, 'all swans are white except those found in Australia'; or one might adopt another, more cynical view about some observers, 'Australian ornithologists are incompetent'. As Popper put it, a ''decision'' is required on the part of the scientist to accept or reject the statements that go to make up a theory or that might falsify it. At some point, the weight of the ad hoc hypotheses and disregarded falsifying observations will become so great that it becomes unreasonable to support the base theory any longer, and a decision will be made to reject it.
== Falsificationism ==
In place of naïve falsification, Popper envisioned science as evolving by the successive rejection of falsified theories, rather than falsified statements. Falsified theories are to be replaced by theories which can account for the phenomena which falsified the prior theory, that is, with greater explanatory power. Thus, [[Aristotle|Aristotelian mechanics]] explained observations of objects in everyday situations, but was falsified by [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]&#8217;s experiments, and was itself replaced by Newtonian mechanics which accounted for the phenomena noted by Galileo (and others). [[Newtonian mechanics]]' reach included the observed motion of the planets and the mechanics of gases. Or at least most of them; the size of the precession of the orbit of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] wasn't predicted by Newtonian mechanics, but was by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[general relativity]]. The Youngian wave theory of light (i.e., waves carried by the [[luminiferous ether]]) replaced Newton's (and many of the Classical Greeks') particles of light but in its turn was falsified by the [[Michelson-Morley experiment]], whose results were eventually understood as incompatible with an ether and was superseded by [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]]'s electrodynamics and Einstein's [[special relativity]], which did account for the new phenomena. At each stage, experimental observation made a theory untenable (i.e., falsified it) and a new theory was found which had greater 'explanatory power' (i.e., could account for the previously unexplained phenomena), and as a result ''provided greater opportunity for its own falsification''.
Naïve falsificationism is an unsuccessful attempt to prescribe a rationally unavoidable method for science. Falsificationism proper, on the other hand, is a prescription of a way in which scientists ought to behave as a matter of choice.
== Popper's swan argument ==
[[Image:Black.swans.slimb.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|Two [[black swan]]s, native to [[Australia]].]]
One notices a white swan, from this one can conclude:
:At least one swan is white.
From this, one may wish to infer that:
:All swans are white.
However, to prove this, one must find all the swans in the world and verify that they are white.
As it turns out, not all swans are white. By finding a [[black swan]], one has falsified the statement ''all swans are white''; it is not true.
== Formal logical arguments ==
The falsification of theories occurs through [[modus tollens]], via some observation. Suppose some theory ''T'' implies an observation ''O'':
:<math>T \rightarrow O</math>
An observation conflicting with O, however, is made:
:<math>\neg O</math>
So by Modus Tollens,
:<math>\neg T</math>
==The criterion of demarcation==
Popper proposed falsification as a way of determining if a theory is scientific or not. If a theory is falsifiable, then it is scientific; if it is not falsifiable, then it is not science. Popper uses this [[Demarcation problem|criterion of demarcation]] to draw a sharp line between scientific and unscientific theories. Some have taken this principle to an extreme to cast doubt on the [[scientific]] validity of many disciplines (such as [[macroevolution]] and [[Cosmology]]). Falsifiability was one of the criteria used by Judge [[William Overton (judge)|William Overton]] to determine that '[[creation science]]' was not scientific and should not be taught in [[Arkansas]] [[public school]]s.
In the [[philosophy of science]], verificationism (also known as [[the verifiability theory of meaning]]) held that a |
-significant beings. Such theories claim that political, economic, social, or civil equality should prevail throughout human society. One can best understand various types of egalitarianism by asking, "Who is supposed to be equal?" and "In what respect are they supposed to be equal?"
The [[English language|English]] word is derived from the [[French language|French]] word '''égal''', meaning ''equal'' or ''level''.
Common forms of egalitarianism include [[economic egalitarianism]] (also known as material egalitarianism), [[moral egalitarianism]], [[legal egalitarianism]], [[political egalitarianism]], [[gender egalitarianism]] and [[asset-based egalitarianism|opportunity egalitarianism]].
*Material egalitarianism stresses equality with respect to material possessions.
*Legal egalitarianism stresses equality under the law.
*Moral egalitarianism stresses equality in moral worth.
*Political egalitarianism stresses equality in political power.
*Gender egalitarianism stresses equality regardless of gender.
*Opportunity egalitarianism stresses equality in economic and social opportunity.
Different kinds of egalitarianism can sometimes conflict, while in other situations they may be indispensable to each other. For instance, [[communism]] is an egalitarian doctrine, according to which everyone is supposed to enjoy material equality. However, because material inequality is pervasive in the current economic systems, some form of material redistribution is necessary. Since those who enjoy the greatest material wealth are not likely to wish to part with it, some form of coercive mechanism must exist in the transition period before communism. But if the coercive powers of redistribution are vested in some people and not in others, inequalities of political power emerge. History has shown, in the former [[Soviet Union]] for instance, that people who are granted coercive redistributive powers often abuse them. Indeed, those with political power were known to redistribute vastly unequal shares of material resources to themselves, thereby completely confounding the justification for their unequal political status. Therefore, most [[Marxism|Marxist]]s now agree that communism can only be achieved if the coercive powers of redistribution needed during the transitional period are vested in a democratic body whose powers are limited by various [[checks and balances]], in order to prevent abuse. In other words, they argue that political egalitarianism is indispensable to material egalitarianism. Meanwhile, other defenders of material egalitarianism have rejected Marxist communism in favor of such views as [[libertarian socialism]], which does not advocate the transitional use of the state as a means of redistribution.
The [[United States Declaration of Independence]] included a kind of moral and legal egalitarianism. Because "[[all men are created equal]]", each person is to be treated equally under the law. Originally this statement excluded women, [[slavery|slave]]s and other groups, but, over time, universal egalitarianism has won wide adherence and is a core component of modern [[civil rights]] policies.
At a cultural level, egalitarian theories have developed in sophistication and acceptance during the past two hundred years. Among the notable broadly egalitarian philosophies are [[socialism]], [[democracy]], and [[human rights]], which promote economic, political, and legal egalitarianism, respectively. Several egalitarian ideas enjoy wide support among [[intellectualism|intellectual]]s and in the general populations of many countries. Whether any of these ideas have been significantly implemented in practice, however, remains a controversial question. For instance, some argue that modern [[representative democracy]] is a realization of political egalitarianism, while others believe that, in reality, most political power still resides in the hands of a [[ruling class]], rather than in the hands of the people.
Almost all theories of egalitarianism aim at equality within human [[society|societies]], or at least confine themselves to human beings in general as the relevant group among whom equality should prevail. However, some versions of [[utilitarianism]], such as [[Peter Singer]]'s, include animals, and maintain that the pleasures and pains of every animal, not only human animals, should count equally in moral deliberation. Singer has frequently defended what he calls the principle of equal consideration of interests.
== See also ==
*[[Equality of outcome]]
*[[Equal opportunity]]
*[[Social equality]]
== External links ==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egalitarianism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on ''Egalitarianism'']
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<page>
<title>Expert witnesss</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Expert witness]]
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<page>
<title>Expert witness</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-14T03:39:20Z</timestamp>
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<username>BDAbramson</username>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{EvidenceLaw}}
An '''expert witness''' is a [[witness]], who by virtue of [[education]], or [[profession]], or [[experience]], is believed to have special knowledge of his subject beyond that of the average person, sufficient that others may officially (and legally) rely upon his opinion.
== A simplified example ==
You are the owner of a very successful car factory. You are proud of the quality of your cars. One day you find yourself in a courtroom because hundreds of your cars are found with faulty [[brake]]s. What do you do? You hire a good mechanic to tell the jury that your brakes are actually good. That mechanic is your expert witness.
== Experts in the real world ==
Typically, [[expert]]s are relied on by both sides to a dispute for opinions on severity of [[injury]], degree of [[insanity]], cause of failure in a machine or other device, and the like.
The [[tribunal]] itself, or the [[judge]], can in some systems call upon experts to technically evaluate a certain [[fact]] or [[Philosophy of action|action]], in order to provide the court with a complete knowledge on the fact/action it is judging. The expertise has the legal value of an acquisition of data. The results of these experts are then compared to those by the experts of the parties.
The expert has heavy responsibility, especially in [[penal law|penal trials]], and [[false witness]] by an expert is a severely punished [[crime]] in most countries. The use of expert witnesses is sometimes criticized in the [[United States]] because in [[civil law (common law)|civil trials]], they are often used by both sides to advocate differing positions, and it is left up to a [[jury]] of [[laymen]] to decide which expert witness to believe. Sometimes one side has utilized an expert witness to provide [[fraud|fraudulent]] or [[junk science]] [[testimony]] in order to convince a jury.
In most systems, the [[trial (law)|trial]] (or the procedure) can be suspended in order to allow the experts to study the case and produce their results.
The earliest known use of an expert witness in English law came in the 1782, when a court that was hearing [[litigation]] relating to the silting-up of [[Wells-next-the-Sea|Wells]] harbour in [[Norfolk]] accepted evidence from a leading [[civil engineer]], [[John Smeaton]]. This decision by the court to accept Smeaton's evidence is widely cited as the root of modern rules on expert evidence. <!-- Citation - Laws of Men and Laws of Nature: The History of Scientific Expert Testimony in England and America by Tal Golan, Harvard University Press 2004 -->
== Non-testifying experts ==
In the U.S., a party can hire experts to help him/her evaluate the case. For example, a car maker may hire an experienced mechanic to decide if its cars were built to specification. This kind of expert opinion will be protected from [[discovery (law)|discovery]]. If the expert finds something that's against its client, the opposite party will not know it. Therefore, the expert will not be forced to lie. This privilege is similar to the [[work product]] protected by the [[attorney/client privilege]].
== Testifying experts ==
If the witness needs to testify in court, the privilege is no longer protected. The expert witness's identity and nearly all documents used to prepare the testament will become discoverable. Usually an experienced lawyer will advise the expert not to take notes on documents because all of the notes will be available to the other party.
== See also ==
* ''[[In limine]]''
* [[Daubert Standard]]
==External links==
* [http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/ExpTesti.pdf/$file/ExpTesti.pdf Expert Testimony in Federal Civil Trials: A Preliminary Analysis (pdf)] (Federal Judicial Center, 2000)
* [http://www.mincava.umn.edu/documents/commissioned/svandexpertwitnesses/svandexpertwitnesses.pdf The Use of Expert Witnesses in Cases Involving Sexual Assault (pdf)] (Violence Against Women Online Resources, 2005)
[[Category:Evidence]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Endocytosis</title>
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ether for six years and then Brubeck formed another group with [[Jerry Bergonzi]] on [[saxophone]], and three of his sons, [[Dan Brubeck|Dan]], [[Darius Brubeck|Darius]], and [[Chris Brubeck|Chris]], on [[drum]]s, [[double bass|bass]], and [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]]s. Brubeck continues to write new works, including orchestrations and [[ballet (music)|ballet]] scores, and tours about 80 cities each year, usually 20 of them in [[Europe]] in the spring. In recent years his quartet has included alto saxophonist [[Bobby Militello]], bassist [[Alec Dankworth]] (who replaced [[Jack Six]]), and drummer [[Randy Jones (drummer)|Randy Jones]].
==Media==
[[Image:Take Five-piano intro.png|frame|right|"Take Five" piano intro]]
{{Listen|filename=Dave_Brubeck_Quartet,_The-Time_Out-Take_Five-head.ogg|title=Take Five|description=The [[head (music)|head]] from the classic recording.|format=[[Ogg]]}}
==External links==
* {{AMG Artist|sql=11:tihxlfae5cqo|artist=Dave Brubeck}}
*[http://www.wnyc.org/music/articles/32460 WNYC Interview with Brubeck]. Includes many song excerpts. (7/2004)
*[http://www.pbs.org/brubeck/ PBS - Rediscovering Dave Brubeck] December 16, 2001 documentary
*[http://www.brubeckinstitute.org/ The Brubeck Institute]
*[http://www.cosmopolis.ch/english/cosmo17/dave_brubeck.htm Biography, photos, CDs and concert review of Dave Brubeck by cosmopolis.ch]
[[Category:American jazz musicians|Brubeck, Dave]]
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<page>
<title>Differential equations</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Differential equation]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Dye</title>
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<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Conner-prairie-yarn-drying.jpg|300px|thumb|Yarn drying after being dyed in the early American tradition, at [[Conner Prairie]] living history museum.]]
A '''dye''' can generally be described as a [[color]]ed substance that has an [[Chemical affinity|affinity]] to the [[substrate]] to which it is being applied. The dye is usually used as an [[aqueous solution]], and may require a [[mordant]] to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber. In contrast, a [[pigment]] generally has no affinity for the substrate, and is insoluble.
[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] evidence shows that, particularly in [[India]] and the [[Middle East]], dyeing has been carried out for over 5000 years. The dyes were obtained from either [[animal]], [[vegetable]] or [[mineral]] origin, with no or very little processing. By far the greatest source of dyes has been from the [[plant kingdom]], notably [[root]]s, [[berry|berries]], [[bark]], [[leaf|leaves]] and [[wood]], but only a few have ever been used on a commercial scale.
{{Wiktionary}}
==Organic dyes==
The first man-made [[organic compound|organic]] dye, [[mauveine]], was discovered by [[William Perkin|William Henry Perkin]] in [[1856]]. Many thousands of dyes have since been prepared and, because of vastly improved properties imparted upon the dyed materials, quickly replaced the traditional natural dyes. Dyes are now classified according to how they are used in the dyeing process.
'''[[Acid dye]]s''' are [[water]]-[[soluble]] [[anionic]] dyes that are applied to [[fiber]]s such as [[silk]], [[wool]], [[nylon]] and [[modified acrylic fiber]]s using neutral to acid dyebaths. Attachment to the fiber is attributed, at least partly, to salt formation between anionic groups in the dyes and [[cationic]] groups in the fiber. Acid dyes are not substantive to [[cellulosic]] fibers.
'''[[Basic dye]]s''' are water-soluble cationic dyes that are mainly applied to [[acrylic fiber]]s, but find some use for wool and silk. Usually [[acetic acid]] is added to the dyebath to help the uptake of the dye onto the fiber. Basic dyes are also used in the coloration of [[paper]].
'''Direct''' or '''[[substantive dye]]ing''' is normally carried out in a neutral or slightly [[alkaline]] dyebath, at or near [[boiling point]], with the addition of either [[sodium chloride]] (NaCl) or [[sodium sulfate]] (Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>). Direct dyes are used on [[cotton]], paper, [[leather]], wool, silk and [[nylon]]. They are also used as [[pH indicator]]s and as [[staining (biology)|biological stain]]s.
'''Mordant dyes''' require a [[mordant]], which improves the fastness of the dye against water, [[light]] and [[perspiration]]. The choice of mordant is very important as different mordants can change the final colour significantly. Most natural dyes are mordant dyes and there is therefore a large literature base describing dyeing techniques. The most important mordant dyes are the synthetic mordant dyes, or chrome dyes, used for wool; these comprise some 30% of dyes used for wool, and are especially useful for black and navy shades. The mordant, [[potassium dichromate]], is applied as an after-treatment.
{{wiktionarypar|leuco form}}
'''[[Vat dye]]s''' are essentially insoluble in water and incapable of dyeing fibres directly. However, reduction in [[alkaline liquor]] produces the water soluble [[alkali metal salt]] of the dye, which, in this leuco form, has an affinity for the textile fibre. Subsequent [[oxidation]] reforms the original insoluble dye.
'''[[Reactive dyes]]''' utilize a [[chromophore]] containing a [[substituent]] that is capable of directly [[chemical reaction|reacting]] with the fibre substrate. The [[covalent]] bonds that attach reactive dye to natural fibers make it among the most permanent of dyes. "Cold" reactive dyes, such as Procion MX, Cibacron F, and Drimarene K, are very easy to use because the dye can be applied at room temperature. Reactive dye is by far the best choice for dyeing [[cotton]] and other [[cellulose]] fibers at home or in the art studio.
'''[[Disperse dye]]s''' were originally developed for the dyeing of [[cellulose acetate]], and are substantially water insoluble. The dyes are finely ground in the presence of a dispersing agent and then sold as a paste, or spray-dried and sold as a powder. They can also be used to dye nylon, [[triacetate]], [[polyester]] and acrylic fibres. In some cases, a dyeing [[temperature]] of 130 [[celsius|°C]] is required, and a pressurised dyebath is used. The very fine particle size gives a large surface area that aids dissolution to allow uptake by the fibre. The dyeing rate can be significantly influenced by the choice of dispersing agent used during the grinding.
'''[[Azo dye]]ing''' is a technique in which an insoluble azoic dye is produced directly onto or within the fibre. This is achieved by treating a fibre with both diazoic and coupling components. With suitable adjustment of dyebath conditions the two components react to produce the required insoluble azo dye. This technique of dyeing is unique, in that the final colour is controlled by the choice of the diazoic and coupling components.
==Natural dyes==
=== Animal origin ===
These include [[tyrian purple]] (vat dye), [[kermes]] and [[cochineal]] (mordant dyes) and [[techelet]].
=== Vegetable origin ===
Substantive dyes include [[walnut hulls]], [[safflower]] and [[turmeric]], while [[indigo plant|indigo]] and [[woad]] are vat dyes. Mordant dyes include [[alizarin]] (madder), [[broom (shrub)|dyer's broom]], [[brazilwood]], [[quercitron|quercitron bark]], [[weld (plant)|weld]] and [[old fustic]]. [[Cudbear]] is unclassified.
=== Inorganic dyes ===
These include [[eosin]] and [[iron buff]].
== Food dyes ==
One other class which describes the role of dyes, rather than their mode of use, is the [[food coloring|food dye]]. Because food dyes are classed as [[food additive]]s, they are manufactured to a higher standard than some industrial dyes. Food dyes can be direct, mordant and vat dyes, and their use is strictly controlled by [[law|legislation]]. Many are azoic dyes, although [[anthraquinone]] and [[triphenylmethane]] compounds are used for colours such as [[green]] and [[blue]]. Some naturally-occurring dyes are also used.
== Other important dyes ==
A number of other classes have also been established, including:
* [[Oxidation base]]s, for mainly hair and fur
* [[Sulfur dye]]s, for textile fibres
* [[Leather dye]]s, for leather
* [[Fluorescent brightener]]s, for textile fibres and paper
* [[Solvent dye]]s, for wood staining and producing coloured lacquers, solvent inks, colouring oils, waxes.
* [[Carbene dye]]s, a recently developed method for colouring multiple substrates
==Chemical classification==
By the nature of their [[chromophore]], dyes are divided to: [http://stainsfile.info/StainsFile/dyes/dyes.htm]
* [[:Category:Acridine dyes]], derivates of [[acridine]]
* [[:Category:Anthraquinone dyes]], derivates of [[anthraquinone]]
* Aryl |
achieved in the fight against Chagas disease in Latin America: a reduction by 72% of the incidence of human infection in children and young adults in the countries of the Initiative of the [[Southern Cone]], and at least two countries ([[Uruguay]], in 1997, and [[Chile]], in 1999), were certified free of vectorial and transfusional transmission. In Brazil, with the largest population at risk, 10 out of the 12 endemic states were also certified free.
Some stepstones of vector control:
*A yeast trap has been tested for monitoring infestations of certain species of the bugs:"Performance of yeast-baited traps with ''Triatoma sordida'', ''Triatoma brasiliensis'', ''Triatoma pseudomaculata'', and ''Panstrongylus megistus'' in laboratory assays."[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10949899&query_hl=6]
*Promising results were gained with the treatment of vector habitats with the fungus ''[[Beauveria bassiana]]'', (which is also in discussion for [[malaria]]- prevention):"Activity of oil-formulated ''Beauveria bassiana'' against ''Triatoma sordida'' in peridomestic areas in Central Brazil."[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15250478&query_hl=2]
*Targeting the [[symbiont]]s of [[Triatominae]] :[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&db=PubMed&term=Triatominae%20symbiosis]
==Original publication==
* Chagas, C. Nova trypanozomíaze humana. Estudos sobre a morfologia e cíclo evolutivo do ''Schizotripanum cruzi n. gen. n. sp.'', agente etiològico de nova entidade mórbida do homem. ''Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz'', 1909, 1 (2): 159-218 (New human trypanosomiasis. Studies about the morphology and evolutive cycle of ''Schizotripanum cruzi'', ethiological agent of a new morbid entity of man).
==References==
* Adler D. Darwin's illness. ''Isr J Med Sci.'' 1989 Apr;25(4):218-21. ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=2496051 Abstract])
* Kirchhoff, LV. American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas' Disease) -- A Tropical Disease Now in the United States. ''N Engl J Med.'' 329 (9):639-644, August 26, 1993 ([http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/extract/329/9/639 Abstract])
* Garcia, S., Ramos, C. O., Senra, J. F. V., Vilas-Boas, F., Rodrigues, M. M., Campos-de-Carvalho, A. C., Ribeiro-dos-Santos, R., Soares, M. B. P. (2005). Treatment with Benznidazole during the Chronic Phase of Experimental Chagas' Disease Decreases Cardiac Alterations. ''Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.'' 49: 1521-1528 ([http://aac.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/49/4/1521 Abstract])
* Buckner, F. S., Wilson, A. J., White, T. C., Van Voorhis, W. C. (1998). Induction of Resistance to Azole Drugs in Trypanosoma cruzi. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42: 3245-3250 ([http://aac.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/42/12/3245 Abstract])
* Engel, J. C., Doyle, P. S., Hsieh, I., McKerrow, J. H. (1998). Cysteine Protease Inhibitors Cure an Experimental Trypanosoma cruzi Infection. ''J. Exp. Med.'' 188: 725-734 ([http://www.jem.org/cgi/content/abstract/188/4/725 Abstract])
* Bocchi, E. A., Bellotti, G., Mocelin, A. O., Uip, D., Bacal, F., Higuchi, M. L., Amato-Neto, V., Fiorelli, A., Stolf, N. A. G., Jatene, A. D., Pileggi, F. (1996). Heart Transplantation for Chronic Chagas' Heart Disease. ''Ann. Thorac. Surg.'' 61: 1727-1733 ([http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/61/6/1727 Abstract])
* Dumonteil E, Escobedo-Ortegon J, Reyes-Rodriguez N, Arjona-Torres A, Ramirez-Sierra MJ. Immunotherapy of Trypanosoma cruzi infection with DNA vaccines in mice. ''Infect Immun.'' 2004 Jan;72(1):46-53. ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14688079 Abstract])
* Vilas-Boas F., Feitosa G.S., Soares M. B. P., Pinho Filho J.A., Almeida A., Mota A., Carvalho H. G., Oliveira A. D. D. Ribeiro-dos-Santos R. Bone marrow cell transplantation to the myocardium of a patient with heart failure due to Chagas cardiomyopathy. A case report. ''Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia'', 82(2):185-7, 2004. ([http://publicacoes.cardiol.br/abc/2004/8202/8202010i.pdf Full text])
* Valente SAS, Valente VC, Fraiha-Neto H. Considerations on the epidemiology and transmission of Chagas disease in the Brazilian amazon. ''Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz'', Sept. 1999, vol.94 suppl.1, p.395-398. ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=10677763&dopt=Citation Abstract])
* Shikanai-Yasuda MA, Marcondes CB, Guedes LA, Siqueira GS, Barone AA, Dias JC, Amato Neto V, Tolezano JE, Peres BA, Arruda Junior ER, et al. Possible oral transmission of acute Chagas' disease in Brazil. ''Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo''. 1991 Sep-Oct;33(5):351-7. ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=1844961&dopt=Citation Abstract])
* {{cite journal | author=El-Sayed NM, Myler PJ, Bartholomeu DC, Nilsson D, Aggarwal G, Tran AN, Ghedin E, Worthey EA, Delcher AL, Blandin G, Westenberger SJ, Caler E, Cerqueira GC, Branche C, Haas B, Anupama A, Arner E, Aslund L, Attipoe P, Bontempi E, Bringaud F, Burton P, Cadag E, Campbell DA, Carrington M, Crabtree J, Darban H, da Silveira JF, de Jong P, Edwards K, Englund PT, Fazelina G, Feldblyum T, Ferella M, Frasch AC, Gull K, Horn D, Hou L, Huang Y, Kindlund E, Klingbeil M, Kluge S, Koo H, Lacerda D, Levin MJ, Lorenzi H, Louie T, Machado CR, McCulloch R, McKenna A, Mizuno Y, Mottram JC, Nelson S, Ochaya S, Osoegawa K, Pai G, Parsons M, Pentony M, Pettersson U, Pop M, Ramirez JL, Rinta J, Robertson L, Salzberg SL, Sanchez DO, Seyler A, Sharma R, Shetty J, Simpson AJ, Sisk E, Tammi MT, Tarleton R, Teixeira S, Van Aken S, Vogt C, Ward PN, Wickstead B, Wortman J, White O, Fraser CM, Stuart KD, Andersson B | title=The genome sequence of Trypanosoma cruzi, etiologic agent of Chagas disease | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume=309 | issue=5733 | year=2005 | pages=409-15 | id=PMID 16020725}}
==Further reading==
* Coutinho M. Ninety years of Chagas disease: a success story at the periphery. ''Soc Stud Sci.'' 1999 Aug;29(4):519-49. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11623933&query_hl=2 Medline abstract]
* Dias JC, Silveira AC, Schofield CJ. The impact of Chagas disease control in Latin America: a review. ''Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz.'' 2002 Jul;97(5):603-12 [http://www.scielo.br/cgi-bin/fbpe/fbtext?pid=S0074-02762002000500002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=es Full text]
* Kropf SP, Azevedo N, Ferreira LO. Biomedical research and public health in Brazil: the case of Chagas' disease (1909-50). ''Soc Hist Med.'' 2003 Apr;16(1):111-29. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14598820&query_hl=2 Medline abstract]
* Moncayo A. Progress towards Interruption of Transmission of Chagas Disease, 1999, ''Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz.'' 1999; 94(Sup I) 401-404.
* Prata A. Evolution of the clinical and epidemiological knowledge about Chagas disease 90 years after its discovery. ''Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz.'' 1999;94 Suppl 1:81-8. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10677694&query_hl=2 Medline abstract]
There is a special issue of the International Symposium to commemorate the 90th anniversary of the discovery of Chagas disease (Rio de Janeiro, April 11-16, 1999) in ''Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz'', Vol. 94, Suppl. I, 1999 ([http://www.dbbm.fiocruz.br/tropical/chagas/memmain.html Table of contents], with full text papers available in PDF)
==External links==
* [http://chagaspace.org/eng/index.htm ''Chagaspace''] , also in Spanish.
* [http://www.unibio.unam.mx/chagmex ChagMex: Database on-line]. UNAM-Instituto de Biología.
* [http://www.who.int/ctd/chagas/disease.htm Chagas: the disease]. World Health Organization.
* [http://www.paho.org/english/ad/dpc/cd/chagas.htm Chagas Disease]. PanAmerican Health Organization.
* [http://www.who.int/tdr/diseases/chagas/default.htm Chagas disease]. The UNDP-Unicef-WHO-World Bank Special Programme of Research (TDR).
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/chagasdisease.html Chagas disease]. Medline Plus.
* [http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/tmp-pmv/info/am_trypan_e.html Disease Information. American Trypanosomiasis or Chagas Disease]. Travel Medicine Program. Health Canada.
* [http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic327.htm Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis)]. eMedicine.
* [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/md/trypanosomiasisAmer.html Links to Chagas Disease pictures (Hardin MD/Univ of Iowa)]
===Recent events===
* ''Chagas Control in the Southern Cone Countries: History of an International Initiative, 1991/2001'', PAHO. ([http://www.paho.org/English/AD/DPC/CD/dch-historia-incosur.htm Full text e-book])
* [http://cruzi.unsam.edu.ar/ Genome Sequencing Project]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4681707.stm Parasites' genetic code 'cracked'] From BBC
*[http://www.crs.org/our_work/where_we_work/overseas/latin_america_and_the_caribbean/bolivia/improvement.cfm] Housing project in Bolivia
==Sources==
* [http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML/TrypanosomiasisAmerican.htm American Trypanosomyasis]. CDC Disease Information (US Federal Government public domain).
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001372.htm Chagas disease]. Medical Encyclopedia. Medline Plus.
==See also==
*[[Tropical disease]]
{{featured article}}
[[Category:Eponymous diseases]]
[[Category:Parasitic diseases]]
[[Category:Infectious diseases]]
[[Category:Zoonoses]]
[[ar:شاجاس]]
[[de:Chagas-Krankheit]]
[[es:Enfermedad de Chagas]]
[[fr:Maladie de Chagas]]
[[it:Malattia di Chagas]]
[[lt:Čagaso liga]]
[[pt:Doença de Chagas]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer peripheral</title>
<id |
5
|- valign="top"
| 45 || [[Image:us flag large 45 stars.png|125px]] || [[Utah]] || [[July 4]], [[1896]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1908]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 12
|- valign="top"
| 46 || [[Image:us flag large 46 stars.png|125px]] || [[Oklahoma]] || [[July 4]], [[1908]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1912]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 4
|- valign="top"
| 48 || [[Image:Flag of the United States (1912-1959).svg|125px]] || [[Arizona]], [[New Mexico]] || [[July 4]], [[1912]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1959]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 47
|- valign="top"
| 49 || [[Image:us flag large 49 stars.png|125px]] || [[Alaska]] || [[July 4]], [[1959]]&ndash;[[July 3]], [[1960]]
| style="text-align:left;top" | 1
|- valign="top"
| 50 || [[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|125px]] || [[Hawaii]] || [[July 4]], [[1960]]&mdash;
| style="text-align:left;top" | 45+
|}
===Symmetry===
[[Image:us flag large 51 stars.png|thumb|right|Proposed design for a [[U.S. 51 star flag|51-star flag]] in the event of an additional state]]
*[[Symmetry]] with respect to horizontal axis: 50, 49, 48, 46, 44, 38, 37, 36, 34, 33, 32, 30, 28, 26, 24, 20, 15, 13 (standard)
*Symmetry with respect to vertical axis: 51, 50, 48, 46, 45, 44, 37, 36, 35, 34, 33, 32, 31, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 21, 20, 15, 13 (standard and Betsy Ross)
*Both, hence also point symmetry: 50, 48, 46, 45, 44, 37, 36, 34, 33, 32, 28, 26, 24, 20, 15, 13 (standard)
*No symmetry: 43
*Chessboard pattern: 51, 50, 49, 45, 15, 13 (standard)
*Rectangle of stars: 48, 35, 30, 28, 24, 20
==Future of the flag==
The [[United States Army]]'s [[Institute of Heraldry]] has plans for flags with up to 56 stars using a similar staggered star arrangement in case additional states accede.
There are ongoing statehood movements in [[New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]], the [[District of Columbia voting rights|District of Columbia]], and [[New York City secession|New York City]]. Other [[insular area]]s such as the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], the [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Guam]], and [[American Samoa]] may eventually become states as well.
== See also ==
{{commons|Category:Flags of the United States}}
*[[Robert G. Heft]], designer of the current flag.
*[[Flags of the U.S. states]]
*[[Flags of the United States armed forces]]
*[[Flags of the Confederate States of America]]
*[[Flag desecration#The United States|Flag desecration in the United States]]
*[[Colours and guidons#US Army Colors|United States Army Colors]]
== References ==
; [ContCong] : ''[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwjc.html Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789]'', ed. Worthington C. Ford et al. (Washington, D.C., 1904-37).
; [USFlag.org] : {{cite web
| url = http://www.usflag.org/colors.html
| title = What do the colors of the Flag mean?
| work = USFlag.org: A website dedicated to the Flag of the United States of America
| accessdate = June 14
| accessyear = 2005
}}
; [USGov] : {{ cite book
| author = U.S. Government
| title = Our Flag
| publisher = U.S. Government Printing Office
| location = Washington DC
| year = 1861
| id = S. Doc 105-013
| url = http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=105_cong_documents&docid=f:sd013.105.pdf
}} (''Available as a 1.78 MB PDF at GPO Access'')
== External links ==
* {{FOTW|id=us|title=United States}}
* [http://www.ushistory.org/betsy/flagetiq.html U.S. Flag Etiquette (ushistory.org)]
* [http://www.usflag.org/ The United States Flag Page]
* [http://www.si.edu/resource/faq/nmah/flag.htm Encyclopedia Smithsonian: Facts About the United States Flag]
* [http://www.access.gpo.gov/uscode/title4/chapter1_.html The Flag Code--U.S. Code Home: Title 4, Flag and Seal, Seat of Government, and the States--Chapter 1, The Flag]
** Provides details about the design of the flag, treatment of the flag, the pledge of allegiance, etc.
* [http://assembler.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode04/usc_sec_04_00000001----000-notes.html Executive Order No. 10798], with specifications and regulations for the current flag
*[http://mysite.verizon.net/vzeo1z2a/YellowFlag.html The Significance of the "Yellow Fringed Flag"]
* [http://bensguide.gpo.gov/3-5/symbols/flag.html Ben's Guide (3-5): Symbols of U.S. Government - Flag of the United States]
* [http://www.westol.com/~beaurega/51flags.htm Designs for flags containing between 51 and 70 stars]
{{nationalflags}}
[[Category:American culture]]
[[Category:Flags of the United States]]
[[Category:Historical flags|United States of America]]
[[Category:National flags|United States]]
[[de:Flagge der USA]]
[[eo:Usona flago]]
[[es:Bandera de los Estados Unidos]]
[[et:Ameerika Ühendriikide lipp]]
[[fi:Yhdysvaltain lippu]]
[[fr:Drapeau des États-Unis]]
[[he:דגל ארצות הברית]]
[[hu:Amerikai Egyesült Államok zászlaja]]
[[it:Bandiera statunitense]]
[[ja:アメリカ合衆国の国旗]]
[[ko:미국의 국기]]
[[lt:JAV vėliava]]
[[lv:Amerikas Savienoto Valstu karogs]]
[[nl:Vlag van de Verenigde Staten]]
[[no:Amerikas forente staters flagg]]
[[pl:Flaga Stanów Zjednoczonych]]
[[pt:Bandeira dos Estados Unidos da América]]
[[ro:Steagul SUA]]
[[simple:Flag of the United States]]
[[sv:USA:s flagga]]
[[zh:美国国旗]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Federated States of Micronesia</title>
<id>11448</id>
<revision>
<id>41746069</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:07:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Beland</username>
<id>57939</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* History */ Move non-sensical flag statement to talk page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Federated States of Micronesia''' comprise a [[republic]] located in the [[Pacific Ocean]], northeast of [[Papua New Guinea]]. The country is a sovereign state in [[Associated state|free association]] with the [[United States]].
The Federated States of Micronesia were formerly part of the [[Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands]], a [[United Nations]] Trust Territory under US administration. In 1979 they adopted a constitution, and in 1986 independence was attained under a [[Compact of Free Association]] with the United States. Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, and overdependence on U.S. aid.
The Federated States of Micronesia are located in the region known as [[Micronesia]], which consists of hundreds of small islands divided in seven territories. The term ''Micronesia'' may refer to the Federated States or to the region as a whole.
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|+<big><big>'''Federated States of Micronesia'''</big></big>
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" align="center" colspan="2" |
{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Flag of Micronesia.svg|125px|right|]]
| align="center" width="140px" | [[Image:Fm CoA.jpg|100px|Micronesia COA]]
|-
| align="center" width="140px" | ([[Flag of the Federated States of Micronesia|In Detail]])
| ([[Coat of Arms of the Federated States of Micronesia|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align=center style="vertical-align: top;" colspan=2 | <small>''[[National motto]]: Peace Unity Liberty''</small>
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style="background: #ffffff;" | [[image:LocationMicronesia.png]]
|-
| '''[[Official language]]'''
| [[English language|English]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| [[Palikir]]
|-
| '''[[President of the Federated States of Micronesia|President]]'''
| [[Joseph J. Urusemal]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total <br>&nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 173rd]] <br> 702[[square kilometre|km&sup2;]] <br> Negligible
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Total (2000)<br>&nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| '''[[List of countries by population|Ranked 178th]]'''<br> 135,869<br> 194/km&sup2;
|-
| '''[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]''' (PPP)<br>&nbsp;- Total (1997)<br>&nbsp;- GDP/head
| [[List of countries by GDP|Ranked 173rd]]<br>240 millions $ &sup1;<br> 2,000 $
|-
| '''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' (2003) || [[List of countries by Human Development Index|NA]] – <font color=gray>unranked</font>
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[United States dollar]]
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] +10 ([[Daylight Saving Time|no DST]])
|-
| '''[[Independence]]'''<br>&nbsp;- Declared<br>&nbsp;- Recognised
| From the [[United States|U.S.]]<br>(1986)<br>(1986)
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]'''
| ''[[Patriots of Micronesia]]''
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
| [[.fm]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]'''
| +691
|-
| colspan=2 | <sup>1</sup> <small>GDP is supplemented by aid, averaging perhaps $100 million annually</small>
|}
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of the Federated States of Micronesia]]''
The ancestors of the Micronesians settled over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious empire centered on [[Yap]].
[[Nan Madol]], consisting of a series of small [[artificial island]]s linked by a network of canals, is often called the Venice of the Pacific. It is located near the island of [[Pohnpei]] and used to be the ceremonial and political seat of the Saudeleur dynasty that united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people from about AD 500 until 1500, when the centralized system collapsed.
European explorers - first the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in search of the [[Spice I |
statement must be in principle empirically verifiable in order to be both meaningful and scientific. This was an essential feature of the [[logical empiricism]] of the so-called [[Vienna Circle]] that featured such philosophers as [[Moritz Schlick]], [[Rudolf Carnap]], [[Otto Neurath]], and [[Hans Reichenbach]]. After Popper, verifiability came to be replaced by ''falsifiability'' as the criterion of demarcation. In other words, in order to be scientific, a statement had to be, in principle, falsifiable. Popper noticed that the philosophers of the Vienna Circle had mixed two different problems, and had accordingly given a single solution to both of them, namely verificationism. In opposition to this view, Popper emphasized that a theory might well be meaningful without being scientific, and that, accordingly, a criterion of meaningfulness may not necessarily coincide with a criterion of demarcation. His own falsificationism, thus, is not only an alternative to verificationism, it is also an acknowledgment of the conceptual distinction that previous theories had ignored.
Falsifiability is a property of statements and theories, and is itself neutral. As a demarcation criterion, it seeks to take this property and make it a base for affirming the superiority of falsifiable theories over non-falsifiable ones as a part of science, in effect setting up a political position that might be called ''falsificationism''. Much that would be considered meaningful and useful, however, is not falsifiable. Certainly non-falsifiable statements have a role in scientific theories themselves. The Popperian criterion provides a definition of science that excludes much that is of value; it does not provide a way to distinguish meaningful statements from meaningless ones.
It is nevertheless very useful to know if a statement or theory is falsifiable, if for no other reason than that it provides us with an understanding of the ways in which one might assess the theory. One might at the least be saved from attempting to falsify a non-falsifiable theory, or come to see an unfalsifiable theory as unsupportable.
==Criticism==
[[Thomas Kuhn]]&#8217;s influential book ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'' argued that scientists work within a conceptual [[paradigm]] that determines the way in which they view the world. Scientists will go to great length to defend their paradigm against falsification, by the addition of ad hoc hypotheses to existing theories. Changing one's 'paradigm' is not easy, and only through some pain and angst does science (at the level of the individual scientist) change paradigms.
Some falsificationists saw Kuhn&#8217;s work as a vindication, since it showed that science progressed by rejecting inadequate theories. More commonly, it has been seen as showing that sociological factors, rather than adherence to a strict, logically obligatory method, play the determining role in deciding which scientific theory is accepted. This was seen as a profound threat to those who seek to show that science has a special authority in virtue of the methods that it employs.
[[Imre Lakatos]] attempted to explain Kuhn&#8217;s work in falsificationist terms by arguing that science progresses by the falsification of ''research programs'' rather than the more specific [[universal quantification|universal statements]] of naïve falsification. In Lakatos' approach, a scientist works within a research program that corresponds roughly with Kuhn's 'paradigm'. Whereas Popper rejected the use of ad hoc hypotheses as unscientific, Lakatos accepted their place in the development of new theories.
Lakatos also brought the notion of falsifiability to bear on the discipline of mathematics in [[Proofs and Refutations]]. The long-standing debate over [[Mathematics#Is_mathematics_a_science.3F|whether mathematics is a science]] depends in part on the question of whether proofs are fundamentally different from experiments. Lakatos argued that mathematical proofs and definitions evolve through criticism and counterexample in a manner very similar to how a scientific theory evolves in response to experiments.
[[Paul Feyerabend]] examined the history of science with a more critical eye, and ultimately rejected any prescriptive methodology at all. He went beyond Lakatos&#8217; argument for ad hoc hypothesis, to say that science would not have progressed without making use of any and all available methods to support new theories. He rejected any reliance on a scientific method, along with any special authority for science that might derive from such a method. Rather, he claimed, ironically, that if one is keen to have a universally valid methodological rule, ''anything goes'' would be the only candidate. For Feyerabend, any special status that science might have derives from the social and physical value of the results of science rather than its method.
Following from Feyerabend, the whole "Popper project" to define science around one particular methodology&mdash;which accepts nothing except itself&mdash;is a perverse example of what he supposedly decried: a closed circle argument. The Popperian criterion itself is not falsifiable.
Moreover, it makes Popper effectively a philosophical [[nominalist]], which has nothing to do with empirical sciences at all.
Although Popper's claim of the singular characteristic of falsifiability does provide a way to replace invalid inductive thinking ([[empiricism]]) with deductive, falsifiable reasoning, it appeared to Feyerabend that doing so is neither necessary for, nor conducive to, scientific progress.
=== Case Studies ===
Multiple universes from the [[Anthropic Principle]] and the existence of intelligent life (see [[SETI]]) beyond Earth are potentially non-falsifiable ideas. They are "true-ifiable" because they are potentially detectable. Lack of detection does not mean other universes or non-human intelligent life does not exist; it only means they have not been detected. Yet, both of these ideas are generally considered scientific ideas. Some suggest that an idea has to be only one of falsifiable or "true-ifiable", but not both to be considered a scientific idea.
=== From scientists ===
Many actual physicists, including Nobel Prize winner [[Steven Weinberg]] and [[Alan Sokal]] (''[[Fashionable Nonsense]]''), have criticized falsifiability on the grounds that it does not accurately describe the way science really works. Take [[astrology]], an example most would agree is not science. Astrology constantly makes falsifiable predictions -- a new set is printed every day in the newspapers -- yet few would argue this makes it scientific.
One might respond that astrological claims are rather vague and can be excused or reinterpreted. But the same is true of actual science: a physical theory predicts that performing a certain operation will result in a number in a certain range. Nine times out of ten it does; the tenth the physicists blame on a problem with the machine -- perhaps someone slammed the door too hard or something else happened that shook the machine. Falsifiability does not help us decide between these two cases.
In reality, of course, theories are used because of their successes, not because of their failures. As Sokal writes, "When a theory successfully withstands an attempt at falsification, a scientist will, quite naturally, consider the theory to be partially confirmed and will accord it a greater likelihood or a higher subjective probability. ... But Popper will have none of this: throughout his life he was a stubborn opponent of any idea of 'confirmation' of a theory, or even of its 'probability'. ... [but] the history of science teaches us that scientific theories come to be accepted above all because of their successes."
== Some examples ==
Claims about verifiability and falsifiability have been used to criticize various controversial views. Examining these examples shows the usefulness of falsifiability by showing us where to look when attempting to criticise a theory.
Non-falsifiable theories can usually be reduced to a simple uncircumscribed existential statement, such as ''there exists a green swan''. It is entirely possible to ''verify'' that the theory is true, simply by producing the green swan. But since this statement does not specify when or where the green swan exists, it is simply not possible to show that the swan does not exist, and so it is impossible to ''falsify'' the statement.
That such theories are unfalsifiable says nothing about either their validity or truth. But it does assist us in determining to what extent such statements might be evaluated. If evidence cannot be presented to support a case, and yet the case cannot be shown to be indeed false, not much credence can be given to such a statement.
=== Mathematics ===
Mathematical and logical statements are typically regarded as unfalsifiable, since they are [[tautology|tautologies]], not existential or universal statements. For example, "all bachelors are male" and "all green things are green" are [[necessary truth|necessarily true]] (or given) without any knowledge of the [[world]]; given the meaning of the terms used, they are tautologies.
Proving mathematical [[theorem|theorems]] involves reducing them to tautologies, which can be mechanically proven as true given the axioms of the system or reducing the negative to a contradiction. Mathematical theorems are unfalsifiable, since this process, coupled with the notion of [[consistency]], eliminates the possibility of [[counterexample]]s&mdash;a process that the [[philosophy of mathematics]] studies in depth as a separate matter.
How a mathematical formula might apply to the physical world, however (as a ''model''), is a physical question, and thus testable, within certain limits. For example, the theory that "all objects follow a [[parabola|parabolic |
-- thoroughbred racing jockey
*[[Marcel Thil]] -- world champion boxer
*[[Christophe Tiozzo]] -- world champion boxer
*[[Fabrice Tiozzo]] -- world champion boxer, Christophe's brother
*[[Damien Touya]] -- fencer
*[[Patrick Vieira]] -- [[Senegal]] born French citizen, football player
*[[Richard Virenque]] -- [[Morocco]] born French citizen, cyclist
*[[Jean-Pierre Wimille]], race car driver
*[[Zinédine Zidane]] -- football player
==Theologians==
'''O.P.''' (''Ordo Praedicatorum'') is the abbreviation used to indicate that someone is/was a member of [[Dominican order]], a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[religious order]].
'''S.J.''' (''Societas Iesu'') is the abbreviation used to indicate that someone is/was a member of the [[Society of Jesus]], which is a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] religious order too.
*[[Marie-Emile Boismard]] O.P.
*[[Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet]]
*[[John Calvin|Jean Calvin]]
*[[Sebastian Castellion]] -- translator of the Bible
*[[Pierre Cauchon]] -- condemned Joan of Arc
*[[Bernard of Clairvaux]]
*[[Jean Claude]]
*[[Yves Congar]], O.P.
*[[André Gounelle]]
*[[Pierre Lagrange (monk)|Pierre Lagrange]] O.P. -- founder of the ''[[Ecole Biblique et Archeologique de Jérusalem]]''
*[[Hubert Languet]]
*[[Maurice Leenhardt]] -- ethnologist, theologian
*[[Etienne Mennegoz]]
*[[Wilfred Monod]]
*[[Etienne Nodet]] O.P.
*[[Rachi de Champagne]]
*[[Alexandre de Rhodes]] S.J. -- 17th c. missionary to Indochina
*[[Pierre Teilhard de Chardin]] S.J.
*[[Auguste Sabatier]]
*[[Antonin Sertillanges]] O.P. -- founder of the ''Revue Thomiste''
*[[Bernard Sesboué]] S.J.
==Others==
*[[André the Giant]], professional wrestler
*[[Louis Braille]], blind inventor
*[[Charles Cros]], poet and inventor
*[[Joan of Arc|Jeanne d'Arc]] (Joan of Arc), warrior and Saint
*[[André Charles Boulle]], cabinet maker
*[[Pierre de Coubertin]], initiator of the modern [[Olympic Games]]
*[[Edmond de Goncourt|Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de Goncourt]]
*[[Ninon de l'Enclos]], courtesan, patron of the arts
*[[Cavalier de la Salle]], explorer
*[[Marcel Deprez]], electrical engineer
*[[René Dumont]], agronomist engineer and sociologist and ecology activist
*[[Jules Dumont d'Urville]]
*[[Maurice Duverger]], jurist
*[[Gustave Eiffel]], engineer
*[[Pierre Charles L'Enfant]], planned Washington, D.C.
*[[Charles Michel de l'Épée]], founder of world's first public school for deaf people
*[[Marquis de la Fayette]],- military leader in the [[American Revolution]]
*[[Paul Héroult]], inventor
*[[Claude de Jouffroy d'Abbans]], designed the first steamship in 1783
*[[René Lalique]], artist
*[[Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds]], explorer and canal engineer
*[[Auguste and Louis Lumière]], inventors
*[[Jean-Paul Marat|Jean Paul Marat]]
*[[Jacques Mayol]], freediver
*[[Marcel Mazoyer]], agronomist
*[[Montgolfier brothers]], balloonists
*[[Jean-Marie Pelt]], botanist
*[[Bernard Pivot]]
*[[Elisée Reclus]], geographer and anarchist
*[[César Ritz]], hotelier
*[[Maximilien Robespierre]]
*[[Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin]], magician, namesake of "[[Harry Houdini]]"
*[[Pierre Seel]], homosexual survivor of the concentration camps, activist, author
*[[Philippe Starck]], designer
*[[Vauban]], engineer
==See also==
*[[List of people by nationality]]: [[List of Belgians|Belgians]], [[List of Catalans|Catalans]], [[List of Monegasque people|Monegasque people]], [[List of Quebecois|Quebecois]], [[List of Swiss people|Swiss]]
*[[List of French Jews]]
*[[List of French Black people]]
*[[Franco-Belgian comics]]
[[Category:French people|*List]]
[[Category:Lists of people by nationality|French]]
[[bg:Списък на французи]]
[[de:Liste bedeutender Franzosen]]
[[fa:فهرست مشاهیر فرانسه]]
[[fr:Liste de Français célèbres]]
[[it:Francesi celebri]]
[[ja:フランス人の一覧]]
[[fi:Luettelo ranskalaisista henkilöistä]]
[[zh:法国人列表]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Five-card draw</title>
<id>10679</id>
<revision>
<id>36532559</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-24T19:18:57Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>63.114.24.9</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Five-card draw''' is often the first [[list of poker variants|poker variant]] learned by most players, and is very common in home games although it is now rare in [[casino]] and [[poker tournament|tournament]] play. The [[lowball (poker)|lowball]] variations make more interesting games and are more commonly played in casinos. Two to eight players can play.
The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker#Game_play|game play]] of [[poker]], and with [[Hand (poker)|hand values]]. They also make no assumptions about what [[Betting (poker)|betting structure]] is used. In casino play, it is common to use [[Betting (poker)#Blinds|blinds]]; the first betting round thus begins with the player to the left of the big blind, and subsequent rounds begin with the player to the dealer's left. In home games, it is typical to use an [[Betting (poker)#Ante|ante]]; the first betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left, and the second round begins with the player who [[Betting (poker)#Open|open]]ed the first round.
Play begins with each player being dealt five cards, one at a time, all face down. The remaining deck stub is placed aside, often protected by placing a chip or other marker on it. Players pick up the cards and hold them in their hands, being careful to keep them concealed from the other players. The first "before the draw" betting round occurs at this point, starting with the player to the dealer's left (or to the left of the big blind if blinds are used).
If more than one player remains after the first round, the "draw" phase begins. Each player specifies how many of his cards he wishes to replace, and discards that many from his hand. The deck stub is retrieved, and after a [[burn card]] is dealt, each player in turn beginning at the dealer's left is dealt from the stub the same number of cards he discarded, so that each player again has five cards. It is important that each player discards the cards he wishes to replace before he takes any replacements, and that he take the same number of replacements as he discarded.
A second "after the draw" betting round occurs after the draw phase, beginning with the player to the dealers left or else beginning with the player who opened the first round (the latter is common when antes are used instead of blinds). This is followed by a [[Showdown (poker)|showdown]] if more than one player remains, in which the player with the best [[Hand (poker)|hand]] wins the pot.
A common "house rule" in some places is that a player may not replace more than three cards, unless he draws four cards while keeping an ace (or [[Wild card (poker)|wild card]]). This rule is only needed for low-stakes social games where many players will stay for the draw, and will help avoid depletion of the deck stub. In more serious games such as those played in casinos it is unnecessary and generally not used. A rule that ''is'' used by many casinos is that a player is not allowed to draw five consecutive cards from the deck stub. In this case, if a player wishes to replace all five of his cards, he is given four of them in turn, the other players are given their draws, and then the dealer returns to that player to give him his fifth replacement (if no later player drew, it is necessary to deal a [[burn card]] first).
Another common house rule is that the bottom card of the deck is never given as a replacement, to avoid the possibility of someone who might have seen it during the deal using that information. If the deck stub is depleted during the draw before all players have received their replacements, the last players can receive cards chosen randomly from among those discarded by previous players. For example, if the last player to draw wants three replacements but there are only two cards remaining in the deck stub, the dealer gives the player the one top card he can give, then shuffles together the bottom card of the deck, the burn card, and the earlier players' discards (but not the player's own discards!), and finally deals two more replacements to the last player.
==Sample deal==
The sample deal below assumes that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples; Bob, who is sitting to her left; Carol to his left; and David to Carol's left.
All four players ante $.25. Alice deals five cards to each player and places the deck stub aside. Bob opens the betting round by betting $1. Carol folds, David calls, and Alice calls, closing the betting round. Bob now declares that he wishes to replace three of his cards, so he removes those three cards from his hand and discards them. Alice retrieves the deck stub, deals a burn card, then deals three cards directly to Bob, who puts them in his hand. David discards one card, and Alice deals one card to him from the deck stub. Alice now discards three of her own cards, and replaces them with three from the top of the deck stub (Note: in a player-dealt casino game there is often a rule that the dealer must discard before picking up the deck stub, but this is a home game so we won't worry about such details). Now a second betting round begins. Bob checks, David bets $3, Alice calls, and Bob folds, ending the second betting round. David shows a [[Flush (poker)|flush]], and Alice shows [[two pair]], so David takes the pot.
==See also==
*[[draw poker]]
[[Category:Poker variants]]
[[sv:Mörkpoker]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Flaming</title>
<id>10680</id>
<revision>
<id>41822476</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T23:43:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jredmond</username>
<id>27307</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'' T |
Yer. Ter.'' v. 43c). He learned [[Greek language|Greek]] in order to become useful to his people, then under the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ''[[proconsul]]s'', that language having become, to a considerable extent, the rival of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] even in prayer (''Yer. Soṭah,'' vii. 21b); and, in spite of the bitter protest of [[Simon b. Abba]], he also taught his daughters Greek (''Yer. Shab.'' vi. 7d; ''Yer. Soṭah,'' ix. 24c; ''Sanh.'' 14a). Indeed, it was said of 'Abbahu that he was a living illustration of the maxim (''Eccl.'' vii. 18; compare ''[[Targum]]''), "It is good that thou shouldest take hold of this [the study of the Law]; yea, also from that [other branches of knowledge] withdraw not thine hand: for he that feareth God shall come forth of them all" (''Eccl. R.'' to vii. 18).
==Rector in Caesarea==
Being wise, handsome, and wealthy (B. M. 84a; Yer. B. M. iv. 9d), Abbahu became not only popular with his coreligionists, but also influential with the proconsular government (Ḥag. 14a; Ket. 17a). On one occasion, when his senior colleagues, Ḥiyya b. Abba, Ammi, and Assi, had punished a certain woman, and feared the wrath of the proconsul, Abbahu was deputed to intercede for them. He had, however, anticipated the rabbis' request, and wrote them that he had appeased the informers but not the accuser. The witty enigmatic letter describing this incident, preserved in the Talmud (Yer. Meg. iii. 74a), is in the main pure Hebrew, and even includes Hebrew translations of Greek proper names, to avoid the danger of possible exposure should the letter have fallen into the hands of enemies and informers (compare 'Er. 53b). After his ordination he declined a teacher's position, recommending in his stead a more needy friend, R. Abba of Acre (Acco), as worthier than himself (Soṭah, 40a). He thereby illustrated his own doctrine that it is a divine virtue to sympathize with a friend in his troubles as well as to partake of his joys (Tan., Wa-yesheb, ed. Buber, 16). Later he assumed the office of rector in Cæsarea, the former seat of R. Hoshaya I., and established himself at the so-called Kenishta Maradta (Insurrectionary Synagogue; Yer. Naz. vii. 56a; Yer. Sanh. i. 18a; compare Josephus, "B. J." ii. 14, § 5; Jastrow, "Dict." p. 838), whence some of the most prominent teachers of the next generation issued. He did not, however, confine his activity to Cæsarea, where he originated several ritualistic rules (Yer. Dem. ii. 23a, R. H. 34a), one of which—that regulating the sounding of the shofar—has since been universally adopted, and is referred to by medieval Jewish casuists as "Takkanat R. Abbahu" (the Enactment of R. Abbahu; compare "Maḥzor Vitry," Berlin, 1893, p. 355). He also visited and taught in many other Jewish towns (Yer. Ber. viii. 12a; Yer. Shab. iii. 5c).
While on these journeys, Abbahu gathered so many Halakot that scholars turned to him for information on mooted questions (Yer. Shab. viii. 11a; Yer. Yeb. i. 2d). In the course of these travels he made a point of complying with all local enactments, even where such compliance laid him open to the charge of inconsistency (Yer. Ber. viii. 12a; Yer. Beẓah, i. 60d). On the other hand, where circumstances required it, he did not spare even the princes of his people (Yer. 'Ab. Zarah, i. 39b). Where, however, the rigorous exposition of laws worked hardship on the masses, he did not scruple to modify the decisions of his colleagues for the benefit of the community (Shab. 134b; Yer. Shab. xvii. 16b; Yer. M. Ḳ. i. 80b). As for himself, he was very strict in the observance of the laws. On one occasion he ordered some Samaritan wine, but subsequently learning that there were no longer any strict observers of the dietary laws among the Samaritans, with the assistance of his colleagues, Ḥiyya b. Abba, Ammi, and Assi, he investigated the report, and, ascertaining it to be well founded, did not hesitate to declare the Samaritans, for all ritualistic purposes, Gentiles (Yer. 'Ab. Zarah, v. 44d; Ḥul. 6a).
==Abbahu and Ḥiyya b. Abba==
R. Abbahu's chief characteristic seems to have been modesty. While lecturing in different towns, he met R. Ḥiyya b. Abba, who was lecturing on intricate halakic themes. As Abbahu delivered popular sermons, the masses naturally crowded to hear him, and deserted the halakist. At this apparent slight, R. Ḥiyya manifested chagrin, and R. Abbahu hastened to comfort him by comparing himself to the pedler of glittering fineries that always attracted the eyes of the masses, while his rival was a trader in precious stones, the virtues and values of which were appreciated only by the connoisseur. This speech not having the desired effect, R. Abbahu showed special respect for his slighted colleague by following him for the remainder of that day. "What," said Abbahu, "is my modesty as compared with that of R. Abba of Acre (Acco), who does not even remonstrate with his interpreter for interpolating his own comments in the lecturer's expositions." When his wife reported to him that his interpreter's wife had boasted of her own husband's greatness, R. Abbahu simply said, "What difference does it make which of us is really the greater, so long as through both of us heaven is glorified?" (Soṭah, 40a). His principle of life he expressed in the maxim, "Let man ever be of the persecuted, and not of the persecutors; for there are none among the birds more persecuted than turtle-doves and pigeons, and the Scriptures declare them worthy of the altar" (B. Ḳ. 93a).
R. Abbahu, though eminent as a halakist, was more distinguished as a haggadist and controversialist. He had many interesting disputes with the Christians of his day (Shab. 152b; Sanh. 39a; 'Ab. Zarah, 4a). Sometimes these disputes were of a jocular nature. Thus, a heretic bearing the name of Sason (=Joy) once remarked to him, "In the next world your people will have to draw water for me; for thus it is written in the Bible (Isa. xii. 3), 'With joy shall ye draw water.'" To this R. Abbahu replied, "Had the Bible said 'for joy' [le-sason], it would mean as thou sayest; but since it says 'with joy' [be-sason], it means that we shall make bottles of thy hide and fill them with water" (Suk. 48b). These controversies, though forced on him, provoked resentment; and it is even related that his physician, Jacob the Schismatic (Minaah), was slowly poisoning him, but R. Ammi and R. Assi discovered the crime in time ('Ab Zarah, 28a).
Abbahu had two sons, Zeira and Ḥanina. Some writers ascribe to him a third son, Abimi (Bacher,"Ag. Pal. Amor."). Abbahu sent Ḥanina to the academy at Tiberias, where he himself had studied; but the lad occupied himself with the burial of the dead, and on hearing of this, the father sent him a reproachful message in this laconic style: "Is it because there are no graves in Cæsarea (compare Ex. xiv. 11) that I have sent thee off to Tiberias? Study must precede practise" (Yer. Pes. iii. 30b). Abbahu left behind him a number of disciples, the most prominent among whom were the leaders of the fourth amoraic generation, R. Jonah and R. Jose. At Abbahu's death the mourning was so great that it was said, "Even the statues of Cæsarea shed tears" (M. Ḳ. 25b; Yer. 'Ab. Zarah, iii. 42c).
There are several other Abbahus mentioned in the Talmudim and Midrashim, prominent among whom is Abbahu (Abuha, Aibut) b. Ihi (Ittai), a Babylonian halakist, contemporary of Samuel and Anan ('Er. 74a), and brother of Minyamin (Benjamin) b. Ihi. While this Abbahu repeatedly applied to Samuel for information, Samuel in return learned many Halakot from him (Naz. 24b; B. M. 14a, 75a; see Benjamin b. Ihi).
"When does your Messiah come?" a Christian (Minaah) once asked Abbahu in a tone of mockery; whereupon he replied: "When you will be wrapped in darkness, for it says, 'Behold, darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the nations; then shall the Lord rise upon thee and His glory shall be seen on thee' [Isa. lx. 2]," (Sanh. 99a). A Christian came to Abbahu with the quibbling question: "How could your God in His priestly holiness bury Moses without providing for purificatory rites, yet oceans are declared insufficient?" (Isa. xl. 12). "Why," said Abbahu, "does it not say, 'The Lord cometh with fire'?" (Isa. lxvi. 15). "Fire is the true element of purification, according to Num. xxi. 23," was his answer (Sanh. 39a). Another question of the same character: "Why the boastful claim: 'What nation on earth is like Thy people Israel' (II Sam. vii. 23), since we read, 'All the nations are as nothing before Him'?" (Isa. xl. 17), to which Abbahu replied: "Do we not read of Israel, he 'shall not be reckoned among the nations'?" (Num. xxiii. 9, Sanh. as above). Abbahu made a notable exception with reference to the Tosefta's statement that the Gilionim (Evangels) and other books of the Mineans are not to be saved from a conflagration on Sabbath: "the books of those at Abidan may be saved" (Shab. 116a). Of special historical interest is the observation of Abbahu in regard to the benediction "Baruk Shem Kebod Malkuto" (Blessed be the Name of His glorious Kingdom) after the "Shema' Yisrael," that in Palestine, where the Christians look for points of controversy, the words should be recited aloud (lest the Jews be accused of tampering with the unity of God proclaimed in the Shema'), whereas in the Babylonian city of Nehardea, where there are no Christians, the words are recited with a low voice (Pes. 56a). Preaching directly against the Christian dogma, Abbahu says: "A king of flesh and blood may have a father, a brother, or a son to share in or dispute his sovereignty, but the Lord saith, 'I am the Lord thy God! I am the first; that is, I have no father, and I am the |
rom time to time, just as the proponents did with 'cluetrain', and perhaps they may be onto something, but not exactly what they stated in the manifesto.
Fundamental to the cluetrain manifesto was the premise that the internet provided a new and unique forum for communication that would ultimately shift the nature of business communication and marketing. Essentially, the change that is central to this text is one of breaking down corporate barriers and forming a conversation between those within and those outside a corporation -- [[online marketing]] would be more about holding conversations with people rather than broadcasting half-truths about products and services.
The authors of the manifesto suggested that such a shift would occur through substantial and pervasive changes in current company to consumer interaction. Communication would shift from mission statements and marketing media aimed at consumer segments to open dialogues or conversations between businesses and consumers.
Since publication, however, the use of mass-media marketing has not been fundamentally shifted from its use within organisations as the key means of communicating with consumers. And, although advertsing on the Internet has grown over the intervening years, it remains, generally, an online version of the same style of mass-media marketing.
Although a number of companies have aimed to achieve customisation of marketing material to the point where it is tailored to a single individual, this remains a one-way dialogue which is the antithesis of what the authors propose as the ideal.
==Opposition==
During the height of the 'cluetrain Internet buzz' there were both supporters and opponents making their point online. The conversation spawned by 'the cluetrain manifesto' website, in some instances, was taken to be almost a religious faith to which one ascribed. Quite notably the technical oriented who were adept in building websites, writing blogs and making themselves heard on the Internet were often the most ardent adherents.
Even some of the opponents to the idea took the concepts of 'cluetrain' to be cultish. For example, [http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1759,43161,00.asp John C. Dvorak in PC Magazine]:
:". . . the apparent faith in this odd vision of an idealistic human-oriented internetworked new world/new economy marches forward. I imagine all these folks holding hands in a large circle, rolling back and forth, with some in the middle of the circle, spinning and chanting and hugging, all naked. I'm betting that most of these folks go to Burning Man and all of them write blogs about it and how cool it was. They link to each others' blogs and read what they say about each other—all highly complimentary."
Opponents to the concept of 'cluetrain' point to the fact that the Internet cannot be conceptualized so unitarily as "a conversation" or that the human activity online cannot be so neatly compacted into the notion of 'conversation'. It may be true that there are some conversations online, but rather, it would seem that the Internet would be better described as a chaotic place with spam coursing through its veins, filters manipulating the viewing of websites, email, blogs and other forms of communication, noise, and some human voices being heard above the babble and confusion.
Obviously there are some companies that seem to be doing extremely well without recourse to enabling conversations on the Internet -- such as WalMart, for example. There are other companies that have paid attention to the cluetrain concept and taken up conversation online and are doing both extremely well and in some cases very poorly (such as PayPal as a poor Internet communicator).
Many business people have paid some attention to 'cluetrain', [http://www.sun.com/aboutsun/media/blogs/ such as Sun] starting blogged conversations online for each of their executives, but many also have completely rejected the notion and continued with their TV-industrial ways.
==Related work==
A website which attempts to embrace (and perhaps extend) at least some of the 'cluetrain vision' is Microsoft's [[Channel9]]. The introduction to Channel9 states:
:Welcome to Channel 9. We are five guys at Microsoft who want a new level of communication between Microsoft and developers. We believe that we will all benefit from a little dialogue these days. This is our first attempt to move beyond the newsgroup, the blog, and the press release to talk with each other, human to human.
Some may interpret this activity of Microsoft employees as moving on from blogging and website writing -- others see Channel9 as a highly regulated site stifling the human voice, even though it is meant to be allowing humans talk to humans. Some would allege that Channel9 is perhaps another corporate con.
While not exactly on this topic [[Purple cow]] has some similarities in terms of how marketing is to be done in this era of the Internet.
==External links==
* [http://www.cluetrain.com/ Cluetrain web site] - Original site, now declared a "Read-Only Landmark"
* [http://www.gluetrain.com/ Direct parody of Cluetrain Web site]
* [http://www.searls.com/cluetrain/ Text of the ''cluetrain manifesto'']
* [http://doc.weblogs.com/ Doc Searls Weblog]
* [http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1759,43161,00.asp Cult of the Cluetrain Manifesto] - a viewpoint questioning the cluetrain manifesto and its application
* [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0738204315 the cluetrain manifesto] - book at Amazon.com.
* [http://www.fullcirc.com/community/localclue.htm The Cluetrain Local 599] - an interpretation of cluetrain manifesto for people on a local level.
* [http://www.artsjournal.com/artfulmanager/main/000152.php Catching a clue from the cluetrain manifesto] - an interpretation of its meaning to people in arts organizations.
[[Category:Electronic commerce|Cluetrain Manifesto, The]]
[[Category:Business books|Cluetrain Manifesto, The]]
[[de:Cluetrain-Manifest]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Clodius</title>
<id>6045</id>
<revision>
<id>38604601</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T12:09:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mhaesen</username>
<id>342312</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Clodius''' is the [[Rome|Roman]] [[nomen]] [[Claudius]] altered to a spelling that would have sounded [[plebeian]] to Roman ears. The original alteration was a political maneuver by P. Clodius Pulcher.
* [[Publius Clodius|Publius Clodius Pulcher]], Republican politician
* [[Clodia]], second sister of Publius Clodius
* [[Clodius Aesopus]], tragedian [[50s BC]]
* [[Caius Clodius Vestalis]], possible builder of [[Via Clodia]]
* [[Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus]], senator during [[Nero]]
* [[Lucius Clodius Macer]], [[legatus]] who revolted against [[Nero]]
* Publius Clodius Quirinalis, from [[Arelate]] in [[Gaul]], teacher of [[rhetoric]] in time of [[Nero]]
* [[Clodius Albinus|Decimus Clodius Albinus]], rival emperor [[196]]-[[197]]
* [[Pupienus and Balbinus|Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus]] co-emperor [[238]]
[[Clodio]] the Longhair, a chieftain of the [[Salian Franks]], is sometime called "Clodius I".
[[Category:Families of Rome]]
[[de:Clodius]]
[[nl:Gens Clodia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cicero</title>
<id>6046</id>
<revision>
<id>42068469</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:25:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Misza13</username>
<id>330574</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.10.96.132|72.10.96.132]] to last version by DanielCD</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:'' For other uses see [[Cicero (disambiguation)]]''
'''Marcus [[Tullius]] Cicero''' (standard English pronunciation {{IPA|[ˈsɪsərəʊ]}}; Classical [[Latin]] pronunciation {{IPA|[ˈkikero]}}) ([[January 3]], [[106 BC]] &ndash; [[December 7]], [[43 BC]]) was an [[orator]] and [[statesman]] of [[Ancient Rome]], and is generally considered the greatest [[Latin]] [[oratory|orator]] and [[prose]] stylist.
[[Image:CiceroBust.jpg|frame|Cicero at about age 60, from an ancient marble bust]]
==Biography==
Cicero was born in [[Arpinum]] and killed at [[Formia]] while fleeing from political enemies. "It is no exaggeration", wrote Taylor (as cited in "References"), "to say that the most brilliant era of Roman public life was ushered in by Cicero and closed by his death&mdash;he stood at its cradle and he followed its hearse." His family, the Tullii, were one of the [[landed gentry]] in Arpinum and resented the fame and fortunes of the other great Arpinate families, the [[Gaius Marius|Marii]]. Throughout his life, the [[conservative]] Cicero loathed being compared to the then more famous [[Marius]]. The name "Cicero" is derived from ''cicer'', the Latin word for "[[chickpea]]." [[Plutarch]] explains that the name was originally applied to one of Cicero's ancestors who had a cleft in the tip of his nose, which resembled that of a chickpea. In fact (Plutarch continues), Cicero was urged to change the theretofore-ignoble name when he entered politics, but he refused.
===Early life===
According to Plutarch, he was an extremely adept student, learning so well and rapidly that he attracted attention from all over Rome. He was especially fond of [[poetry]], although he shied away from no scholarly field. In [[89 BC]]-[[88 BC]], Cicero served on the staffs of [[Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo]] and [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] as they campaigned in the [[Social War]], though he had no taste for war. Cicero also had a love for almost everything Greek, and even stated in his will that he wanted to be buried in Greece. He found the ancient philosophers such as [[Plato]] very thought provoking.
Cicero served as [[quaestor]] in western [[Sicily]] in [[75 BC]]. He wrote that i |
n several ways from personal computers that run Microsoft Windows. Both the hardware and bundled software, including the operating system, are manufactured by Apple Computer, whereas Microsoft supplies their software to [[original equipment manufacturer]]s, including [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]] and IBM, who make the hardware using a wider range of components. This results in a limited range of Mac models compared with a huge variety of Windows-based PCs; however, it reduces conflicts between software and hardware and has helped Apple's reputation for stability and reliability. The Unix-based operating system performs multi-user networking as standard. This less common operating system means that a much smaller range of third-party software is available, although suitable applications, such as [[Microsoft Office]], are available in most areas. The design of the Macintosh operating system, as well as the vigilance of users,<ref>[[John Gruber]], [[Daring Fireball]] ([[June 4]], 2004): [http://daringfireball.net/2004/06/broken_windows ''Broken Windows'']</ref> has contributed to the near-absence of the types of [[malware]] and [[spyware]] that plague Microsoft Windows users.
Apple has a history of innovation and making bold changes that is met by strong uptake of software upgrades. The Classic application allows users to run "old" (Mac OS 9) applications on OS X computers, often as well as they ran natively on Mac OS 9, though without the advantages of a native OS X application. The Apple Intel transition starting in 2006 will not support ''Classic'' on new Intel Macs, and purchasers of these computers who are still using Classic applications will have to replace or upgrade this software. The transition will involve the recompilation of most OS X software to maximize performance; in the interim, unmodified OS X applications can run on the Intel chip under the emulation software "Rosetta".
For much of the Mac's history, up until the introduction of the [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] Power Macs, Macintosh hardware was notoriously closed. Connectors were proprietary, requiring specialized peripherals or adapter cables, and the hardware architecture was so closely tied to the Mac OS that it was impossible to boot an alternative operating system; the most common workaround, used even by Apple for its [[A/UX]] Unix implementation, was to boot into Mac OS and then to hand over control to a program that took over the system and acted as a [[Booting|boot loader]]. Current implementations for older hardware of operating systems such as [[Linux]] and [[NetBSD]] do the same thing, though they use their own programs instead of Apple's. This technique is not necessary on [[Open Firmware|OpenFirmware]]-based PCI Macs, though it was formerly used for convenience on many [[Old World ROM]] systems due to bugs in the firmware implementation. (An alternate technique, used by Tenon's [[MachTen]] and the Mac port of [[Minix]], was to run the alternate OS as a process within the Mac OS.) Modern Mac hardware boots directly from OpenFirmware or [[Extensible Firmware Interface|EFI]], and is not limited to the Mac OS.
Apple's choice of a hybrid [[microkernel]] architecture for Mac OS X has been unpopular in some quarters due to performance inefficiencies inherent in the microkernel design paradigm. Apple attempted to reduce the impact of microkernel overhead by moving userspace subsystems into the kernel space along with the microkernel, but a vocal minority of Mac developers feel that Apple should move to a monolithic kernel similar to Linux to eliminate microkernel overhead entirely.
== Litigation ==
{{main|Notable litigation of Apple Computer}}
There have been many lawsuits centered around the Macintosh. These generally involve [[copyright infringement]] of the computer's [[look and feel]] and [[trademark]]s. While many suits have been successful, Apple lost its [[Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp.|major case]] against the Microsoft Windows interface.
''[[Pirates of Silicon Valley]]'', a film adaptation of the litigation, closely follows actual events. It is a semi-humorous documentary about the men who made the world of technology what it is today, their struggles during college, the founding of their companies, and the actions they took to build up the global corporate empires of Apple and Microsoft. It stars [[Anthony Michael Hall]] as [[Bill Gates]] and [[Noah Wyle]] as Steve Jobs.
== See also ==
{{wikibooks|Mac OS X Tiger}}
{{commons|Apple Macintosh}}
* The current Macintosh models:
:* [[iMac#iMac (Intel Core Duo)|iMac]] (Intel Core Duo)
:* [[Mac mini]] (Intel Core Solo and Core Duo)
:* [[eMac]] (G4; education-only)
:* [[iBook|iBook G4]]
:* [[PowerBook G4]]
:* [[MacBook Pro]] (Intel Core Duo)
:* [[Power Mac G5]]
:* [[Xserve|Xserve G5]]
* [[A/UX]]
* [[List of Macintosh models grouped by CPU]]
* [[List of Macintosh software]]
* [[Mac rumors community]]
* [[Macintosh User Groups]]
* [[.Mac]]
* ''[[Pirates of Silicon Valley]]''—A film based on the rise of Apple and Microsoft.
* [[OSx86]]
== Further reading ==
* {{cite book | author=Hertzfeld, Andy | authorlink=Andy Hertzfeld | year=2004 | title=Revolution in the Valley | publisher=[[O'Reilly|O'Reilly Books]] | id=ISBN 0-596-007191}}
* {{cite book | author=Kahney, Leander | year=2004 | title=The Cult of Mac | publisher=[[No Starch Press]] | id=ISBN 1-886-411832}}
* {{cite book | author=Kawasaki, Guy | authorlink=Guy Kawasaki | year=1989 | title=The Macintosh Way | publisher=Scott Foresman Trade | id=ISBN 0-673-461750}}
* {{cite book | author=Kelby, Scott | year=2002 | title=Macintosh... The Naked Truth | publisher=New Riders Press | id=ISBN 0-735-712840}}
* {{cite book | author=Levy, Steven | year=2000 | title=Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything | publisher=[[Penguin Books]] | id=ISBN 0-140-291776}}
* {{cite book | author=Linzmayer, Owen | authorlink=Owen W. Linzmayer | year=2004 | title=Apple Confidential 2.0 | publisher=[[No Starch Press]] | id=ISBN 1-593-270100}}
* {{cite book | author=Kahney, Leander | year=2005 | title=The Cult of iPod | publisher=[[No Starch Press]] | id=ISBN 1-593-270666}}
* {{cite book | author= Deutschman, Alan | year=2001 | title=The Second Coming of Steve Jobs | publisher=Broadway | id=ISBN 0-767-904338}}
* {{cite book | author=Linzmayer, Owen | authorlink=Owen W. Linzmayer | year=1994 | title=The Mac Bathroom Reader | publisher=Sybex | id=ISBN 0-782-115314}}
* {{cite book | author=Apple Computer & [[Jef Raskin|Raskin, Jef]] | year=1992 | title=Macintosh Human Interface Guidelines | publisher=Addison-Wesley Professional | id=ISBN 0-201-622165}}
== Notes ==
<references />
== References ==
* [http://www.mactracker.ca/ MacTracker Macintosh model database], retrieved [[November 4]], [[2005]]
* [http://folklore.org/index.py folklore.org: Macintosh stories], retrieved [[November 9]], [[2005]]
* Guterl, Fred (December 1984): "Design case history: Apple's Macintosh". ''[[IEEE Spectrum]]''. http://www.cs.ucla.edu/~klinger/mac.html
* Glen Sanford (2005): [http://www.apple-history.com/ Apple History]
* Amit Singh (2005): [http://www.kernelthread.com/mac/oshistory/ A History of Apple's Operating Systems]
* Dan Knight (2005): [http://lowendmac.com/history/1984dk.shtml Macintosh History: 1984]
* Linzmayer, Owen (2004): Apple Confidential 2.0, No Starch Press ISBN 1593270100
* Daring Fireball ([[24 July]], [[2003]]): [http://daringfireball.net/2003/07/market_share Market share]
* News.com: [http://news.com.com/Apple+earnings+sail+past+expectations/2100-1042_3-5534021.html?tag=nefd.top Apple earnings sail past expectations]
== External links ==
* [http://www.apple.com Apple Computer's website]
* [http://www.apple-history.com Apple History - Apple product release history]
* [http://www.macrumors.com MacRumors]
* [http://lowendmac.com Low End Mac&mdash;Apple history and Macintosh profiles]
* [http://static.hugi.is/misc/movies/1984macintro.mov The 1984 introduction of the Macintosh] ([[QuickTime]] movie)
* [http://mxmora.best.vwh.net/JefRaskin.html Articles by Jef Raskin about the history of the Macintosh]
* [http://library.stanford.edu/mac/index.html Making the Macintosh: Technology and Culture in Silicon Valley]
* [http://www.youtube.com/?v=DwqVnk7qQgo Video: Bill Gates talks about the Macintosh]
* [http://www.folklore.org Folklore.org - A collaborative history of the Macintosh, featuring many of the original team members]
{{featured article}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Albrecht Achilles</title>
<id>2421</id>
<revision>
<id>15900838</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Zundark</username>
<id>70</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert_III,_Margrave_of_Brandenburg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ann Widdecombe</title>
<id>2422</id>
<revision>
<id>41717040</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T06:48:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gandalfxviv</username>
<id>851818</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>bypassed disambiguation MA</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''An |
on Human and Peoples' Rights]], [[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights]] and the [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]].
==Types of human rights==
Human rights are sometimes divided into [[negative and positive rights]], although other categorizations also exist. Negative human rights, which follow mainly from the Anglo-American legal tradition, denote actions that a government should not take. These are codified in the [[United States Bill of Rights]], the [[English Bill of Rights]] and the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] and include freedoms of [[freedom of speech|speech]], [[freedom of religion|religion]] and [[freedom of assembly|assembly]].
Positive human rights follow mainly from the [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseauian]] Continental European legal tradition, denote rights that the state is obliged to protect and provide. Examples of such rights include: the rights to education, to a livelihood, to legal equality. Positive rights have been codified in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in many 20th-century [[list of national constitutions|constitutions]].
A categorization offered by [[Karel Vasak]] is the three generations of human rights: first-generation civil and political rights (right to life and political participation), second-generation economic, social and cultural rights (right to subsistence) and third-generation solidarity rights (right to peace, right to clean environment). Out of these generations, the third generation is the most debated and lacks both legal and political recognition.
Some theorists discredit these divisions by claiming that rights are interconnected. Arguably, for example, basic education is necessary for the right to political participation.
==History of human rights==
The best-known histories of the human rights movement tend to begin with ancient [[religion]]s and societies and show the evolution of concepts and institutions of human rights across civilizations. The roots of the notion of human rights are seen in [[ancient philosophy]] concerning the role of the individual in the state, but principles of civil and political rights stem from liberal freedoms advocated by [[John Stuart Mill]] in ''[[On Liberty]]''. The concepts of economic, social and cultural rights can be traced back to [[Hegel]]'s ''[[Elements of the Philosophy of Right]]''.
The [[Persian Empire]] established unprecedented principles of human rights under the reign of [[Cyrus the Great]]. After his conquest of Babylon in [[539 BC]], the king issued the [[Cyrus Cylinder]], discovered in [[1879]] and recognized today as the first human rights document. The cylinder declared that citizens of the empire would be allowed to practice their religious beliefs freely. The cylinder also abolished slavery, so all the palaces of the kings of Persia were built by paid workers in an era where slaves typically did such work. These two reforms were reflected in the biblical books of [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]], which state that Cyrus released the followers of [[Judaism]] from slavery and allowed them to migrate back to their land. The cylinder now lies in the [[British Museum]], and a replica is kept at the [[United Nations headquarters]].
The origin of modern positive rights in international law may be traced to the creation of the [[International Labour Organization]] in [[1919]] as a Western response to the [[socialism|socialist ideology]] of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]].
==Philosophical basis of human rights==
Numerous theoretical approaches have been advanced to explain how human rights become part of social expectations. The biological theory considers the comparative reproductive advantage of human social behavior based on empathy and altruism in the context of natural selection. Other theories hold that human rights codify moral behavior, which is a human, social product developed by a process of biological and social evolution (associated with [[David Hume|Hume]]) or as a sociological pattern of rule setting (as in the sociological theory of law and the work of [[Max Weber|Weber]]). This approach includes the notion that individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate authority in exchange for security and economic advantage (as in [[John Rawls|Rawls]]).
[[Natural law|Natural law theories]] base human rights on the “natural” moral order based on religious precepts, the assumed common understandings of justice, or the belief that moral behavior is a set of objectively valid prescriptions. In legend, literature, religion and political thought, justice (and eventually the concept of human rights) became socially constructed over time into complex webs of social interaction striving toward a social order in which human beings are treated fairly. Religious societies tend to try to justify human rights through religious arguments. For example, [[liberal movements within Islam]] have tried to use the [[Qur'an]] to support human rights in a Muslim context.
Other theories are based on human agency, positing such constructs for agreement to rules on the utilitarian principles mediated by public reasoning. The social evolution model is based on human needs and struggle that incorporates an analysis of the norm-creating process. Values become norms through the constitutive process of authoritative decision-making. Such norms may take the form of law through a particular form of authoritative decision making of institutions associated with a legal system. It is the process of public reasoning through human rights norm-creating that progressively weeds out the culturally bound behaviors that are inconsistent with contemporary human rights. In this sense, culturally particular norms adapt to evolving human rights standards as defined in [[list of national constitutions|national constitutions]] and [[international human rights instruments]].
Ultimately, the term "human rights" is often itself an appeal to a transcendent principle, without basing it on existing legal concepts. The term "[[humanism]]" refers to the developing doctrine of such [[universality|universally applicable]] values.
Some authors argue that nationalism and realism weaken human rights, while individualism and cosmopolitanism strengthen them. This is argued by Demetrius Klitou in his book "The Friends and Foes of Human Rights." Klitou also outlines the need for a "human identity" in order to empower the human rights movement.
In the [[Political philosophy|Western political tradition]], human rights are held to be "inalienable" and to belong to all humans. They are necessary for freedom and the maintenance of a "reasonable" quality of life. The basis of this political tradition, perhaps best exemplified in the [[United States Constitution]] ([[1783]]) and the French [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] ([[1793]]) is the [[equality of opportunity]] between individuals.
If a right is inalienable, that means it cannot be bestowed, granted, bartered, or sold away (e.g., one cannot sell oneself into [[slavery]]). Rights may also be non-derogable (not limited in times of national emergency); these often include the right to life, the right to be prosecuted only according to the laws that are in existence at the time of the offense, the right to be free from slavery, and the right to be free from torture.
==Human rights controversies==
There are a number of controversies regarding human rights including:
#Are human rights political, moral or legal entities (or all three at the same time)?
#Is there or should there be a hierarchy of human rights?
#Do human rights impede on [[sovereignty|state sovereignty]]? What if the state itself has ratified international conventions?
#Should human rights be used as a context for economic or military intervention? (Often leads to a worsening of the human rights situation in the target country)
#Questions of [[cultural relativism]]&mdash;e.g. "Political participation is not a part of African culture. Who are you to say that we should have political participation?" These arguments can also be made on religious basis: e.g., "In our religion marriages have always been arranged; why should we not continue this practice?" Some arguments claim that human rights policies are a form of [[cultural imperialism]] in which powerful countries dictate which rights they consider most important to less powerful countries. The increasing number of third-world states that are party to international human rights treaties has made these arguments weaker, but they have not disappeared altogether. It is also worthy of note that many who criticize the actions and policies of the first-world or industrialized nations, such as the perceived interference of the United States in foreign affairs, often set up the need for human rights in ''opposition'' to imperialism, making the relationship between the two concepts highly complex.
#Who should hold the moral duty to uphold rights? For civil and political rights, many would answer 'the state'. But in practice, it is frequently one's fellow citizens and civil society who need to shoulder this responsibility. It is not quite so clear who should be responsible for promoting economic, social and cultural rights (do we have a global duty?). This debate mirrors debates between [[communitarianism]] and [[cosmopolitanism]].
#Which rights should be defined as fundamental human rights? Should all human rights be considered equal?
#Are countries guilty of human rights violations when their governments substantially support foreign governments that do not adhere to the established principles of human rights (within their own countries or in other countries)? (For instance, the [[Kirkpatrick Doctrine]].)
== See also ==
===Similar topics===
*[[Children rights]]
*[[Civil rights]]
*[[Gay rights]]
*[[Inalienable rights]]
*[[Natura |
by single-deck, two- and three-axle diesel buses. Hamburg has no trams or trolley-buses, but is experimenting in using hydrogen fuelled busses.
Finally, regional trains of Germany's major railway company [http://bahn.de Deutsche Bahn AG] and the regional ''Metronom'' trains may be used with a HVV public transport ticket, too. Except at the three bigger stations in the center of Hamburg, the regional trains hardly stop again inside the area of the city.
A day and night bus network operates as frequently as 2 minutes at important places to 30 minutes in suburban areas. There are five ferry lines along the river [[Elbe]], operated by the ''HADAG''. While mainly needed by Hamburg citizens and dock workers they can also be used for sightseeing tours at the (relatively) low fees of a HVV public transport ticket.
== Buildings ==
===Bridges and Tunnels===
Hamburg has a number of prominent buildings from the past and present. [[Speicherstadt]],
The many canals in Hamburg are crossed by over 2300 bridges &mdash; more than [[Amsterdam]] (1200) and [[Venice]] (400) combined.
*[[Köhlbrandbrücke]]
*[[Old Elbe Tunnel]] (''Alter Elbtunnel'')
*[[New Elbe Tunnel]] (''Elbtunnel'')
=== Churches ===
The skyline of Hamburg features the high spires of the five main churches ('Hauptkirchen') covered with green copper plates.
*[[St. Michaelis (Hamburg)|St. Michaelis church]] ('Michel')
*[[St. Nikolai (Hamburg)|St. Nikolai church]] (memorial)
*[[St. Petri (Hamburg)|St. Petri church]] (11th century)
*[[St. Jakobi (Hamburg)|St. Jakobi church]] (13th century)
*[[St. Katharinen (Hamburg)|St. Katharinen church]] (14th century)
===Towers and masts===
*[[Heinrich-Hertz-Turm]]
*[[Transmitter Hamburg-Billstedt]]
== Culture ==
=== Theaters ===
*[[Schauspielhaus]]
*[[Ernst-Deutsch-Theater]]
*[[St. Pauli Theater]]
*[[Hamburger Kammerspiele]]
*[[Thalia Theater]]
*[[Ohnsorg-Theater]] - a theatre in which the actors speak [[Low German]]
=== Dance clubs ===
*Angie's Nightclub (Soul/Jazz/Livebands) [http://tivoli.de/index.php?id=198 website]
*Change (Gay)(Electronica) [http://www.change-hamburg.de/ website]
*China Lounge (House) [http://www.china-lounge.de/ website]
*Docks (Trance/Latin/RnB/Mixed) [http://www.docks.de/ website]
*Cult Club (70s, 80s, Classics) [http://www.cult-hh.de/ website]
*Echochamber (Reggae/Dancehall/Electro) [http://www.echochamber.info/ website] (CLOSED)
*Funky Pussy Club (HipHop/R&B) [http://www.locationsite.de/hamburg/funkypussy.htm Info]
*Große Freiheit 36 (Mixed) [http://www.grossefreiheit36.de/ website]
*Grünspan (Mixed/Livebands) [http://www.gruenspan.de website]
*Kaiserkeller (in the basement of Große Freiheit 36)
*Kir (Alternative/Mixed/Wednesday=Gay) [http://www.kir-hamburg.de/ website]
*Lounge (House/Soul/Latin/Lounge) [http://www.locationsite.de/hamburg/lounge.htm Info]
*Molotow (Livemusic/Clubnights/Rock) [http://www.molotowclub.com/index.htm website]
*Pit (Gay)(Electronica)(Bondar) [http://www.pit-male.de/ website]
*Pacha (House) [http://www.pacha-hh.de website]
*Rutsche (Dancehall/Techno/Pop/Rock)
*Superfly (House/HipHop/Mixed) [http://www.super-fly-club.de/ website]
*Tanzhalle (DJs/Liveacts) [http://www.tanzhalle-st-pauli.de/ website]
*Thomas Read (House/Pop/R&B) [http://www.thomasread.de website]
*Waagenbau (Electronica/Techno/HipHop) [http://www.waagenbau.com/ website]
=== Music ===
Classical:
*Famous [[organ (music)|organ]] built by [[Arp Schnitger]] (1648-1719)
*[[North German Radio Symphony Orchestra]]
Famous Composers:
*[[Georg Philipp Telemann]] (1681-1767) died in Hamburg.
*[[Carl Philipp Emmanuel Bach]] (1714-1788, a son of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]) died in Hamburg.
*[[Felix Mendelssohn]] (1809-1847) was born in Hamburg.
*[[Johannes Brahms]] (1833-1897) was born in Hamburg.
Contemporary:
Hamburg is known for giving [[the Beatles]] a start in their musical career in the early 1960s. They played at the [[Star Club]], which was located in the district [[St. Pauli]] near the perhaps most famous street of Hamburg, the [[Reeperbahn]].
More recently it is known for some of the most popular German [[hip-hop]] acts, such as [[5 Sterne Deluxe]], [[Samy Deluxe]], [[Beginner]] and [[Fettes Brot]]. There is also a quite big [[Alternative rock|alternative]] and [[punk rock|punk]] scene which gathers around the Rote Flora, an occupied villa located in the district of Sternschanze. Some of the musicians of the famous electronic band [[Kraftwerk]] also came from Hamburg.
Hamburg is also famous for an original kind of German [[alternative music]] called [[Hamburger Schule]] ("School of Hamburg"), a term used for bands like [[Die Sterne]], [[Tocotronic]], [[Blumfeld]] and [[Tomte (band)|Tomte]].
Hamburg was one of the major centers of the [[heavy metal music]] world in the 1980's. Many bands such as [[Helloween]], [[Running Wild (band)|Running Wild]] and [[Grave Digger (band)|Grave Digger]] got their start in Hamburg. The influences of these bands and other bands from the area were critical to establishing the subgenre of [[Power metal]].
[[Image:Lion_King_Hamburg.jpg|thumb|''The Lion King'' theatre in Hamburg's harbour]]
Since the German premiere of ''[[Cats (musical)|Cats]]'' in [[1985]] there are always a number of [[musical]]s being played in the city. Among them have been ''[[Phantom of the Opera]]'', ''[[The Lion King#Musical|The Lion King]]'' or ''[[Dance of the Vampires]]''. This density, which is the highest in Germany, is partly due to Germany's major musical production company ''Stage Entertainment'' being located in Hamburg. One of the musical theatres is a large tent in the harbour, guests either arrive by boat or through the historic [[Old Elbe Tunnel]].
=== Museums ===
Museums in Hamburg include:
*Altona Museum and North German State Museum [http://www.altonaer-museum.de/de/]
*Art Gallery ([[Kunsthalle Hamburg]]) [http://www.hamburger-kunsthalle.de/]
*Brahmsmuseum
*Bucerius Kunst Forum [http://www.buceriuskunstforum.de/]
*Hamburg Museum for Archaeology and the History of [[Harburg]]
*[[Neuengamme]] [[concentration camp]] memorial [http://www.hamburg.de/Neuengamme/welcome.en.html]
*Speicherstadt Museum [http://www.speicherstadtmuseum.de/]
*Museum of Labour [http://www.museum-der-arbeit.de/]
*Museum für Völkerkunde [http://www.voelkerkundemuseum.com/]
=== Local Cuisine and Drinks ===
Although Hamburg is jokingly said to be the birthplace of the [[Hamburger]], this is just a myth. The hamburger was named after Hamburg. Original Hamburg dishes are "Birnen, Bohnen und Speck" (green runner beans cooked with pears and bacon), "Aalsuppe" (Often mistaken to be German for "eel soup" (aal = eel), however the name probably comes from the Low Saxon "aalens", meaning "all" - anything could be in it, but not necessarily eel. Today eel is often included to meet the expectations of unsuspecting diners.), "Bratkartoffeln" (fried potatoes), "Finkenwerder Scholle" (fried plaice), Pannfisch (fried fish), Rote Grütze (something similar to summer pudding consisting mainly of red berries) and "Labskaus" (a strange looking combination of corned beef, mashed potatoes and beet root &ndash; with a name oddly similar to [[Liverpool]]'s [[lobscouse]]). Hamburg is the birthplace of the "Alsterwasser", a reference to the Alster lakes in Hamburg, which is beer [[shandy]], a mixture of equal parts of [[beer]] and carbonated lemonade (Zitronenlimonade), wherein the lemonade is added to the beer.
=== Local Dialects ===
German and a regional dialect called [[Missingsch]] which is influenced by [[Low German]], which is rarely spoken now but can be still heard from harbour labourers.
==Tourism==
Hamburg is best visited in spring or summer. A typical Hamburg visit includes a tour of the city hall and the grand church [[St. Michaelis (Hamburg)|St. Michaelis]] (called the ''Michel''), and visiting the old warehouse district (''Speicherstadt'') and the harbour promenade (''Landungsbrücken''). Sightseeing busses connect these points of interest. Of course, a visit in one of the world's largest harbours would definitely be incomplete without having taken one of the harbour and/or canal boat tours (''Große Hafenrundfahrt'', ''Fleetfahrt'') which start from the Landungsbrücken. Many visitors take a walk in the evening around the area of [[Reeperbahn]], considered Europe's second largest red light district and home of many theatres, bars and night clubs.
However, as already indicated, most people visit Hamburg because of a specific interest, notably one of the musicals, a sports event or an exhibition.
===Statistics===
The described type of tourism leaves clear tracks in the statistics: In [[2004]], each visitor spent an average of two nights. The majority of visitors comes from Germany (80%), most foreigners are European, especially from the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Switzerland]], and the largest group from outside Europe comes from the [[USA]].
''Medical tourism'' became an issue in [[2004]] because of the number of rich Arabic patients seeking medical treatment in one of Hamburg's hospitals; accordingly, the number of visitors from the [[Persian Gulf]] states grew by nearly 30% compared to [[2003]].
A lot more visitors also came from East Asia ([[Republic of China|Taiwan]], [[People's Republic of China|China]]) and especially the [[Baltic states]].
===Regular events===
For the interested visitor, some events held every year:
* Sports (Note that a registration, usually months in advance, is needed for public races.)
** Hamburg Marathon [http://www.marathon-hamburg.de/] - [[marathon (sport)|marathon]], open to the public: April
** Tennis Masters Series: May
** [[Dragon boat race]], open to the public (if you have a dragon boat...): August
** HEW Cyclassics [http://www.hew-cyclassics.de/] - bike race, open to the public: August
** Hamburg City Man Triathlon [http://www.hamburgcityman.de/] - [[triath |
guide,
harbour/harbor, harmony, hate, hearing, heat, help, history, hole, hope, hour, humour/humor,
ice, idea, impulse, increase, industry, ink, insect, instrument,
insurance, interest, invention, iron,
jelly, join, journey, judge, jump,
kick, kiss, knowledge,
land, language, laugh, law, lead, learning, leather, letter, level,
lift, light, limit, linen, liquid, list, look, loss, love,
machine, man, manager, mark, market, mass, meal, measure, meat, meeting,
memory, metal, middle, milk, mind, mine, minute, mist, money, month,
morning, mother, motion, mountain, move, music,
name, nation, need, news, night, noise, note, number,
observation, offer, oil, operation, opinion, order, organization/organisation,
ornament, owner,
page, pain, paint, paper, part, paste, payment, peace, person, place,
plant, play, pleasure, point, poison, polish, porter, position, powder,
power, price, print, process, produce, profit, property,
prose, protest, pull, punishment, purpose, push,
quality, question,
rain, range, rate, ray, reaction, reading, reason, record, regret, relation, religion,
representative, request, respect, rest, reward, rhythm, rice, river, road, roll, room, rub, rule, run,
salt, sand, scale, science, sea, seat, secretary, selection, self, sense, servant, sex,
shade, shake, shame, shock, side, sign, silk, silver, sister, size, sky, sleep, slip, slope,
smash, smell, smile, smoke, sneeze, snow, soap, society, son, song, sort, sound, soup,
space, stage, start, statement, steam, steel, step, stitch, stone, stop, story, stretch,
structure, substance, sugar, suggestion, summer, support, surprise, swim, system,
talk, taste, tax, teaching, tendency, test, theory, thing, thought, thunder,
time, tin, top, touch, trade, transport, trick, trouble, turn, twist, unit, use,
value, verse, vessel, view, voice, walk, war, wash, waste, water, wave, wax, way, weather, week, weight,
wind, wine, winter, woman, wood, wool, word, work, wound, writing, year.
=== Things - 200 picturable words ===
[[Image:Tasse Kl 99.jpg|thumb|120px|"Cup" from [[:simple:Basic English picture wordlist|Basic English picture wordlist]].]]
angle, ant, apple, arch, arm, army, baby, bag, ball, band, basin, basket, bath, bed, bee, bell, berry, bird,
blade, board, boat, bone, book, boot, bottle, box, boy, brain, brake,
branch, brick, bridge, brush, bucket, bulb, button,
cake, camera, card, cart, carriage, cat, chain, cheese, chest, chin,
church, circle, clock, cloud, coat, collar, comb, cord, cow, cup,
curtain, cushion, dog, door, drain, drawer, dress, drop, ear, egg, engine, eye, face, farm, feather, finger, fish, flag, floor, fly, foot, fork, fowl, frame,
garden, girl, glove, goat, gun,
hair, hammer, hand, hat, head, heart, hook, horn, horse, hospital, house, island, jewel,
kettle, key, knee, knife, knot, leaf, leg, library, line, lip, lock, map, match, monkey, moon, mouth, muscle,
nail, neck, needle, nerve, net, nose, nut,
office, orange, oven, parcel, pen, pencil, picture, pig, pin, pipe, plane, plate, plough/plow,
pocket, pot, potato, prison, pump, rail, rat, receipt, ring, rod, roof, root,
sail, school, scissors, screw, seed, sheep, shelf, ship, shirt, shoe,
skin, skirt, snake, sock, spade, sponge, spoon, spring, square, stamp,
star, station, stem, stick, stocking, stomach, store, street, sun,
table, tail, thread, throat, thumb, ticket, toe, tongue, tooth, town, train, tray, tree, trousers,
umbrella, wall, watch, wheel, whip, whistle, window, wing, wire, worm.
=== Qualities - 100 descriptive words ===
able, acid, angry, automatic, beautiful, black, boiling, bright, broken, brown,
cheap, chemical, chief, clean, clear, common, complex, conscious, cut,
deep, dependent, early, elastic, electric, equal,
fat, fertile, first, fixed, flat, free, frequent, full,
general, good, great, grey/gray, hanging, happy, hard, healthy, high, hollow,
important, kind, like, living, long, male, married, material, medical, military,
natural, necessary, new, normal, open, parallel, past, physical, political, poor,
possible, present, private, probable, quick, quiet,
ready, red, regular, responsible, right, round,
same, second, separate, serious, sharp, smooth, sticky, stiff, straight,
strong, sudden, sweet,
tall, thick, tight, tired, true, violent,
waiting, warm, wet, wide, wise, yellow, young.
=== Qualities - 50 opposites ===
awake, bad, bent, bitter, blue, certain, cold, complete, cruel,
dark, dead, dear, delicate, different, dirty, dry,
false, feeble, female, foolish, future,
green, ill,
last, late, left, loose, loud, low,
mixed, narrow, old, opposite,
public, rough,
sad, safe, secret, short, shut, simple, slow, small, soft, solid,
special, strange,
thin, white, wrong.
----
== See also ==
* [[Bible in Basic English]]
* [[Special English]]
* [[Simplified English]]
* [[Wycliffe Bible Translators#EasyEnglish]]
* [[Globish]]
* [[European English]]
* [[:simple:Basic English picture wordlist|Basic English picture wordlist]]
== External links ==
* Charles Kay Ogden, ''[http://ogden.basic-english.org/booksum1.html Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar]'', London: Paul Treber
* Charles Kay Ogden, ''[http://crockford.com/wrrrld/begr.html Basic English and Grammatical Reform]'', Cambridge: The Orthological Institute. (1937).
* http://www.basic-english.org
* [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Basic_English_template|Wiktionary:Basic_English_template]] (uses Basic English word list as a basis for studying equivalent basic words in other languages)
*[http://www.world-english.org/ World English Organization]
[[Category:English pidgin and creole languages]]
[[Category:Forms of English]]
[[Category:Constructed languages]]
[[Category:Technical communication]]
[[cs:Basic English]]
[[de:Basic English]]
[[es:Inglés básico]]
[[eo:Baza Angla]]
[[fr:Anglais basique]]
[[ia:Basic English]]
[[it:Basic English]]
[[hu:Egyszerű angol nyelv]]
[[nl:Basic English]]
[[ja:ベーシック英語]]
[[pl:Basic English]]
[[ru:Бейсик инглиш]]
[[simple:Basic English]]
[[sl:Osnovna angleščina]]
[[fi:Basic english]]
[[sv:Basic English]]
[[zh:简明英语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BND</title>
<id>4937</id>
<revision>
<id>29042421</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-23T07:58:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>69.223.160.229</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''BND''' may stand for:
* [[Buy Nothing Day]]
* ''[[Bundesnachrichtendienst]]'', [[Germany|German]] [[intelligence agency]]
* [[Brunei dollar]] ([[ISO currency code]])
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:BND]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Branch prediction</title>
<id>4938</id>
<revision>
<id>15903185</id>
<timestamp>2004-01-05T07:42:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.5.11.154</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Branch predictor]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Betting</title>
<id>4939</id>
<revision>
<id>15903186</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gambling]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Brass instrument</title>
<id>4940</id>
<revision>
<id>41684949</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T01:23:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hairy Dude</username>
<id>274535</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Families of brass instruments */ removed extraneous 'and'</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''brass instrument''' is a [[musical instrument]] whose tone is produced by vibration of the lips as the player blows into a tubular [[resonance|resonator]] (mouthpiece). They are also called ''labrosones'', literally meaning "lip-vibrated instruments" (Baines, 1993).
[[Image:trumpets02262006.jpg|thumb|right|Abstract image of a trumpet.]]
The view of most scholars (see [[organology]]) is that the term "brass instrument" should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above, and not by whether the instrument is actually made of brass. Thus, as exceptional cases one finds brass instruments made of wood, like the [[cornett]], and [[woodwind instrument]]s made of brass, like the [[saxophone]].
== Families of brass instruments ==
Brass instruments nowadays generally come in one of two families:
<div style="float:right;padding:10px;">
[[Image:Kinkangakki_piston.png]]
<br />
''Piston valve''
[[Image:Kinkangakki_rotary.png]]
<br />''Rotary valve''
[[Image:Kinkangakki_slide.png]]
<br />
''Slide''
</div>
*'''Valved''' brass instruments use a set of valves (typically 3 or 4 but as many as 7 or more in some cases) operated by the player's fingers that introduce additional tubing into the instrument, changing its overall length. This family includes all of the modern brass instruments except the trombone (the [[trumpet]], [[horn (instrument)|horn]], [[euphonium]], and [[tuba]], as well as the [[cornet]], [[flugelhorn]], [[baritone horn]], [[sousaphone]], [[mellophone]], and the old [[saxhorn]]). As valved instruments are predominant among the brasses today, a more thorough discussion of their workings can be found below. The valves are usually piston valves, but can be rotary valves. Rotary valves are the norm for the [[horn (instrument)|horn]] and are also prevalent on the [[tuba]].
*'''Slide''' brass instruments use a slide to change the length of tubing. The main instruments in this category are the [[trombone]] family, though valve trombones are occasionally used, especially in [[jazz]]. The trombone family's ancestor the [[sackbut]] and the folk instrument [[Bazooka_(instrument)|bazooka]] are also in the slide family.
There are two more families that have now become functionally obsolete, though instruments of bot |
ystem|Maple]]
* [[MATLAB]]
* [[MUMPS]] (traditionally interpreted, modern versions compiled)
* [[Perl programming language|Perl]] (compiled to bytecode which is then interpreted)
* [[PHP]]
* [[Python programming language|Python]] (compiled to bytecode which is then interpreted)
* [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]]
* [[Tcl]]
==See also==
*[[compiled language]]
[[Category:computer languages]]
[[ca:Llenguatge interpretat]]
[[fr:Langage interprété]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Id</title>
<id>15092</id>
<revision>
<id>15912601</id>
<timestamp>2003-11-06T19:42:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Docu</username>
<id>8029</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redir</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[ID]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Intifada</title>
<id>15095</id>
<revision>
<id>41792285</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T20:03:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Collounsbury</username>
<id>134655</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Reverted to neutral language</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Intifada''' (also '''Intefadah''' or '''Intifadah'''; from {{Ar|انتفاضة}} ''{{ArabDIN|intifāḍah}}'' "shaking off") is an [[Arabic language|Arabic]] term for "[[uprising]]".
*It came into common usage in English as the popularised name for two recent [[Palestinian]] campaigns directed at ending the Israeli military occupation. These two uprisings have been significant aspects of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] in recent years:
**The '''[[First Intifada]]''' began in [[1987]]. Violence declined in [[1991]] and came to an end with the signing of the [[Oslo accords]] (August [[1993]]) and the creation of the [[Palestinian National Authority]].
**The '''[[al-Aqsa Intifada]]''' (also known as the Second Palestinian Intifada or the Second Intifada) was the violent Palestinian-Israeli conflict that began in September of 2000.
*A wave of demonstrations and riots that broke out in May [[2005]] in the [[Morocco|Moroccan-]][[List of disputed or occupied territories|occupied territory]] of [[Western Sahara]] that has been styled the '''"[[Independence Intifada]]"''' or the "[[El Aaiún|El-Aaiun]] Intifada" by pro-independence [[Sahrawi]] demonstrators, a usage also applied by activists to earlier incidents in the territory in [[1999]] (the [[Smara]] Intifada), and [[1970]] (the [[Zemla Intifada]], against [[Spain |Spanish]] occupation), although the usage was not widely adopted outside seperatist activist circles.
*In [[1952]], citizens of [[Baghdad]] engaged in a series of large-scale protests against the [[Iraq]]i government, widely referred to as "the Intifada". Following the United States–led [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq in 2003]] [[Muqtada al-Sadr]], a militant [[Shia]] cleric, launched an uprising which he also referred to as the '''"Iraqi Intifada"''' [http://www.asianews.it/view.php?l=en&art=585] aimed at ending the US-led foreign military presence in Iraq.
*'''"Intifada of Independence"''' is also the term used by the [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] media to refer to the events that occurred after [[Rafiq Hariri]]'s [[assassination]]. It is also known as the '''"[[Cedar Revolution]]"'''.
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict]]
[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
[[ar:انتفاضة]]
[[bg:Интифада]]
[[de:Intifada]]
[[es:Intifada]]
[[eo:Intifada]]
[[fr:Intifada]]
[[id:Intifadah]]
[[it:Intifada]]
[[he:אינתיפאדה]]
[[nl:Intifada]]
[[ja:&#12452;&#12531;&#12486;&#12451;&#12501;&#12449;&#12540;&#12480;]]
[[no:Intifada]]
[[pl:Intifada]]
[[pt:Intifada]]
[[ru:Интифада]]
[[sv:Intifada]]
[[tr:Intifada]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Iroquois</title>
<id>15096</id>
<revision>
<id>42085271</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:56:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>RexNL</username>
<id>241337</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.249.25.169|24.249.25.169]] ([[User talk:24.249.25.169|talk]]) to last version by 213.42.2.23</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
The '''Iroquois Confederacy''' ('''Haudenosaunee''', also known as the League of Peace and Power, Five Nations, or Six Nations) is a group of [[First Nations]]/[[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. The Confederacy was based, at the time of the [[European colonization of the Americas#Early State Sponsored Colonists|arrival of the Europeans]], in what is now [[History of New York#Upstate New York|upstate New York]], as well as parts of [[Pennsylvania#History|Pennsylvania]], [[Ontario#Pre-1867|Ontario]], and
[[Quebec#First Nations: Before 1500|Quebec]].
[[Image:1914 Panoramic View of Iroquois.jpg|thumb|400px|Iroquois, in [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], [[New York]], 1914]]
== History ==
=== Prehistoric and Protohistoric period ===
This union of nations was established [[History of the Americas#Civilizations|prior to major European contact]], complete with a [[constitution]] known as the [[Gayanashagowa]] (or "Great Law of Peace") recorded with the help of a memory device in the form of special beads called [[wampum]] that have inherent spiritual value (wampum has been innacurately compared to money in other [[culture]]s). Most [[Western world|Western]] [[anthropologist]]s speculate that this constitution was created between the middle [[1400s]] and early [[1600s]], but other scholars who account for Iroquois [[oral tradition]] argue that the event took place as early as [[1100]], with many arguing for [[August 31]], [[1142]] based on a coinciding [[solar eclipse]] (see Fields and Mann, ''American Indian Culture and Research Journal'', vol. 21, #2). Some Westerners have also suggested that the Constitution was written with European help, although most dismiss this notion as [[racism]].
The two [[Prophet#Prophets of different cultures#Other prophets|prophets]], [[Hiawatha]] and "[[The Great Peacemaker]]", brought a message of [[peace]] to squabbling tribes. The tribes who joined the League were the [[Seneca tribe|Seneca]], [[Onondaga (tribe)|Onondaga]], [[Oneida tribe|Oneida]], [[Cayuga tribe|Cayuga]] and [[Mohawk nation|Mohawks]]. Once they ceased most infighting, they rapidly became one of the strongest forces in [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century]] northeastern [[North America]].
The League engaged in a series of [[French and Iroquois Wars#History#Iroquois attacks in New France|wars against the French]] and their Iroquoian-speaking [[Wyandot|Wyandot ("Huron")]] allies. They also put great pressure on the [[Algonquian]] peoples of the [[Atlantic coast]] and what is now subarctic [[Canada]] and not infrequently [[History of the United States (1776-1789)#Independence and the American Revolution|fought the English colonies]] as well. During the 17th Century, they are also credited with having destroyed the [[Neutral Indian]]s and [[Eriez#Fur trade and Beaver Wars|Erie Tribe]] as a way of controlling the [[fur trade]], even though other reasons are often given for these wars. Some survivors of these tribes were absorbed into the Iroquois tribes.
[[Image:hauflag.png|thumb|Modern flag]]
According to [[Francis Parkman]], the Iroquois were at the height of their power in the 17th century with a population of around 12,000 people. League traditions allowed for the dead to be symbolically replaced through the "Mourning War", raids intended to seize captives and take vengeance on non-members. This tradition was common to native people of the northeast and was quite different from European settlers' notions of combat.
=== The 18th Century ===
In [[1720]], the [[Tuscarora#Subsequent History|Tuscarora fled north]] from the European colonization of [[North Carolina#History|North Carolina]] and petitioned to become the Sixth Nation. This is a non-voting position, but places them under the protection of the Confederacy.
During the [[French and Indian War]], the Iroquois sided with the British against the French and their Algonquin allies, both traditional enemies of the Iroquois. The Iroquois hoped that aiding the British would also bring favors after the war. Practically, few Iroquois joined the fighting and at the [[Battle of Lake George]] found a group of Mohawk and French ambush a Mohawk-led British column. The British government issued the [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]] after the war, which restricted white settlement beyond the Appalachians, but this was mainly ignored by the settlers and local governments.
During the [[American Revolution]], the many Tuscarora and Onondaga sided with the Americans, while the Mohawk, Seneca, and Cayuga remained loyal to Great Britain. This marked the first major split among the Six Nations. After a series of successful operations against frontier settlements, led by the Mohawk leader [[Joseph Brant]] and his [[United Kingdom|British]] allies, the [[United States]] reacted with vengeance. In [[1779]], [[George Washington]] ordered Col. [[Daniel Brodhead]] and General [[John Sullivan]] to lead expeditions against the Iroquois nations to "not merely overun, but destroy," the British-Indian alliance. The campaign successfully ended the ability of the British and Iroquois to mount any further significant attacks on American settlements.
In [[1794]], the Confederacy entered into the [[Treaty of Canandaigua]] with the United States. After the American Revolutionary War, Captain [[Joseph Brant]] and the Six Nations Indians left [[New York]] to settle in Canada. As a reward for their loyalty to the English Crown, they were given a large land grant on the Grand River. The original Mohawk settlement was on |
th their long forms, plus two diphthongs: ''a'' {{IPA|[ɛ̈]}} (open ''e'' as in English ''bed'', but centralised), ''i'' {{IPA|[ɪ]}}, ''u'' {{IPA|[ʊ]}}; ''ā'' {{IPA|[æː]}}, ''ī'' {{IPA|[iː]}}, ''ū'' {{IPA|[uː]}}; ''ai'' (''ay'') {{IPA|[ɛ̈ɪ]}}, ''au'' (''aw'') {{IPA|[ɛ̈ʊ]}}. [[Allophone|Allophonically]], after velarized consonants (see following), the vowel ''a'' is pronounced {{IPA|[ɑ]}}, ''ā'' as {{IPA|[ɑː]}} (thus also after ''r''), ''ai'' as {{IPA|[ɑɪ]}} and ''au'' as {{IPA|[ɑʊ]}}.
===Consonants===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ '''Standard Arabic consonant phonemes'''</CAPTION>
|-
! rowspan="2" COLSPAN=2 | &nbsp;
! rowspan="2" | [[Bilabial]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Interdental|Inter-<br />dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Dental]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Postalveolar|Post-<br>alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Uvular]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Pharyngeal|Pharyn-<BR>geal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal]]
|-
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | &nbsp;plain&nbsp;
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[pharyngealization|emphatic]]
|-
! style="text-align: left;" ROWSPAN=2 | [[Stop]]
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|tˁ}} || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|q}}
| &nbsp; || {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
| {{IPA|b}} || &nbsp; || {{IPA|d}} || {{IPA|dˁ}} || {{IPA|dʒ}}&sup1; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || &nbsp;
|-
! style="text-align: left;" ROWSPAN=2 | [[Fricative]]
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
| {{IPA|f}}
| {{IPA|θ}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|sˁ}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || &nbsp; || {{IPA|x}} || &nbsp; || {{IPA|ħ}} || {{IPA|h}}
|-
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" | [[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
| &nbsp; || {{IPA|ð}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ðˁ}} || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || {{IPA|ɣ}} || &nbsp;
| {{IPA|ʕ}} || &nbsp;
|-
! style="text-align: left;" COLSPAN=2 | [[Nasal]]
| {{IPA|m}} || &nbsp; || {{IPA|n}} || &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp;
| rowspan="2" | &nbsp;
| rowspan="2" | &nbsp;
|-
! style="text-align: left;" COLSPAN=2 | [[Lateral]]
| &nbsp; || &nbsp;
| {{IPA|l}} ² || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp;
|-
! style="text-align: left;" COLSPAN=2 | [[Trill]]
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || {{IPA|r}} || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
! style="text-align: left;" COLSPAN=2 | [[Approximant]]
| {{IPA|w}} || &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || &nbsp; || &nbsp; || {{IPA|j}} || &nbsp; || &nbsp;
| &nbsp; || &nbsp;
|}
See [[Arabic alphabet]] for explanations on the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] phonetic symbols found in this chart.
# {{IPA|[dʒ]}} is pronounced as {{IPA|[ɡ]}} by some speakers. This is especially characteristic of the Egyptian and southern Yemeni dialects. In many parts of North Africa and in the Levant, it is pronounced as {{IPA|[ʒ]}}.
# {{IPA|/l/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[lˁ]}} only in {{IPA|/ʔalˁːɑːh/}}, the name of God, i.e. [[Allah]], when the word follows ''a'', ''ā'', ''u'' or ''ū'' (after ''i'' or ''ī'' it is unvelarised: ''bismi l-lāh'' {{IPA|/bɪsmɪlːæːh/}}).
# {{IPA|/ʕ/}} is usually a phonetic [[approximant]].
# In many varieties (if not most), {{IPA|/ħ, ʕ/}} are actually [[epiglottal]] {{IPA|[ʜ, ʢ]}} (despite what is reported in many earlier works).
The consonants traditionally termed "emphatic" {{IPA|/tˁ, dˁ, sˁ, ðˁ/}} are either [[velarization|velarised]] {{IPA|[tˠ, dˠ, sˠ, ðˠ]}} or [[pharyngealization|pharyngealised]] {{IPA|[tˁ, dˁ, sˁ, ðˁ]}}. In some transcription systems, emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter e.g. {{IPA|/dˁ/}} is written ‹D›; in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it e.g. ‹ḍ›.
Vowels and consonants can be (phonologically) short or long. Long (geminate) consonants are normally written doubled in Latin transcription (i.e. bb, dd, etc.), reflecting the presence of the Arabic diacritic mark [[shaddah]], which marks lengthened consonants. Such consonants are held twice as long as short consonants. This consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive: e.g. ''qabala'' "he received" and ''qabbala'' "he kissed".
===Syllable structure===
Arabic has two kinds of syllable: open syllables (CV) and (CVV) - and closed syllables (CVC), (CVVC) and (CVCC). Every syllable begins with a consonant - or else a consonant is borrowed from a previous word through elision – especially in the case of the definite article THE, ''al'' (used when starting an utterance) or ''_l'' (when following a word), e.g. ''baytu –l mudiir'' “house (of) the director”, which becomes ''bay-tul-mu-diir'' when divided syllabically. By itself, definite ''mudiir'' would be pronounced {{IPA|/al mudiːr/}}.
===Stress===
Although word stress is not phonemically contrastive in Standard Arabic, it does bear a strong relationship to vowel length and syllable shape, and correct word stress aids intelligibility. In general, "heavy" syllables attract stress (i.e. syllables of longer duration - a closed syllable or a syllable with a long vowel). In a word with a syllable with one long vowel, the long vowel attracts the stress (e.g. ''ki-'taab'' and '' ‘kaa-tib''). In a word with two long vowels, the second long vowel attracts stress (e.g.''ma-kaa-'tiib''). In a word with a "heavy" syllable where two consonants occur together or the same consonant is doubled, the (last) heavy syllable attracts stress (e.g. ''ya-ma-’niyy'', ''ka-'tabt'', ''ka-‘tab-na'', ma-‘jal-lah,'' ‘mad-ra-sah'', ''yur-‘sil-na''). This last rule trumps the first two: ''ja-zaa-{{unicode|ʔ}}i-‘riyy''. Otherwise, word stress typically falls on the first syllable: '' ‘ya-man'', '' ‘ka-ta-bat'', etc. The Cairo ([[Egyptian Arabic]]) dialect, however, has some idiosyncrasies in that a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word, so that ''mad-‘ra-sah'' carries the stress on the second-to-last syllable, as does ''qaa-‘hi-rah''.
===Dialectal variations===
In some dialects, there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above. For example, non-Arabic {{IPA|[v]}} is used in the Maghreb dialects as well in the written language mostly for foreign names. Semitic {{IPA|[p]}} became {{IPA|[f]}} extremely early on in Arabic before it was written down; a few modern Arabic dialects, such as Iraqi (influenced by [[Persian language|Persian]]) distinguish between {{IPA|[p]}} and {{IPA|[b]}}. Interdental fricatives ({{IPA|[θ]}} and {{IPA|[ð]}}) are rendered as stops {{IPA|[t]}} and {{IPA|[d]}} in some dialects (principally Levantine and Egyptian) and as {{IPA|[s]}} and {{IPA|[z]}} in "learned" words from the Standard language. Early in the expansion of Arabic, the separate emphatic phonemes {{IPA|[dˁ]}} and {{IPA|[ðˁ]}} coallesced into a single phoneme, becoming one or the other. Predictably, dialects without interdental fricatives use {{IPA|[dˁ]}} exclusively, while those with such fricatives use {{IPA|[ðˁ]}}. Again, in "learned" words from the Standard language, {{IPA|[ðˁ]}} is rendered as {{IPA|[zˁ]}} in dialects without interdental fricatives. Another key distinguishing mark of Arabic dialects is how they render Standard {{IPA|[q]}} (a voiceless uvular stop): it retains its original pronunciation in widely scattered regions such as Yemen and Morocco (and among the [[Druze]]), while it is rendered {{IPA|[ɡ]}} in Gulf Arabic, Iraqi Arabic, Upper Egypt and less urban parts of the Levant (e.g. Jordan) and as a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}} in many prestige dialects, such as those spoken in Cairo, Beirut and Damascus. Thus, Arabs instantly give away their geographical (and class) origin by their pronunciation of a word such as ''qamar'' "moon": {{IPA|[qamar]}}, {{IPA|[ɡamar]}} or {{IPA|[ʔamar]}}.
== Grammar ==
''See [[Arabic grammar]]''
== Writing system ==
''Main article: [[Arabic alphabet]]''
The Arabic alphabet derives from the [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]] script (which variety - [[Nabataean]] or [[Syriac]] - is a matter of scholarly dispute), to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] or [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic script]] to [[Greek alphabet|Greek script]]. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (Maghrebi) and Eastern version of the alphabet&mdash;in particular, the ''fa'' and ''qaf'' had a dot underneath and a single dot above respectively in the [[Maghreb]], and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals). However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools ([[zaouia]]s) of West Africa. Arabic, like other [[Semitic]] languages, is written from right to left.
===Calligraphy===
''See [[Arabic calligraphy]] for a fuller overview.''
After the definitive fixing of the Arabic script around [[786]], by [[Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi]], many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Qur'an and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration.
<center><!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Kufi.png|Kufic font]] --></center>
Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as in the Western world, and is still considered by Arabs as a major art form; call |
contents. Retrieved January 11, 2004 from http://www.aas.org/meetings/aas203/
*Battersby, S. (2004). Space molecules point to organic origins. Retrieved January 11, 2004 from http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99994552
[[Category:Aromatic hydrocarbons]] [[Category:Hydrocarbons]] [[Category:Origin of life]]
[[ar:أروماتية]]
[[de:Aromaten]]
[[et:Areenid]]
[[es:Hidrocarburo aromático]]
[[fr:Hydrocarbure aromatique]]
[[ko:방향족 탄화수소]]
[[he:ארומטיות]]
[[lv:Aromātiskie ogļūdeņraži]]
[[nl:Aromatische verbinding]]
[[ja:芳香族炭化水素]]
[[pl:Węglowodór aromatyczny]]
[[ru:Арены]]
[[sv:Aromatiska kolväten]]
[[zh:芳烃]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abbadids</title>
<id>1314</id>
<revision>
<id>15899803</id>
<timestamp>2002-04-20T23:13:27Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*#redirect[[Abbadid]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[Abbadid]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Abbey</title>
<id>1315</id>
<revision>
<id>41349281</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:42:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dragonix</username>
<id>976685</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* [[Benedictine abbey]]s */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about an '''abbey''' as a Christian [[monastery|monastic community]]. For other uses, see [[Abbey (disambiguation)]]''.
{{christianity}}
An '''abbey''' (from the [[Latin]] ''abbatia,'' which is derived from the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] ''abba,'' "father"), is a [[Christianity|Christian]] '''[[monastery]]''' or '''convent''', under the government of an [[Abbot]] or an [[Abbess]], who serve as the spiritual father or mother of the community. A '''[[priory]]''' only differed from an abbey in that the superior bore the title of [[prior]] instead of abbot. Priories were originally offshoots from the larger abbeys, to the abbots of which they continued subordinate; however, the actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost by the [[Renaissance]]. Do not confuse the term ''convent'' with the term monastery. Both nuns and monks live in monasteries. Sisters, members of active orders, live in convents. Nuns who are cloistered live in monasteries.
The earliest known Christian monastic communities (see [[Monasticism]]) consisted of groups of cells or huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the house of some hermit or anchorite famous for holiness or singular asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrangement. Such communities were not an invention of Christianity. The example had been already set in part by the [[Essenes]] in [[Judea]] and perhaps by the [[Therapeutae]] in [[Egypt]].
In the earliest age of Christian [[monasticism]] the [[ascetic]]s were accustomed to live singly, independent of one another, not far from some village church, supporting themselves by the labour of their own hands, and distributing the surplus after the supply of their own scanty wants to the poor. Increasing religious fervour, aided by persecution, drove them farther and farther away from the civilization into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts. The deserts of Egypt swarmed with the "cells" or huts of these anchorites. [[Anthony the Great]], who had retired to the Egyptian Thebaid during the persecution of [[Maximian]], A.D. [[312]], was the most celebrated among them for his
austerities, his sanctity, and his power as an exorcist. His fame collected round him a host of followers imitating his asceticism in an attempt to imitate his sanctity. The deeper he withdrew into the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples became. They refused to be separated from him, and built their ceils round that of their spiritual father. Thus arose the first monastic community, consisting of anchorites living each in his own little dwelling, united together under one superior. Anthony, as Neander remarks (Church History, vol. iii. p. 316, Clark's trans.), "without any conscious design of his own, had become the founder of a new mode of living in common, Coenobitism." By degrees order
was introduced in the groups of huts. They were arranged in lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses in a street. From this arrangement these lines of single cells came to be known as Laurae, Laurai, "streets" or "lanes."
{{TOCleft}}
The real founder of cenobitic (''koinos,'' common, and ''bios,'' life) monasteries in the modern sense was [[Pachomius]], an Egyptian of the beginning of the [[4th century]]. The first community established by him was at Tabennae, an island of the [[Nile]] in [[Upper Egypt]]. Eight others were founded in the region during his lifetime, numbering 3,000 monks. Within fifty years from his death his societies could claim 50,000 members. These coenobia resembled villages, peopled by a hard-working religious community, all of one sex.
The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest character. Each cell or hut, according to [[Sozomen]] (H.R. iii. 14), contained three monks. They took their chief meal in a common refectory or dining hall at 3 P.M., up to which hour they usually fasted. They ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their faces that they could see nothing but what was on the table before them. The monks spent the time not devoted to religious services or study in manual labour. [[Palladius]], who visited the Egyptian monasteries about the close of the [[4th century]], found among the 300 members of the coenobium of [[Panopolis]], under the [[Pachomius|Pachomian]] rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 carpenters, 12 cameldrivers and 15 tanners. Each separate community had its own ''oeconomus'' or steward, who was subject to a chief steward stationed at the head establishment. All the produce of the monks' labour was committed to him, and by him shipped to [[Alexandria]]. The money raised by the sale was expended in the purchase of stores for the support of the communities, and what was over was devoted to charity. Twice in the year the superiors of the several [[coenobia]] met at the chief monastery, under the presidency of an archimandrite ("the chief of the fold," from ''miandra'', a sheepfold), and at the last meeting gave in reports of their administration for the year. The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian institution. We learn many details concerning those in the vicinity of [[Antioch]] from [[Chrysostom]]'s writings. The monks lived in separate huts, ''kalbbia,'' forming a religious hamlet on the mountain side. They were subject to an abbot, and observed a common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their common meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour was over, reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors.) Four times in the day they joined in [[prayer]]s and [[psalms]].
===Santa Laura, Mount Athos===
The necessity for defence from hostile attacks (for monastic houses tended to accumulate rich gifts), economy of space and convenience of access from one part of the community to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium. Large piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls, capable of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which all the necessary edifices were ranged round one or more open courts, usually surrounded with [[cloister]]s. The usual Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the convent of the [[Holy Laura]], [[Mount Athos]]. <br />
{| align="right"
|+ '''Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir)'''
|-
| [[image:abbey_01.png]] ||
:A. Gateway
:B. Chapels
:C. Guest-house
:D. Church
:E. Cloister
:F. Fountain
:G. Refectory
:H. Kitchen
:I. Cells
:K. Storehouses
:L. Postern Gate
:M. Tower
|}
This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing an area of between 3 and 4 acres (12,000 and 16,000 m&sup2;). The longer side extends to a length of about 500 feet. There is only one main entrance, on the north side (A), defended by three separate iron doors. Near the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant feature in the monasteries of the Levant. There is a small postern gate at L. The enceinte comprises two large open courts, surrounded with buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or stone. The outer court, which is much the larger, contains the granaries and storehouses (K), and the kitchen (H) and other offices connected with the refectory (G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storied guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner court is surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the monks' cells (II). In the centre of this court stands the [[catholicon]] or conventual church, a square building with an apse of the
cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed [[narthex]]. In front of the church stands a marble fountain (F), covered by a dome supported on columns.
Opening from the western side of the cloister, but actually standing in the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large cruciform building, about 100 feet (30 m) each way, decorated within with frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a semicircular recess, recalling the triclinium of the Lateran Palace at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or abbot. This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the oriental monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells.
The annexed plan of a [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] monastery, from Lenoir, shows a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and two ranges of cells on either side of an oblong gallery.
{| align="right"
|+ '''Plan of Coptic Monastery'''
|-
| [[image:abbey_02.png]] ||
:A. Narthex
:B. Church
:C. Corridor, with cells on each side
:D. S |
ded, but the set was still reduced in scale and quite cramped. Also, the famous cobbles were not parallel to the houses. This site later became the New York Street at the now-closed [[Granada Studios Tour]] complex in the late 1980s and 1990s.
In 1982 a modern, full-size exterior street was built in the Granada backlot; because it was meant to be permanent the houses were constructed from reclaimed [[Salford]] brick, rather than wood and scaffolding. However, the houses had no interior walls — the chimneys had to be made of fibreglass, since there would otherwise be insufficient support. Even now, several Granada towerblocks dominate the skyline over the street, and are usually obscured/'hidden' through careful camera angles. The majority of interior scenes are still shot in the adjoining purpose-built studio. When the Granada Studios Tour was closed in 1999, the exterior set was extended and updated: the derelict Graffiti Club on Rosamund Street was revamped and reopened as a medical centre/surgery (the character [[Gail Platt]] is the only major character that works there), a new street, Victoria Street, was built to house three shops (see below) and two houses; parallel to the newly-built street was the side of Rosamund Street and a new builder's yard was placed there (which backs onto the betting shop). To obscure one of the Granada towerblocks, a new viaduct was placed on Rosamund Street (behind the Rovers and parallel to Victoria Street). The 'viaduct' is actually a façade with an optical illusion to make it look complete.
[[Image:Rovers1970s.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The Rovers set, in the late 1970s. Pictured are the characters Annie Walker, Betty Turpin, Mike Baldwin, and Eddie Yeats (back to camera).]]
Additional surrounding streets have been added in recent years, while the current (introduced [[7 January]] [[2002]]) [[Computer-generated_imagery|computer-generated]] opening credits "locates" Coronation Street in a large urban landscape surrounded by similar small working-class streets. (Previously a montage of similar streets shot in several cities had been used; however, an opening sequence in the early 1970s indicates Coronation Street's proximity to a modern high-rise block of flats.) While one side of the street consists of the early [[20th-century]] houses, the other consists of a factory, a shop, a garage and some smart semi-detached houses built in 1989.
As befitting the soap-opera genre, the Street is made up of individual housing units, plus six communal areas; a newsagent's (the Kabin), a small eaterie (Roy's Rolls — owned by the eccentric Roy Cropper), a general grocery shop (currently owned by the smooth Dev Alahan), a factory ("Underworld" — owned by Cockney rogue Mike Baldwin), a bakery ("Compton's Bakery" - owned by Diggory Compton) and its permanent feature, a public house called "The [[Rovers Return]]", whose landlord or landlady invariably becomes one of Britain's most famous actors (the first manageress, Annie Walker, played by [[Doris Speed]], became a national icon and was employed behind the bar for over two decades). Many of the Street's most famous stories, including the death of Martha Longhurst in May [[1964]], and the 1986 fire, occurred there.
<br clear=all>
==1960s kitchen-sink drama==
[[Image:enaelsiefight.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Ena and Elsie were adversaries from the day they met each other, and their mutual antagonism rarely subsided.]]
The serial began on [[9 December]] [[1960]] and was not initially a critical success. Granada commissioned only 13 episodes and many people inside the company doubted the show would last its planned production run. However it caught the imagination of viewers, not least because of its location in the North of England, which was becoming a highly fashionable and visible centre of 1960s Britain, thanks in part to classics of [[British New Wave|British new wave]] cinema such as ''[[Billy Liar]]'' and ''[[Saturday Night and Sunday Morning]]'', the "kitchen-sink" dramas of the [[BBC]]'s ''[[The Wednesday Play]]'' and the rise of [[Merseybeat]] and especially [[the Beatles]], from nearby [[Liverpool]]. Like kitchen-sink dramas, ''Coronation Street'' focused on the plight of "ordinary folk", often making use of Northern English language and dialect. Affectionate local terms like "eh, chuck", "nowt" and others became widely heard on British TV for the first time.
The storylines focus on the experiences of families and their interaction, and on relationships between people of different ages, classes and social structures. In some ways ''Coronation Street'' has charted the changes in public attitudes towards religion, politics, community, family breakdown, the gentrification of working class areas, etc.
For example, in the first decade one of the central social points on the street was the 'Glad Tidings' Mission Hall, where religious services were held and social contacts, parties, etc took place. By the start of the 21st century, no religious 'set' exists, with the only particularly religious resident on the street being the 70-year-old widow, [[Emily Bishop]] ([[Eileen Derbyshire]]). Religion, if it features at all, is mentioned in weddings and funerals, though here too, matching contemporary society, registry office weddings and non-religious funerals are increasingly common.
[[Image:Howardwedding.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Another happy day for Elsie: On her wedding day to Alan Howard in 1970. [[Len Fairclough]] and [[Bet Lynch]] were witnesses at the registry office ceremony.]]
Early storylines featured self-appointed moral voice [[Ena Sharples]] ([[Violet Carson]]), and her friends: timid [[Minnie Caldwell]] ([[Margot Bryant]]) and bespectacled [[Martha Longhurst]] ([[Lynne Carol]]). When Martha was killed off the programme, [[Albert Tatlock]] ([[Jack Howarth]]) was allowed to be the unofficial third friend in the group. Ena and Albert had many differences, which they aired regularly, and Albert and Minnie were supposed to be married in the early 1970s. The marriage was eventually called off.
Headstrong Ena frequently clashed with [[Elsie Tanner]] ([[Patricia Phoenix|Pat Phoenix]]), whom she believed espoused a rather disgusting set of morals. Elsie believed in the right to let each person live life according to how they see fit, and resented Ena's gossip, which, most of the time, didn't have much of a basis in reality.
Most of the stories in the early days (and, to an extent, still today) addressed how working-class people made a caste system in their own mini-society and excommunicated others they did not wish to associate with. In reality, many of the people deemed too common (like Elsie Tanner, Hilda and Stan Ogden, played by [[Jean Alexander]] and [[Bernard Youens]]) were of the exact same stock as the people who were judging them.
==Characters and characterisations==
{{further|[[List of characters from Coronation Street]]}}
Of the original cast on the first show in 1960, only one character remains today: [[Ken Barlow]], played by [[William Roache]]. Barlow entered the storyline as a young radical son, the elder of two brothers, epitomising the youth of 1960s Britain, where figures like the Beatles, the model [[Twiggy]], [[the Rolling Stones]] and [[the Who]] were reshaping the concept of youthful rebellion. Though the rest of the family were killed off or moved, Ken Barlow has remained the constant link throughout 45 years of ''Coronation Street''. For more details of Ken's storylines, see the article on him.
Barlow's character embodies the clash of perspectives and cultures played out in the soap opera. For decades his arch-foe was Mike Baldwin ([[Johnny Briggs (actor)|Johnny Briggs]]), a dodgy [[Cockney]] businessman, who set up a clothes factory on the street. Baldwin and Barlow epitomised two different types of character. Whereas Barlow was an arts-oriented, left-of-centre community-centred man, Baldwin was a cut-and-thrust, [[capitalist]], right-wing businessman, who forever mocked Barlow as a "waster" who could do 'nothing but talk'. Their lives were complicated in typical soap-opera style by personal links. Barlow's third wife, Deirdre ([[Anne Kirkbride]]), had an affair with Baldwin before going back to Barlow. Baldwin then met and married Barlow's daughter, Susan (by an earlier marriage), but broke up with her after she had supposedly had an abortion. A decade later it became apparent that she had not had an abortion, but had borne Baldwin's child. Finally she told her father, who told Deirdre, who told Dev Alahan ([[Jimmi Harkishin]]), who told Mike Baldwin, who tried to get access to his son, Adam. In fleeing from him, Susan was killed in a car-crash, leaving Adam's father (Mike Baldwin) and his grandfather (Ken Barlow) fighting over custody. In one of the great soap-opera reconciliations, Baldwin and Barlow, having reconciled their differences, became friends (as are the actors who play them in real life).
===Long-established characters===
*''[[Ken Barlow]]'' ([[William Roache]]) is the only character who has been on the Street since the first episode. His family left one by one: his mother died under the wheels of a bus, his father married a younger woman and left town, and his brother died with his young son in a car accident. He has married three times: to [[Valerie Tatlock]] (who died when she was electrocuted by her own hairdryer), [[Janet Reid]] (who left him and who later committed suicide when he wouldn't take her back), and Deirdre Hunt Langton (who cheated on him, begged him to reconcile, then divorced him when the tables were turned). Ken and Deirdre have since remarried.
*''[[Emily Bishop]]'' (formerly Emily Nugent, played by [[Eileen Derbyshire]]), who joined the cast on January 17 1961, just a few weeks into the show's run, began as a young woman working at Gamma Garments. She jilted lay preacher Leona |
y a judge. Averaging over many judges reduces the effect of this bias in the final score, but there will remain about a 2% spread in the average artistic marks from the randomly selected subsets of judges.
Ice dancing judging is similar to pairs and singles, but uses a separate set of rules and table of values. In the compulsory dance, steps are specified and "elements" are defined for each dance as subsets of the prescribed steps. For compulsory dance only, there is no artistic mark given for choreography. Instead the marks for skating skills and transitions are multiplied by 1.5. In original dance there are 5 marked technical elements. In the free dance, there are 9 marked technical elements.
The new judging system moves ice skating closer to judging systems used in sports like diving and gymnastics. It also has some features intended to make judging more resistent to pressure by special interests. However, there are many who question whether the new system is actually any better than the old. Under the ISU rules, the judges' marks are anonymous, which removes any public accountability of the judges for their marks. The random panel selection procedure can change a skater's mark by several points and alter the outcome of competitions depending on which subset of judges are chosen. The US Figure Skating association has split with the ISU on these these two issues. In the US, the judges names remain associated with the marks. Also the US uses only nine judges and counts all nine. Another issue that has appeared in the press is that the sport is still ruled by the same people, and still subject to bias and pressure from invisible insiders. Another problem is that the new system excessively constrains the content of skaters' programs and reduces creativity. Still, another complaint is that the technical specialist has too much power to control skaters' scores.
There are also skating competitions organized for professional skaters by independent promoters. These competitions use judging rules set by whoever organizes the competition. There is no "professional league".
The [[Ice Skating Institute]] (ISI), an international ice rink trade organization, runs its own competitive and test program aimed at recreational skaters. Originally headquartered in Minnesota, the organization now operates out of Dallas, Texas. ISI competitions are open to any member that have registered their tests. There are very few "qualifying" competitions, although some districts hold "Gold Competitions" for that season's first-place winners. ISI competitions are especially popular in Asian countries that do not have established ISU member federations. The [[Gay Games]] have also included skating competitions for same-gender pairs and dance couples under ISI sponsorship. Other figure skating competitions for adults also attract participants from diverse cultures and sexual orientations.
== History ==
While people have been [[ice skating]] for centuries, figure skating in its current form originated in the mid-19th century.
''[[A Treatise on Skating]]'' (1772) by Englishman Robert Jones, is the first known account of figure skating. The form of skating originally had a cramped and formal style until American skater [[Jackson Haines]] (considered the "father of figure skating") introduced his free and expressive techniques in the mid-1860s. Although popular in Europe, Haine's "International style" did not come to the United States until long after his death.
The [[International Skating Union]] was founded in [[1892]]. The first European Championship --for men only--- was held in [[1891]] and the first World Championship -- for men only -- was held in [[1896]] and won by [[Gilbert Fuchs]]. In [[1902]], a woman, [[Madge Syers]], entered the competition for the first time, finishing second. The ISU quickly banned women from competing against men, but established a separate competition for "ladies" in [[1906]]. Pairs skating was introduced at the [[1908]] World Championships, when the title was won by [[Anna Hübler]] & [[Heinrich Burger]]. The first Olympic figure skating competitions also took place in [[1908]].
On [[March 20]], [[1914]] an international figure skating championship was held in [[New Haven, Connecticut]] which was the ancestor of both the [[United States]] and Canadian national championships. However, international competitions in figure skating were interrupted by [[World War I]].
In the 1920s and 1930s, figure skating was dominated by [[Sonja Henie]], who turned competitive success into a lucrative professional career as a movie star and touring skater. Henie also set the fashion for female skaters to wear short skirts and white boots. The top male skaters of this period included [[Gillis Grafström]] and [[Karl Schäfer]].
Skating competitions were again interrupted for several years by [[World War II]]. After the war, with many European rinks in ruins, skaters from the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] began to dominate international competitions and to introduce technical innovations to the sport. [[Dick Button]], 1948 and 1952 Olympic Champion, was the first skater to perform the double axel and triple loop jumps, as well as the flying camel spin.
The first World Championships in ice dancing were not held until 1952. In its first years, ice dance was dominated by British skaters. The first World title holders were [[Jean Westwood]] & [[Lawrence Demmy]].
On [[February 15]], [[1961]], the entire US figure skating team and their coaches were killed in the crash of [[Sabena Flight 548]] in [[Brussels|Brussels, Belgium]] en route to the World Championships in [[Prague]]. This tragedy sent the US skating program into a period of rebuilding.
At the same time, the [[Soviet Union]] rose to become a dominant power in the sport, especially in the disciplines of pairs skating and ice dancing. At every Winter Olympics from 1964 until the present day, a Soviet or Russian pairs duo has won gold, often considered the longest winning streak in modern sports history. (In 2002, Russians [[Yelena Berezhnaya]] and [[Anton Sikharulidze]] shared gold with Canadians [[Jamie Sale]] and [[David Pelletier]], keeping the streak alive.)
[[Compulsory figures]] formerly accounted for up to 60% of the score in singles figure skating, which meant that skaters who could build up a big lead in figures could win competitions even if they were mediocre free skaters. As [[television]] coverage of skating events became more important, so did free skating. Beginning in [[1968]], the ISU began to progressively reduce the weight of figures, and in [[1973]], the short program was introduced. With these changes, the emphasis in competitive figure skating shifted to increasing athleticism in the free skating. By the time figures were finally eliminated entirely from competition in [[1990]], [[Midori Ito]] had landed the first triple axel by a woman, and [[Kurt Browning]] the first quadruple jump by a man.
[[Television]] also played a role in removing the restrictive [[amateurism|amateur]] status rules that once governed the sport. In order to retain skaters who might otherwise have given up their eligibility to participate in lucrative professional events, in [[1995]] the ISU introduced prize money at its major competitions, funded by revenues from selling the TV rights to those events.
Figure skating is a very popular part of the Winter Olympic Games, in which the elegance of both the competitors and their movements attract many spectators. Not surprisingly, the best skaters show many of the same physical and psychological attributes as gymnasts. Many of the best skaters currently come from [[Russia]] and the [[United States]] which are traditional powers in the sport.
== Notable figure skaters ==
See [[Olympic medalists in figure skating]], [[World Figure Skating Championships]], [[European Figure Skating Championships]] and [[:category:Figure skaters|Figure skaters]].
==See also==
*[[Artistic roller skating]]
*[[Winter sport]]
*[[Winter Olympic Games]]
==References==
*[http://www.isu.org/vsite/vnavsite/page/directory/0,10853,4844-153889-171105-nav-list,00.html ISU Regulations]
==External links==
*[http://www.balletforfigureskaters.com Ballet for Figure Skaters]
*[http://www.isu.org International Skating Union]
*[http://www.skateisi.com Ice Skating Institute]
*[http://www.skatecanada.ca Skate Canada]
*[http://www.usfsa.org US Figure Skating]
*[http://www.chnfs.org Chinese Figure Skating]
*[http://www.worldskatingmuseum.org/ Official Site World Skating Museum and Hall of Fame]
*[http://www.usolympicteam.com/21.htm#sport11852 '''2006 U.S. Olympic Figure Skating bios''']
*[http://www.pfsa.com.pl Polish Figure Skating Assotiation]
*[http://www.frogsonice.com/skateweb/ SkateWeb]
*[http://www.fsuniverse.net Figure Skating Universe]
*[http://www.eskatefans.com/skatabase/ Skatabase]
*[http://www.goldenskate.com/ Golden Skate]
*[http://www.isa.org.au/ Ice Skating Australia]
*[http://www.caretoicedance.com/ Care to Ice Dance?]
*[http://www.marylandiceskating.com/ Ice Skating in Maryland, USA]
==Navigation==
===Men===
{{NavigationOlympicChampionsFigureSkatingMen}}
{{NavigationWorldChampionsFigureSkatingMen}}
{{NavigationEuropeanChampionsFigureSkatingMen}}
{{NavigationFourContinentChampionsFigureSkatingMen}}
===Ladies===
{{NavigationOlympicChampionsFigureSkatingLadies}}
{{NavigationWorldChampionsFigureSkatingLadies}}
{{NavigationEuropeanChampionsFigureSkatingLadies}}
{{NavigationFourContinentChampionsFigureSkatingLadies}}
===Pairs===
{{NavigationOlympicChampionsFigureSkatingPairs}}
{{NavigationWorldChampionsFigureSkatingPairs}}
{{NavigationEuropeanChampionsFigureSkatingPairs}}
{{NavigationFourContinentChampionsFigureSkatingPairs}}
===Ice Dance===
{{NavigationOlympicChampionsFigureSkatingIcedance}}
{{NavigationWorldChampionsFigureSkatingIcedance}}
{{Nav |
itle>
<id>13400</id>
<revision>
<id>41865076</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:50:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.33.126.227</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
400,000 (2005) land lines.
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
1,114,427 (2005) (About 60% belong to , http://www.tigo.hn and 40% to
http://www.alo.hn )
'''Telephone system:'''
Digital infrastructure, privatization of all services in December 2005.
<br>''domestic:''
NA
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]); connected to [[Central American Microwave System]]
'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 241, [[FM]] 53, [[shortwave]] 12 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
2.45 million (1997)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
11 (most of these stations are based in [[Tegucigalpa]] and [[San Pedro Sula]]; there are also 17 repeaters) (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
570,000 (1997)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
+100 (2005)
'''Internet users:'''
400,000 (2005)
'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' HN
:''See also :'' [[Honduras]]
[[Category:Communications in Honduras| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Honduras</title>
<id>13401</id>
<revision>
<id>20841080</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-12T09:26:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Seabhcan</username>
<id>41614</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* [[Railway]]s */ no internation connection in use</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">== [[Railway]]s ==
: total: 595 km
: narrow gauge: 349 km
: 1.067-m gauge: 246 km
: 0.914-m gauge (1999)
=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in El Salvador|El Salvador]] - no
* [[Transportation in Guatemala|Guatemala]] - none in use [http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/central_america/honduras/get.htm]
* [[Transportation in Nicaragua|Nicaragua]] - no
== [[Highway]]s ==
: total: 15,400 km
: paved: 3,126 km
: unpaved: 12,274 km (1999 est.)
== [[Waterway]]s ==
465 km navigable by small craft
== [[seaport|Ports]] and [[harbor]]s ==
=== Atlantic Ocean ===
* [[Puerto Cortés]]
* [[Tela]]
* [[La Ceiba]]
=== Pacific Ocean ===
=== Other ===
*[[Puerto Castilla]]
*[[San Lorenzo, Honduras|San Lorenzo]]
*[[Puerto Lempira]]
== Merchant marine ==
: ''total:'' 306 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 848,150 GRT/980,995 DWT
: ''ships by type:''
bulk 26, cargo 187, chemical tanker 5, container 7, livestock carrier 1, passenger 2, passenger/cargo 4, petroleum tanker 43, refrigerated cargo 15, roll-on/roll-off 9, short-sea passenger 5, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)
''note:''
a flag of convenience registry; [[Russia]] owns 6 ships, [[Vietnam]] 1, [[Singapore]] 3, [[North Korea]] 1 (1998 est.)
== [[Airport]]s ==
119 (1999 est.)
: ''Principle International airports:'' [[San Pedro Sula]], [[Tegucigalpa]]
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
: total: 12
: 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
: 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
: 914 to 1,523 m: 4
: under 914 m: 3 (1999 est.)
=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
: total: 107
: 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
: 914 to 1,523 m: 21
: under 914 m: 84 (1999 est.)
== See also ==
* [[Honduras]]
{{CIAfb}}
[[Category:Transportation in Honduras|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Honduras</title>
<id>13402</id>
<revision>
<id>32104605</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-20T14:47:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>SqueakBox</username>
<id>193093</id>
</contributor>
<comment>no conscription here so these rm figures were meaningless</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Military]] of [[Honduras]]'''
Events during the [[1980s]] in [[El Salvador]] and [[Nicaragua]] led Honduras&mdash;with [[United States|US]] assistance&mdash;to expand its armed forces considerably, laying particular emphasis on its air force, which came to include a squadron of US-provided [[F-5 Freedom Fighter|F-5]]s. The resolution of the civil wars in El Salvador and Nicaragua and across-the-board budget cuts made in all ministries has brought reduced funding for the Honduran armed forces. The abolition of the draft has created staffing gaps in the now all-volunteer armed forces. The military now is far below its authorized strength, and further reductions are expected. In January 1999, the Constitution was amended to abolish the position of military commander-in-chief of the armed forces, thus codifying civilian authority over the military. President Flores also named the first civilian minister of defense in the country's history.
'''Military branches:'''
Army, Navy (includes Marines), Air Force
'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$33 million (FY98)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
0.6% (FY98)
==References and Links==
*[[CIA World Factbook]]
*[[Honduras]]
[[Category:Government of Honduras]]
[[Category:Militaries|Honduras]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Honduras</title>
<id>13403</id>
<revision>
<id>34159253</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-06T21:25:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bill37212</username>
<id>209421</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Honduras]] is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS), the [[Central American Parliament]] (PARLACEN), the [[Central American Integration System]] (SICA), and the [[Central American Security Commission]] (CASQ). During 1995-96, Honduras, a founding member of the United Nations, for the first time served as a non-permanent member of the [[UN Security Council]].
President Flores consulted frequently with the other [[Central America]]n presidents on issues of mutual interest. He continued his predecessor's strong emphasis on Central American cooperation and integration, which resulted in an agreement easing border controls and tariffs among Honduras, [[Guatemala]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[El Salvador]]. Honduras also joined its six Central American neighbors at the 1994 Summit of the Americas in signing the Alliance for Sustainable Development, known as the [[Conjunta Centroamerica-USA]], or CONCAUSA, to promote sustainable economic development in the region. Honduras held the 6-month SICA presidency during the second half of 1998.
In [[1969]], El Salvador and Honduras fought the brief "[[Football War]]" over disputed border areas and friction resulting from the 300,000 Salvadorans who had emigrated to Honduras in search of land and employment. The catalyst was nationalistic feelings aroused by a series of [[soccer]] matches between the two countries. The two countries formally signed a peace treaty on October 30, 1980, which put the border dispute before the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ). In September 1992, the court awarded most of the disputed territory to Honduras. In January 1998, Honduras and El Salvador signed a border demarcation treaty that will implement the terms of the ICJ decree. The treaty awaits legal ratification in both countries. Honduras and El Salvador maintain normal diplomatic and trade relations.
Honduras and Nicaragua had tense relations throughout 2000 and early 2001 due to a boundary dispute off the Atlantic coast. Nicaragua imposed a 35% tariff against Honduras due to the dispute, and the matter is currently awaiting a decision from the ICJ.
At the 17th Central American Summit in 1995, hosted by Honduras in the northern city of [[San Pedro Sula]], the region's six countries (excluding [[Belize]]) signed treaties creating confidence- and security-building measures and combating the smuggling of stolen automobiles in the isthmus. In subsequent summits (held every 6 months), Honduras has continued to work with the other Central American countries on issues of common concern.
In Costa Rica in May 1997, former President [[Carlos Roberto Reina]] met with former US President [[Bill Clinton]], his Central American counterparts, and the President of the [[Dominican Republic]] to reaffirm support for strengthening democracy, [[good governance]], and promoting prosperity through economic integration, free trade, and investment. The leaders also expressed their commitment to the continued development of just and equitable societies and responsible environmental policies as an integral element of sustainable development.
In Summer [[2003]] Honduras sent around 370 soldiers to Iraq as part of the [[USA]] coalition of countries that were engaging in [[war]] in this country. Immediately after [[21st April]] [[2004]] these troops were withdrawn by President [[Ricardo Maduro]] in the wake of a similar decision by [[Spain|Spanish]] prime minister [[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero]]. Honduras joining the coalition was largely an attempt to improve foreign relations with the United States over the issue of the [[illegal immigration]] of many thousands of Hondurans to the US. The money these illegal immigrants send back to their families in Honduras is a crucial factor in the Honduran economy, while any political strategy to help these illegal immigrants is a guaranteed vote winner.
The current Foreign Minister is [[Guillermo Pérez Cadalso Arias]].
Honduras maintains official relations with the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) instead of the [[People's Republic of China]].
==Disputes - international:==
The Honduras-El Salvador Border Protocol ratified by Honduras in May 1999 established a framework for a long-delayed border demarcation, which is currently underway; with respect to the maritime boundary in the Golfo de Fonseca, the ICJ |
, as was done by [[Sobig]] and [[Mydoom]]. These [[zombie computers]] are used by [[e-mail spam|spam]] senders for sending junk email or to cloak their website's address.[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2001859752_spamdoubles18.html] Spammers are thought to pay for the creation of such worms [http://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,60747,00.html]
[http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/afp_world/view/68810/1/.html], and worm writers have been caught selling lists of [[IP address]]es of infected machines.[http://www.heise.de/english/newsticker/news/44879] Others try to blackmail companies with threatened [[Denial-of-service_attack|DoS]] attacks.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3513849.stm] The backdoors can also be exploited by other worms, such as [[Doomjuice]], which spreads using the backdoor opened by [[Mydoom]].
Whether worms can be useful is a common theoretical question in [[computer science]] and [[artificial intelligence]]. The [[Nachi worm|Nachi]] family of worms, for example, tried to download then install patches from Microsoft's website to fix various vulnerabilities in the host system &mdash; the same vulnerabilities that they exploited. This eventually made the systems affected more secure, but generated considerable network traffic (often more than the worms they were protecting against), rebooted the machine in the course of patching it, and, maybe most importantly, did its work without the explicit consent of the computer's owner or user. As such, most security experts deprecate worms, whatever their payload.
==See also==
*[[Timeline of notable computer viruses and worms]]
==External links==
* [http://www.wildlist.org The Wildlist] - List of viruses and worms 'in the wild' (i.e. regularly encountered by anti-virus companies)
* [http://www.2-spyware.com/worms-removal Worm parasites] - Listed worm descriptions and removal tools.
* [http://www.securityfocus.com/print/columnists/347 Jose Nazario discusses worms] - Worms overview by a famous security researcher.
* [http://www.pc-news.org/computer-worm-suspect-in-court/virus-news Computer worm suspect in court]
* [http://www.vernalex.com/guides/malware/ Vernalex.com's Malware Removal Guide] - Guide for understanding, removing and preventing worm infections
[[Category:Malware]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[zh-min-nan:Tiān-naú u-óng]]
[[de:Computerwurm]]
[[es:Gusano informático]]
[[fr:Ver informatique]]
[[it:Worm]]
[[hu:Számítógépes féreg]]
[[nl:Computerworm|Poep]]
[[ja:ワーム (コンピュータ)]]
[[pl:Robak komputerowy]]
[[pt:Worm]]
[[ru:Сетевые черви]]
[[sk:Počítačový červ]]
[[sv:Internetmask]]
[[th:หนอนคอมพิวเตอร์]]
[[vi:Sâu máy tính]]
[[uk:Хробак комп'ютерний]]
[[zh:蠕虫病毒]]
[[he:תולעת מחשב]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chomsky hierarchy</title>
<id>6011</id>
<revision>
<id>41731229</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T10:01:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Babajobu</username>
<id>125012</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>clean using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chomsky hierarchy''' is a [[containment hierarchy]] of classes of [[formal grammar]]s that generate [[formal language]]s. This hierarchy of these grammars which are also called ''phrase structure grammars'' was described by [[Noam Chomsky]] in&nbsp;[[1956]] (see&nbsp;[[#References|<nowiki>[1]</nowiki>]]).
== Formal grammars ==
A formal grammar consists of a finite set of ''terminal symbols'' (the letters of the words in the formal language), a finite set of ''nonterminal symbols'', a finite set of ''production rules'' with a left- and a right-hand side consisting of a word of these symbols, and a ''start symbol''. A rule may be applied to a word by replacing the left-hand side by the right-hand side. A derivation is a sequence of rule applications. Such a grammar defines the formal language of all words consisting solely of terminal symbols that can be reached by a derivation from the start symbol.
Nonterminals are usually represented by uppercase letters, terminals by lowercase letters, and the start symbol by <math>S</math>. For example, the grammar with terminals <math>\{a, b\}</math>, nonterminals <math>\{S, A, B\}</math>, production rules
: <math>S</math> &rarr; <math>ABS</math>
: <math>S</math> &rarr; &epsilon; (where &epsilon; is the empty string)
: <math>BA</math> &rarr; <math>AB</math>
: <math>BS</math> &rarr; <math>b</math>
: <math>Bb</math> &rarr; <math>bb</math>
: <math>Ab</math> &rarr; <math>ab</math>
: <math>Aa</math> &rarr; <math>aa</math>
and start symbol <math>S</math>, defines the language of all words of the form <math> a^n b^n </math> (i.e. <math>n</math> copies of <math>a</math> followed by <math>n</math> copies of <math>b</math>).
The following is a simpler grammar that defines a similar language:
Terminals <math>\{p, q\}</math>, Nonterminals <math>\{S\}</math>, Start symbol <math>S</math>, Production rules
: <math>S</math> &rarr; <math>pSq</math>
: <math>S</math> &rarr; &epsilon;
See [[formal grammar]] for a more elaborate explanation.
== The hierarchy ==
The Chomsky hierarchy consists of the following levels:
* Type-0 grammars (unrestricted grammars) include all formal grammars. They generate exactly all languages that can be recognized by a [[Turing machine]]. These languages are also known as the [[recursively enumerable language|recursively enumerable languages]]. Note that this is different from the [[recursive language|recursive languages]] which can be ''decided'' by an always halting Turing machine.
* Type-1 grammars ([[context-sensitive grammar|context-sensitive grammars]]) generate the [[context-sensitive language|context-sensitive languages]]. These grammars have rules of the form <math>\alpha A\beta \rightarrow \alpha\gamma\beta</math> with <math>A</math> a nonterminal and <math>\alpha</math>, <math>\beta</math> and <math>\gamma</math> strings of terminals and nonterminals. The strings <math>\alpha</math> and <math>\beta</math> may be empty, but <math>\gamma</math> must be nonempty. The rule <math>S \rightarrow \epsilon</math> is allowed if <math>S</math> does not appear on the right side of any rule. The languages described by these grammars are exactly all languages that can be recognized by a non-deterministic Turing machine whose tape is bounded by a constant times the length of the input.
* Type-2 grammars ([[context-free grammar|context-free grammars]]) generate the [[context-free language]]s. These are defined by rules of the form <math>A \rightarrow \gamma</math> with <math>A</math> a nonterminal and <math>\gamma</math> a string of terminals and nonterminals. These languages are exactly all languages that can be recognized by a non-deterministic [[pushdown automaton]]. Context free languages are the theoretical basis for the syntax of most [[programming language|programming languages]].
* Type-3 grammars ([[regular grammar|regular grammars]]) generate the [[regular language|regular languages]]. Such a grammar restricts its rules to a single nonterminal on the left-hand side and a right-hand side consisting of a single terminal, possibly followed (or preceded, but not both in the same grammar) by a single nonterminal. The rule <math>S \rightarrow \epsilon</math> is also here allowed if <math>S</math> does not appear on the right side of any rule. These languages are exactly all languages that can be decided by a [[finite state automaton]]. Additionally, this family of formal languages can be obtained by [[regular expressions]]. Regular languages are commonly used to define search patterns and the lexical structure of programming languages.
Note that the set of grammars corresponding to recursive languages is not a member of this hierarchy.
Every regular language is context-free, every context-free language is context-sensitive and every context-sensitive language is recursive and every recursive language is recursively enumerable. These are all proper inclusions, meaning that there exist recursively enumerable languages which are not recursive, recursive languages that are not context-sensitive, context-sensitive languages which are not context-free and context-free languages which are not regular.
The following table summarizes each of Chomsky's four types of grammars, the class of languages it generates, the type of automaton that recognizes it, and the form its rules must have.
<center>
<table border=1>
<tr>
<th>Grammar</th>
<th>Languages</th>
<th>Automaton</th>
<th>Production rules</th>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Type-0</td>
<td>[[recursively enumerable language|Recursively enumerable]]</td>
<td>[[Turing machine]]</td>
<td>No restrictions</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Type-1</td>
<td>[[context-sensitive grammar|Context-sensitive]]</td>
<td>Linear-bounded non-deterministic Turing machine</td>
<td><math>\alpha A\beta \rightarrow \alpha\gamma\beta</math></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>Type-2</td>
<td>[[context-free grammar|Context-free]]</td>
<td>Non-deterministic [[pushdown automaton]]</td>
<td><math>A \rightarrow \gamma</math></td>
</tr>
<tr>
|
f events in the game]
=== Other resources ===
*{{imdb title|id=0286585|title=Deus Ex}}
*{{moby game|id=/windows/deus-ex|name=''Deus Ex''}}
*{{musicbrainz album|id=948ae31a-fe81-4db0-8a7f-9fa37e5b9db4|name=Deus Ex}}
*[http://home.kc.rr.com/bobfahey/deus_ex.htm Deus Ex Information Page]
*[http://www.deusex-machina.com/articles/makingofdeusex.asp Behind the Scenes Look in the Making of Deus Ex]
*[http://www.gamefaqs.com/computer/doswin/game/26151.html Game FAQ guides]
*[http://www.fileplanet.com/31653/0/section/Deus-Ex Deus Ex on Fileplanet] - Deus Ex related files (patches, mods, etc.)
*[http://www.matthewmiller.net/html/games/Deus_Ex_links.html List of links related to ''Deus Ex'']
{{Deus Ex}}
[[Category:2000 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Deus Ex]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:Multiplayer online games]]
[[Category:PlayStation 2 games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Eidos Interactive games]]
[[bg:Deus Ex]]
[[de:Deus Ex]]
[[fr:Deus Ex]]
[[pl:Deus Ex]]
[[sr:Deus Ex]]
[[fi:Deus Ex]]
[[sv:Deus Ex]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Diego Maradona</title>
<id>8485</id>
<revision>
<id>42102606</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:16:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.188.116.200</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Retirement and honours */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Maradona}}
{{Football player infobox |
playername = Diego Maradona |
image = [[Image:Diego-armando-maradona.jpg|200px]] |
fullname = Diego Armando Maradona |
nickname = ''El Diez'', ''Pelusa'', ''El Diego'',<br>''El Pibe de Oro'' |
dateofbirth = [[October 30]], [[1960]] |
cityofbirth = [[Villa Fiorito]] |
countryofbirth = [[Argentina]] |
currentclub = Retired |
position = "Hole" |
youthyears = [[1974]]-[[1976|76]] |
youthclubs = [[Argentinos Juniors]] |
years = [[1976]]-[[1981|81]]<br/>[[1981]]-[[1982|82]]<br/>[[1982]]-[[1984|84]]<br/>[[1984]]-[[1991|91]]<br/>[[1992]]-[[1993|93]]<br/> [[1993]]<br/>[[1995]]-[[1997|97]]|
clubs = [[Argentinos Juniors]]<br/>[[Boca Juniors]]<br/>[[FC Barcelona]]<br/>[[SSC Napoli]]<br/>[[Sevilla FC]]<br/>[[Newell's Old Boys]]<br/>[[Boca Juniors]] |
caps(goals) = 166 (116)<br/>42 (28)<br/>58 (38)<br/>259 (115)<br/>29 (7)<br/>5 (0)<br/>29 (7) |
nationalyears = [[1977]]-[[1994|94]] |
nationalteam = [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] |
nationalcaps(goals) = 91 (34)
}}
'''Diego Armando Maradona''' ([[October 30]], [[1960]], [[Lanús]], [[Buenos Aires]]), nicknamed ''El Diez''{{Inote|ESPN Eportes [[28 July]] [[2005]]|ESPNEportes20050728}}, ''Pelusa'', ''El Diego'' and ''El pibe de oro'', is a former [[Argentina|Argentine]] [[football (soccer)|football]] player.
He is regarded by many as the best player in the history of the game [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/soccer/news/2000/12/11/pele_maradona/]. He is also one of the most controversial.
==Early years==
Diego Armando Maradona was born in [[Villa Fiorito]], a [[villa miseria|shantytown]] in the southern outskirts of [[Buenos Aires]], to a poor family who had relocated from [[Corrientes Province]]. He was the first son after three girls. He has two younger brothers, Hugo (''el turco'') and Eduardo (Lalo), both of whom were also professional footballers.
At age 10, Maradona was spotted by a talent scout while he was playing in his neighborhood club Estrella Roja. He became a staple of the ''cebollitas'', the junior team of Buenos Aires side [[Argentinos Juniors]]. As a ball-boy in first division games, he amused spectators by showing his wizardry with the ball during the halftime intermissions.
==Career as a player==
At age 15, Maradona made his debut with Argentinos Juniors, where he played between [[1976]] and [[1981]] before his transfer to the club that he supported, [[Boca Juniors]], where he played during the remainder of the 1981 season and [[1982]] and secured his first league title. He debuted with the [[Argentina national football team]] ("la selección"), at age 16, against [[Hungary]]. At age 18, he played the [[Football World Youth Championship]] for Argentina, and was the star of the tournament, shining in their 3&ndash;1 final win over the [[USSR national football team|USSR team]].
In 1982, Maradona played his first [[Football World Cup 1982|World Cup]] tournament. In the first round, Argentina, as defending champions, lost to [[Belgium national football team|Belgium]] 0-1. Although the team convincingly beat [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]] and [[El Salvador national football team|El Salvador]] to progress to the second round, they were defeated in the second round by [[Italy national football team|Italy]] (1:2), the side which eventually won the cup, and [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] (1:3), during which game Maradona was sent off for kicking an opponent.
[[Image:MVC-074S.JPG|thumb|One of Diego's Boca shirts - circa 1982]]
Later in the year, Maradona was transferred to [[FC Barcelona]]. In [[1983]], under coach [[César Luis Menotti]], Barcelona and Maradona won the [[Copa del Rey]] (Spain's annual national cup competition), beating [[Real Madrid]]. However, Maradona had an unhappy tenure in Barcelona: first a bout with [[hepatitis]], and then an ill-timed tackle by [[Athletic Bilbao]]'s [[Andoni Goikoetxea]] that put Maradona's career on the line; Diego's physical strength and willpower made it possible for him to be back on the pitch after only 14 weeks.
Barcelona's management was not satisfied with Maradona, and in [[1984]] transferred him to [[SSC Napoli]], where he became an adored star, lifting the team to its most successful era. Napoli won their only [[Serie A|Italian Championships]] ([[1986]]/[[1987|87]] and [[1989]]/[[1990]]), a [[Coppa Italia]] ([[1987]]), a [[UEFA Cup]] ([[1989]]) and an [[SuperCoppa Italiana|Italian Supercup]] (1990). Napoli were also runners-up in the Italian Championship twice (1987/88 and 1988/89).
Maradona led the Argentine national team to victory in the {{Wc|1986}}, the team winning 3&ndash;2 in the final against [[Germany national football team|West Germany]]. Throughout the 1986 World Cup, Maradona asserted his dominance and was widely regarded as the best player of the tournament. However, it was the two goals he scored in the quarterfinal game against [[England national football team|England]] which cemented his legend. Action replay footage showed that the first [[Goal_(sport)|goal]] was scored with the aid of his [[hand]]. He later claimed it was the "[[Hand of God goal|Hand of God]]" and described it as "A little of the hand of God, and a little of the head of Maradona," implying that God was ultimately responsible for the goal, because the [[referee (football)|referee]] had missed the handball offense. However, on [[22 August]] [[2005]] Maradona acknowledged on his new television talk show that he hit the ball with his hand purposely and that he immediately knew the goal was illegitimate. He recalled thinking right after the goal that "I was waiting for my teammates to embrace me, and no one came . . . I told them, 'Come hug me, or the referee isn't going to allow it.'" [http://sports.yahoo.com/sow/news?slug=ap-maradona-handofgod&prov=ap&type=lgns]
In contrast, however, Maradona's second goal was an uncontroversial and impressive display of footballing skill. He ran half the length of the pitch, passing five English players ([[Glenn Hoddle]], [[Peter Reid]], [[Kenny Sansom]], [[Terry Butcher]], and [[Terry Fenwick]]) as well as goalkeeper [[Peter Shilton]]. This goal was voted [[Goal of the Century]] in a [[2002]] online poll conducted by [[FIFA]]. Argentina went on to defeat England 2-1 in that game. The two goals were ranked 6th in Channel 4's [[100 Greatest Sporting Moments]] in 2002.
Maradona also captained Argentina in the {{Wc|1990}}, leading his team to the final, where they lost 1&ndash;0 to West Germany. He arrived at the {{Wc|1994}} and played two games (scoring one goal) before being sent home after failing a [[drug test]] for [[ephedrine]] [[doping (sport)|doping]]. On this matter, he has suggested that he had an agreement, on which FIFA later reneged, to allow him to use the drug for weight loss before the competition in order to be able to play, so that the World Cup would not lose prestige because of his absence. This allegation was never proved, and many attribute his comment ("they cut off my legs") to Diego's anger at being suspended.
In Naples, where he is still beloved (having brought the local team their first [[scudetto]]), he also faced a scandal regarding an illegitimate son and was the object of some suspicion over his friendship with the [[Camorra]], the local [[mafia]].
Maradona left Napoli in [[1992]], after serving a 15-month ban for failing the [[drug test]] for [[cocaine]], and played for [[Sevilla FC]] ([[1992]]&ndash;[[1993|93]]), [[Newell's Old Boys]] (1993) and Boca Juniors ([[1995]]&ndash;[[1997|97]]). He also attempted to work as a [[coach (sport)|coach]] on two short stints, leading [[Mandiyú]] of Corrientes ([[1994]]) and [[Racing Club de Avellaneda|Racing Club]] (1995) without much success. He retired from football on [[October 30]], [[1997]].
On [[January 26]], [[1997]], Maradona discussed on live [[Ecuador]]ian TV with Ecuadorian president [[Abdalá Bucaram]] about playing in Bucaram's [[Barcelona Sporting Club|Barcelona SC]] team, but nothing ever came out of this, as Bucaram was ousted by a [[coup d'état]].
==Personal Agents==
Jorge Cyterszpiller, a childhood friend, was Diego's first agent. He set up ''Maradona Producciones'' but did not score any major successes with merchandising, as counterfeiters would quickly imitate any product that came on the market. On his advice, Marad |
'' #17). After Selina's death, Bruce permanently retired as Batman. Eventually, Bruce Wayne was forced to go into action again as Batman, when a criminal named Bill Jensen had gained superpowers from a sorcerer named Frederic Vaux. Jensen and Wayne fought each other, with Jensen eventually using his powers to destroy both himself and Batman[http://members.fortunecity.com/retcon/page12.html]. After this, Wayne was laid to rest next to his wife Selena; after Vaux was defeated, the sorcerer [[Dr. Fate]] used his powers to erase from human memory the knowledge of Wayne's secret identity, making all think the two had perished at almost the same time. (''[[Adventure Comics]]'' #461-463).
After the 1985 12-issue [[limited series]] ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]'', this version of Batman, and all memory of his existence, was retroactively erased (along with Earth-Two's Robin and Huntress).
===Silver Age version===
From the 1950s through the 1970s, various new elements were added to Batman's origin, background and history. The [[Silver Age of comic books|Silver Age]] Batman first appeared sometime in the mid-1950s, with an origin that was (as revealed in various stories in the ensuing decades) similar to that of the Golden Age version of Batman. While the Golden Age and Silver Age distinctions are useful for discussing the character's evolution over the decades, the character's evolution was gradual; like [[Superman]], [[Wonder Woman]], [[Green Arrow]], and [[Aquaman]]---the other major superheroes to be continuously published through the 1950s without break---there is no specific comic issue at which the Golden Age version gave way to the Silver Age version. Likewise, the character as he appeared near the beginning of the Silver Age (in the mid-1950s) was different in many ways than he appeared near the end of the Silver Age (in the mid-1980s), due to many minor revisions and new directions in the character's publication history.
As summarized in various stories, including 1980's ''the Untold Legend of the Batman'' [[limited series]] that thoroughly retold Batman's Silver Age origin and history, Bruce Wayne was raised by wealthy socialites Dr. Thomas and Martha Wayne in Wayne Manor. As a child, Bruce saw his parents murdered at the age of eight by small-time criminal Joe Chill, after which he was raised by his uncle Philip Wayne. Bruce swore to seek revenge on all criminals, and launched himself into a lifetime of dedicated training similar to the Golden Age Batman's training.
At some point early in his training, Bruce wore a costume similar to that of the future Robin's, in order to anonymously receive training from Gotham City police detective Harvey Harris (''Detective Comics'' #226). He and his guardians also visited [[Smallville]], where he met the youthful superhero [[Superboy]] and worked with him on several cases.
Bruce Wayne went on to attend college, taking various criminology and law related courses, but soon decided that being a police officer wasn't the path he should take. After graduating, Bruce, while pondering alone in his study on how to handle criminals, sees a bat fly through his study window, and decides to create a bat costume, calling himself "the Batman".
Sometime after the start of his crimefighting career, Bruce took in an orphan named Dick Grayson, whose parents had been killed by gangster Boss Zucco and his henchmen, and trained him as his sidekick, Robin.
[[Image:Batman superman.jpg|thumb|200px|Batman and Superman; World's Finest. Art by [[Jim Lee]] and [[Alex Ross]].]]
In ''Detective Comics'' #235 (September 1956), Batman learned that his parents' killing had not been chance, but an assassination ordered by gangster Lew Moxon. As a child, Bruce's father had worn a bat costume (similar to Batman's future costume) to a [[masquerade party]], where he encountered and stopped the mobster. Moxon swore revenge against Dr. Wayne, and hired the criminal Joe Chill to arrange a mugging that would result in their deaths. Batman soon tracked down Moxon (while wearing his father's bat costume, his usual costume having been torn while in action), but Moxon, recognizing the costume, inadvertently fled into the middle of traffic in a state of panic, where he was struck by a truck and killed.
Batman soon went on to meet and regularly work with other heroes, most notably Superman, who he began regularly working alongside in a series of teamups in ''[[World's Finest Comics]]'', starting in 1954 and continuing through 1986. Batman and Superman were usually shown as being close friends.
Batman also went on to become a founding member of the [[Justice League|Justice League of America]], appearing in their first story in 1960's ''[[Brave and the Bold]]'' #28. In the 1970s and 1980s, ''Brave and the Bold'' became a Batman title, where Batman would teamup with a different [[DC Universe]] superhero each month.
The early Silver Age Batman stories of the late 1950s and early 1960s often featured heavy amounts of science-fiction elements; starting in 1964's ''Detective Comics'' #327, Batman had reverted to his detective roots, with said science-fiction elements jettisoned.
In 1969, Dick Grayson was sent to college as part of a revision effort of the Batman comics; Bruce also subsequently decided to move from Wayne Manor into a penthouse apartment on top of the Wayne Foundation building in downtown Gotham City, in order to be closer to Gotham City and its crimes as Batman. Bruce spent the 1970s and early 1980s mainly working solo, with occasional teamups with Robin and/or [[Batgirl]]. Batman's adventures also became somewhat darker and grimmer during this period, with the Masked Manhunter often dealing with increasingly violent crimes, including the first appearance (since the early Golden Age) of an insane, murderous [[The Joker|Joker]].
In the early 1980s, Bruce Wayne once more took on a new sidekick, upon Dick Grayson's decision to strike out on his own as his own superhero, [[Nightwing]]. Bruce took in a youth named Jason Todd, who had a background similar to Dick Grayson's (having been a circus acrobat whose family was killed by [[Killer Croc]]). After training, Jason took on the role of Robin.
===Modern Age version===
After the 12-issue [[limited series]] ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]'', DC "rebooted" or revised the histories of some of their major characters in an attempt at updating them for then-contemporary audiences. Frank Miller retold Batman's origin in the storyline ''[[Batman: Year One]]'', which emphasized a grittier tone to the character; unlike the reboots given to Superman and Wonder Woman's histories, however, various stories of Batman's Silver Age/pre-''Crisis'' career remained canonical in the post-''Crisis'' universe.
Batman's evolution continued through the late 1980s, notably with 1988's "A Death in the Family" storyline, readers were allowed to call in a 1-900 number to decide whether or not [[Jason Todd]], the second [[Robin]], lived or died (the readers voted to have Jason killed by a narrow margin). In 1993's ''[[Knightfall]]'' series, Bruce Wayne was critically injured by [[Bane (comics)|Bane]], a new villain, and a new hero, [[Azrael (comics)|Azrael]], was called upon to wear the costume of Batman. As time passed, Azrael became increasingly violent; after a year, a healed Bruce Wayne defeated Azrael and took back the mantle of Batman. In 1994's ''[[Zero Hour (comics)|Zero Hour]]'' storyline, the ideas of Batman as not having caught his parent's killer and of being an [[urban legend]] were first introduced.
In 1998, Gotham City was destroyed during the [[Cataclysm (comics)|Cataclysm]] storyline, and Batman became deprived of many of his technological resources, forcing him to reconnect with the more mythical side of his persona. (Gotham was rebuilt at the end of "[[No Man's Land (comics)|No Man's Land]]" storyline.)
In DC's 2005 crossover event ''[[Identity Crisis (comics)|Identity Crisis]]'', the discovery that JLA member [[Zatanna]] had edited his memories led to Batman's deep loss of trust in the rest of the superhero community. His creation of the [[OMAC (comics)|Brother I]] satellite surveillance system to watch over the other heroes, and its eventual co-opting by the villainous Checkmate, has been one of the main precursor events of the follow up event ''[[Infinite Crisis]]'', currently in progress.
==Personae==
===Bruce Wayne===
To the world at large, Bruce Wayne is an irresponsible, superficial playboy who lives off his family's personal fortune (amassed when Bruce's parents invested in Gotham real estate before the city was a bustling metropolis) and the profits of [[Wayne Enterprises]], a major private technological firm that he has inherited. However, Wayne is also known for his contributions to charity, notably through the [[Wayne Foundation]], a [[foundation (charity)|foundation]] devoted to helping the victims of crime and preventing people from turning to it. Bruce Wayne's playboy public persona was created by Bruce to aid in throwing off suspicion of his secret identity.
===Dark Knight===
Bruce Wayne created Batman to strike fear into the hearts of Gotham's underworld. The costume&ndash;and the way he acts while wearing it&ndash;is meant to be as imposing and intimidating as possible. While Bruce Wayne is lighthearted and irresponsible, Batman is stoic and driven. In addition to the change in costume and personality, Bruce Wayne also significantly changes his voice to become Batman. The Dark Knight's voice is low and raspy, both as a disguise and as intimidation.
In keeping with the "dark" theme of the comics and the nature of bats, Batman is usually presented as operating primarily at night. In recent comics, the idea was introduced of Batman being an [[urban legend]]; however, this notion is contradicted by various previous stories that indicate otherwise. In order to make up for this flaw |
the design to have committed substantial sums to become minority partners in the JSF manufacturing team.
The program's advocates see the JSF as an opportunity to break out of the decades-old pattern of U.S. military aircraft procurement: instead of a traditional per-service design approach, the JSF is being developed jointly by the Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps. This allows an estimated 80% [[commonality]] between the JSF variants for the different services, lowering procurement and service costs. This follows to a degree the philosophy behind the [[SEPECAT Jaguar]] and [[Panavia Tornado]] international development programs, the latter being called a multi-role combat aircraft (or MRCA) prior to service entry. Additionally, JSF is the first U.S. aircraft program to consider ''cost as independent variable'' (CAIV). In earlier programs the aircraft cost has been a dependent variable; additional features have always increased the aircraft cost. Such design changes are not being allowed during the JSF development.
=== Non-vehicle differentiator ===
A ground-based information system (the Autonomic Logistic Information System, or ALIS), built by Lockheed Martin Simulation Training and Support, is intended to make the JSF less expensive to operate and maintain.
=== Cost/weight issues ===
Through 2004 the JSF's total projected cost had risen 23% to $244 billion. The major technical problem was the F-35B variant's mass, which was reported to be 2,200 pounds, or 8%, over the target, which meant that the STOVL plane was projected to miss performance requirements.
Lockheed Martin eventually solved the weight problem by adding engine thrust and shedding over a ton by thinning the aircraft's skin; shrinking the F-35B weapons bay and vertical tails; redesigning the wing-mate joint, portions of the electrical system, and the portion of the aircraft immediately behind the cockpit; and rerouting some thrust from the roll-post outlets to the main nozzle. <ref>Fulghum, David A.; Wall, Robert ([[19 September]] [[2004]]). [http://www.aviationnow.com/avnow/news/channel_awst_story.jsp?id=news/09204wna.xml USAF Plans for Fighters Change]. ''Aviation Week and Space Technology'' Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.</ref>
The smaller weapons bay will limit F-35B to 2 x 1000 lb (450 kg) weapons internally (this is as originally planned, for the 2 x 2000 lb requirement was added later). This is not expected to be a hindrance in [[close air support]] missions, which are likely to take place after enemy air defenses are down. Still, this may make the B variant different from the other two, boosting costs.
The internal weapons are stored offline to the external air flow, which will make for some interesting weapons certification work. The JSF has yet to drop a bomb, fire a missile, or fire a gun airborne—no demonstrations of weapons delivery capability were done during the "winner take all" fly off prior to contract award.
=== USAF STOVL purchase ===
The JSF program is not immune from interservice politics. A recurring theme has been the potential for a USAF requirement for the F-35B. The STOVL variant had been viewed as the most likely victim of cost-cutting measures; however, a USAF "commitment" seems to guarantee the aircraft that the USMC, RN, and RAF need. It is understood that the U.S. military's experience in [[Afghanistan]] has highlighted the importance of more flexible assets in the [[close air support]] role.
The USAF has investigated buying up to three wings (representing 216 examples) of the F-35B. For a time it appeared that the hypothetical USAF variant of the F-35B would contain enough changes to constitute a new variant (an F-35D). Changes were to include differences in the propulsion system to increase emphasis on [[STOL]] capability over that of [[VTOL]], a larger wing to allow more fuel, an interior cannon (as opposed to the USMC external gun pod), or changes to the in-flight refueling system. However, due to opposition from people involved with the program, and the associated cost of developing a fourth variant, the USAF version would likely be identical to the USMC/RN F-35B specification.
=== Australian Participation ===
In May 2005 the [[Australia|Australian]] government announced that it was delaying a final decision on the JSF from the initial 2006 decision date to 2008 (and thus past the term of the present government). There are some concerns amongst Australian media, lobby groups and politicians, who have raised doubts that the aircraft will be ready in time to replace the aging Australian air force fleet of [[F-111]] ground attack planes and F/A-18 fighters.
Concerns have been raised over cost efficiency, [[dog fight|dog fighting]] capability, short range and lack of [[supercruise]]. The government also claims that the cost of purchasing mature F-22s may not be that much greater than the JSF. <ref>Related discussions and analyzes on [http://www.ausairpower.net Air Power Australia web site].</ref>
It should be noted on this claim that Jane’s Defence weekly recently (in 2005) put the value of an F-22 at $151 million dollars U.S., rising to $200 million if upgrades to approach the F-35's air to ground targeting performance were included. At a projected price of $45 million U.S. (2003 dollars), the F-35 is three to four times cheaper than the F-22. Therefore, there would have to be a very significant cost blowout in the F-35 program for the F-22 to become better value for money.
== Specifications (F-35 Joint Strike Fighter) ==
[[image:Joint Strike Fighter.jpg|thumb|250px|The F-35 Joint Strike Fighter]]
Some information is estimated.
{{Airtemp|
|jet or prop?=jet
|has armament?=yes
|switch order of units?=no
|crew=1
|length main=50 ft 6 in
|length alt=15.37 m
|span main=35 ft 0 in
|span alt=10.65 m
|height main=17 ft 4 in
|height alt=5.28 m
|area main=459.6 ft²
|area alt=42.7 m²
|empty weight main=26,000 lb
|empty weight alt=12,000 kg
|loaded weight main=42,000 lb
|loaded weight alt=19,000 kg
|max takeoff weight main=50,000 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=23,000 kg
|number of jets=1
|engine (jet)=[[Pratt & Whitney F135]]
|type of jet=afterburning [[turbofan]]
|thrust main=37,100 lbf
|thrust alt=165 kN)
*'''Secondary (High Performance)''', discontinued in current budget proposal<ref>Watson, Ian ([[22 January]] [[2006]]). [http://www.thebusinessonline.com/Stories.aspx?Bush%20rejects%20Blair%E2%80%99s%20pleas%20to%20save%20F-35%20contract%20for%20Rolls-Royce&StoryID=FA93D8B4-76B7-40E9-8EF6-1B63D487518E&SectionID=F3B76EF0-7991-4389-B72E-D07EB5AA1CEE Bush rejects Blair’s pleas to save F-35 contract for Rolls-Royce]. ''Business Online, UK'' Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.</ref>: 1x [[General Electric/Rolls-Royce F136]] afterburning turbofan 178 kN thrust
*'''Lift fan''' (STOVL): 1x Rolls-Royce Lift System in conjunction with either F135 or F136 power plant 18,000 lbf (80 kN) thrust
|max speed main=[[Mach number|Mach]] 1.8
|max speed alt=1,200 mph, 2,000 km/h
|cruise speed main=Mach
|cruise speed alt= mph, km/h
|range main=620 miles
|range alt=1,000 km
|ceiling main=48,000 ft
|ceiling alt=15,000 m
|climb rate main=40,000 ft/min<ref>The exact statistic is [[classified]].</ref>
|climb rate alt=200 m/s
|loading main=91.4 lb/ft²
|loading alt=446 kg/m²
|thrust/weight=0.63
|armament=* 1x [[GAU-12 Equalizer|GAU-12/U]] 25 mm cannon. Mounted internally with 180 rounds in the F-35A, fitted as an external pod with 220 rounds in the F-35B/C
*In two bomb bays (current planned weapons for integration) - One AIM-120 AMRAAM, AIM-9X Sidewinder or [[AIM-132 ASRAAM]] internally on the inside of the bomb bay door and one air-to-air or air-to-ground weapon in each bomb bay. These could be AMRAAM, the Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM) - up to 2,000 lb (910 kg), the Joint Stand off Weapon (JSOW), Small Diameter Bombs (SDB)- a maximum of 4 in each bay, the [[Brimstone missile|Brimstone]] anti-armor missiles, Cluster Munitions (WCMD) and High Speed Anti-Radiation Missiles (HARM). The [[MBDA Meteor]] air to air missile is currently being adapted to fit internally in the missile spots and may be integrated into the F-35.
* At the expense of being more detectable by radar, more missiles, bombs and fuel tanks can be attached on four wing pylons and two wingtip positions. The latter can only take short-range air-to-air missiles, while the [[Storm Shadow]] and Joint Air to Surface Stand-off Missile (JASSM) cruise missiles can be carried in addition to the stores already integrated.
}}
===Other===
* Cost: (in millions US$):
**'''F-35A''': 45
**'''F-35B''': 60
**Costing as per Asia Pacific Defence Reporter, September 2005.
**'''F-35C''': 55
* First flight - X-35 demonstrator: 2000
* Expected first flight F-35A - September 2006
* In-service date: expected to be 2009 through 2012. The reason for this is that the A will be brought into service first followed by the B. The C will be in service in 2012.
===Manufacturing responsibilities===
* '''[[Lockheed Martin Aeronautics]] (prime contractor)'''
** Final assembly
** Overall system integration
** Mission system
** Forward fuselage
** Wings
* '''[[Northrop Grumman]]'''
** [[Active Electronically Scanned Array]] (AESA) radar
** Center fuselage
** Weapons bay
** Arrestor gear
* '''[[BAE Systems]]'''
** Aft fuselage and empennages
** Horizontal and vertical tails
** Crew life support and escape
** [[Electronic warfare]] systems
** Fuel system
** Flight Control Software (FCS1)
==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item|filename=F-35 compilation.ogg|title=F-35 flight (video)|description=F-35 flight, video of transition to VTOL configuration, hover, take off in STOVL configuration, in-flight re-fuelling, vertical hover and landing.|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video item|filename=F-35 gun.ogg|title=F-35 gun test (video)|description=Test firing of F-35 gun.|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video item|filename=F-35 verticl |
lis]], he became a physical fitness instructor at a pre- flight school in [[Chapel Hill, North Carolina]]. In the spring of 1943 he began service in the light [[aircraft carrier]] [[USS Monterey (CVL-26)|USS ''Monterey'' (CVL-26)]]. He was first assigned as athletic director and gunnery division officer, then as assistant [[navigator]] with the ''Monterey,'' which took part in most of the major operations in the [[Pacific War|South Pacific]], including [[Truk]], [[Saipan]], and the [[Philippines]]. His closest call with death came not as a result of enemy fire, however, but during a vicious [[typhoon]] in the [[Philippine Sea]] in December 1944. He came within inches of being swept overboard while the storm raged. The ship, which was severely damaged by the storm and a resulting fire, had to be taken out of service. Ford spent the remainder of the war ashore and was discharged as a [[lieutenant commander]] in February 1946.
==House of Representatives: Minority Leader==
Ford was a member of the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] for 24 years from 1949 to 1973, and became [[Minority Leader]] of the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] in the House. Ford was very popular with the voters in his district and was always re-elected with 60% margins. He always stayed in close touch with the people of Grand Rapids. During his first campaign, he visited [[farmer]]s and promised he would work on their farms and milk their cows if elected - a promise which he apparently fulfilled [http://www.englishcottagegardens.com/barnhistory.html]. Ford won an award in 1961 as a "Congressman's Congressman" that praised his committee work on military budgets. During his tenure, Ford was chosen to serve on the [[Warren Commission]], a special task force set up to investigate the causes of, and quell rumors regarding the [[Assassination of John F. Kennedy|assassination of President John F. Kennedy]]. The Commission eventually concluded that [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] had acted alone in killing the President. During the eight years (1965&ndash;1973) he served as Minority Leader, Ford won many friends in the House due to his fair leadership and inoffensive personality. He often attacked the "[[Great Society]]" programs of President [[Lyndon Johnson]] as unneeded or wasteful. He made a speech attacking Johnson's [[Vietnam war]] policies called "Why are we pulling our punches in [[Vietnam]]?” Ford charged that the President was meddling in the war effort and not letting the military do its job. Ford appeared on a televised series of [[press conference]]s with famed Illinois Senator [[Everett Dirksen]] that became very popular. The two men proposed Republican alternatives to President Johnson's policies. Many in the press jokingly called this "The Ev and Jerry Show". Ford also led an effort to [[impeachment|impeach]] [[William O. Douglas]], who was a Justice on the [[United States Supreme Court]]. Ford made a speech charging Douglas with criminal activities and with promoting rebellion in his writings.
==Vice Presidency==
After [[United States Vice President|Vice President]] [[Spiro Agnew]] resigned during [[Richard Nixon]]'s Presidency, on [[October 10]], [[1973]], Nixon nominated Ford to take Agnew's place, under the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment]] - the first time it was applied. The [[United States Senate]] voted 92 to 3 to confirm Ford on November 27, 1973 and on December 6, the House confirmed him 387 to 35. Ford had long been one of President Nixon's most outspoken supporters. Ford traveled widely as Vice President and made many speeches defending the embattled President. He cited the many achievements of President Nixon and dismissed Watergate as a media event and a tragic sideshow.
==Presidency 1974-1977==
===Assumption===
[[Image:Ford sworn-in.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Vice President Ford is sworn in as the 38th President of the United States by Chief Justice [[Warren Burger]] as [[Betty Ford|Mrs. Ford]] looks on.]]
When Nixon resigned in the wake of the Watergate scandal on [[9 August]] [[1974]], Ford assumed the Presidency (again under the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment]]), proclaiming that "our long national nightmare is over". On [[August 20]] Ford nominated former New York Governor [[Nelson Rockefeller]] to fill the Vice Presidency he had vacated, once more under the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment]].
===Pardon of Nixon===
On September 8, 1974, Ford gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he may have committed while President or, indeed, for anything else he might have done. Ford explained he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country. Ford also pardoned all Vietnam draft dodgers who had resisted the draft and fled to countries such as Canada.
At the time, the pardon was highly controversial. Critics of the Nixon Administration derided the pardon and claimed a "[[corrupt bargain]]" had been struck between the men. These critics claimed Ford's pardon was quid pro quo in exchange for Nixon's resignation that elevated Ford to the Presidency. Despite the controversy, no evidence of any collusion has ever surfaced, and Ford himself has consistently denied having ever discussed the matter with Nixon, either before or after the fact. Many historians believe the controversy was one of the major reasons Ford lost the election in [[U.S. presidential election, 1976|1976]].
The pardon controversy eventually subsided, and Ford now is widely regarded as being largely responsible for restoring the American public's faith and confidence in their political system. Ford's successor, Jimmy Carter, opened his 1977 [[inaugural address]] by praising the outgoing President. ''"For myself and for our Nation, I want to thank my predecessor for all he has done to heal our land."''
===Economy===
The economy was a great concern during the Ford administration. In response to rising [[inflation]], Ford went before the American public on television in October 1974 and asked them to "[[whip inflation now]]" (WIN); as part of this program, he urged people to wear "WIN" buttons. However, most people viewed this as simply a public relations gimmick without offering any effective means of solving the underlying problem. At the time inflation was around 7%, a relatively modest number in retrospect, but still enough to discourage investment and push capital overseas and into government bonds.
The economic focus began to change as the country sank into a mild recession, and in March 1975, Ford and Congress signed into law income tax rebates (see the [[Tax Reduction Act of 1975]]) to help boost the economy.
===Foreign policy===
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:ac.brezhnevford.jpg|right|thumb|200px|President Ford, left, and [[USSR]]'s [[Leonid Brezhnev]] meet at the Vladivostok summit negotiations, 1974]] -->
Ford also faced a foreign policy crisis with the [[Mayaguez Incident]]. In May 1975, shortly after the [[Khmer Rouge]] took power in [[Cambodia]], Cambodians seized an American merchant ship, the ''Mayaguez'', in international waters. Ford dispatched [[US Marines|Marines]] to rescue the crew, but the Marines landed on the wrong island and met unexpectedly stiff resistance just as, unknown to the U.S., the ''Mayaguez'' sailors were being released. In all phases of the operation, fifty service men were wounded and forty-one killed, including three men believed to have been left behind alive and subsequently executed and twenty-three Air Force personnel killed earlier while en route to the staging area in [[Thailand]]. It is believed that approximately sixty [[Khmer Rouge]] soldiers were killed out of a land and sea force of about 300.
Ford's Presidency also saw the final withdrawal of American personnel from [[Vietnam]], in '[[Operation Frequent Wind]]'. On 29 April and the morning of 30 April 1975 the American embassy in [[Ho Chi Minh City|Saigon]] was evacuated, amidst chaotic scenes. [http://www.learnersonline.com/weekly/archive2K/week16/]
<br clear="all">
===Assassination attempts===
[[Image:Frommeassassinationattempt.jpg|thumb|left|[[Secret Service]] rushing Ford to safety after [[assassination attempt]] by [[Lynette Fromme|Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme]] in [[Sacramento, California]]. [[September 5]], [[1975]]]]
While in [[Sacramento, California]] on [[September 5]], [[1975]], a follower of incarcerated [[cult leader]] [[Charles Manson]] named [[Lynette Fromme|Lynette "Squeaky" Fromme]] pointed a Colt .45-caliber [[handgun]] at Ford's [[stomach]] as he was shaking hands with well-wishers. She pulled the trigger, but the bullet jammed. Apparently, the secret service (or some form of security) got to her before she could do anything else, and, as such, she was caught and nobody was injured.
Seventeen days later, another woman &ndash; [[Sara Jane Moore]] &ndash; also tried to kill Ford in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]; but her shooting attempt was thwarted by a bystander, [[Oliver Sipple]] who hit her arm and deflected her shot.
<br clear="all">
===Administration and Cabinet===
[[Image:A5235-5.jpg|right|thumb|170px|Gerald Ford meets with his Cabinet.]]
{| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;" align="left"
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|-
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|align="left"|[[President of the United States|President]]||align="left" |'''Gerald Ford'''||align="left"|1974&ndash;1977
|-
|align="left& |
ssageboard-page=1 Harrowing Heroin by Geoff Morton]
* [http://www.addictioninfo.org/ AddictionInfo contemporary addiction information]
* [http://www.drugabuse.gov/researchreports/nicotine/nicotine.html/ NIDA research report on Nicotine Addiction]
[[Category:Addiction|*]]
[[Category:Motivation]]
[[Category:Unsolved problems in neuroscience]]
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[[nl:Verslaving]]
[[ja:依存症]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Axiom</title>
<id>928</id>
<revision>
<id>41064244</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T20:53:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>141.210.100.235</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
In [[epistemology]], an '''axiom''' is a [[self-evidence|self-evident]] truth upon which other knowledge must rest, from which other knowledge is built up. Not all [[epistemologist]]s agree that any axioms, understood in that sense, exist.
In [[mathematics]], an '''axiom''' is ''not'' necessarily a ''self-evident'' truth, but rather a formal logical expression used in a deduction to yield further results. Mathematics distinguishes two types of axioms: [[#Logical axioms|logical axioms]] and [[#Non-logical axioms|non-logical axioms]].
==Etymology==
The word ''axiom'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word
&alpha;&xi;&iota;&omega;&mu;&alpha; (''axioma''), which means that which is deemed worthy or fit or that which is considered [[self-evidence|self-evident]]. The word comes from &alpha;&xi;&iota;&omicron;&epsilon;&iota;&nu; (''axioein''), meaning to deem worthy, which in turn comes from &alpha;&xi;&iota;&omicron;&sigmaf; (''axios''), meaning worthy. Among the [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[philosopher]]s an axiom was a claim which could be seen to be true without any need for proof.
==Mathematics==
In the field of [[mathematical logic]], a clear distinction is made between two notions of axioms: '''logical axioms''' and '''non-logical axioms'''.
===Logical axioms===
These are certain [[Mathematical logic#Definition:Formula|formulas]] in a [[Mathematical logic#Definition:FirstOrderLanguage|language]] that are [[Mathematical logic#Definition:ValidFormula|universally valid]], that is, formulas that are [[Mathematical logic#Definition:Satisfaction|satisfied]] by every [[Mathematical logic#Definition:Structure|structure]] under every [[Mathematical logic#Definition:VariableAssignmentFunction|variable assignment function]] . In colloquial terms, these are statements that are ''true'' in any possible universe, under any possible interpretation and with any assignment of values. Usually one takes as logical axioms some minimal set of tautologies that is sufficient for proving all [[tautology|tautologies]] in the language.
====Examples====
In the [[propositional calculus]] it is common to take as logical axioms all formulas of the following forms, where <math>\phi</math>, <math>\psi</math>, and <math>\chi</math> can be any formulas of the language:
#<math>\phi \to (\psi \to \phi)</math>
#<math>(\phi \to (\psi \to \chi)) \to ((\phi \to \psi) \to (\phi \to \chi))</math>
#<math>(\lnot \phi \to \lnot \psi) \to (\psi \to \phi)</math>
Each of these patterns is an ''[[axiom schema]]'', a rule for generating an infinite number of axioms. For example, if <math>A</math>, <math>B</math>, and <math>C</math> are propositional variables, then <math>A \to (B \to A)</math> and <math>(A \to \lnot B) \to (C \to (A \to \lnot B))</math> are both instances of axiom schema 1, and hence are axioms. It can be shown that with only these three axiom schemata and ''[[modus ponens]]'', one can prove all tautologies of the propositional calculus. It can also be shown that no pair of these schemata is sufficient for proving all tautologies with ''modus ponens''.
These axiom schemata are also used in the [[predicate calculus]], but additional logical axioms are needed.
<div style="border-left: 3px double #CCCCCC; padding-left: 5px; ">
'''Example.''' Let <math>\mathfrak{L}\,</math> be a first-order language. For each variable <math>x\,</math>, the formula
<center>
<math>x = x</math>
</center>
is universally valid.
</div>
This means that, for any [[Mathematical logic#Definition:FirstOrderLanguage|variable symbol]] <math>x\,</math>, the formula <math>x = x\,</math> can be regarded as an axiom. Also, in this example, for this not to fall into vagueness and a never-ending series of "primitive notions", either a precise notion of what we mean by <math>x = x\,</math> (or, for all what matters, "to be equal") has to be well established first, or a purely formal and syntactical usage of the symbol <math>=\,</math> has to be enforced, and [[mathematical logic]] does indeed do that.
Another, more interesting example, is that which provides us with what is known as '''universal instantiation''':
<div style="border-left: 3px double #CCCCCC; padding-left: 5px; ">
'''Example.''' Given a formula <math>\phi\,</math> in a first-order language <math>\mathfrak{L}\,</math>, a variable <math>x\,</math> and a [[Mathematical logic#Definition:Term|term]] <math>t\,</math> that is [[Mathematical logic#Definition:VariableSubstitutionInFormula|substitutable]] for <math>x\,</math> in <math>\phi\,</math>, the formula
<center>
<math>\forall x. \phi \to \phi^x_t</math>
</center>
is universally valid.
</div>
In informal terms, this example allows us to state that, if we know that a certain property <math>P\,</math> holds for every <math>x\,</math> and that if <math>t\,</math> stands for a particular object in our structure, then we should be able to claim <math>P(t)\,</math>. Again, ''we are claiming that the formula'' <math>\forall x. \phi \to \phi^x_t</math> ''is valid'', that is, we must be able to give a "proof" of this fact, or more properly speaking, a ''metaproof''. Actually, these examples are ''metatheorems'' of our theory of mathematical logic since we are dealing with the very concept of ''proof'' itself. Aside from this, we can also have '''existential generalization''':
<div style="border-left: 3px double #CCCCCC; padding-left: 5px; ">
'''Axiom scheme.''' Given a formula <math>\phi\,</math> in a first-order language <math>\mathfrak{L}\,</math>, a variable <math>x\,</math> and a term <math>t\,</math> that is substitutable for <math>x\,</math> in <math>\phi\,</math>, the formula
<center>
<math>\phi^x_t \to \exists x. \phi</math>
</center>
is universally valid.
</div>
===Non-logical axioms===
'''Non-logical axioms''' are formulas that play the role of theory-specific assumptions. Reasoning about two different structures, for example the [[natural number]]s and the [[integer]]s, may involve the same logical axioms; the non-logical axioms aim to capture what is special about a particular structure (or set of structures, such as [[group (algebra)|groups]]). Thus non-logical axioms, unlike logical axioms, are not ''tautologies''. Another name for a non-logical axiom is ''postulate''.
Almost every modern [[mathematical theory]] starts from a given set of non-logical axioms, and it was thought that in principle every theory could be axiomatized in this way and formalized down to the bare language of logical formulas. This turned out to be impossible and proved to be quite a story (''[[#role|see below]]'').
Non-logical axioms are often simply referred to as ''axioms'' in mathematical discourse. This does not mean that it is claimed that they are true in some absolute sense. For example, in some [[group (algebra)|groups]], the group operation is [[commutative]], and this can be asserted with the introduction of an additional axiom, but without this axiom we can do quite well developing (the more general) group theory, and we can even take its negation as an axiom for the study of non-commutative groups.
Thus, an ''axiom'' is an elementary basis for a formal logic system that together with the [[rules of inference]] define a '''deductive system'''.
====Examples====
This section gives examples of mathematical theories that are developed entirely from a set of non-logical axioms (axioms, henceforth). A rigorous treatment of any of these topics begins with a specification of these axioms.
Basic theories, such as [[arithmetic]], [[real analysis]] (sometimes referred to as ''the theory of functions of one real variable''), [[linear algebra]], and [[complex analysis]] (a.k.a. ''complex variables''), are often introduced non-axiomatically in mostly technical studies, but any rigorous course in these subjects always begins by presenting its axioms.
''Geometries'' such as [[Euclidean geometry]], [[projective geometry]], [[symplectic geometry]]. Interestingly one of the results of the fifth Euclidean axiom being a non-logical axiom is that the three angles of a triangle do not by definition add to 180°. Only under the umbrella of Euclidean geometry is this always true.
The study of topology in mathematics extends all over through [[point set topology]], [[algebraic topology]], [[differential topology]], and all the related paraphernalia, such as [[homology theory]], [[homotopy theory]].
The development of ''abstract algebra'' brought with itself [[group theory]], [[ring (mathemat |
into Jupiter's atmosphere — the first time astronomers had observed a collision between two objects in the solar system.{{hnote|Kronk, 'D/1993 F2 Shoemaker-Levy 9'}} However, it has been suggested that the object responsible for the [[Tunguska event]] in 1908 was a fragment of Comet Encke.
==Comets in fiction==
Comets are popular subjects for science fiction authors and filmmakers although they are often misrepresented as fiery objects, rather than icy.
* [[Jules Verne]]'s ''Hector Servadac, Voyages et aventures à travers le Monde Solaire'' (''[[Off on a Comet]]'', 1877) is a [[Victorian era|Victorian]] vision of touring the solar system ''via'' a handy comet.
* [[H. G. Wells]]' ''[[In the Days of the Comet]]'' (1905) is an account of how the vapours of a comet's tail cause an instantaneous worldwide utopian society.
* [[Tove Jansson]]'s ''[[Comet in Moominland]]'' (1946) depicts the world of the [[Moomin]]s threatened by a fiery comet.
* ''[[The Day of the Triffids]]'' (1951) is a deeply implausible novel by [[John Wyndham]] in which a [[meteor shower]] causes permanent and irreversible blindness in the population and renders them easy prey to giant mobile vegetables.
* ''[[Lucifer's Hammer]]'' (1977), a novel by [[Larry Niven]] and [[Jerry Pournelle]], is an apocalyptic survival story featuring a comet impact on Earth.
* In ''[[Heart of the Comet]]'' (1987), a novel by [[Gregory Benford]] and [[David Brin]], a multinational team colonizes [[Comet Halley|Halley's Comet]], building a habitat within the ice.
* [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s novel ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'' (1988) includes a detailed description of a manned mission to [[Comet Halley|Halley's Comet]].
* ''[[The Hammer of God]]'' (1993) is a novel by [[Arthur C. Clarke]] in which an object (Kali) which threatens to strike earth appears to be an almost dead comet.
* The [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]]/[[DreamWorks Pictures|DreamWorks]] motion picture ''[[Deep Impact (movie)|Deep Impact]]'' (1998) tells the story of a comet on a collision course with Earth, and focuses primarily on the emotional reactions of those who are affected by the impending disaster.
==Quote==
* ''Comets are like cats. They both have tails and do precisely what they want.'' - [[David H. Levy]] an American astronomer who has discovered many comets, lamenting the difficulty of predicting the likely spectacle to be presented by a forthcoming comet apparition.
==See also==
* [[List of periodic comets]]
* [[List of non-periodic comets]]
* [[Torino Scale]] for categorizing the impact hazard
==References==
# Aristotle (ca. 350 B.C.) ''Meteorologia''. An English translation by E.W. Webster is [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.1.i.html available online].
# Bill Arnett. (2000). "Astronomical Names." [http://www.nineplanets.org/names.html Available online].
# Committee on Small Body Nomenclature (1994). "Cometary Designation System." [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/cfa/ps/lists/CometResolution.html Available online].
# European Southern Observatory. (2003). "A Brief History of Comets." Available online: [http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-1.html Part I], [http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-2.html Part II].
# {{cite journal | author=Edmundo Halleio | title=Astronomi&aelig; Cometic&aelig; Synopsis | journal=Philosophical Transactions | year=1705 | volume=24 | pages=1882–1899 }}
# Gary W. Kronk. (2001–2005). ''Cometography''. [http://cometography.com Available online].
# I.S. Newton (1687). ''Philosophi&aelig; Naturalis Principia Mathematica''. Londoni: Josephi Streater.
# Samuel Pepys (1893). ''The Diary of Samuel Pepys, M.A., F.R.S.''. London: George Bell & Sons.
# Vigyan Prasar (2001). "Development of Cometary Thought." Available online: [http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/mar2001/comets.htm Part I], [http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/apr2001/comets.htm Part II].
# Reading Museum Service (2000-2004). ''Britain's Bayeux Tapestry.'' [http://www.bayeuxtapestry.org.uk/ Available online]. Accessed [[22 April]] [[2005]].
# {{cite book | author=Carl Sagan & Ann Druyan | title=Comet | publisher=New York:Random House | year=1985 | id=ISBN 0-394-54908-2 }}
# Solar and Heliospheric Observatory. (2005). "The SOHO 1000th Comet Contest." [http://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/comet1000/ Available online].
# {{cite journal | author=F.L. Whipple | title=A Comet Model I. The Acceleration of Comet Encke | journal=Astrophysical Journal | year=1950 | volume=111 | pages=375–394 }}
==External links==
{{Commons2|Comets}}
*[http://www.cometography.com/ Cometography.com]
*[http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/comet.html David Jewitt overview of the comets]
*[http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/Headlines.html Listing of newly discovered comets]
*[http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/icq/icq.html Source of useful comet-related material on the Web]
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Astronomy/Solar_System/Asteroids,_Comets_and_Meteors/Comets/ Comets]
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QB721xM635/ ESSAY ON COMETS], which gained the first of Dr. Fellowes's prizes, proposed to those who had attended the University of Edinburgh within the last twelve years. By David Milne. Publisher: Edinburgh, Printed for A. Black; 1828. ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] & [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QB721xM635/1f/essay_on_comets.pdf layered PDF] format)''
{{MinorPlanets_Footer}}
{{Footer_SolarSystem}}
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[[Category:Comets|*]]
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[[zh:彗星]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Status of the porting of the CIA World Factbook</title>
<id>5965</id>
<revision>
<id>36745258</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T04:18:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Doug Bell</username>
<id>752893</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>|{{PAGENAME}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There is now a 2005 [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ CIA - The World Factbook] available online. Most of our entries are from the 2000 edition. Anyone with a lot of time and a sense of purpose is encouraged to update our articles with the new data.
==Pieces of information ported not country-by-country==
*[[Table of historical exchange rates]]
*[[Wikipedia:Undisambiguated abbreviations/CIA World Factbook|Abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook]] (2002 edition; not entirely ported to [[List of general acronyms]])
--------------------------------------------
==Countries==
Please annotate the list below with the current status of the port from the CIA web site to the Wikipedia
__NOTOC__
<div style="margin: 0.5em; padding: 0.2em; background-color: #f4f4ff; border: 1px solid #aaaaff; text-align: center;">
[[#A|A]] [[#B|B]] [[#C|C]] [[#D|D]] [[#E|E]] [[#F|F]] [[#G|G]] [[#H|H]] [[#I|I]] [[#J|J]] [[#K|K]] [[#L|L]] [[#M|M]] [[#N|N]] [[#O|O]] [[#P|P]] [[#Q|Q]] [[#R|R]] [[#S|S]] [[#T|T]] [[#U|U]] [[#V|V]] [[#W|W]] [[#X|X]] [[#Y|Y]] [[#Z|Z]]
</div>
===A===
* [[Afghanistan]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Regulus|Regulus]] 10:53, Aug 29, 2003 (UTC)
* [[Akrotiri]]
* [[Albania]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Regulus|Regulus]] 11:07, Aug 29, 2003 (UTC)
* [[Algeria]] (Updated to 2003) [[User:Regulus|Regulus]] 11:05, 6 Sep 2003 (UTC)
* [[American Samoa]]
* [[Andorra]]
* [[Angola]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 31 Oct 2003
* [[Anguilla]]
* [[Antarctica]] (finished)
* [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
* [[Arctic Ocean]]
* [[Argentina]]
* [[Armenia]]
* [[Aruba]]
* [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
* [[Atlantic Ocean]]
* [[Australia]]
* [[Austria]]
* [[Azerbaijan]]
===B===
* [[Bahamas|Bahamas, The]]
* [[Bahrain]]
* [[Baker Island]]
* [[Bangladesh]]
* [[Barbados]]
* [[Bassas da India]]
* [[Belarus]]
* [[Belgium]]
* [[Belize]]
* [[Benin]] (geography done)
* [[Bermuda]]
* [[Bhutan]]
* [[Bolivia]]
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (partly 2000, partly 2003)
* [[Botswana]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 2 Nov 2003
* [[Bouvet Island]] (finished)
* [[Brazil]]
* [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]
* [[British Virgin Islands]] ([[Geography of the British Virgin Islands|Geography]] updated to 2004)
* [[Brunei]]
* [[Bulgaria]]
* [[Burkina Faso]]
* [[Burma]]
* [[Burundi]]
===C===
* [[Cambodia]]
* [[Cameroon]]
* [[Canada]]
* [[Cape Verde]]
* [[Cayman Islands]]
* [[Central African Republic]]
* [[Chad]]
* [[Chile]]
* [[China]]
* [[Christmas Island]]
* [[Clipperton Island]]
* [[Cocos Islands|Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]
* [[Colombia]]
* [[Comoros]] (just added, Aug. 1 '01)
* [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 31 Oct 2003
* [[Republic of the Congo|Congo, Republic of the]]
* [[Cook Islands]]
* [[Coral Sea Islands]]
* [[Costa Rica]]
* [[Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Croatia]] (updated to 2003)
* [[Cuba]]
* [[Cyprus]]
* [[Czech Republic]]
===D===
* [[Denmark]] (finished)
* [[Dhekelia]]
* [[Djibouti]]
* [[Dominica]]
* [[Dominican Republic]]
===E===
* [[Ecuador]]
* [[East Timor]]
* [[Egypt]]
* [[El Salvador]]
* [[Equatorial Guinea]]
* [[Eritrea]]
* [[Estonia]]
* [[Ethiopia]] (partly updated to 2004)
* [[Eu |
Gallen-Kallela]].
===Drawing style===
With a bachelor of arts degree in civil engineering as his only real drawing education, Don Rosa has some unusual drawing methods, as he writes himself: "''I suspect '''nothing''' I do is done the way anyone else does it''." Because of being self-taught in making comics, Don relies mostly on the skills he learned in engineering school -- which means using technical pens and templates a lot. He applies forms of plastic artifacts to draw curves, circles and ovals. He usually draws just under a page per day, but that depends on the amount of detail he puts in the picture.
===Carl Barks===
Don Rosa's greatest idol when it comes to comics has always been Carl Barks. Rosa builds almost all his stories on characters and locations that Barks invented. Many of Rosa's stories contain references to some fact pointed out in a Barks story. Rosa has even created sequels of old Barks stories. For example, his ''Return To Xanadu'' is a sequel to ''[[Tralla La]],'' where the Ducks return to the same hidden country.
Barks either created most of the characters used by Don or is credited for greatly developing their personalities. Rosa thus feels obliged to make his stories factually consistent. He has spend a lot of time in making lists of facts and anecdotes pointed out in different stories by his mentor. Especially the series ''The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck'' was based mostly on the earlier works of Barks. Don admitted however that a scene of the first chapter was inspired by a story by [[Tony Strobl]].
===D.U.C.K.===
Most Don Rosa stories have the letters '''D.U.C.K''' hidden somewhere in the first panel. Don's covers also usually have '''D.U.C.K.''' in them. This is an acronym for '''''D'''edicated to '''U'''nca '''C'''arl from '''K'''eno''. Because Disney would not allow for personal signatures in the comics, and thought that D.U.C.K looked too much like one, Don Rosa has made a habit of hiding the letters in various unlikely places. Many of his readers have made a sport out of finding them. In the beginning he just wrote '''D.U.C.K''', he didn't try to hide it. It was deleted by the editor because it looked to much like a signature. Later he discovered that he just could hide it, so the editor didn't see it. '''D.U.C.K''' is in most cases hidden in the very first image, on the first page of the story.
===Mickeys===
Another curiosity is his "''hidden Mickeys''". Don Rosa is only interested in creating stories featuring the Duck family. But he often hides small [[Mickey Mouse]] heads or figures in the pictures, sometimes in a humiliating or unwanted situation. An example of this is in the story ''The Terror of the Transvaal'' where a flat Mickey can be seen under an elephant's foot. This is mostly a gag done for the fun of it. Don has admitted to neither liking nor disliking Mickey Mouse, but being indifferent to him.
In the second Rosa story featuring [[The Three Caballeros]], Donald Duck is shocked by the sight of a capybara standing on its hind legs, with shrubs, leaves and fruit in front of its body, coincidentally making it look like Mickey Mouse. [[José Carioca]] and [[Panchito Pistoles]], never having seen Mickey Mouse, ask Donald what is wrong, but Donald replies he is just tired.
In [[The Quest for Kalevala]] this running gag can be seen on the original, [[Akseli Gallen-Kallela]] -inspired cover art. In the original work, [[Louhi]] is depicted as bare-chested, but the Disneyfied version has been drawn a top, of fabric patterned with Mickey Mouse heads.
==Awards==
His work has won him a good deal of recognition in the industry, including nominations for the Comics' Buyer's Guide Award for Favorite Writer in 1997, 1998, and 1999.
==External links==
* [http://www.duckmania.de/english/ DuckMania &mdash; A Don Rosa fan page]
* [http://personal.sdf.bellsouth.net/d/a/danshane/scroopage/Intro.htm Artwork and details presented by Don Rosa]
* [http://www.duckhunt.de/ Duckhunt]
* [http://duckman.pettho.com/drinfo/drwork.html Article about his work]
* [http://duckman.pettho.com/drinfo/drtline.html Timeline]
* [http://duckman.pettho.com/drinfo/drinfo.html Detailed profile of Don Rosa]
* [http://stp.ling.uu.se/~starback/dcml/creators/rosa-on-himself.html Different information by Don Rosa]
* [http://www.perunamaa.net/donrosa/intro_long.shtml Another Detailed profile of Don Rosa]
* [http://coa.inducks.org/coa/c1/creator.php/0/DR/1 His profile in the Inducks]
* [http://users.rcn.com/aardy/comics/awards/ Comic Book Awards Almanac]
* [http://www.gazette.no/donrosa/ Rosa's two non-Disney hardcover books]
[[Category:1951 births|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:Living people|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:Comics artists|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:Comics writers|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:Louisvillians|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:University of Kentucky|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:Eisner Award winners|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:Donald Duck|Rosa, Don]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Denis Arkadievich Kaufman</title>
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<title>Denis Abramovich Kaufman</title>
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<page>
<title>Dziga Vertov</title>
<id>8930</id>
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<id>36593545</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-25T03:35:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Pinktulip</username>
<id>739543</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dziga Vertov.jpg|thumb|100px|Dziga Vertov]]
'''Dziga Vertov''' ({{lang-ru|Дзига Вертов}}, [[January 2]], [[1896]]&ndash;[[February 12]], [[1954]]) was a [[Russia]]n [[documentary film]] and [[newsreel]] director.
Born '''Denis Abramovich Kaufman''' into a family of [[Jew]]ish intellectuals in [[Bialystok]], [[Congress Poland]], then a part of the [[Russian Empire]], he Russified his Jewish [[patronymic]] to ''Arkadievich'' in his youth. Kaufman studied music at Bialystok Conservatory until his parents fled with their family from the invading [[German army]] to [[Moscow]] in [[1915]]. The family soon settled in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], where Kaufman began writing [[poetry]] and [[science fiction]]/[[satire]]. In [[1916]]-[[1917]] Kaufman was studying medicine at the Psychoneurological Institute in St. Petersburg and experimenting with "sound collages" in his free time. Kaufman adopted the name "Dziga Vertov", which means "spinning top"; Vertov's political writings and his work on the [[Kino-Pravda]] newsreel series show a revolutionary bent.
After the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] of 1917, at the age of 22, Vertov began editing for ''Kino-Nedelia'' (the Moscow Cinema Committee's weekly film series, and the first newsreel series in Russia). While working for ''Kino-Nedelia'' he met [[Elizaveta Svilova]], who was later to become his wife (at the time she was employed in film preservation). The first issue of the series came out in June [[1918]].
[[Image:Kaufman brothers mikhail and david.jpg|left|thumb|With Mikhail Kaufman]]
Vertov worked on the series for three years, helping establish and run a film-car on President [[Kalinin]]'s [[agit-train]] during the ongoing war between [[Communist]]s and [[counterrevolutionary|counterrevolutionaries]]. Some of the cars on the agit-trains were equipped with actors for live performances or [[printing press]]es; Vertov's had equipment to shoot, develop, edit, and project film. The trains went to battlefronts on [[agitprop|agitation-propaganda]] missions intended primarily to bolster the morale of the troops; they were also intended to inflame peasants into a revolutionary fervor.
In 1919, Vertov compiled newsreel footage for his documentary ''Anniversary of the Revolution;'' in [[1921]] he compiled ''History of the [[Russian Civil War|Civil War]].'' The so-called "Council of Three," a group issuing manifestoes in ''LEF,'' a radical Russian newsmagazine, was established in [[1922]]; the group's "three" was simply Vertov, his wife and editor Elizaveta Svilova, and his brother and [[cinematographer]] [[Mikhail Kaufman]]. Vertov's interest in machinery led to a curiosity about the mechanical basis of [[film|cinema]]. Vertov's brother [[Boris Kaufman]] was a noted cinematographer who worked for directors such as [[Elia Kazan]] and [[Sidney Lumet]]; his other brother, Mikhail Kaufman, worked as Vertov's cinematographer until he became a documentarian in his own right.
In 1922, the year that ''[[Nanook of the North]]'' was released, Vertov started the [[Kino-Pravda]] series. The series took its title from the government newspaper [[Pravda]], founded by [[Vladimir Ilyich Lenin]] in 1912. "Kino-Pravda" (literally translated, "film truth") continued Vertov's agit-prop bent.
[[Image:1923 one-sixth part of the world poster by Rodchenko for film by Dziga Vertov.jpg|thumb|1923. The dark page of history gets turned over in this [[Alexander Rodchenko|Rodchenko]]'s poster for Vertov's film ''One-Sixth Part of the World'']]
Vertov's driving vision, expounded in his f |
ent framing for packing a smorgasbord of historical alternatives (and even of timeline "branches") into a single novel, either via the hero chasing or being chased by the villain(s) through multiple worlds or (less artfully) via discussions between the paratime cops and their superiors (or between paratime agents and new recruits) regarding the histories of such worlds. Paratime thrillers published in recent decades often cite the [[Many-worlds interpretation|many-worlds interpretation]] of [[Quantum mechanics|quantum mechanics]] (first formulated by [[Hugh Everett III]] in 1957) to account for the differing worlds. Prior to Everett, science-fiction writers drew on cruder fringe-science and Ouspenskian speculations to explain their characters' cross-time jauntings.
The popular theme was further developed in the 1960s by [[Keith Laumer]] in the first two volumes of his ''Imperium'' trilogy, which would be completed in ''Zone Yellow'' (1990). Piper's politically more sophisticated variant was adopted and adapted by [[Michael Kurland]] and [[Jack Chalker]] in the 1980s; Chalker's ''[[God, Inc.]]'' trilogy (1987-89), featuring paratime detectives Sam and Brandy Horowitz, marks the first attempt at merging the paratime thriller with the police procedural. Kurland's ''[[Perchance]]'' (1988), the first volume of the never completed "Chronicles of Elsewhen", presents a multiverse of secretive empires that utilize a variety of means for cross-time travel, ranging from high-tech capsules to mutant powers.
The concept of a cross-time version of a world war, involving rival paratime empires, was developed in [[Richard C. Meredith]]'s ''Timeliner'' trilogy in the 1970s, [[Michael McCollum]]'s ''A Greater Infinity'' (1982) and [[John Barnes (author)|John Barnes]]' ''Timeline Wars'' trilogy in the 1990s.
Given the limitless fictional possibilities of paratime travel themes, and the fact that both [[string theory]] and the many-worlds theory of quantum physics provide a highly plausible hard-science-fiction foundation for such stories, it is probable that this variant will continue to flourish in tandem with the more "conventional" alternate history stories described below.
=== Development of more sophisticated framings ===
Most of the early cross-time thrillers depicted the multiverse in Euclidean terms (pancake universes stretching to left and right of any given zero universe with the divergence point being earlier and earlier, and the differences greater and greater, the farther one moved in either direction from the zero point). McCollum and some later writers, however, have posited a pseudo-Einsteinian paratime in which universes are constantly shifting around, moving closer or farther from each other, with time dilating or contracting from one universe to another in unpredicable ways. This framing device expands the potential for using cross-time fiction to compare different outcomes uptime, downtime and crosstime all at once.
=== Major U.S. writers explore alternate histories ===
In [[1962]], [[Philip K. Dick]] published [[The Man in the High Castle]], an alternate history in which [[Nazi Germany]] and [[imperial Japan]] won [[World War II]]. This book, widely regarded as Dick's masterpiece, has enhanced the prestige of alternate history in mainstream literary circles, although Dick was not yet recognized beyond s-f circles when it was first published. Dick's book also contained an example of "alternate-alternate" history, in that one of its characters is the author of a book in which the Allies won the war.
It was followed by [[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s ''[[Ada]]'' (1969) (full title, ''Ada, or Ardor: A Family Chronicle''), a story of incest that takes place within an alternate North America settled in part by Czarist Russia, and that borrows from Dick's idea of "alternate-alternate" history (the world of Nabokov's hero is wracked by rumors of a "counter-earth" that apparently is ours). Some critics believe that the references to a counter-earth suggest that the world portrayed in "Ada" is a delusion in the mind of the hero (another favorite theme of Dick's novels). But even if the Ada-world is regarded as a delusion, it is still alternate history, since Nabokov describes it in detail and makes it come alive artistically. (Since all AH works are imaginative fiction, it really matters little if the AH is presented as the author's fiction alone or as the author's fiction mediated through a delusional character.)
''[[The Plot Against America]]'' ([[2004]]) by [[Philip Roth]] looks at an America where [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] is defeated in 1940 in his bid for a third term as President of the United States, and [[Charles Lindbergh]] is elected, leading to increasing [[fascism]] in the U.S.
=== Contemporary alternate history in popular literature, including the s-f genre ===
The late 1980s and the 1990s saw a boom in popular-fiction versions of alternate history, fueled by the emergence of [[Harry Turtledove]], the [[steampunk]] genre and two series of anthologies&mdash; the "What Might Have Been" series edited by [[Gregory Benford]] and the "Alternate ..." series edited by [[Mike Resnick]]. This period also saw alternate history works by [[S.M. Stirling]], [[Kim Stanley Robinson]], [[Harry Harrison]] and others.
Since the late 1990s, Harry Turtledove has been the most prolific practitioner of alternate history. His books include a series in which [[Confederate States of America|the South]] won the [[American Civil War]] and another in which aliens invade Earth during the [[World War II|Second World War]]. Other stories by this author include one with the premise that [[the Americas|America]] had not been colonized from [[Asia]] during the last [[ice age]]; as a result, the continent still has living [[mammoth]]s and a [[hominid]] species other than [[homo sapiens]]. Most recently (2005) he has begun a series in which the Japanese not only bomb [[Pearl Harbor]] but also invade and occupy the Hawaiian Islands. He has also launched an alternate history series for teenagers that utilizes a version of H. Beam Piper's paratime-trading-empire framing.
Perhaps the most incessantly explored theme in popular alternate history focusses on worlds in which the Nazis won World War Two. In some versions, the Nazis conquer the entire world; in others, they conquer most of the world but a "Fortress America" exists under siege. ''[[Fatherland (novel)|Fatherland]]'' (1992) by [[Robert Harris]], set in Europe following the [[Nazi]] victory, has been widely praised for portraying a more believable society and series of events than most other novels set in a Nazified world or Nazified Eurasia. Several writers have posited points of departure for such a world but then have injected time splitters from the future or paratime travel (for instance, [[James P. Hogan]]'s ''The Proteus Operation'' (1986) and [[Michael P. Kube-McDowell]]'s ''Alternities'' (1988)).
=== Alternate history in the contemporary fantasy genre ===
Many fantasies and science fantasies are set in a world that has a history somewhat similar to our own world, but with magic added. Since the existence of magic implies different laws of nature it is difficult to imagine a credible point of divergence: The effects of divergence would have existed throughout human history and indeed throughout all evolution of life (unless one posits sudden changes in the laws of nature in medieval or modern times brought about by aliens, a time-space warp, etc.). One example of a universe that is in part historically recognizable but also obeys different physical laws is [[Poul Anderson]]'s ''Three Hearts and Three Lions'' in which the [[Matter of France]] is history, and the fairy folk are real and powerful. A partly familiar European history for which the author attempts to provide a logic-defying point of divergence is [[Randall Garrett]]'s "Lord Darcy" series. Whether a POD is hypothesized or not, it is probably best to regard such stories as depicting a kind of pseudo-alternity.
[[Jonathan Strange and Mr Norrell]] takes place in an alternate version of England where a separate Kingdom ruled by the Raven King and founded on magic existed for some time in Northumbria. In [[Patricia Wrede]]'s Regency fantasies, Great Britain has a Royal Society of Wizards, and in [[Poul Anderson]]'s ''A Midsummer's Tempest'' [[William Shakespeare]] is remembered as the Great Historian, with the novel itself taking place in the era of [[Cromwell]] and [[Charles I]]--and a premature [[Industrial Revolution]].
When the magical version of our world's history is set in contemporary times, one must clearly differentiate between alternate history on the one hand and secret history (as exemplified by [[Roswell]] saucers in an Air Force hanger or the [[Philadelphia Experiment]]) on the other. In works such as [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s "Magic, Incorporated" where a construction company can use magic to rig up stands at a sporting event and [[Poul Anderson]]'s ''Operation Chaos'' and its sequel ''Operation Luna'', where djinns are serious weapons of war -- with atomic bombs -- the use of magic throughout the United States and other modern countries makes it clear that this is not secret history or the result of a mere POD. Indeed, whenever the effects of the fantasical elements are so powerful and pervasive that they cannot plausibly be explained via secret machinations or a point of departure caused by human decisions, then the history depicted should be regarded as a pseudo-alternity. (This should apply not just to fantasy alternities but to satiric ones in which highly improbable events occur, as in ''What Mad Universe''.)
[[Philip Pullman]] mined both pseudo-alternate history and cross-time themes in ''[[His Dark Materials]]'' (1996-2000), a science-fantasy trilogy |
[[Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson|Tennyson]]'s Poems, illustrated by Lear'' (1889)
*''Facsimile of a Nonsense Alphabet'' (1849, but not published until 1926)
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Edward+Lear | name=Edward Lear}}
*[http://www.bencourtney.com/ebooks/lear/ Edward Lear's Books of Nonsense]
*[http://www.nonsenselit.org/Lear Edward Lear Home Page] at [http://www.nonsenselit.org nonsenselit.org]
[[Category:1812 births|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:1888 deaths|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:English children's writers|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:English poets|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:English fantasy writers|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:Epileptics|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:British illustrators|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:Bird artists|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Lear, Edward]]
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<page>
<title>Eve Arden</title>
<id>10409</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-28T23:39:01Z</timestamp>
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<username>Ben King</username>
<id>389535</id>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eve Arden.jpg|thumb|200px|Arden with [[Armed Forces Radio Service]] in the [[1940s]]]]
'''Eve Arden''' ([[April 30]], [[1908]] - [[November 12]], [[1990]]) was an [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-nominated [[United States|American]] actress whose career lay squarely on the border between leading lady and [[character actress|character actor]]. Her work in film, television, and theatre, and especially her expertise in delivering sharp, wry lines that never concealed her essential warmth as a performer, made her among the most fondly remembered actresses of her era.
==Early life==
Arden was born '''Eunice Quedens''' in [[Mill Valley, California]] to parents who split up when she was a child. She declared later in life that she needed therapy because her mother was so much more beautiful than she was.
==Career==
Arden began her career on stage, making her [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] debut in 1934. Her many memorable screen roles include a supporting role as a world-weary thespian in [[Stage Door]], [[Joan Crawford]]'s wise-cracking pal in [[1945]]'s ''[[Mildred Pierce]]'' (for which she received an [[Academy Award]] nomination as Best Supporting Actress), and [[James Stewart]]'s wistful secretary in [[1959]]'s ''[[Anatomy of a Murder]]''. Later in her career, she portrayed Principal McGee in both [[1978]]'s ''[[Grease (musical)|Grease]]'' and [[1982]]'s ''[[Grease 2]]''.
She starred as Madison High School English teacher Connie Brooks in the comedy [[Our Miss Brooks]] on [[radio]] ([[1948]]-[[1952]]), [[television]] ([[1952]]-[[1956]]), and in a [[1956]] related feature film. She appeared with [[Kaye Ballard]] in the 1967-1969 sitcom, [[The Mothers-In-Law]], which was produced by her old friend [[Desi Arnaz]] after the dissolution of [[Desilu]]. She was one of many stars to take on the roles of Dolly Levi (in [[Hello, Dolly!]] and Mame in [[Auntie Mame]] in the 1960s; in 1967, she won the [[Sarah Siddons Award]] for her work in [[Chicago theatre]]. For her contributions to the entertainment industry, she received a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6714 Hollywood Boulevard.
Her autobiography, ''The Three Phases of Eve'', was published in 1985. It is notable for its discretion in regard to Arden's many costars and her loyalty to the Hollywood studio system that nurtured her career.
==Private life==
She was married to Ned Bergen from 1939 to 1947 and to Brooks West from 1952 until his death in 1984 from a heart ailment. They had four children, three of whom were adopted.
Arden died of [[cancer]] and [[heart disease]] at her home in [[Los Angeles, California]] at the age of 82, and was interred in the [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]] in [[Westwood, Los Angeles, California|Westwood, California]].
==Filmography==
*''[[Song of Love]]'' ([[1929]])
*''[[Dancing Lady]]'' ([[1933]])
*''[[Oh Doctor]]'' ([[1937]])
*''[[Stage Door]]'' ([[1937]])
*''[[Cocoanut Grove (film)|Cocoanut Grove]]'' ([[1938]])
*''[[Having Wonderful Time]]'' ([[1938]])
*''[[Letter of Introduction]]'' ([[1938]])
*''[[Women in the Wind]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[Big Town Czar]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[The Forgotten Woman]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[Eternally Yours]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[At the Circus]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[A Child Is Born]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[Slightly Honorable]]'' ([[1940]])
*''[[Comrade X]]'' ([[1940]])
*''[[She Couldn't Say No]]'' ([[1940]])
*''[[No, No, Nanette]]'' ([[1940]])
*''[[That Uncertain Feeling]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Ziegfeld Girl]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[She Knew All the Answers]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[San Antonio Rose]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Whistling in the Dark]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Manpower]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[The Last of the Duanes]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Sing for Your Supper]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Bedtime Story]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Obliging Young Lady]]'' ([[1942]])
*''[[Hit Parade of 1943]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[Let's Face It]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[Cover Girl]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[The Doughgirls]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[Earl Carroll Vanities]]'' ([[1945]])
*''[[Patrick the Great]]'' ([[1945]])
*''[[Pan-Americana]]'' ([[1945]])
*''[[Mildred Pierce]]'' ([[1945]])
*''[[My Reputation]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[The Kid from Brooklyn]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[Night and Day]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[Song of Scheherazade]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[The Arnelo Affair]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[The Unfaithful]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Off the Air]]'' ([[1947]]) (short subject)
*''[[The Voice of the Turtle]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[One Touch of Venus]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[Whiplash]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[My Dream Is Yours]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[The Lady Takes a Sailor]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[Paid in Full]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Curtain Call at Cactus Creek]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Tea for Two]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Three Husbands]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[Goodbye, My Fancy]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[We're Not Married!]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[The Lady Wants Mink]]'' ([[1953]])
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Hollywood Life]]'' ([[1954]]) (short subject)
*''[[Our Miss Brooks]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[Anatomy of a Murder]]'' ([[1959]])
*''[[The Dark at the Top of the Stairs]]'' ([[1960]])
*''[[Sergeant Dead Head]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[The Strongest Man in the World]]'' ([[1975]])
*''[[grease (musical)|Grease]]'' ([[1978]])
*''[[Under the Rainbow]]'' ([[1981]])
*''[[Pandemonium (movie)|Pandemonium]]'' ([[1982]])
*''[[Grease 2]]'' ([[1982]])
==External links==
{{commons|Eve Arden}}
*{{imdb name|id=0000781|name=Eve Arden}}
[[Category:1908 births|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:1990 deaths|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:American film actors|Arden, Eve]]
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[[Category:American television actors|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actress Oscar Nominee|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:Daytime Emmy Award winners|Arden, Eve]]
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[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Arden, Eve]]
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<title>EnchirideoN</title>
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<page>
<title>Elementary function</title>
<id>10411</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-14T03:04:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fredrik</username>
<id>26675</id>
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<minor />
<comment>moved [[Elementary function (disambiguation)]] to [[Elementary function]]: nevermind, can't do the move</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Elementary function''' can mean:
* [[List of mathematical functions |A function that is not complicated]].
* [[Elementary function (differential algebra)| A class of functions]] used in [[Differential Galois theory|differential algebra]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Elementary function (differential algebra)</title>
<id>10412</id>
<revision>
<id>39736871</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-15T14:28:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Fredrik</username>
<id>26675</id>
</contributor>
<comment>differential algebra ---> mathematics, as this is a general topic; wikify</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''For simple functions see the [[list of mathematical functions]].''
In [[mathematics]], an '''elementary function''' is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] built from a finite number of [[exponential function|exponential]]s, [[logarithm]]s, [[constant]]s, one [[variable]], and [[root (mathematics)|roots]] of equations through [[function composition|composition]] and combinations using the four [[arithmetic|elementary operations]] (+ &minus; &times; &divide;). The [[trigonometric function]]s and their inverses are assumed to be included in the elementary functions by using [[complex number|complex]] variables
<!-- inline math: attempt to HTMLize a square root -->
(''i'' = &radic;<span style="text-decoration:overline">-1</span>)
<!-- inline math -->
and the [[Trigonometric function#Relationship to exponential function| relations]] between the trigonometric functions and the exponential and logarithm functions.
The roots of equations are the functions implicitly defined as solving a polynomial equation with constant coefficients. For polynomials of degree four and smaller there are explicit formulas for the roots (the formulas are elementary functions), but |
or these LPs. No longer would records wear out after 75 plays. Crosby's Ampex Company would be joined by Magnecord, Webcor, Revere, and Fairchild in selling one million tape recorders to a rapidly growing consumer audio component market by 1953. The 1949 Magnecord tape recorder had stereo capability eight years before any vinyl record had it. These components soon began to feature the transistor invented by Bell Labs in 1948. Crosby's 1942 film Holiday Inn (where he first sang his most famous song) would be remade in 1954 as White Christmas, the first film to use Paramount's new VistaVision wide-screen film process with multi-channel magnetic sound.
== Personal life ==
[[Image:Bing's First Family.jpg|right|thumb|Bing Crosby with his first wife Dixie Lee.]]
Crosby was married twice, first to actress/nightclub singer [[Dixie Lee]] from 1930 until her death from [[ovarian cancer]] in<nowiki></nowiki> 1952. They had four sons ([[Gary Crosby|Gary]], [[Dennis Crosby|Dennis]], [[Phillip Crosby|Phillip]] and [[Lindsay Crosby|Lindsay]]). Dixie was an [[alcoholic]], and the 1947 film [[Smash-Up: The Story of a Woman]] is indirectly based on her life. After Dixie's death, Bing married the much-younger actress [[Kathryn Grant]] in 1957 and they had three children together, [[Harry Crosby (actor)|Harry]], [[Mary Frances Crosby|Mary]] (best known for portraying the woman who shot J.R. Ewing on ''[[Dallas (TV series)|Dallas]]'') and [[Nathaniel Crosby|Nathaniel]].
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Bingwithhiskids.jpg|left|thumb|Bing Crosby with his second wife Kathryn Crosby and little Harry, and baby Mary Frances.]] -->
After Bing's death from a heart attack at age 74 while golfing in [[Madrid, Spain]], his eldest son, Gary, wrote a highly critical memoir (''[[Going My Own Way]]'') depicting Bing as cold, remote, and both physically and psychologically abusive. As is often the case in these situations, one sibling sides with the parent. In this case, it was Phillip, who later frequently disputed his brother Gary's claims about their father. In an interview conducted in 1999 by the Globe, Phillip is quoted as saying, "My dad was not the monster my lying brother said he was, He was strict, but my father never beat us black and blue and my brother Gary was a vicious, no-good liar for saying so. I have nothing but fond memories of dad, going to studios with him, family vacations at our cabin in Idaho, boating and fishing with him. To my dying day, I'll hate Gary for dragging dad's name through the mud. He wrote [''Going My Own Way''] out of greed. He wanted to make money and knew that humiliating our father and blackening his name was the only way he could do it. He knew it would generate a lot of publicity and that was the only way he could get his ugly, no-talent face on television and in the newspapers. My dad was my hero. I loved him very much. And he loved all of us too, including Gary. He was a great father." Phillip died in [[2004]] of a [[heart attack]].
Two of Bing's children, Lindsay and Dennis , committed suicide. It was widely published at the time of Lindsay's [[December 11]], [[1989]] death that he ended his life the day after watching his father sing "White Christmas" on television. Dennis ended his life two years later, grieving over his brother's death, and battered, just as his brother had been, by alcoholism, failed relationships, and lackluster career. Both brothers were subsisting on small allowances from their father's trust fund; both died of self-inflicted gunshot wounds to the head.
[[Denise Crosby]], Dennis' daughter, is also an actress and best known for her role as [[Tasha Yar]] on ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]''.
[[Nathaniel Crosby]], his youngest son from his second marriage, was a high-level golfer who won the [[U.S. Amateur Championship|U.S. Amateur]] at age 19 in 1981, becoming the youngest-ever winner of that event (a record later broken by [[Tiger Woods]]).
At his death, he was worth over $150 million USD due to his shrewd investments in oil, real estate, and other commodities, making him one of Hollywood's then wealthiest residents along with [[Fred MacMurray]] and best friend [[Bob Hope]]. He left a clause in his will stating that his sons from his first marriage could not collect their inheritance money until they were in their 80s. Bing felt that they had already been amply taken care of by a trust fund set up by their mother, Dixie Lee. All four sons continued to collect monies from that fund until their deaths. However, none lived long enough to collect any of their inheritance from their father.
NOTE: Due to instructions from his family, the year of birth engraved on Bing Crosby's tombstone is 1904, rather than the correct date, 1903.
== Trivia ==
[[Image:Bing vs Peter.jpg|right|thumb|Parody on Bing Crosby's supposed autocratic parenthood on ''[[Family Guy]]'']]
*Bing Crosby possesses the most recorded [[human voice]] in history (Schwartz, 1995).
*He turned down an offer to play "[[Columbo]]" because he didn't want it to interfere with his [[golf]] schedule.
*Just after [[World War Two]] a [[Yank]] Magazine poll declared him the person who had done the most for [[G.I.]] morale during the war.
*Crosby recorded a version of ''[[Little Drummer Boy]]'' with [[David Bowie]] just one month prior to his death. The duet went on to attain cult status and charted well in countries around the world.
* Bing Crosby died after a round of eighteen holes in which he shot a respectable 85. Of his death, biographer Giddins has written: "His last words were characteristic. Walking off the eighteenth green of the La Moraleja Golf Club, in a suburb of [[Madrid]], Bing Crosby said, 'That was a great game of golf, fellas,' and then took a few steps and was gone"<sup>[[Bing Crosby#References|2]]</sup>. Shortly after 6:00 p.m. [[October 14]], [[1977]], he suffered a massive [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]]. Although these were reported as having been Crosby's last words, it is believed that his actual last words were, "Let's go get a Coke."
*Crosby was interred in the [[Holy Cross Cemetery]] in [[Culver City, California]].
*Bing Crosby had a very large vocal range as best illustrated by a leading vocal critic, [[Henry Pleasants]]. "The octave B flat to B flat in Bing's voice at that time [1930s] is, to my ears, one of the loveliest I have heard in forty-five years of listening to baritones, both classical and popular. It dropped conspicuously in later years. Since the mid-1950s, Bing has been more comfortable in a bass range while maintaining a baritone quality, with the best octave being G to G, or even F to F. In a recording he made of 'Dardanella' with Louis Armstrong in 1960, he attacks lightly and easily on a low E flat. This is lower than most opera basses care to venture, and they tend to sound as if they were in the cellar when they get there. (Pleasants, The Great American Popular Singers, p132)
*Bing Crosby's height was 5'8" (1.73 m).
== Filmography ==
*''[[The King of Jazz]]'' (1930)
*''Two Plus Fours'' (1930) (short subject)
*''[[Check and Double Check]]'' (1930)
*''Reaching for the Moon'' (1930)
*''The March of Time'' (1930) (unfinished)
*''Confessions of a Co-Ed'' (1931)
*''One More Chance'' (1931) (short subject)
*''Billboard Girl'' (1932) (short subject)
*''Hollywood on Parade'' (1932) (short subject)
*''The Big Broadcast'' (1932)
*''Hollywood on Parade No. 11'' (1933) (short subject)
*''Blue of the Night'' (1933) (short subject)
*''Dream House'' (1933) (short subject)
*''Sing, Bing, Sing'' (1933) (short subject)
*''Hollywood on Parade No. 9'' (1933) (short subject)
*''College Humor'' (1933)
*''Too Much Harmony'' (1933)
*''Please'' (1933) (short subject)
*''Going Hollywood'' (1933)
*''Just an Echo'' (1934) (short subject)
*''We're Not Dressing'' (1934)
*''I Surrender Dear'' (1934) (short subject)
*''She Loves Me Not'' (1934)
*''Star Night at the Cocoanut Grove'' (1934) (short subject)
*''Here Is My Heart'' (1934)
*''Mississippi'' (1935)
*''Two for Tonight'' (1935)
*''The Big Broadcast of 1936'' (1935)
*''[[Anything Goes]]'' (1936)
*''Rhythm on the Range'' (1936)
*''Pennies from Heaven'' (1936)
*''Waikiki Wedding'' (1937)
*''Double or Nothing'' (1937)
*''Don't Hook Now'' (1938) (short subject)
*''Dr. Rhythm'' (1938)
*''Hollywood Handicap'' (1938) (short subject)
*''Sing You Sinners'' (1938)
*''Screen Snapshots: Stars on Horseback'' (1939) (short subject)
*''Paris Honeymoon'' (1939)
*''East Side of Heaven'' (1939)
*''The Star Maker'' (1939)
*''Road to Singapore'' (1940)
*''Screen Snapshots Series 19, No. 6'' (1940) (short subject)
*''Swing with Bing'' (1940) (short subject)
*''Rhythm on the River'' (1940)
*''If I Had My Way'' (1940)
*''Angels of Mercy'' (1941) (short subject)
*''Road to Zanzibar'' (1941)
*''Birth of the Blues'' (1941)
*''My Favorite Blonde'' (1942) (Cameo)
*''[[Holiday Inn (film)|Holiday Inn]]'' (1942)
*''[[Road to Morocco]]'' (1942)
*''Star Spangled Rhythm'' (1942)
*''[[Show Business at War]]'' (1943) (short subject)
*''Dixie'' (1943)
*''[[Going My Way]]'' (1944)
*''Road to Victory'' (1944) (short subject)
*''The Princess and the Pirate'' (1944) (Cameo)
*''Here Come the Waves'' (1944)
*''The All-Star Bond Rally'' (1945) (short subject)
*''[[Duffy's Tavern]]'' (1945)
*''Hollywood Victory Caravan'' (1945) (short subject)
*''[[The Bells of St. Mary's]]'' (1945)
*''Screen Snapshots: Hollywood Celebrations'' (1945) (short subject)
*''Road to Utopia'' (1946)
*''Screen Snapshots: Famous Fathers and Sons'' (1946) (short subject)
*''[[Blue Skies (movie)|Blue Skies]]'' (1946)
*''[[My Favorite Brunette]]'' (1947) (Cameo)
*''Welcome Stranger'' (1947)
*''Variety Girl'' (1947)
*''[[Road to Rio]]'' (1947)
*''[[The Emperor Waltz]]'' (1948)
*''[[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court]]'' (1949)
*''Screen Snapshots: Hollywood's Happy Homes'' (1949) (short subje |
ect Inform]], has been an active opponent of Duesberg's "continuing public campaign" "to convince the public, people at risk of HIV infection, and people already infected that they are in no danger from this virus, that AIDS is solely a behavioral disease, and that current treatments for the disease and recreational drug abuse are in fact the cause of the disease."
''Science's'' special news report, which followed a 3-month investigation, found that "Mainstream AIDS researchers argue that Duesberg's arguments are constructed by selective reading of the scientific literature, dismissing evidence that contradicts his theses, requiring impossibly definitive
proof, and dismissing outright studies marked by inconsequential weaknesses."
"(Duesberg )...has built a case on what to some looks like possible misinterpretation, misuse of statistics, and highly selective cherry-picking of the data while contrary evidence is ignored." Martin Delaney (Science, p. 314, Vol. 267, No. 5196, Jan. 20, 1995)
==References==
*Cohen J. (1994) [http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1642a.pdf The Duesberg phenomenon]. ''Science'' '''266''', 1642-1644 PMID 7992043
*Cohen J. (1994a) [http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1645a.pdf Duesberg and critics agree: Hemophilia is the best test]. ''Science'' '''266''', 1645-1646 PMID 7992044
*Cohen J. (1994b) [http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1647.pdf Fulfilling Koch's postulates]. ''Science'' '''266''', 1647 PMID 7992045
*Cohen J. (1994c) [http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1647.pdf The epidemic in Thailand]. ''Science'' '''266''', 1647 PMID 7992046
*Cohen J. (1994d) [http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1648a.pdf Could drugs, rather than a virus be the cause of AIDS?] ''Science'' '''266''', 1648-1649 PMID 7992047
*de Martino M, Tovo PA, Balducci M, Galli L, Gabiano C, Rezza G, Pezzotti P. (2000) Reduction in mortality with availability of antiretroviral therapy for children with perinatal HIV-1 infection. Italian Register for HIV Infection in Children and the Italian National AIDS Registry. ''JAMA'' '''284''', 190-197 PMID 10889592
*Detels R, Munoz A, McFarlane G, Kingsley LA, Margolick JB, Giorgi J, Schrager LK, Phair JP. (1998) Effectiveness of potent antiretroviral therapy on time to AIDS and death in men with known HIV infection duration. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study Investigators. ''JAMA'' '''280''', 1497-1503 PMID 9809730
*Hogg RS, Yip B, Kully C, Craib KJ, O'Shaughnessy MV, Schechter MT, Montaner JS. (1999) Improved survival among HIV-infected patients after initiation of triple-drug antiretroviral regimens. ''CMAJ'' '''160''', 659-665 PMID 10102000
*Kaplan JE, Hanson D, Dworkin MS, Frederick T, Bertolli J, Lindegren ML, Holmberg S, Jones JL. (2000) Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus-associated opportunistic infections in the United States in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. ''Clin Infect Dis.'' '''Suppl 1''', S5-14 PMID 10770911
*McNaghten AD, Hanson DL, Jones JL, Dworkin MS, Ward JW. (1999) Effects of antiretroviral therapy and opportunistic illness primary chemoprophylaxis on survival after AIDS diagnosis. Adult/Adolescent Spectrum of Disease Group. ''AIDS'' '''13''', 1687-1695 PMID 10509570
*Mocroft A, Vella S, Benfield TL, Chiesi A, Miller V, Gargalianos P, d'Arminio Monforte A, Yust I, Bruun JN, Phillips AN, Lundgren JD. (1998) Changing patterns of mortality across Europe in patients infected with HIV-1. EuroSIDA Study Group. ''Lancet'' '''352''', 1725-1730 PMID 9848347
*Mocroft A, Katlama C, Johnson AM, Pradier C, Antunes F, Mulcahy F, Chiesi A, Phillips AN, Kirk O, Lundgren JD. (2000) AIDS across Europe, 1994-98: the EuroSIDA study. ''Lancet'' '''356''', 291-296 PMID 11071184
*Palella FJ Jr, Delaney KM, Moorman AC, Loveless MO, Fuhrer J, Satten GA, Aschman DJ, Holmberg SD. (1998) Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. ''N. Engl. J. Med.'' '''338''', 853-860 PMID 9516219
*Schwarcz SK, Hsu LC, Vittinghoff E, Katz MH. (2000) Impact of protease inhibitors and other antiretroviral treatments on acquired immunodeficiency syndrome survival in San Francisco, California, 1987-1996. ''Am J Epidem'' '''152''', 178-185 PMID 10909955
*Vittinghoff E, Scheer S, O'Malley P, Colfax G, Holmberg SD, Buchbinder SP. (1999) Combination antiretroviral therapy and recent declines in AIDS incidence and mortality. ''J. Infect. Dis.'' '''179''', 717-720 PMID 9952385
== External links ==
*[http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/evidhiv.htm The Evidence That HIV Causes AIDS] NIH fact sheet February 2003
*[http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/howhiv.htm How HIV Causes AIDS] NIH fact sheet November 2004
* [http://www.virusmyth.net/aids/data/cfmullis.htm 1994 Interview with Kary Mullis about HIV and AIDS]
* [http://www.duesberg.com/ Peter Duesberg on AIDS]
* [http://www.virusmyth.net Virusmyth, questioning the existence of HIV]
* [http://www.virusmyth.net/aids/data/pdphth0.htm AIDS ACQUIRED BY DRUG CONSUMPTION AND OTHER NONCONTAGIOUS RISK FACTORS -PETER H. DUESBERG]
{{AIDS}}
[[Category:HIV/AIDS]]
[[Category:AIDS origin hypotheses]]
[[pt:hipótese de Duesberg]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>DSL</title>
<id>8310</id>
<revision>
<id>40360546</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:27:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Midnightcomm</username>
<id>645277</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Digital Subscriber Line</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''DSL''' may refer to:
*[[Damn Small Linux]]
*[[Dark and Shattered Lands]], a [[MUD]] based loosely on [[Forgotten Realms]] and [[Dragonlance]] books.
*[[Digital Subscriber Line]], an [[Internet]] connection method.
*[[Divers Sign Language]], a derivation of [[American Sign Language]] which scuba divers use to communicate underwater
*[[Domain-specific language]]
*[[Nintendo DS Lite]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:DSL]]
[[fr:DSL]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dinosaur</title>
<id>8311</id>
<revision>
<id>42148778</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:30:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dinoguy2</username>
<id>140946</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv to last version by TigerShark</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Dinosaur
| fossil_range = [[Triassic]] – [[Cretaceous]]
| status = {{StatusFossil}}
| image = Saurier2.jpg
| image_width = 260px
| image_caption = Replica of ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' at the [[Senckenberg Museum]].
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Sauropsid|Sauropsida]]
| superordo = '''Dinosauria'''
| superordo_authority = [[Richard Owen|Owen]], 1842
| subdivision_ranks = Orders & Suborders
| subdivision = <div>
*[[Saurischia]]
**[[Sauropodomorpha]]
**[[Theropoda]]
*[[Ornithischia]]
</div>
}}
'''Dinosaurs''' were [[vertebrate]] [[animal]]s that dominated the [[Landform|terrestrial]] [[ecosystem]] for over 160 million years, first appearing approximately 230 million years ago. At the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period 65 million years ago, dinosaurs suffered a catastrophic [[extinction]], which ended their dominance on land. Modern [[bird]]s are considered to be the direct descendants of [[theropod]] dinosaurs.
Since the first dinosaur was recognized in the 19th century, their mounted, fossilized skeletons have become major attractions at [[museum]]s around the world. Dinosaurs have become a part of world culture and remain consistently popular, especially among children. They have been featured in best-selling books and blockbuster films such as ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', and new discoveries are regularly covered by the [[media]].
The term ''dinosaur'' is also used informally to describe any prehistoric reptile, such as the [[pelycosaur]] ''[[Dimetrodon]]'', the winged [[pterosaur]]s, and the aquatic [[ichthyosaur]]s, [[plesiosaur]]s, and [[mosasaur]]s, though none of these are actually dinosaurs.
==What is a dinosaur?==
===Definition===
[[Image:Triceratops 1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Triceratops]] [[skeleton]] at the [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian]] [[National Museum of Natural History]].]]
The [[superorder]] or [[clade]] '''"Dinosauria"''' was formally named by the [[England|English]] scientist [[Richard Owen]] in 1842. The term is a [[portmanteau]] derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''deinos'' ("terrible" or "fearfully great" or "formidable") and ''sauros'' ("lizard" or "reptile"). Owen chose it to express his awe at the size and majesty of the extinct animals, not out of fear or trepidation at their size and often-formidable arsenal of teeth and claws.
Dinosaurs were extremely varied. Some were [[herbivore|herbivorous]], others [[carnivore|carnivorous]]. Some dinosaurs were [[biped]]s, some were [[quadruped]]s, and others (such as the dinosaur ''[[Ammosaurus]]'') could walk easily on two or four legs.
Under phylogenetic taxonomy, dinosaurs are defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of ''[[Triceratops]]'' and modern [[birds]]. [[Ornithischia]] is defined as all taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with ''Triceratops'' than with [[Saurischia]]. Saurischia is defined as all taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with birds than with Ornithischia. It has also been suggested that Dinosauria be defined as all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor of ''[[Megalosaurus]]'' and ''[[Iguanodon]]''.
There is an almost universal consensus among paleontologists that [[bird]]s are the descendants of [[theropoda|theropod]] dinosaurs. Using the strict [[cladistics|cladistical]] definition that all descendants of a single common ances |
y]]
'''Diogo Cão''' or '''Cam''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|'djo.gu kɐ̃w̃}}/) was a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[exploration|explorer]] who made two voyages along the west coast of [[Africa]] in the [[1480s]].
He the first European known. to sight and enter the [[Congo River]], and to explore the West African coast between [[Cape St Catherine]] and [[Cape Cross]] almost from the [[equator]] to [[Walvis Bay]]. When King [[John II of Portugal]] revived the work of [[Henry the Navigator]], he sent out Cão (about midsummer (?) [[1482]]) to open up the African coast still further beyond the equator. The mouth of the Congo was now, discovered (perhaps in August [[1482]]), and marked by a stone pillar (still existing, but only in fragments) erected on [[Shark Point]]; the great river was also ascended for a short distance, and intercourse was opened with the natives of the [[Kongo Empire|Bakongo]] kingdom. Cão then coasted down along the present [[Angola]] (Portuguese West Africa), and erected a second pillar, probably marking the termination of this voyage, at [[Cape Santa Maria]] (the Monte Negro of these first visitors). He certainly returned to Lisbon by the beginning of April [[1484]], when John II ennobled him, made him a cavalleiro of his household (he was already an escudeiro or esquire in the same), and granted him an annuity and a coat of arms ([[April 8th]] [[1484]] and [[April 14th]] [[1484]]).
That Cão, on his second voyage of [[1484]]-[[1486]], was accompanied by [[Martin Behaim]] (as alleged on the latters [[Nuremberg]] globe of [[1492]]) is very doubtful; but we know that the explorer revisited the Congo and erected two more pillars beyond the furthest of his previous voyage, the first at another Monte Negro, the second at Cape Cross, this last probably marking the end of his progress southward. According to one authority (a legend on the [[1489]] map of [[Henricus Martellus Germanus]]), Cão died off Cape Cross; but [[João de Barros]] and others make him return to the Congo, and take thence a native envoy to Portugal. The four pillars set up by Cão on his two voyages have all been discovered in situ, and the inscriptions on two of them from Cape Santa Maria and Cape Cross, dated [[1482]] and [[1485]] respectively, are still to be read and have been printed; the Cape Cross padrao is now at [[Kiel]] (replaced on the spot by a granite facsimile); those from the Congo estuary and the more southerly Monte Negro are in the Museum of the Lisbon Geographical Society.
==Further reading==
* Barros, João de. ''Decadas da Asia'', Decade i. bk. iii., esp. ch. 3;
* Ruy de Pina, ''Chronica d'el Rei D. Jodo II.'';
* Garcia de Resende, ''Chronica'';
* Luciano Cordeiro, ''Diogo Cão'' in ''Boletim of the Lisbon Geog. Soc.'', 1892;
* E; G. Ravenstein, ''Voyages of Diogo Co, &c.'', in ''Geog. Jnl.'' vol. xvi. (1900), also ''Geog. Jnl.'' xxxi. (1908).
==See also==
*[[Portugal in the period of discoveries]]
==External links==
* [http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/cao.html Diogo Cão]
==References==
*{{1911}}
{{Portugal-explorer-stub}}
[[Category:Portuguese explorers|Cão, Diogo]]
[[Category:Explorers of Africa|Cão, Diogo]]
[[de:Diogo Cão]]
[[es:Diogo Cão]]
[[fr:Diogo Cão]]
[[he:דיוגו קאו]]
[[nl:Diogo Cão]]
[[pl:Diogo Cão]]
[[pt:Diogo Cão]]
[[sr:Диого Сао]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Dewet Decimal System/Generalities</title>
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<timestamp>2003-01-17T05:45:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ellmist</username>
<id>2214</id>
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<comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/0]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/0]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Dewey Decimal System/Generalities</title>
<id>8150</id>
<revision>
<id>24815797</id>
<timestamp>2005-10-05T15:06:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>fix double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/0/00/000]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/Philosophy and psychology</title>
<id>8151</id>
<revision>
<id>40432037</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T14:31:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
<id>922466</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Causation]] to [[Causality]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System|Main Categories List]]
:100 [[Philosophy]] & [[psychology]]
::101 Theory of philosophy
::102 Miscellany of philosophy
::103 Dictionaries of philosophy
::104
::105 Serial publications of philosophy
::106 Organizations of philosophy
::107 Education, research in philosophy
::108 [[Philosopher|Kinds of persons in philosophy]]
::109 [[History of philosophy|Historical treatment of philosophy]]
:110 [[Metaphysics]]
::111 [[Ontology]]
::113 [[Cosmology]] (Philosophy of nature)
::114 [[Space]]
::115 [[Time]]
::116 [[Change]]
::117 [[Structure]]
::118 [[Force (physics)|Force]] & [[Energy]]
::119 Number & quantity
:120 [[Epistemology]], [[Causality|causation]], [[humankind]]
::121 [[Epistemology]] (Theory of knowledge)
::122 [[Causality|Causation]]
::123 [[Determinism]] & [[indeterminism]]
::124 [[Teleology]]
::125 Not assigned or no longer used
::126 The [[personal self | self]]
::127 The [[unconscious]] & the [[subconscious]]
::128 [[Humankind]]
::129 Origin & destiny of individual [[soul]]s
:130 [[Paranormal phenomena]]
::131 Occult methods for achieving well-being
::132
::133 [[Parapsychology]] & [[occultism]]
::134
::135 [[Dream]]s & mysteries
::136
::137 [[Divinatory graphology]]
::138 [[Physiognomy]]
::139 [[Phrenology]]
:140 Specific philosophical schools
::141 [[Idealism]] & related systems
::142 [[Critical philosophy]]
::143 [[Intuitionism]] & [[Bergsonism]]
::144 [[Humanism]] & related systems
::145 [[Sensationalism]]
::146 [[Philosophical naturalism|Naturalism]] &amp; related systems
::147 [[Pantheism]] & related systems
::148 [[Liberalism]], [[eclecticism]], [[traditionalism]]
::149 Other philosophical systems
:150 [[Psychology]]
::151
::152 [[Perception]], [[movement]], [[emotion]]s, drives
::153 [[Mental process]]es & [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]]
::154 [[Subconscious]] & altered states
::155 [[differential psychology|Differential]] & [[developmental psychology]]
::156 [[Comparative psychology]]
::157
::158 [[Applied psychology]]
::159
:160 [[Logic]]
::161 [[Induction]]
::162 [[Deduction]]
::163
::164
::165 [[Logical fallacy|Fallacies]] & sources of error
::166 [[Syllogism]]s
::167 [[Hypothesis|Hypotheses]]
::168 [[Logical argument|Argument]] & [[rhetoric|persuasion]]
::169 [[Analogy]]
:170 [[Ethics]] ([[Moral philosophy]])
::171 [[Philosophical system|Systems]] & [[Philosophical theory|doctrines]]
::172 [[Political ethics]]
::173 [[Ethics of family relationships]]
::174 [[Economic and professional ethics]]
::175 [[Ethics of recreation and leisure]]
::176 [[Ethics of sex and reproduction]]
::177 [[Ethics of social relations]]
::178 [[Ethics of consumption]]
::179 Other ethical norms
:180 [[Ancient philosophy|Ancient]], [[medieval philosophy|medieval]], [[Oriental philosophy]]
::181 [[Oriental philosophy]]
::182 [[The Pre-Socratics|Pre-Socratic Greek philosophies]]
::183 [[Sophist|Sophistic]] & [[Socrates|Socratic philosophies]]
::184 [[Plato|Platonic philosophy]]
::185 [[Aristotle|Aristotelian philosophy]]
::186 [[Ancient skepticism|Skeptic]] and [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]] philosophies
::187 [[Epicurean philosophy]]
::188 [[Stoicism|Stoic philosophy]]
::189 [[Medieval philosophy|Medieval Western philosophy]]
:190 [[Contemporary philosophy|Modern Western philosophy]]
::191 Modern Western philosophy United States & Canada
::192 Modern Western philosophy British Isles
::193 Modern Western philosophy Germany & Austria
::194 Modern Western philosophy France
::195 Modern Western philosophy Italy
::196 Modern Western philosophy Spain & Portugal
::197 Modern Western philosophy Soviet Union
::198 Modern Western philosophy Scandinavia
::199 Modern Western philosophy Other geographical areas</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2</title>
<id>8152</id>
<revision>
<id>15906171</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-12T21:47:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Falcon Kirtaran</username>
<id>50029</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rename in accordance with version 22</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''2 Religion'''
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/20|20 Religion]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/21|21 Philosophy & theory of religion]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/22|22 The Bible]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/23|23 Christianity & Christian Theology]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/24|24 Christian practice & observance]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/25|25 Christian pastoral practice & religious orders]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/26|26 Christian organisation, social work & worship]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/27|27 History of Christianity]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/28|28 Christian denominations]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/29|29 Other religions]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/3</title>
<id>8153</id>
<revision>
<id>15906172</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-13T00:07:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
|
annes Richter - "Die Bernsteinroute bei Backnang"] (pdf file)
[[Category:trade routes]]
[[Category:History of Europe]]
[[Category:Prehistory of Poland (until 966)]]
[[Category:History of Prussia]]
[[de:Bernsteinstraße]]
[[fr:Route de l'ambre]]
[[nl:Barnsteenroute]]
[[pl:Szlak bursztynowy]]
[[sk:Jantárová cesta (história)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atlantic Baptist University</title>
<id>2025</id>
<revision>
<id>40359414</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:18:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Atlantic Baptist University''' is a small [[Liberal Arts]] university located in [[Moncton, New Brunswick]], [[Canada]]. It offers undergraduate degrees in Arts, Science, and Education, and is run by the [[Convention of Atlantic Baptist Churches]].
The school was founded in [[1949]] under the name [[United Baptist Bible Training School]] (UBBTS), and served as both a [[secondary school]] and a [[Bible school]]. Over two decades, the focus of the school gradually shifted toward post-secondary programs. In [[1968]], UBBTS became a Bible and Junior Christian Liberal Arts College, and in [[1970]] the name was changed to '''Atlantic Baptist College''' (ABC). A sustained campaign to expand the school's faculty and improve the level of education resulted in ABC being able to grant full [[Bachelor of Arts]] degrees in the early [[1980s]]. Its campus at this time was located along the Salisbury Road, west of Moncton's central business district.
The institution moved to a new campus constructed on the Gorge Road, north of the central business district, in [[1996]]. The name was also changed to Atlantic Baptist University, a reflection of expanded student enrollment and academic accreditation. ABU sports teams play under the name ''Blue Tide''. ABU remains the only English university in [[New Brunswick]]'s second largest, and fastest growing city.
== See also ==
[[List of colleges and universities]]
==External links==
*[http://www.abu.nb.ca Atlantic Baptist University's Homepage]
{{canada-university-stub}}
{{NB Uni}}
[[Category:Universities and colleges in New Brunswick]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Old AT&T</title>
<id>2026</id>
<revision>
<id>28936068</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-21T22:22:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wikipedianinthehouse</username>
<id>395729</id>
</contributor>
<comment>organized article per other company mergers (Sprint/Nextel, Sears/Kmart, etc)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[AT&T]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Andrew Wiles</title>
<id>2027</id>
<revision>
<id>41966631</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T22:57:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bota47</username>
<id>341052</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Modifying: ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Andrew Wiles should not be confused with [[André Weil]], another famous mathematician who, like Wiles, has done important work in [[elliptic curve]]s.''
'''Sir Andrew John Wiles''' (born [[April 11]], [[1953]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[mathematician]] living in the [[United States]]. He was educated at [[The Leys School]] Cambridge and in 1974 he graduated from the [[University of Oxford]]. He then completed his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] at [[ Clare College, Cambridge|Clare College]] of the [[University of Cambridge]] in 1979 and is currently a Professor and the chair of the department of mathematics at [[Princeton University]]. In one of the great success stories in the history of [[mathematics]], Wiles (with help from [[Richard Taylor (mathematician)|Richard Taylor]]) proved [[Fermat's last theorem|Fermat's Last Theorem]] in 1994.
==Early life and work==
Before this result, Andrew Wiles had done outstanding work in [[number theory]]. In work with [[John Coates]] he obtained some of the first results on the famous [[Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture]], and he also did important work on the ''[[Iwasawa main conjecture|main conjecture]]'' of [[Iwasawa theory]].
==Interest in the Fermat problem==
Fermat's Last Theorem (FLT) asserts that there are no positive [[integer]]s ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' such that
:<math>x^n + y^n = z^n \,</math>
in which ''n'' is a [[natural number]] greater than 2.
Wiles had been inspired by the problem as a child when he encountered it in [[Eric Temple Bell|E.T. Bell]]'s book, ''The Last Problem''. His odyssey towards the final [[mathematical proof|proof]] began in 1985 when [[Ken Ribet]], inspired by ideas of [[Jean-Pierre Serre]] and [[Gerhard Frey]], proved that Fermat's Last Theorem would follow from another conjecture of [[Yutaka Taniyama|Taniyama]], [[Goro Shimura|Shimura]] and [[André Weil|Weil]], to the effect that every [[elliptic curve]] can be parametrized by [[modular form]]s. Though less familiar than Fermat's Last Theorem, the [[Taniyama-Shimura theorem]] is the more significant of the two, because it touches on truly deep currents in number theory. No one had any idea how to prove it. Working in absolute secrecy, and sharing his ideas and progress only with [[Nicholas Katz]], another professor of mathematics at Princeton, Wiles eventually developed a proof of the Taniyama-Shimura-Weil conjecture, and hence of FLT. The proof is a ''tour de force'' introducing many new ideas.
==Announcement and aftermath==
Wiles was uncharacteristically dramatic in revealing the proof. He arranged to give three [[lecture]]s at the [[Isaac Newton Institute]], [[Cambridge]], [[England]], in June of 1993. He did not announce the topic of the lectures in advance, and as the audience and the world became aware of where the lectures were headed, the audience swelled so that the third lecture was to an overpacked room. At the end of the third lecture, he announced "(...) this proves Fermat's Last Theorem. I'll stop here", and received a standing ovation.
In the following months, the manuscript of the proof was circulated only to a small number of mathematicians while the world waited for its general publication. The first version of the proof depended on the construction of an object called an [[Euler system]], and this aspect proved problematical, as a flaw emerged during [[peer review]] of the subtle and complex mathematics involved. For almost a year it began to seem that Wiles' proof was destined like so many others to be fatally flawed, and that although he had made many important discoveries, the ultimate goal had eluded him. Wiles was on the point of giving up finally, when he decided to have one last try at solving the last remaining problem in his proof in collaboration with [[Richard Taylor (mathematician)|Richard Taylor]], one of his former PhD students in 1994. He commented:
:"... suddenly, totally unexpectedly, I had this incredible revelation. It was the most important moment of my working life. Nothing I ever do again will mean as much ... it was so indescribably beautiful, it was so simple and so elegant, and I just stared in disbelief for twenty minutes, then during the day I walked round the department. I'd keep coming back to my desk to see it was still there &ndash; it was still there."
The final version of Wiles' proof, which therefore differs from his original one, was published in the ''[[Annals of Mathematics]]'' 141 (1995), pp. 443&ndash;551, together with another, supporting article by Wiles and Taylor titled "[[Ring (mathematics)|Ring]]-theoretic properties of certain [[Hecke algebra]]s" (''Annals of Mathematics'' 141 (1995), pp. 553&ndash;572) relating to the final step of discovery.
==Awards==
Wiles has been awarded several major prizes in mathematics: [[Schock Prize]] ([[1995]]), [[Royal Medal]] (1996), [[Cole Prize]] (1996), [[Wolf Prize in Mathematics|Wolf Prize]] ([[1996]]), a silver plate from the [[International Mathematical Union]] ([[1998]]), [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|King Faisal]] Prize ([[1998]]), [[Clay Research Award]] ([[1999]]) and [[Shaw Prize]] ([[2005]]). He became a [[Knight of the British Empire]] in 2000. Wiles cannot receive the [[Fields Medal]] as the award can only be given to those below 40 years of age (Wiles was born in 1953 and proved the theorem in 1994), a rule strictly adhered to.
== Further reading ==
*[[Simon Singh]], ''Fermat's Last Theorem'', ISBN 1841157910. A best-selling book about Wiles and the story of his discovering of the proof.
* ''[http://math.stanford.edu/~lekheng/flt/wiles.pdf Modular elliptic curves and Fermat's Last Theorem]'' &ndash; [[Annals of Mathematics]], 1995 (the published paper of his results).
== External links ==
* [[Nova (TV series)|Nova]] [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2414proof.html "The Proof" Transcript] [[PBS]] Airdate: October 28, 1997
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Wiles}}
* [http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com Fermat's Last Theorem Blog] &ndash; blog that traces the history of Fermat's Theorem from Fermat to Andrew Wiles.
[[Category:1953 births|Wiles, Andrew]]
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[[Category:Number theorists|Wiles, Andrew]]
[[Category:Former students of Merton College, Oxford|Wiles, Andrew]]
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a efforts, posing as a fire warden and delivering a radio broadcast to the Soviet people ''{{Audio|ShostakovichRadio1941.ogg|listen}}''. In October 1941, the composer and his family were evacuated to Kuybishev (now [[Samara, Russia|Samara]]), where the symphony was completed. It was adopted as a symbol of Russian resistance both in the USSR and in the West.
In spring [[1943]] the family moved to [[Moscow]]. Whilst the Seventh Symphony depicts a heroic (and ultimately victorious) struggle against adversity, the [[Symphony No. 8 (Shostakovich)|Eighth Symphony]] of that year is perhaps the ultimate in sombre and violent expression within Shostakovich's output, resulting in it being banned until [[1960 in music|1960]]. The Ninth Symphony (1945), in contrast, is an ironic Haydnesque parody, which failed to satisfy demands for a "hymn of victory". Shostakovich continued to compose chamber music, notably his [[Piano Trio No. 2 (Shostakovich)|Second Piano Trio]] (Op. 67), dedicated to the memory of Sollertinsky, with a bitter-sweet, Jewish themed ''[[totentanz]]'' [[finale]].
===Second denunciation===
In [[1948]] Shostakovich was again denounced for formalism in the [[Zhdanov decree]]. Most of his works were banned, he was forced publicly to repent, and his family had privileges withdrawn. Yuri Lyubimov says that at this time "he waited for his arrest at night out on the landing by the lift, so that at least his family wouldn't be disturbed".<ref>Elizabeth Wilson, ''Shostakovich: A Life Remembered'' p. 183.</ref>
In the next few years his compositions were divided into film music to pay the rent, official works aimed at securing official [[rehabilitation (Soviet)|rehabilitation]], and serious works "for the desk drawer". These latter included the [[Violin Concerto No. 1 (Shostakovich)|Violin Concerto No. 1]] and the song cycle [[From Jewish Folk Poetry]]. There is some dispute over whether he realised the dangers of writing the latter. Laurel Fay has argued that he was attempting to conform with official policy by adopting [[folk song]] as his inspiration; on the other hand it was written at a time when the post-war [[anti-Semitic]] campaign was already underway, and Shostakovich had close ties with some of those affected.
The restrictions on Shostakovich's music and living arrangements were eased in 1949, in order to secure his participation in a delegation of Soviet notables to the U.S. That year he also wrote his [[cantata]] ''[[Song of the Forests]]'', which praised Stalin as the "great gardener". In 1951 the composer was made a deputy to the [[Supreme Soviet]]. Stalin's death in [[1953]] was the biggest step towards Shostakovich's official rehabilitation, which was marked by his [[Symphony No. 10 (Shostakovich)|Tenth Symphony]]. It features a number of musical quotations and codes (notably the [[DSCH]] and Elmira motifs), the meaning of which is still debated, whilst the savage second movement is said to be a musical portrait of Stalin himself. It ranks alongside the Fifth as one of his most popular works. 1953 also saw a stream of premieres of the "desk drawer" works.
During the forties and fifties Shostakovich had close relationships with two of his pupils: [[Galina Ustvolskaya]] and Elmira Nazirova. He taught Ustvolskaya from 1937 to 1947. The nature of their relationship is far from clear: [[Mstislav Rostropovich]] described it as "tender" and Ustvolskaya claimed in a 1995 interview that she rejected a proposal from him in the fifties. However, in the same interview, Ustvolskaya's friend, Viktor Suslin, said that she had been "deeply disappointed" in him by the time of her graduation in 1947. The relationship with Nazirova seems to have been one-sided, expressed largely through his letters to her, and can be dated to around 1953 to 1956. In the background to all this remained Shostakovich's first, open marriage to Nina Varzar until her death in 1954. He married his second wife, Margarita Kainova, in [[1956]]; the couple proved ill-matched, and divorced three years later.
===Joining the Party===
[[1960]] marked another turning point in Shostakovich's life: his joining of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]]. This event has been interpreted variously as a show of commitment, a mark of cowardice, or as the result of political pressure. On the one hand, the ''apparat'' was undoubtedly less repressive than it had been prior to Stalin's death. On the other, his son recalled that the event reduced Shostakovich to tears,<ref>Allan Ho and Dmitry Feofanov, ''Shostakovich Reconsidered'' p. 390.</ref> and he later told his wife Irina that he had been blackmailed.<ref>Manashir Yakubov, programme notes for the 1998 Shostakovich seasons at the [[Barbican Arts Centre|Barbican]], [[London]]).</ref> Lev Lebedinsky has said that the composer was suicidal.<ref>Wilson p. 340.</ref> Around this time, his health also began to deteriorate.
Shostakovich's musical response to these personal crises was the [[String Quartet No. 8 (Shostakovich)|Eighth String Quartet]], which like the Tenth Symphony incorporates quotations and his musical monogram.
In [[1962]] he married for the third time, to [[Irina Supinskaya]]. In a letter to his friend Isaak Glikman, he wrote that, "her only defect is that she is 27 years old. In all other respects she is splendid: clever, cheerful, straightforward and very likeable".<ref>Dmitri Shostakovich and Isaak Glikman, ''Story of a Friendship: The Letters of Dmitry Shostakovich to Isaak Glikman'' p. 102.</ref> In November Shostakovich made his only venture into [[conducting]], conducting a couple of his own works in [[Nizhny Novgorod|Gorky]]: otherwise he declined to conduct, giving nerves and ill-health as his reasons.
[[Image:Shostyevkondrash01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Shostakovich (left), with the conductor [[Kiril Kondrashin]] and poet [[Yevgeny Yevtushenko]] at the premiere of the composer's controversial 13th symphony.]]
That year saw Shostakovich again turn to the subject of anti-Semitism in his [[Symphony No. 13 (Shostakovich)|Thirteenth Symphony]] (subtitled ''[[Babi Yar]]''). The symphony sets a number of poems by [[Yevgeny Yevtushenko]], the first of which commemorates a massacre of the [[Jew]]s during the [[World War II|Second World War]]. Opinions are divided as to how great a risk this was: the poem had been published in Soviet media, and was not banned, but it remained controversial. After the symphony's premiere, Yevtushenko was forced to add a stanza to his poem claiming that Russians and Ukrainians died alongside the Jews at Babi Yar.
===Later life===
In later life, Shostakovich suffered from chronic ill-health, although he resisted giving up cigarettes and [[vodka]]. From [[1958]] he suffered from a debilitating condition which particularly affected his right hand, eventually forcing him to give up piano playing: in 1965 this was diagnosed as [[polio]]. He also suffered [[heart attack]]s the following year and again in 1971, plus several falls in which he broke both his legs; in 1967 he wrote in a letter;
<blockquote>"Target achieved so far: 75% (right leg broken, left leg broken, right hand defective. All I need to do now is wreck the left hand and then 100% of my extremities will be out of order.)"<ref>Glikman p. 147.</ref></blockquote>
A preoccupation with his own mortality permeates much of Shostakovich's later works, among them the later quartets and the [[Symphony No. 14 (Shostakovich)|Fourteenth]] of 1969 (a song cycle based on a number of poems concerning the theme of death). The subject matter of this work also coincides with Shostakovich at his most extreme in terms of musical language, with twelve note themes being used throughout as well as dense polyphony. The [[Symphony No. 15 (Shostakovich)|Fifteenth]] Symphony of 1971 is, by contrast melodic and retrospective in nature, quoting as it does from Wagner, Rossini and the composer's own Fourth Symphony.
Shostakovich died of [[lung cancer]] on [[August 9]] [[1975]] and after a civic funeral was interred in the [[Novodevichy Cemetery]], [[Moscow, Russia|Moscow]]. The official obituary appeared in [[Pravda]] only three days after his death, apparently because the wording had be to approved at the highest level, by [[Brezhnev]] and the rest of the [[Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee|Politburo]].<ref>[http://english.mn.ru/english/issue.php?2005-31-23 Moscow News N49 2005], accessed [[23 December]] [[2005]].</ref> Even before his death he had been commemorated in the naming of the Shostakovich Peninsula on [[Alexander Island]], [[Antarctica]] (it lies between the [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] Peninsula and [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] Ice Shelf on one side, and the [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]] Inlet and [[Claudio Monteverdi|Monteverdi]] Peninsula on the other).
He was survived by his third wife Irina, his daughter Galina, and his son [[Maxim Shostakovich|Maxim]], a pianist and conductor who was the dedicatee and first performer of some of his father's works. Shostakovich himself left behind several recordings of his own piano works, while other noted interpreters of his music include his friends [[Emil Gilels]], [[Mstislav Rostropovich]], [[Tatiana Nikolayeva]], and [[Maria Yudina]].
Shostakovich's musical influence on later composers has been relatively slight, although [[Alfred Schnittke]] has taken up his eclecticism, and his contrasts between the dynamic and the static; his influence can also be seen in some Nordic composers, such as [[Kalevi Aho]]<ref>Finnish Music Information Centre, [http://www.fimic.fi/fimic/fimic.nsf/mainframe?readform&7118B64EF463A14FC22566A5003B5FB7 Kalevi Aho in Profile] Accessed [[18 November]] [[2005]].</r |
of democracy in 1933 and the establishment of [[Austrofascism]], Austria had already purged its democratic institutions and instituted a dictatorship long before the Anschluss. There is thus little to distinguish radically the ''institutions'' of at least the post-1934 Austrian government before or after [[12 March]] [[1938]].
The members of the leading [[Christian Social Party]] were fervent Catholics, but not particularly [[anti-semitism|anti-semitic]]. For instance [[Jew|Jews]] were not prohibited from exercising any profession, in sharp contrast to the [[Third Reich]]. Many prominent Austrian scientists, professors, and lawyers at the time were Jewish; in fact [[Vienna]], with its Jewish population of about 200,000, was considered a [[safe haven]] from 1933 to 1938 by many Jews who fled Nazi Germany. However, the Nazis' anti-Semitism found fertile soil in Austria. Anti-Semitic elements had emerged as a force in Austrian politics in the late nineteenth century, with the rise in prominence of figures such as [[Georg Ritter von Schönerer]] and [[Karl Lueger]] (who had influenced the young Hitler), and in the 1930s anti-Semitism was rampant, as Jews were a convenient scapegoat for economic problems.
In addition to the economic appeal of the Anschluss, the popular underpinning of Nazi politics as a total art form (the refinement of film propaganda exemplified by [[Leni Riefenstahl|Riefenstahl's]] ''[[Triumph of the Will]]'' and mythological [[aestheticism]] of a broadly conceived national destiny of the [[German people]] within a "Thousand-Year Reich") gave the Nazis a massive advantage in advancing their claims to power. Moreover [[Austrofascism]] was less grand in its appeal than the choice between [[Stalin]] and [[Hitler]] to which many European intellectuals of the time believed themselves reduced by the end of the decade. Austria had effectively no alternative view of its historical mission when the choice was upon it. In spite of Dollfuss' and Schuschnigg's hostility to Nazi political ambitions, the Nazis succeeded in convincing many Austrians to accept what they viewed as the historical destiny of the German people rather than continue as part of a distinct sovereign nation.
===The Second Republic===
====The Moscow Declaration====
[[Image:Seyss-inquartmugshot.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]] [[1945]] mugshot for the [[Nuremberg Trials]].]]
The [[Moscow Declaration]] of 1943, signed by the [[United States of America]], the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]], and the [[United Kingdom]] included a "Declaration on Austria," which stated the following:
<blockquote>
<p>The governments of the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States of America are agreed that Austria, the first free country to fall a victim to Hitlerite aggression, shall be liberated from German domination.</p>
<p>They regard the annexation imposed on Austria by Germany on [[15 March]] [[1938]], as null and void. They consider themselves as in no way bound by any charges affected in Austria since that date. They declare that they wish to see re-established a free and independent Austria and thereby to open the way for the Austrian people themselves, as well as those neighbouring States which will be face with similar problems, to find that political and economic security which is the only basis for lasting peace.</p>
<p>Austria is reminded, however that she has a responsibility, which she cannot evade, for participation in the war at the side of Hitlerite Germany, and that in the final settlement account will inevitably be taken of her own contribution to her liberation. {{ref|moskauermemo}}</p>
</blockquote>
To judge from the last paragraph and subsequent determinations at the [[Nuremberg Trial]], the Declaration was intended to serve as [[propaganda]] aimed at stirring Austrian resistance (although there are Austrians counted as [[Righteous Among the Nations]], there never was an effective Austrian armed resistance of the sort found in other countries under German occupation) more than anything else, although the exact text of the declaration is said to have a somewhat complex drafting history.{{ref|nybooks}} At Nuremberg [[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]] {{ref|seyss-inquart}} and [[Franz von Papen]] {{ref|vonpapen}}, in particular, were both indicted under count one (conspiracy to commit crimes against peace) specifically for their activities in support of the Austrian Nazi Party and the Anschluss, but neither was convicted of this count. In acquitting von Papen, the court noted that his actions were in its view political immoralities but not crimes under its charter. Seyss-Inquart was convicted of other serious war crimes, most of which took place in [[Poland]] and the [[Netherlands]], and was sentenced to death.
====Austrian identity and the "victim theory"====
[[Image:1heldeplatz.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Heldenplatz, "Day of the Austrian legion," [[2 April]] [[1938]].]]
After [[World War II]], many Austrians sought comfort in the myth of Austria as the Nazis' first victim. Although the Nazi party was promptly banned, Austria did not have the same thorough process of de-Nazification at the top of government which was imposed on Germany for a time. Lacking outside pressure for political reform, factions of Austrian society tried for a long time to advance the view that the Anschluss was ''only'' an annexation at bayonet point.
This view of the events of 1938 has deep roots in the ten years of Allied occupation and the struggle to regain Austrian sovereignty: The ''victim theory'' played an essential role in the negotiations on the [[Austrian State Treaty]] with the Soviets, and by pointing to the Moscow Declaration Austrian politicians heavily relied on it to achieve a solution for Austria different from the division into East and West in Germany. The State Treaty, alongside with the subsequent Austrian declaration of permanent [[Neutral country|neutrality]] marked important milestones for the solidification of Austria's independent [[nation]]al identity during the following decades.
As Austrian politicians of the left and right attempted to reconcile their differences in order to avoid the violent conflict that had dominated the first republic, discussions of both Austrofascism and Austria's role in Nazism were largely avoided. Still, the [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP) has advanced and still sometimes advances the argument that the establishment of the Dollfuss dictatorship was necessary in order to maintain Austrian independence, while the [[Austrian Social Democratic Party]] (SPÖ) argues that the dictatorship stripped the country of the democratic resources necessary to repel Hitler.
====Political events====
For decades, the victim theory established in the Austrian mind remained largely undisputed. The Austrian public was only rarely forced to confront the legacy of the Third Reich (most notably during the events of 1965 concerning [[Taras Borodajkewycz]], a professor of economic history notorious for anti-Semitic remarks, when [[Ernst Kirchweger]], a concentration camp survivor, was killed by a right-wing protester during riots). It was not until the 1980s that Austrians were finally massively confronted with their past. The main catalyst for the start of a ''[[Vergangenheitsbewältigung]]'' was the so-called [[Kurt Waldheim|Waldheim affair]]. The Austrian reply to allegations during the 1986 Presidential election campaign that successful candidate and former [[United Nations Secretary-General|UN Secretary-General]] [[Kurt Waldheim]] had been a member of the Nazi party and of the infamous [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] (he was later absolved of direct involvement in [[war crimes]]) was that scrutiny was an unwelcome intervention in the country's [[internal affairs]]. Despite the politicians' reactions to international criticism of Waldheim, the Waldheim affair started the first serious major discussion on Austria's past and the Anschluss.
Another main factor for Austria and its coming to terms with the past emerged in the 1980s: [[Jörg Haider]] and the rise of the [[FPÖ]]. The party had combined elements of the [[pan-German]] right with free-market liberalism since its foundation in 1955, but after Haider had ascended to the party chairmanship in 1986, the liberal elements became increasingly marginalized while Haider began to openly use nationalist and anti-immigrant rhetoric. He was often criticised for tactics such as the ''völkisch'' (ethnic) definition of national interest ("Austria for Austrians") and his apologism for Austria's past, notably calling members of the [[Waffen-SS]] "men of honour". Following an enormous electoral rise in the 1990s peaking in the [[Austria legislative election, 1999|1999 elections]], the FPÖ, now purged of its liberal elements, entered a coalition with the [[ÖVP]] led by [[Wolfgang Schüssel]] that met international condemnation in 2000. This coalition triggered the regular ''Donnerstagsdemonstrationen'' (Thursday demonstrations) in protest against the government, which took place on the [[Heldenplatz]], where Hitler had greeted the masses during the Anschluss. Haider's tactics and rhetoric, which were often criticised as sympathetic to Nazism, again forced Austrians to reconsider their relationship to the past.
But it is not [[Jörg Haider]] alone who has made questionable remarks on Austria's past: [[Jörg Haider]]'s coalition partner the current Chancellor [[Wolfgang Schüssel]] in an interview with the [[Jerusalem Post]] as late as 2000 stated that Austria was the first victim of Hitler-Germany.{{ref|jerusalem}}
====Literature====
Tearing into the simplism of the ''victim theory'' and the time of the [[Austrofascism]], [[Thomas Bernhard|Thomas Bernhard's]] last play, ''Heldenplatz'', was highly controversial even before it appeared on stage in 1988, fifty years a |
Paasikivi, the Finnish [[political cartoonist]] [[Kari Suomalainen]] defined Finlandization as ''"The art of bowing to the East so carefully that it could not be considered [[mooning]] the West."'' <!-- in Finnish: "kumartaa itään - pyllistää länteen" Source: Filmed interview by Juho Gartz -->
== See also ==
* [[Balkanization]]
* [[Middle-easternisation]]
* [[Mandatory Swedish]]
* [[Satellite state]]
== External links and references ==
* [http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1985-6/botticelli.htm ''Finland's Relations with the Soviet Union, 1940-1986''] by Peter Botticelli
* [http://www.finland.fi/finfo/english/after.html ''After the War: Finland's relations with the Soviet Union 1944 - 1991''] presented at the web site of the Finnish foreign ministry
* [http://www.enterstageright.com/archive/articles/0501balkanization.htm ''Three cheers for Balkanization!''] by Bruce Walker, re-evaluating the Finlandization concept
* [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ahr/105.1/br_158.html ''The Silenced Media: The Propaganda War between Russia and the West in Northern Europe''] - review by Jussi M. Hanhimäki of a book by Esko Salminen
* [http://www.halldor.demon.co.uk/estate.htm ''The Silent Estate?''] - review by David McDuff of the same book by Esko Salminen
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:History of Finland]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Fred Singer</title>
<id>11734</id>
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<timestamp>2006-02-05T02:33:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>D6</username>
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<minor />
<comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Siegfried Frederick Singer''' (born [[September 27]], [[1924]] in [[Vienna]]) is an atmospheric physicist. In 1959 he was selected as one of "Ten Outstanding Young Men of the Nation" by the U.S. Junior [[Chamber of Commerce]]. He was involved in designing on of the first instruments used in a satellite to measure [[ozone]] [http://www.sepp.org/misuse/stvincen.html].
He is President of [[SEPP|The Science & Environmental Policy Project]], a non-profit policy research group disputing [[climate change]] and [[ozone depletion]] theory, which he founded in 1990. He is also Distinguished Research [[Professor]] at [[George Mason University]] and Professor Emeritus of environmental science at the [[University of Virginia]], and an Adjunct Fellow of "Frontiers of Freedom" [http://www.ff.org/about/staff.html].
He is known for his skeptical views about greenhouse gas induced [[global warming]]. Although he considers the observed increase in CO<sub>2</sub> and CFCs to be [[anthropogenic]], he disagrees with [[IPCC]] conclusions about how much warming is to be expected. He is also skeptic on the connection between [[CFC]]s, [[ozone depletion]], [[ultraviolet radiation]] and [[skin cancer]]. Furthermore, Singer cited a report of the Congressional Research Service that supported the position of the [[tobacco industry]]. It attacked the US [[Environmental Protection Agency]] for their study about the cancer risks of passive smoking and called it "[[junk science]]". [http://www.quit-smoking-stop.com/effects-of-second-hand-smoke.html], [http://www.tobaccoscam.ucsf.edu/pdf/9.6-JunkScience-Yach.pdf]. A nonsmoker himself, Singer serves on the Science Advisory Board of the [[American Council on Science and Health]] (ACSH), which strongly opposes smoking.
Environmentalists arguing against Singer's ideas say that he has a [[conflict of interest]], i.e., financial ties to oil companies [http://www.kwikpower.com/AREAS/GC/gc04.htm], [http://www.exxonsecrets.org/html/personfactsheet.php?id=1].
He holds a [[PhD]] in [[physics]] and is a fellow of the [[American Physical Society]]. The famous theoretical physicist [[John Archibald Wheeler]] was Singer's advisor.
Previous government and academic positions:
*Director of the Center for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Maryland (1953-62)
*Special advisor to President Eisenhower on space developments (1960) [4]
*First Director of the National Weather Satellite Service (1962-64)
*Founding Dean of the School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences, [[University of Miami]] (1964-67)
*Deputy Assistant Secretary for Water Quality and Research, U.S. Department of the Interior (1967- 70)
*Deputy Assistant Administrator for Policy, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1970-71)
*Professor of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia (1971-94)
*Chief Scientist, U.S. Department of Transportation (1987- 89)
== External links ==
* [http://www.sepp.org/bios/singer/cvsfs.html Dr. Singer's professional background]
* [[SourceWatch]]: [http://www.disinfopedia.org/wiki.phtml?title=S._Fred_Singer S. Fred Singer]
* George Monbiot, The Guardian, May 10, 2005, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1480279,00.html "Junk science:David Bellamy's inaccurate and selective figures on glacier shrinkage are a boon to climate change deniers"] (Bellamy's figures came ultimately from Singer but are contradicted by [[WGMS]])
* [http://www.sepp.org/NewSEPP/singer_interview.htm An interview with Dr. Singer, Feb 2001]
* [http://www.cato.org/pubs/regulation/reg13n1-singer.html Environmental Strategies with Uncertain Science], ''Regulation'' 13(1), Winter 1990
* ''Astronautics'' magazine, February 1960, quoted at [http://66.102.9.104/search?q=cache:7SbQAsojLy8J:www.presidentialufo.com/eisenhow5.htm google cache of: http://www.presidentialufo.8m.com/eisenhow5.htm] - article about possibility of base on [[Mars (planet)|Martian]] moon [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]]
[[Category:1924 births|Singer, Fred]]
[[Category:Living people|Singer, Fred]]
[[Category:Global warming skeptics|Singer, Fred]]
[[Category:Climatologists|Singer, Fred]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Frederik Pohl</title>
<id>11736</id>
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<id>40160067</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-18T16:49:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Liblamb</username>
<id>85284</id>
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<comment>/* Novels */ chronological order</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the writer and editor. For the historian, see [[Frederick J. Pohl]].''
'''Frederik Pohl''' (born [[November 26]], [[1919]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[science fiction]] writer and editor who became a [[Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award|Nebula Grand Master]] in 1993. In early adulthood, Pohl lived in [[New York]] and was a member of the [[Futurians]] fan group.
When he was a teenager, Pohl attended the prestigious [[Bronx High School of Science]], forming a lifelong friendship with fellow writer [[Isaac Asimov]]. But, this was during the [[Great Depression]], and Pohl had to drop out of school when he was fourteen, in order to get a job.
Pohl joined the [[United States Communist Party|Communist Party]] as a teenager. But he was expelled from the Communist Party because more senior members of the Communist Party thought that his [[science fiction fandom]] risked corrupting youth.
Pohl has married several times. One of his wives was [[Judith Merril]], also an important figure in the world of science fiction. Pohl and Merril had some children. He is currently married to science fiction editor and academic [[Elizabeth Ann Hull]].
He was a friend and collaborator with [[Cyril M. Kornbluth|C.M. Kornbluth]], co-authoring a number of short stories and several [[novel]]s, including a [[dystopia|dystopian]] [[satire]] of a world ruled by the advertising agencies, ''The Space Merchants''. In addition to ''The Space Merchants'' (a.k.a., perhaps more wittily, ''The Merchants of Venus''), a number of his short stories were notable for a satirical look at consumerism and advertising in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]: ''The Wizard of Pung's Corner'', where flashy, overcomplex military hardware prove useless against farmers with shotguns, and ''The Tunnel Under the World'', where an entire community is held captive by advertising researchers (this one-line summary omits several plot twists).
In the [[1970s]], Pohl made a comeback as a writer with novels like ''Man Plus'' and the ''[[Heechee]]'' series. He won back-to-back [[Nebula Awards|Nebula]] awards with ''Man Plus'' in 1976 and ''Gateway'', the first novel in the ''Heechee'' series, in 1977. ''Gateway'' also won the [[1978]] novel [[Hugo Award]]. Another notable late novel of his is ''Jem'' ([[1980]]). Pohl continues to write and had a new story, "Generations", published as recently as September 2005.
From about [[1959]] until [[1969]], Pohl edited ''[[Galaxy science fiction|Galaxy]]'' magazine and its sister magazine ''[[If magazine|If]]'', winning the [[Hugo award|Hugo]] for ''If'' three years running. In the mid-1970s, he acquired and edited novels for [[Bantam Books]], published as "Frederik Pohl Selections"; the most notable were [[Samuel R. Delany]]'s ''[[Dhalgren]]'' and [[Joanna Russ]]'s ''[[The Female Man]]''.
==Works==
===Series===
* ''[[Heechee]]'':
** ''[[Gateway (novel)|Gateway]]'' (1976) (''winner of the [[Hugo award]] and [[Nebula award]]'')
** ''Beyond the Blue Event Horizon'' (1980)
** ''Heechee rendezvous'' (1985)
** ''Annals of the Heechee'' (1987)
** ''The Gateway Trip'' (1990)
** ''The Boy Who Would Live Forever: A Novel of Gateway'' (2004)
* ''[[Eschaton]]'':
**''The Other End of Time'' (1996)
**''The Siege of Eternity'' (1997)
**''The Far Shore of Time'' (1999)
* ''[[Saga of Cuckoo]]'' (with [[Jack Williamson]]):
**''[[Wall Around A Star]]'' (1975)
**''[[ Farthest Star]]'' (1983) [prequel]
* [[Starchild Trilogy]] (with Jack Williamson):
**''The Reefs of Space'' (1964)
**''Starchild'' (1965)
**''Rogue St |
and Zola. But even after the decline of the realistic school Flaubert did not lose prestige; other facets of his genius caught the light. It has been perceived that he was not merely realistic, but real; that his clairvoyance was almost boundless; that he saw certain phenomena more clearly than the best of observers had done. Flaubert is a writer who must always appeal more to other authors than to the world at large, because the art of writing, the indefatigable pursuit of perfect expression, were always before him, and because he hated the lax felicities of improvisation as a disloyalty to the most sacred procedures of the literary artist.
He can be said to have made [[cynicism]] into an art-form, as evinced by this observation from 1846:
:''To be stupid, and selfish, and to have good health are the three requirements for happiness; though if stupidity is lacking, the others are useless.''
His ''Œuvres Complètes'' (8 vols., [[1885]]) were printed from the original manuscripts, and included, besides the works mentioned already, the two plays, ''Le Candidat'' and ''Le Château des cœurs''. Another edition (10 vols.) appeared in [[1873]]&ndash;[[1885]]. Flaubert's correspondence with George Sand was published in [[1884]] with an introduction by [[Guy de Maupassant]].
He has been admired or written about by almost every major literary personality of the [[20th century]], including [[philosopher]]s such as [[Pierre Bourdieu]]. [[Georges Perec]] named ''[[Sentimental Education]]'' as one of his favourite novels. The Peruvian novelist [[Mario Vargas Llosa]] is another great admirer of Flaubert. Apart from ''Perpetual Orgy'', which is solely devoted to Flaubert's art, one can find lucid discussions in Vargas Llosa's recently published ''Letters to a Young Novelist''.
==Bibliography==
===Major Works===
*''[[Madame Bovary]]'' ([[1857]])
*''[[Salammbô (novel)|Salammbô]]'' ([[1862]])
*''L'Éducation sentimentale'' ([[1869]]) (tr. ''[[Sentimental Education]]'')
*''La Tentation de Saint Antoine'' ([[1874]]) (tr. ''[[The Temptation of Saint Anthony]]'')
*''Trois contes'' ([[1877]]) (tr. ''[[Three Tales (novel)|Three Tales]]'')
*''[[Bouvard et Pécuchet]]'' ([[1881]], posthumously published)
*''Dictionnaire des idées reçues'' ([[1911]], posthumously published, tr. ''[[Dictionary of Received Ideas]]'')
===Correspondence (in English)===
*Selections:
**''Selected Letters'' (ed. Francis Steegmuller, [[1953]], [[2001]])
**''Selected Letters'' (ed. Geoffrey Wall, [[1997]])
*''Flaubert in Egypt'' ([[1972]])
*''Flaubert and Turgenev, a Friendship in Letters: The Complete Correspondence'' (ed. Barbara Beaumont, [[1985]])
*Correspondence with George Sand:
**''The George Sand-Gustave Flaubert Letters'', translated by Aimée G. Leffingwel McKenzie (A.L. McKensie), introduced by Stuart Sherman ([[1921]]), available at the Gutenberg website as [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5115 E-text N° 5115]
**''Flaubert-Sand: The Correspondence'' ([[1993]])
===Biographical and other related publications===
*Various authors, ''The Public vs. M. Gustave Flaubert'', available at the Gutenberg website as [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/10666 E-text N° 10666].
*Hennequin, Émile, ''Quelques écrivains français Flaubert, Zola, Hugo, Goncourt, Huysmans, etc.'', available at the Gutenberg website as [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12289 E-text N° 12289]
*[[Julian Barnes|Barnes, Julian]], ''[[Flaubert's Parrot]]'', ISBN 0330289764
==External links==
===Online Texts===
{{wikiquote}}
* [[French language|French]] [http://www.incipitblog.com/index.php/2005/08/08/gustave-flaubert-la-femme-du-monde-1836/ Audiobook (mp3)]: ''La femme du monde'' (''taken from Flaubert's early works'')
*{{gutenberg author|id=Gustave_Flaubert|name=Gustave Flaubert}}
===More links===
*[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/flaubert.htm Overview]
*[http://www.univ-rouen.fr/flaubert/ site of the Centre Flaubert at Rouen]
*[http://www.fjvenezia.com/Flaubert.html Multilingual research links]
* [http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/gustave_flaubert.html Flaubert entry at the Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism site]
*[http://www.bibliomania.com/0/5/136/frameset.html Bibliomania page]
*[http://www.kat.gr/kat/history/Mod/Ph/FlaubertGustave.htm Long, general page about Flaubert]
*[http://perso.wanadoo.fr/jb.guinot/pages/accueil.html A comprehensive site in French]
{{1911}}
[[Category:1821 births|Flaubert, Gustave]]
[[Category:1880 deaths|Flaubert, Gustave]]
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[[zh:福楼拜]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gregory Chaitin</title>
<id>12308</id>
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<id>41054957</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T19:39:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bcrowell</username>
<id>6286</id>
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<comment>criticism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gregory J. Chaitin''' (born [[1947]]) is an [[Argentina|Argentine]]-[[United States|American]] [[mathematician]] and [[computer scientist]].
Beginning in the late [[1960s]], Chaitin made important contributions to [[algorithmic information theory]] and [[Metamathematics]], in particular a new incompleteness theorem similar in spirit to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]]. In 1995 he was given the degree of doctor of science ''honoris causa'' by the University of Maine. In 2002 he was given the title of honorary professor by the [[University of Buenos Aires]] in Argentina, where his parents were born and where Chaitin spent part of his youth. He is a research staff member at [[IBM]]'s [[Thomas J. Watson Research Center]] and also a visiting professor at the Computer Science Department of the University of Auckland, and on the international committee of the [[Valparaíso Complex Systems Institute]].
Chaitin has defined [[Chaitin's constant]] '''<math>\ \Omega</math>''', a [[real number]] whose digits are [[normal number|equidistributed]] and which expresses the probability that a random program will halt. '''<math>\ \Omega</math>''' has numerous remarkable mathematical properties, including the fact that it is [[Definable number|definable]] but not [[computability theory (computation)|computable]].
Chaitin's work on algorithmic information theory paralleled the earlier work of [[Kolmogorov]] in many respects.
Chaitin also writes about [[philosophy]], specially [[metaphysics]] and [[philosophy of mathematics]] (particularly about epistemological matters in mathematics). In metaphysics, Chaitin claims that [[algorithmic information theory]] is the key to solve problems in the field of [[biology]] (obtaining a formal definition of ‘life’, its origin and [[evolution]]) and [[neuroscience]] (the problem of consciousness and the study of the mind). Indeed, in recent writings, he defends a position known as [[digital philosophy]]. In the epistemology of mathematics, he claims that his findings in [[mathematical logic]] and algorithmic information theory shows there are ''“mathematical facts that are true for no reason, they're true by accident. They are random mathematical facts”''. Chaitin proposes that mathematicians must abandon any hope to prove those mathematical facts and adopt a [[quasi-empirical]] methodology. Although Chaitin's mathematical work is generally agreed to be correct, many mathematicians disagree strongly with his philosophical interpretation of it.
The implication between Chaitin’s mathematical work and his philosophical writings that himself elaborated has been challenged. The philosopher [[Panu Raatikainen]] argues that Chaitin misinterprets the implications of his own work and his conclusions about philosophical matters are not solid. The philosopher [[Torkel Franzén]] criticizes Chaitin’s interpretation of [[Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem]] and the alleged explanation for it that Chaitin’s work represent.
== Books ==
*''Algorithmic Information Theory'', ([http://www.cup.org Cambridge University Press], [[1987]]),
*''Information, Randomness & Incompleteness'', ([http://www.worldscientific.com World Scientific], 1987),
*''Information-Theoretic Incompleteness'', ([http://www.worldscientific.com World Scientific], [[1992]]),
*''The Limits of Mathematics'', ([http://www.springeronline.com Springer-Verlag] [[1998]]),
*''The Unknowable'', ([http://www.springeronline.com Springer-Verlag] [[1999]]),
*''Exploring Randomness'', ([http://www.springeronline.com Springer-Verlag] [[2001]]),
*''Conversations with a Mathematician'', ([http://www.springeronline.com Springer-Verlag] [[2002]]),
*''From Philosophy to Program Size'', ([http://ioc.ee Tallinn Cybernetics Institute] [[2003]]),
*''Meta Math!'', ([http://www.randomhouse.com/pantheon Pantheon] [[2005]]).
==External links==
*[http://cs.umaine.edu/~chaitin/ G J Chaitin Home Page]
*[http://cs.umaine.edu/~chaitin/complete.html List of publications of G J Chaitin]
*[http://www.dc.uba.ar/people/profesores/becher/ns.html New Scientist article (March, 2001) on Chaitin, Omegas and Super-Omegas]
*[http://www.flownet.com/gat/chaitin.html A short version of Chaitin's proof]
*Two papers ([http://www.helsinki.fi/collegium/eng/Raatikainen/rev-panu.pdf 1], [http://www.helsinki.fi/collegium/eng/Raatikainen/AITsynthese.pdf 2]) criticizing Chaintin's interpretation of his results
[[Category:1947 births|Chaitin, Gregory]] |
/Super Constellation]]
* [[F-80 Shooting Star]]
* [[T-33|T-33/TV-2]] trainers
* [[P2V Neptune]]
* [[Lockheed XF-90|XF-90]]
* [[F-94 Starfire]]
* [[Lockheed X-7|X-7]]
* [[F-104 Starfighter]]
* [[C-130 Hercules]]
* [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]]
* Blackbird family: [[Lockheed YF-12|A-11]], [[A-12 Oxcart|A-12]], [[YF-12]], [[SR-71]], [[M-21]], and [[D-21]]
* [[Lockheed JetStar|JetStar/C-140]]
* [[AH-56 Cheyenne]]
==External links==
* [http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/cjohnson.html Clarence Leonard (Kelly) Johnson]
* [http://www.astech-engineering.com/systems/avionics/aircraft/skunkworks.html Kelly Johnson's rules] for Skunkworks aircraft
* [http://www.afa.org/magazine/june2005/0605skunk.asp "Lord of the Skunk Works" article from ''Air Force Magazine'']
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=7873 Clarence Johnson on Find-A-Grave]
==Literature==
* Johnson, Clarence L. "Kelly"; Maggie Smith. (1985) ''Kelly: More Than My Share of It All''. Smithsonian Institution Press, ISBN 0874745640
* Rich, Ben; Leo Janos. (1996) ''Skunk Works''. Little, Brown & Company, ISBN 0316743003
[[Category:1910 births|Johnson, Clarence]]
[[Category:1990 deaths|Johnson, Clarence]]
[[Category:Aerospace engineers|Johnson, Clarence]]
[[Category:American engineers|Johnson, Clarence]]
[[Category:Lockheed Corporation|Johnson, Clarence]]
[[Category:Swedish-Americans|Johnson, Clarence]]
[[fr:Clarence “Kelly” Johnson]]
[[hu:Kelly Johnson]]
[[nl:Clarence "Kelly" Johnson]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Chinese food</title>
<id>7694</id>
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<id>15905751</id>
<timestamp>2005-06-26T20:54:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joy</username>
<id>20318</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>updated to avoid double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese cuisine]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Chiliasm</title>
<id>7695</id>
<revision>
<id>15905752</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Millennialism]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Christian theosophy</title>
<id>7696</id>
<revision>
<id>15905753</id>
<timestamp>2004-09-24T16:34:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Wesley</username>
<id>63</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirecting to Theosophy, based on the Discussion page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Theosophy]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>C-130 Hercules</title>
<id>7697</id>
<revision>
<id>42147079</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T03:14:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PLooB</username>
<id>256150</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Next generation */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:usaf.c130.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|300px|'''Lockheed C-130H Hercules''']]
The '''Lockheed C-130 Hercules''' is a four-engine [[turboprop]] [[aircraft]] that serves as the main [[Tactical airlift|tactical airlifter]] for military forces worldwide. Capable of [[landing]] and [[Take off|taking off]] from short or unprepared [[Runway|runways]], it was designed as a troop transport and [[cargo aircraft]], but is now also used for a wide variety of other roles, including [[airborne infantry|airborne assault]], weather reconnaissance, [[aerial refuelling]], [[aerial firefighting]] and [[MEDEVAC]]. More than 40 different models of the Hercules — including several [[Gunship|gunships]] — are used by more than 50 nations.
The C-130 family has the longest continuous production run of any military aircraft in history. During more than 50 years of service, the family has established a solid record of reliability and durability, participating in military, civilian and [[humanitarian aid]] operations.
== Development ==
=== Origin of the Design ===
[[Image:YC-130s formation usaf.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The two YC-130 prototypes in formation. Note the blunt nose, a feature present on only the first version.]]
The [[Korean War]], which began in June, [[1950 in aviation|1950]], showed that [[World War II]]-era transports — [[C-119 Flying Boxcar|C-119 Flying Boxcars]], [[C-47 Skytrain|C-47 Skytrains]] and [[C-46 Commando|C-46 Commandos]] — were inadequate for modern warfare. Thus, on [[February 2]], [[1951 in aviation|1951]], the [[United States Air Force]] issued a General Operating Requirement (GOR) for a new transport to [[Boeing]], [[Douglas Aircraft|Douglas]], [[Fairchild]], and [[Lockheed]]. The new transport, among other things, would have a capacity for 92 passengers or 64 paratroopers, a range of 1,100 nautical miles, takeoff capability from short and unprepared strips, and the ability to fly with one engine stopped.
Lockheed tackled the design with a team led by [[Willis Hawkins]]. The proposal for the '''Lockheed 82''' was about 130 pages and came with a design model with a wingspan of 15 inches.{{ref|rhodes}} [[Hall Hibbard]], Lockheed vice president and chief engineer, saw the proposal and directed it to [[Kelly Johnson]], who remarked when he saw the proposal, "If you sign that letter, you will destroy the Lockheed Company." These words proved unportentous: both Hibbard and Johnson signed off on the proposal and the company got the contract on [[July 2]], [[1951 in aviation|1951]].{{ref|boyne}}
=== First flight ===
The first flight of the '''YC-130''' [[prototype]] was made on [[August 23]], [[1954 in aviation|1954]] from the [[Lockheed]] plant in [[Burbank, California|Burbank]], [[California]]. The aircraft, serial number 53-3397, was the second prototype but the first of the two to fly. The YC-130 was piloted by Stanley Beltz and Roy Wimmer on its 61-minute flight to [[Edwards Air Force Base]]; Jack Real and Dick Stanton served as flight engineers. Kelly Johnson, apparently repenting from his dislike of the design, flew chase in a [[P2V Neptune]].{{ref|dabney}}
=== Production ===
[[Image:Canada CC-130 Hercules.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Canadian Forces Air Command|Canadian Air Force]] CC-130 Hercules]]
After the two prototypes were completed, production moved to [[Marietta, Georgia|Marietta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], where more than 2,000 C-130s have been built.{{ref|afm}}
The initial production model, the '''C-130A''', was powered by [[Allison T56]] turboprops with 3-blade [[Propeller|propellers]]. Deliveries began in December of [[1956 in aviation|1956]], continuing until the introduction of the '''C-130B''' model in [[1959 in aviation|1959]]. Some A models were redesignated '''C-130D''' after being equipped with [[Ski|skis]] and for [[JATO|jet-assisted takeoff]]. The newer C-130B had [[Aileron|ailerons]] with more boost — 3,000 versus 2,050 lbf/in² (21 versus 14 MPa) — as well as uprated engines and four-bladed propellers that were standard until the late 1990s. The performance gains over the C-130A gave the C-130B the reputation of being the design's 'sports car' model.
The extended range '''C-130E''' model entered service in [[1962 in aviation|1962]]. The increased range was achieved by underwing fuel 5,150 litre (1,360 US gallon) tanks and more powerful [[Allison Engine Company|Allison]] T-56-A-7A turboprops. The E model also featured structural improvements, [[avionics]] upgrades and a higher gross weight.
The '''KC-130''' [[Tanker (aircraft)|tankers]], originally '''C-130F'''s procured for the [[United States Marine Corps|US Marine Corps]] (USMC) in [[1958 in aviation|1958]] (under the designation '''GV-1'''), are equipped with a removable 13,626 litre (3600 US gallon) [[stainless steel]] [[fuel tank]] carried inside the cargo compartment. The two wing-mounted hose and drogue [[aerial refueling]] pods each transfer up to 19 litres per second (equivalent to 300 US gallons per minute) to two aircraft simultaneously, allowing for rapid cycle times of multiple-receiver aircraft formations, (a typical tanker formation of four aircraft in less than 30 minutes). The [[United States Navy|US Navy]]'s '''C-130G''' has increased structural strength allowing higher gross weight operation.
The '''C-130H''' model has updated Allison T56-A-15 turboprops, a redesigned outer [[wing]], updated avionics and other minor improvements. The H model remains in widespread use with the [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] (USAF) and many foreign air forces. Initial deliveries began in [[1964 in aviation|1964]], remaining in production until [[1996 in aviation|1996]]. An improved C-130H was introduced in [[1974 in aviation|1974]]. The equivalent model for export to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] is the '''C-130K''', known by the [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) as the '''Hercules C.1'''. The '''C-130H-30''' ('''Hercules C.3''' in RAF service) is a stretched version of the original Hercules, achieved by inserting a 2.54m plug aft of the cockpit and a 2.03m plug at the rear of the fuselage.
The '''C-130R''' and '''C-130T''' are US Navy and USMC models, both equipped with underwing external fuel tanks. The C-130T is similar, but has numerous avionics improvements over the R model and is fully [[night-vision]] system compatible. In both models, USMC aircraft are equipped with Allison T-56-A-16 engines.
=== Civilian use ===
The '''Lockheed L-100''' is a civilian variant, equivalent to a C-130E model without pylon tanks or military equipment. The L-100 also has 2 stretched versions: the L-100-20 has an 8.3 ft (2.5 m) fuselage stretch and the L-100-30 is stretched by 15 ft (4.6 m). The L-100 has not seen widespread use in the civilian market.
=== Next generation ===
[[image:hercules.propeller.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The propellers of RAF Hercules C.4 (C-130J-30)]]
In the 1 |
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<page>
<title>Balmoral Castle</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:24:52Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Balmoral Castle - Project Gutenberg 13103.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|'''Balmoral Castle''']]
[[Image:balmoral_by_queen.JPG|frame|right|Balmoral Castle, painted by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] in 1854 during its construction]]
'''Balmoral Castle''' is a large mansion situated in the area of [[Aberdeenshire]], [[Scotland]] known as [[Royal Deeside]]. The estate was purchased by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]'s husband [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]], and remains a favourite summer [[royal residence]].
==Early history==
The Balmoral Estate began as a home built by [[Sir]] [[William Drummond]] in 1390. The estate was formerly owned by [[Robert II of Scotland|King Robert II]], who had a hunting lodge in the area. After Drummond, the estate was sold to [[Alexander Gordon]], the son of the 2nd [[Earl of Huntly]], in the 15th century. The estate remained in the family's hands until it was sold in 1662, to Farquarson's of Invery.
The family were given the title "Earl of Balmoral" and it remained until the sale of the estate in 1798 to the 2nd [[Earl of Fife]]. The estate formed part of the [[coronation]] activities of [[George IV of the United Kingdom|King George IV]] in 1822.
==Royal residence==
Balmoral is today best known as a Royal Residence, the [[summer]] retreat of [[Her Majesty]] [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] and [[His Royal Highness]] the [[Duke of Edinburgh]]. The history as a Royal Residence dates back to 1848, when the house was [[rented]] to both the [[Queen regnant|Queen]] and the [[Prince Consort]] by the then [[Duke of Fife]]. They very much enjoyed their stay in the house, and they paid just over £30,000 for the full ownership of the house. The [[Prince Consort]] immediately started making plans to extend the existing [[fifteenth century]] castle, and make a 'new' and bigger castle fit for a Queen.
New evidence shows that the funding for Balmoral came chiefly from an eccentric poet, [[prison reform|prison reformer]] and [[jeweller]] named [[John Camden Nield]]. He left the Queen £500,000 in his will, which was a great help to the Royal Family's building ambitions.
In 1856 the building was completed, it now being a full and working estate with around 100 buildings surrounding the castle itself.
Today, the Balmoral Estate is still a working order, occupying over 200 km² of land. The Royal Family employs around 50 full-time and 50-100 part-time staff to maintain the estate and look after the animals etc. The part-time staff are used particularly when the Queen makes her annual visit.
There has been some speculation that Balmoral Castle may have been earmarked as a royal refuge in the event of nuclear war. In the 1960s war plans apparently envisaged evacuating the [[Sovereign]] to the [[Royal Yacht]] [[HMY Britannia|Britannia]], but this might not have been practical, and a land-based refuge would have been desirable. It would appear that, contrary to persistent rumour, there were no plans for the Sovereign to join the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] at the [[Corsham]] bunker complex known variously as [[Hawthorn, Wiltshire|Hawthorn]], Subtefuge, Site 3, Burlington or Turnstile. [[Buckingham Palace]] and [[Windsor Castle]] would both have been too vulnerable; the former as being in the heart of [[London]] - major target in its own right - and Windsor because of its proximity to [[Heathrow Airport]].
==See also==
*[[Crathie Kirk]]
*[[Castles in Scotland]]
''Other British royal residences:''
*[[Buckingham Palace]], [[London]]
*[[Palace of Holyroodhouse]], [[Edinburgh]]
*[[Windsor Castle]]
*[[Sandringham House]], [[Norfolk]]
==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.balmoralcastle.com/ Official site]
*[http://gouk.about.com/library/weekly/aa061002a.htm Balmoral Castle] on About.com
{{Royal Palaces UK}}
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<page>
<title>Bureaucracy</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:53:22Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">: ''This page is about the sociological concept. [[Bureaucracy (computer game)|Bureaucracy]] is also the name of a computer game.''
'''Bureaucracy ''' is a concept in [[sociology]] and [[political science]]. It refers to the way that the administrative execution and enforcement of legal rules is socially organized. This office organization is characterized by [[Standard Operating Procedures|standardized procedure]], formal [[division of responsibility]], [[hierarchy]], and impersonal [[social relation|relationships]].
Examples of everyday bureaucracies include [[government]]s, [[armed force]]s, [[corporation]]s, [[hospital]]s, [[court]]s, [[Ministry (government department)|ministries]] and [[school]]s.
==Origin of the concept==
Bureaucracy is derived from the word bureau, used from the early [[18th century]] in Western Europe not just to refer to a writing desk, but to an office, i.e. a workplace, where officials worked. The original [[French language|French]] meaning of the word ''bureau'' was the baize used to cover desks. The term bureaucracy came into use shortly before the [[French Revolution]] of 1789, and from there rapidly spread to other countries. The [[Greek language|Greek]] suffix -''kratia'' or ''kratos'' - means "power" or "rule". Bureaucracy thus basically means office power or office rule, the rule of the officialdom.
In a letter of July 1, 1764, the French [[Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm|Baron de Grimm]] declared: "We are obsessed by the idea of regulation, and our Masters of Requests refuse to understand that there is an infinity of things in a great state with which a government should not concern itself." [[Jean Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay]] sometimes used to say, "We have an illness in France which bids fair to play havoc with us; this illness is called ''bureaumania''." Sometimes he used to invent a fourth or fifth form of government under the heading of "bureaucracy". In another letter of July 15, 1765 Baron Grimm wrote also, "The real spirit of the laws in France is that bureaucracy of which the late Monsieur de Gournay used to complain so greatly; here the offices, clerks, secretaries, inspectors and ''intendants'' are not appointed to benefit the public interest, indeed the public interest appears to have been established so that offices might exist." (Baron de Grimm and [[Diderot]], ''Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique, 1753-69'', 1813 edition, Vol. 4, p. 146 & 508 - cited by Martin Albrow, ''Bureaucracy''. London: Pall Mall Press, 1970, p. 16).
This quote refers to a traditional controversy about bureaucracy, namely the perversion of means and ends so that means become ends in themselves, and the greater good is lost sight of; as a corollary, the substitution of ''sectional'' interests for the ''general'' interest. The suggestion here is that, left uncontrolled, the bureauracy will become increasingly self-serving and [[corrupt]], rather than serving society.
However, bureaucracy existed long before words and theories were devised to describe it in detail. The Chinese [[Song dynasty]] (960 AD) for example constructed a centralized bureaucracy staffed with civilian scholar-officials. This system of rule led to a much greater concentration of power in the hands of the emperor and his palace bureaucracy than was achieved in previous dynasties.
==Karl Marx and bureaucracy==
In [[Karl Marx]]'s theory of [[historical materialism]], the historical origin of bureaucracy is to be found in ''four'' sources: religion, the formation of the state, commerce and technology.
Thus, the earliest bureaucracies consisted of castes of ''religious'' clergy, officials and scribes operating various rituals, and armed functionaries specifically delegated to keep order. In the historical transition from primitive egalitarian communities to a civil society divided into social classes and estates, occurring about 10,000 years ago, authority is increasingly centralised in, and enforced by a state apparatus existing separately from society. This state formulates, imposes and enforces laws, and levies taxes, giving rise to an officialdom enacting these functions. Most importantly, the right of ordinary people to carry and use weapons of force becomes increasingly restricted; forcing other people to do things becomes increasingly the right of the state authorities only.
But the growth of trade and commerce adds a new, distinctive dimension to bureaucracy, insofar as it requires the keeping of accounts and the processing/recording of transactions, as well as the enforcement of legal rules governing trade. If resources are increasingly distributed by [[prices]] in markets, this requires extensive and complex systems of record-keepi |
ts inception in 1981, although disagreements over a movement of the exhibition venue will see it move to [[Hong Kong]] in 2008. A new show, the [[Singapore Air Show]], will take its place in Singapore from the same year.
*The world's largest military air show is the [[Royal International Air Tattoo]] (RIAT) ([[RAF Fairford]], [[Gloucestershire]], [[United Kingdom]]), held annually in July.
*The annual [[Oshkosh Airshow]] ([[Oshkosh, Wisconsin]]), organized by the [[Experimental Aircraft Association]], is attended by more people and by more aircraft than any other airshow. The week-long event focuses on experimental aircraft, such as homebuilts and warbirds, but will also feature aerobatics acts, military aircraft, and airliners. The airshow also includes talks by famous or influential people in aviation, as well as a large area with booths where aircraft, aircraft parts, aircraft services, and aircraft memorabilia are sold, advertised, announced, or traded.
*Airshows in the US that display the widest variety of modern military aircraft (helicopters, jet fighters, bombers, cargo aircraft, stealth aircraft, etc) are typically the ones held at [[Nellis AFB]], [[NAS Oceana]], and [[Andrews AFB]]. Each of these features nearly all frontline aircraft in service with the US armed forces, and is held yearly.
*The US airshows with the most numerous and diverse (and often rare) warbirds include the [[Planes of Fame]] airshow at [[Chino, California|Chino]] and the "Thunder Over Michigan" show at [[Willow Run]]. The British equivalents are the airshows held in [[Duxford]]. The Oshkosh airshow, mentioned above, also features a large number and variety of warbirds. All these events are held once a year.
*Airbourne, taking place in [[Eastbourne]] on the south coast of [[England]].
{{expand list}}
*[[Abbotsford International Airshow]] ([[Abbotsford, British Columbia]])
*[[Aero India]] ([[India]])
*The [[Australian International Air Show]] (2005) - "The Shape of Things to Come".
*[[Berlin Air Show]] - ILA ([[Berlin, Germany]])
*[[Chicago Air & Water Show]] ([[Chicago, Illinois]])
*[[Chino Airshow]] ([[Chino, California]])
*[[Dubai Airshow]] ([[Dubai]])
*[[Edwards AFB Airshow]] ([[Palmdale, California]])
*[[El Centro Airshow]] ([[El Centro, California]])
*[[Flying Legends]] ([[Duxford]], [[United Kingdom]])
*[[Hill AFB Airshow]] ([[Ogden, Utah]])
*[[Inland Northwest Skyfest]] ([[Spokane, Washington]])
*[[Joint Services Open house]] ([[Andrews AFB,Maryland]])
*[[Las Vegas Airshow]] ([[Las Vegas, Nevada]])
*[[Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition]] ([[Langkawi, Malaysia]])
*[[MAKS Airshow]] ([[Moscow]],[[Russia]])
*[[Midland Airshow]] ([[Commemorative Air Force]], [[Midland, Texas]])
*[[Miramar Airshow]] ([[San Diego, California]])
*[[NAS Pensacola Airshow]] ([[Pensacola, Florida]])
*[[Salinas Airshow]] ([[Salinas, California]])
*[[Saskatchewan Airshow]] ([[Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan]])
*[[Seafair]] Airshow ([[Seattle, Washington]])
*[[Selfridge Air National Guard Base]] Airshow ([[Detroit, Michigan]])
*[[Shearwater Airshow]] ([[Shearwater, Nova Scotia]])
*[[Sun 'N Fun]] ([[Lakeland, Florida]])
*[[Warbirds over Wanaka]] ([[Wanaka|Wanaka, New Zealand]])
==Other notable airshows==
*[[Air/Space America 88]] ([[San Diego, California]])
*[[Wings Over Gillespie]] ([[Commemorative Air Force]] static airshow, [[El Cajon, California]])
*[[Northwest EAA Fly-In]] ([[Arlington, Washington]])
*[[Thunder over the Boardwalk]] ([[Atlantic City, New Jersey]])
*[[Royal Air Force|RAF]] [[Leuchars Airshow]]. Held in September in Fife, Scotland
==External links==
*[http://www.airshowstuff.com Airshowstuff.com]
*[http://airshow.aviation.ca Canadian Airshow Resource]
*[http://www.flyawayphotos.com Fly Away Photography]
*[http://www.milaviapress.com/calendar/index.php MilAvia Press Airshow Calendar]
*[http://www.airshows.co.za International Airshows: South Africa Airshows]
*[http://www.stevesairshow.com/ Collection of airshows videos]
*[http://www.sun-n-fun.org/ Sun 'N Fun: EAA's second largest airshow]
[[Category:Airshows|*]]
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<page>
<title>Anthropic principle</title>
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<timestamp>2006-02-27T21:39:17Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">In [[cosmology]], the '''anthropic principle''' in its most basic form states the [[truism]] that any valid theory of the [[universe]] must be consistent with our existence as carbon-based human beings at this particular time and place in the universe. In other words, "If something must be true for us, as humans, to exist, then it is true simply because we exist." Attempts to apply this principle to develop scientific explanations in [[cosmology]] have led to some confusion and much controversy.
==Origin==
The term "anthropic principle" was first proposed in 1973 by theoretical physicist [[Brandon Carter]] during the [[symposium]] "Confrontation of Cosmological Theories with Observational Data" in [[Kraków]] celebrating [[Copernicus]]&#8217; 500th birthday, as if to proclaim that humanity does hold a special place in the [[universe]] after all. {{fn|(1)}} In his contribution "Large Number Coincidences and the Anthropic Principle in Cosmology" Carter remarks: "Although our situation is not necessarily ''central'', it is inevitably privileged to some extent" (IAUS 63 (1974) 291).
==Proponents and versions==
Proponents of the anthropic principle suggest that we live in a [[fine-tuned universe]], i.e. a universe that appears to be "fine-tuned" to allow the existence of [[life]] as we know it. If any of the [[fundamental physical constant]]s were sufficiently different, then life as we know it would not be possible and no one would be around to contemplate this fine-tuned universe we live in. Papers have been written arguing that the anthropic principle would explain the physical constants such as the [[fine structure constant]], the number of [[dimension]]s in the universe, and the [[cosmological constant]].
The three primary versions of the principle, as stated by [[John D. Barrow]] and [[Frank J. Tipler]] (1986), are:
* '''Weak anthropic principle (WAP)''': "The observed values of all physical and cosmological quantities are not equally probable but they take on values restricted by the requirement that there exist sites where carbon-based life can evolve and by the requirements that the Universe be old enough for it to have already done so."
* '''Strong anthropic principle (SAP)''': "The Universe must have those properties which allow life to develop within it at some stage in its history."
* '''[[Final anthropic principle]] (FAP)''': "Intelligent information-processing must come into existence in the Universe, and, once it comes into existence, it will never die out."
The weak version has been criticized as an [[argument by lack of imagination]] for assuming no other forms of life are possible (sometimes called ''"carbon chauvinism"'', see also [[alternative biochemistry]]). Furthermore, the range of constants allowing evolution of carbon-based life may be much less restricted than proposed (Stenger, "Timeless Reality"). The weak anthropic principle has also been cited by both critics and supporters as a [[tautology]]. The strong version is also criticized as being neither testable nor falsifiable, and unnecessary. The final version is discussed in more detail under [[final anthropic principle]]; Barrow and Tipler state that, although it is a physical statement, it is nevertheless "closely connected with moral values".
Proponents of [[intelligent design]] assert support from the anthropic principle. On the other hand, the existence of the [[multiverse]] or [[alternate universe]]s is hypothesized for other reasons and the anthropic principle provides a plausible explanation for the fine tuning of our universe. Assuming some possible universe would be capable of supporting intelligent life, some actual universes must do so, and ours clearly is one of those. However, alternatives of the intelligent design conjecture are not limited to proposing the existence of alternate universes. Also, [http://quasar.as.utexas.edu/anthropic.html it has been argued] that the anthropic principle as conventionally stated actually ''undermines'' the intelligent design conjecture (discussed in more detail under [[fine-tuned universe|fine tuning]]). In other words, proponents of [[evolution]] also assert support from the anthropic principle.
== ''The Anthropic Cosmological Principle'' ==
In 1986, the [[controversial book]] ''The Anthropic Cosmological Principle'' by [[John D. Barrow]] and [[Frank J. Tipler]] (Oxford University Press) was published. In this book Barrow, a cosmological scientist, and Tipler, a mathematical physicist, pioneered the '''anthropic principle''' in order to deal with the seemingly incredible coincidences that allow for our presence in a universe that appears to be perfectly set up for our existence. Everything from the particular energy state of the [[electron]] to the exact level of the [[weak nuclear force]] seems to be tailored for us to exist. The existence of carbon-based life in this universe is contingent upon several independent variables; and were any of these variables to take a slightly different value, carbon-based life could not exist. The anthropic principle implies that our ability to ponder cosmology at all is contingent on ''all'' the correct variables being in place. According to critics, this is simply a [[tautology]], a very elaborate way of saying "if things were different, they would be different", and that this weak anthropic principle is a truism that says nothing and expl |
urvey (US)]] reports that some 58 percent of those with major depression also suffer from lifetime anxiety citation. Supporting of this finding, two widely accepted clinical colloquiallisms include:
:*''agitated depression'' - referring to a state of depression that presents as anxiety, that includes akathisia, suicide, insomnia (not early morning wakefulness), non-clinical (meaning “doesn’t meet the standard for formal diagnosis”) and non-specific panic, and a general sense of dread.
:*''akathitic depression'' - referring to a state of depression that presents as anxiety, suicide, and includes akathisia, but does not include symptoms of panic.
It is also clear that even mild anxiety symptoms can have a major impact on the course of a depressive illness, and the co-mingling of any anxiety symptoms with the primary depression is important to consider. A pilot study by [[Ellen Frank PhD]], et. al., at the [[University of Pittsburgh]] found that depressed or bipolar patients with lifetime panic symptoms experienced significant delays in their weeks to remission. {{citeneeded}} These patients also had higher levels of residual impairment, or the ability to get back into the swing of things. On a similar note, [[Robert Sapolsky PhD]] of [[Stanford University]], and others, also argue that the relationship between stress, anxiety, and depression could be measured and demonstrated biologically. {{citeneeded}}. To that point, a [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10918705&query_hl=13&itool=pubmed_docsum study] by [[Heim]] and [[Nemeroff]], et. al., of [[Emory University]] found that depressed and anxious women with a history of childhood abuse recorded higher heart rates and the stress hormone [[ACTH]] when subjected to a stressful situation.
=== Hypomania ===
[[Hypomania]], as the name suggests, is a state of mind and/or behavior that is "below" (hypo) [[mania]]. In other words, a person in a hypomanic state will often display behavior that has all the earmarks of a full-blown mania (marked elevation of mood that is characterized by euphoria, overactivity, disinhibition, impulsivity, a decreased need for sleep, hypersexuality, etc.), but these symptoms, while disruptive and seemingly out of character, will not be so pronounced as to be considered a diagnosibly manic episode.
Another important point is that hypomania is a diagnostic category that includes both [[anxiety]] and depression. It often presents as a state of anxiety that occurs within the context of a clinical depression. Patients in a hypomanic state often describe a sense of extreme generalized and/or specific anxiety, re-recurring panic attacks, night terrors, guilt, and [[agency]] (as it pertains to [[co-dependence]] and [[counter-dependence]]). All of this happens while they are in a state retarded or somnolent depression. This is the type of depression where a person is lethargic and unable to move through life. The terms “retarded” and “somnolent” are shorthand for states of depression that include lethargy, hypersomnia, a lack of motivation, a collapse of ADLs (activities of daily living), and social withdrawal. This is similar to the shorthand used to describe an "agitated" or "[[akathisia|akathitic]]" depression.
In considering the hypomania-depression connection, one other distinction should be made. That is the differentiation among [[anxiety]], [[panic]], and [[Stress (medicine)|stress]]. Anxiety is a physiological state that is caused by the [[sympathetic nervous system]]. Anxiety does not need an outside influence to occur. Panic is related to the [[fight or flight|"fight or flight"]] mechanism. It is a reaction, induced by an outside stimili, and is a product of the [[sympathetic nervous system]], and the [[cerebral cortex]]. More plainly, panic is an anxiety state that we are thinking about. Finally, stress is a [[psycho-social]] reaction, influenced by how a person filters non-threatening external events. This filtering is based on his/her own ideas, assumptions, and expectations. Taken together, these ideas, assumptions, and expectations are referred to as social [[constructionism]].
On a final note, researchers at the [[University of California]], [[San Diego]] under the guidance of [[Hagop Akiskal]] MD, have found convincing evidence for the co-occurrence of hypomanic symptoms associated with a diagnosis of depression where the diagnosis does not meet criteria for a Bipolar diagnosis.{{citeneeded}} Symptoms under consideration, such as irritability, mis-directed anger, and compulsivity, also may not present sufficiently to be considered a hypomanic episode, as described by a [[Bipolar|Bipolar II]] Disorder. As noted in the Frank study {{citeneeded}} mentioned above, this particular course of the disease, with the breakthrough of anxiety, may have a significant impact on the overall course of the depression.
This idea of co-occurring anxiety and depresion is supported in a study by [[Giovanni Cassano]] MD of the [[University of Pisa]], and his collaborators on the Spectrum Project, who found a correlation between lifetime hypomanic and manic symptoms, and the severity of the depression.{{citeneeded}}
:“The presence of a significant number of manic/hypomanic items in patients with recurrent unipolar depression seems to challenge the traditional unipolar-bipolar dichotomy...”
These authors, along with many other researchers,{{citeneeded}} argue in support of a revision of the approach to psychiatric diagnosis into what is being referred to the mood spectrum, so as to “...[make] more accurate diagnostic evaluation[s].” This approach, although controversial, has begun to be given consideration by many behavioral health professionals.
== Causes of depression ==
No specific cause for depression has been identified, but there are a number of factors believed to be involved.
* '''[[Heredity]]''' &ndash; The tendency to develop depression may be inherited; there is some evidence that this disorder may run in families. {{fact}}
[[Image:synapse.png|thumbnail|200px|right|Brain chemicals called neurotransmitters allow electrical signals to move from the axon of one nerve cell to the neuron of another. A shortage of neurotransmitters impairs brain communication.]]
* '''[[Physiology]]''' &ndash; There may be changes or imbalances in chemicals which transmit information in the brain, called [[neurotransmitters]]. Many modern [[antidepressant]] [[Psychoactive drug|drug]]s attempt to increase levels of certain neurotransmitters, like [[serotonin]] and norepinephrine. While the causal relationship is unclear, it is known that antidepressant medications do relieve certain symptoms of depression, although critics point out that the relationship between serotonin, SSRIs, and depression is usually greatly oversimplified when presented to the public (see [http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020392 here]). [[Seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD) is a type of depressive disorder that occurs in the winter when daylight hours are short. It is believed that the body's production of [[melatonin]], which is produced at increased levels in the dark, plays a major part in the onset of SAD, and that many sufferers respond well to bright light therapy, also known as [[phototherapy]]. High levels of [[Omega-6 fatty acids]] in the brain have also been linked to depression.
* '''[[Psychology|Psychological]] factors''' &ndash; Low [[self-esteem]] and self-defeating or distorted thinking are connected with depression. While it is not clear which is the cause and which is the effect, it is known that sufferers who are able to make corrections to their thinking patterns can show improved mood and self-esteem. Psychological factors include the complex development of one's personality and how one has learned to cope with external environmental factors, such as [[Stress (medicine)|stress]].
* '''Early experiences''' &ndash; Events such as the death of a parent, [[abandonment]] or rejection, [[neglect]], chronic illness, and severe physical, psychological, or sexual [[abuse]] can also increase the likelihood of depression later in life. [[Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) includes depression as one of its major symptoms.
* '''Life experiences''' &ndash; Job loss, financial difficulties, long periods of [[unemployment]], the loss of a spouse or other family member, divorce or the end of a committed relationship, or other [[Psychological trauma|trauma]]tic events may trigger depression. Long-term stress, at home, work or school, can also be involved.
* '''Medical conditions''' &ndash; Certain illnesses including cardiovascular pathologies{{ref|manev}}, [[hepatitis]], [[mononucleosis]], [[hypothyroidism]], and organic brain damage caused by either degenerative conditions such as Parkinson disease or by traumatic blunt force injury may contribute to depression, as may certain prescription drugs such as [[oral contraceptive|birth control pills]] and [[steroid]]s.
* '''Diet''' &ndash; The increase in depression in industrialised societies has been linked to diet; in particular to reduced levels of omega-3 [[fatty acids]] in [[intensive farming|intensively farmed]] food and processed foods{{ref|lawrence}}. This link has been, at least partly, validated by studies using dietry supplements in schools{{ref|durham}} and by a double blind test in a prison.
* '''Alcohol and other drugs''' &ndash; Alcohol can have a negative effect on mood, and misuse or abuse of alcohol, [[benzodiazepine]]-based tranquillizers and sleeping medications can all play a major role in the length and severity of depression. The link between frequent [[cannabis]] use and depression is also widely documented, although the direction of causality remains in questi |
ctive Directory Infrastructure" (2003). ''Microsoft Press''. pg 1-8 &ndash; 1-9.
</div>
==References==
* "Windows Server 2003: Active Directory Infrastructure" (2003). ''Microsoft Press''. ISBN 0-7356-1438-5.
== External links ==
* [http://www.microsoft.com/windowsserver2003/technologies/directory/activedirectory/default.mspx Microsoft's Active Directory Page]
* [http://www.opentechsupport.net/forums/archive/topic/16708-1.html SRV records]
* [http://www.windowsitlibrary.com/Content/155/09/1.html WINS (Windows Internet Naming Service)]
* [http://www.dmtf.org Distributed Management Task Force]
* [http://www.pcquest.com/content/linux/2005/105010303.asp Active Directory on Linux]
[[Category:Active Directory]]
[[Category:Identity management systems]]
[[Category:Microsoft server technology]]
[[cs:Active Directory]]
[[de:Active Directory Service]]
[[es:Active Directory]]
[[fi:Active Directory]]
[[fr:Active Directory]]
[[it:Active Directory]]
[[nl:Active Directory]]
[[pl:Active Directory]]
[[ru:Active Directory]]
[[sk:Active Directory]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Atom Bomb</title>
<id>2808</id>
<revision>
<id>15901196</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nuclear weapon]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arian</title>
<id>2809</id>
<revision>
<id>23275165</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-15T09:37:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Susvolans</username>
<id>94325</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>{{msg:disambig}} → {{disambig}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Arian''' may refer to one of the following.
*[[Arianism]]
*Obsolete spelling of [[Aryan]], [[Aryan race]].
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aldona Ona</title>
<id>2810</id>
<revision>
<id>37986148</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T11:26:29Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Garas</username>
<id>263237</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>direct link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pieczec_Kazimierz_Wielki.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Royal seal of Casimir III the Great.]]
'''Aldona Ona''' or '''Anna''' (after 1309 – [[26 May]] [[1339]]) was the [[Queen consort|Queen]] of [[Piast Poland|Poland]] 1333 – 1339, and the [[Princess]] of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]]. She was the daughter of [[Monarch|King]] [[Gediminas]] of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]].
She married [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III the Great]]. Their daughter was [[Cunigunde]], who married the son of [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Louis VI the Roman]], on [[January 1]], [[1345]], possibly at [[Kraków]].
== Mother ==
:[[Jewna]], daughter of [[Prince]] [[Iwan of Polock]] (? – 1344)
== Father ==
:[[Gediminas]] ca 1275 – winter 1341 under [[Veliuona]] ([[Wielon]]), [[Grand Prince]] of Lithuania, [[Monarch|King]] of [[Lithuanians]] and [[Ruthenians]] 1316 – 1341
== Husband ==
:[[Casimir III of Poland|Kazimierz III Wielki]]
== Brothers ==
:[[Algirdas]] (-in lithuanian) [[Algirdas|Olgierd]] (ca 1296 – end of May 1377), Grand Prince of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]] 1345 – 1377
:[[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]] (-in lith.) [[Witowt]] (? – 1337), Prince of [[Trakai]]
:[[Manvydas]] (-in lith.) [[Monvyd]] (ca 1300 – 1348), Prince of [[Kiernow|Kernavė]] and [[Slonim|Wslonim]] (Slonim) 1341 – 1342
:[[Narimantas]] (-in lith.) [[Narymunt]] (Gleb, Dawid; ca 1300 – [[2 February]] [[1348]]), Prince of [[Pinsk]] 13?? – 1348, [[Polock]], [[Navahradak|Nowohorodok]]
:[[Jaunutis]] (-in lith.) [[Jaunutis|Jewnut]] (Jaunutis, Iwan; ca 1300 – after 1366), Grand Prince of Lithuania 1341 – 1345, Prince of [[Izjaslawl]] 1346 – 1366
:[[Kęstutis]] (-in lith.) [[Kestutis|Kiejstut]] (Kęstutis; 1297 – [[15 August]] [[1382]] [[Krewa]]), Prince of [[Trakai]], Grand Prince of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]] 1381 – 1382;
:[[Koriat|Karijotas]] (-in lith.) [[Koriat]] (Michal; ca 1300 – ca 1362), Prince of [[Navahradak|Nowohorodok]] 1341 – 1347
:[[Lubart|Liubartas]] (-in lith.) [[Lubart]] (Lubko, Lubartas, Dymitr; ca 1300 – 1384), Prince of [[Polock]] 13?? – 1342, [[Volodymyr-Volyns'kyi|Wlodzimierz]], [[Luck]] 1340 – 138?, [[Volynia|Wolynia]] 1340 – 1349, 1350 – 1366, 1371 – 1383, King of [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicja]] (independent [[monarchy|kingdom]] 1253 – 1349) 1340 – 1349
== Sisters ==
:[[Maria of Lithuania|Marija]] (ca 1300 – 1349), [[Princess]] of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]]
:[[Damilla]] (Elzbieta; 14th century – 1364), Princess of [[Plock]]
:[[Eufemia]] (14th century – [[5 February]] [[1342]]), Princess of [[Halicz]] and [[Volodymyr-Volyns'kyi|Wlodzimierz]]-[[Halicz]]
:[[Augusta-Anastazja|Augusta]] (Anastazja; 14th century – [[11 March]] [[1345]]), Grand Princess of [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir]]-[[Moscow]]
== Daughter ==
:[[Cunigunde]]
==See also==
:[[Gediminaiciai|Gediminaiciai (Gediminids)]]
:[[List of Polish rulers]]
[[Category:Lithuanian nobility]]
[[Category:Polish queens consort]]
[[Category:1339 deaths]]
[[Category:History of Belarus]]
[[Category:History of Lithuania]]
[[pl:Aldona Anna Giedyminówna]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aron Nimzowitsch</title>
<id>2812</id>
<revision>
<id>40759339</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T21:06:35Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Giftlite</username>
<id>37986</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ wikify</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Aron Nimzowitsch''' (also '''Nimzovich''' or '''Niemzowitsch''') ([[November 7]], [[1886]], [[Riga]] – [[March 16]], [[1935]], [[Denmark]]) was a [[Latvia]]n [[chess grandmaster]]. He was the foremost figure amongst the ''[[hypermodernism (chess)|hypermoderns]]''.
Nimzowitsch came from a wealthy Jewish family and learned chess from his father. He travelled to [[Germany]] in [[1904]] to study [[philosophy]], but began a career as a professional chess player that same year. After tumultuous years during and after [[World War I]], Nimzowitsch moved to [[Copenhagen]] in [[1922]] (some sources say [[1920]]) and lived there until his death. He is buried in Bispebjerg Cemetery in Copenhagen.
Nimzowitsch's [[chess|chess theories]] flew in the face of pre-existing convention. While there were those like [[Alexander Alekhine|Alekhine]], [[Emanuel Lasker|Lasker]], and even [[Jose Raul Capablanca|Capablanca]] who did not live by [[Siegbert Tarrasch|Tarrasch]]'s rigid teachings, the acceptance of Tarrasch's ideas, all simplifications of the more profound [[Wilhelm Steinitz|Steinitz]], was nearly universal. That the center had to be controlled by [[pawns]] and that development had to happen in support of this control — the core ideas of Tarrasch's chess philosophy—were things every beginner thought to be irrefutable laws of nature like gravity.
Nimzowitsch shattered these assumptions. He discovered such concepts as [[overprotection]] (the least important of his ideas from a modern standpoint though still interesting and sometimes applicable), control of the center by pieces instead of pawns, blockade, [[prophylaxis (chess)|prophylaxis]] — playing to prevent the opponent's plans — and the [[fianchetto]] (in the case of the fianchetto, one could argue that it was a rediscovery, but Nimzowitsch certainly refined its use). He also formalised strategies using open files, outposts and invasion of the seventh rank, all of which are widely accepted today.
He wrote three books on chess strategy: ''[[Mein System]] (My System)'' ([[1925]]), ''Die Praxis meines System (The Practice of my System)'' (commonly known as ''Chess Praxis''), and ''Die Blockade'' (The Blockade). The last of these is hard to find in English, however, and much that is in it is covered again in ''Mein System''. It is said that 99 out of 100 chess masters have read ''Mein System''; consequently, most consider ''My System'' to be Nimzowitsch's greatest contribution to chess. It sets out Nimzowitsch's most important ideas while his second most influential work, ''Chess Praxis'', elaborates upon these ideas, adds a few new ones, and has immense value as a stimulating collection of Nimzowitsch's own games even when these games are more entertaining than instructive.
At the height of his career, Nimzowitsch was the third best player in the world, immediately behind Alekhine and Capablanca. Although a contemporary of these two, he never played either of them in a serious match. His most notable successes were first place finishes at [[Copenhagen]] [[1928]], the [[Carlsbad]] tournaments of [[1929]], [[1933]], and [[1934]] and second place behind Alekhine at [[San Remo]] in [[1930]]. Nimzowitsch never developed a knack for match play though; his best match success was a draw with Alekhine (though this match was only three games long and was in [[1914]], 13 years before Alekhine became world champion).
Many chess openings and variations are named after him, the most famous being the [[Nimzo-Indian Defence]] (1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4) and the less often played [[Nimzowitsch Defence]] (1.e4 Nc6). Both of these exemplify Nimzowitsch's ideas about controlling the center with pieces. He was also vital in the development of two [[French Defense]] systems, the Winawer Variation (in some places called the Nimzowitsch Variation; its moves are 1. e4 e6 2. d4 d5 3. Nc3 Bb4) and the Advance Variation (1. e4 e6 2. d4 d5 3. e5).
Nimzowitsch influenced numerous other players, including [[Richard Réti]] and [[Tigran Petrosian]], and his influence is still felt today.
There are numerous entertaining anecdotes regarding Nimzowitch—some more savory than others. For example, he once missed the f |
funding than the Liberal and PC parties. This led to the net result of the previous system favouring parties that were more likely to get business contributions. There was no fifth party that was receiving much of its money in this manner, and the [[Green Party of Canada]] functioned mainly through personal donations. The NDP also had to depend in a greater manner on personal contributions. It should be noted that personal donations to federal parties and campaigns benefit from tax credits, although the amount of tax relief depends on the amount given. Also only people paying taxes receive any benefit from this.
A good part of the reasoning behind the change in funding was that union or business funding should not be allowed to have as much impact on federal election funding as these are not contributions from citizens and are not evenly spread out between parties. They are still allowed to contribute to the election but only in a minor fashion. The new rules stated that a party had to receive 2% of the vote nationwide in order to receive the general federal funding for parties. Each vote garnered a certain dollar amount for a party (approximately $1.75) in future funding. Because this system had not been use before approximations were made based on previous elections. The NDP received more votes than expected (its national share of the vote went up) while the new Conservative Party of Canada received fewer votes than had been estimated and has been asked to refund the difference. The Liberal party also likely received fewer votes than expected. Figures are not yet known, but it is believed they too will need to refund money. It should be noted that the province of [[Quebec]] was the first province to implement a similar system of funding many years before the changes to funding of federal parties.
Federal funds are disbursed quarterly to parties, beginning at the start of 2005. For the moment, this disbursement delay leaves the NDP and the Green Party in a better position to fight an election, since they rely more on individual contributors than federal funds. (The Green party now receives federal funds, since it for the first time received a sufficient share of the vote in the 2004 election.)
====Additional impact====
Federal ridings vary in competitiveness. Some are "safe" seats, (known as [[Stronghold (Canadian political term)|Strongholds]] in Canada) like [[Ottawa-Vanier]], which has voted in a Liberal MP every election for over 50 years. The changes to the campaign funding structure likely had an impact on voting, and certainly had an impact on electoral strategy.
Strongholds present two problems for less-competitive parties. The first is "strategic voting." in which supporters of less-competitive parties vote for the candidate of a party they prefer less, but which is more competitive. By doing so they might defeat the MP holding the "safe" seat, who they may prefer least of all. The second problem that of apathy. Supporters of less-competitive parties may not see the point in voting for their preferred party if their party's candidate has no hope of winning. But rather than casting a "strategic" ballot, they simply stay home.
However, under the new rules, the strategy of less-competitive parties became to persuade their supporters that votes for unsuccessful candidates would increase allocated funding. Often the amount was explained to the voters. So even if the seat was clearly safe, their voting would have a greater impact than it had in the past. The smaller the party, the stronger this argument became. It is likely this factor which increased the Green Party's share of the national vote.
Even though the new rules likely had the most impact for smaller parties, this strategy was probably used by all parties to try to increase their percentage of the vote. For supporters of the party holding the safe seat, one could argue that even if their vote was not needed to secure the seat for the party, it still made a difference to party funding.
Commonly, two national debates receive nationwide coverage during an election, one in each official language. Both debates are broadcast in translation, so it is possible to watch either debate without a working knowledge of the language of the debate, although part of the meaning can be lost. People who are bilingual enough to understand both the English- and French-language debates without need of translation will get a better idea of the substances of the two debates and the differences between them if they decide to watch both debates.
Currently only the parties represented in Parliament participate in the debates. The Green Party, however, has argued that it should also be allowed to participate. Its share of the vote has increased greatly, due in part to the new funding formula, in part because it ran in many more ridings than in previous elections, and in part to increased popularity. Thus the argument goes that if there is sufficient national support to earn official recognition as a party (i.e. one that is granted funding based on getting 2% or more of the national vote) it should also be allowed to debate on the same level as the other officially recognized parties.
Also, having received 6% of the vote in British Columbia, they will have a stronger case for being included in the debates in future elections, based on past precedent. The Bloc Québécois was allowed to participate in debates on the basis of its support in Quebec, even before it had elected any MPs in a general election. (The Bloc's MPs at the time had either switched parties or won in by-elections.) Also, the Bloc participates in English-language debates despite running no candidates outside Quebec. Furthermore, the [[Reform Party of Canada]] was included in debates when it had only a single MP, on the basis of anticipated support. So past party performance or number of seats is not how participants are chosen.
====Determination of party funding for 2004 election====
Because the new funding was based on percentage of the vote gained, an estimate was made towards how much each federal party would receive. All federal parties that had seats in the House of Commons were given funding. Because the Canadian Conservative party was new, estimates were attempted based on the votes for the old [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada]] and the [[Canadian Alliance]] party as the Conservative Party of Canada was a merger of the two parties. The amount the Conservative Party of Canada was given was above the amount it was estimated to receive and is expected to return the money. The Liberal party of Canada also received less votes than expected and is in the same situation. However some parties benefited from the new system. The NDP received less funding than the number of votes it received (it increased its share of the vote) and will receive additional funds to reflect this. For the first time the Green Party of Canada will receive direct federal funding in the next election as it was able to achieve the 2% vote threshold required (in British Columbia where the party was the most successful it garnered 6% of the vote). Impact on the Bloc Québécois funding (if they will need to return funds) is not yet clear but since it increased its share of the vote in Quebec (the only province it runs in - it is expected to be in a surplus position as well). In the future these numbers will be known ahead of time as they will be based on the previous electoral results.
==Current issues==
In March 2001, [[Bernard Landry]] succeeded [[Lucien Bouchard]] as premier of Quebec (see [[List of Quebec Premiers]]) and pledged to promote independence for Quebec and to hold another referendum on [[Quebec sovereignty movement|sovereignty]]. In the [[Quebec general election, 2003|2003 Quebec election]], Quebecers elected the [[Quebec Liberal Party]], and [[Jean Charest]] became premier, the first solidly federalist premier since the [[1980s]].
Advertising efforts by the federal government following the 1995 referendum led to alleged excesses by government officials; while the issue broke in the press in [[2002]], it came to full prominence after the Auditor's Report, causing the "[[sponsorship scandal]]". The [[Gomery Commission]], and its subsequent reports, have continued the situation.
Currently, such issues as [[medicare (Canada)|medicare]], [[unemployment]], [[housing]], [[education]], [[tax]]es, [[trade]], and the [[natural environment|environment]] preoccupy many Canadians more urgently than national unity. In October 2004, there was a health care summit where all the provincial premiers and territorial leaders participated that has resulted in a change in federal funding towards health care.
Only [[British Columbia|British Columbians]] have the ability to remove sitting members of the provincial legislature through [[recall election]] and [[initiative]].
At 11:18 a.m., February 6 2006, Stephen Harper was sworn in as prime minister of Canada at Rideau Hall in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. That same day at approximatelly 11:22 a.m. with the Honorable Governor General, Stephen Harper signed in his new cabinet.
==See also==
*[[Canadian and American politics compared]]
*[[Canadian and Australian politics compared]]
*[[Political culture of Canada]]
*[[List of political parties in Canada]]
*[[Canadian federal election results since 1867]]
*[[Canadian political scandals]]
==External links==
*[http://centrerion.blogspot.com Centrerion] Centrist blog
*[http://www.canadianpolicywiki.ca The Canadian Policy Wiki] Canadian collaborative policy think tank
*[http://www.canadiancontent.net/forums/ Canadian Political Forums]
*[http://www.mapleleafweb.com/ Maple Leaf Web] General politics
*[http://canada.gc.ca/ Official website of the Government of Canada]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/c1867_e.html ''Constitution Act, 1867'' and ''Constitution Act, 1982'']
*[h |
ate displays.
In [[Japan]] a number of shows emerged that defy classification by most standards. For instance, in one infamous show, failing to answer a question correctly led to one's own mother being buried in tons of rotting fish. In another, those who failed to answer questions correctly were dumped at locations remote from transport or assistance, e.g. in the [[Arctic]], and had to perform such feats as drinking beer while sitting on blocks of ice — first one to run to the outhouse was left behind. In a show colloquially called ''Strip Questions'', a nude woman stands behind a pane of glass with strips of paper embedded in it; every time she misses a question, one strip of paper is pulled away.
<!-- [[Image:Pucker UP.JPG|frame|left|Pucker UP!, a game show, never aired on television]] -->
The reality game shows concept really took off in the 2000s with shows like ''[[Survivor (TV series)|Survivor]]'', ''[[Big Brother television program|Big Brother]]'' and their clones. [[Planet 24]] television (owned by [[Bob Geldof]]) devised the concept of ''Survivor'' but were unable to sell it to a British or American broadcaster. It was eventually taken up in 1997 by [[Sweden]] as ''[[Expedition Robinson]]''. The format was an immediate hit in other [[Scandinavia]]n countries and it soon caught on around the world. These shows combine elements of [[reality show]] and older reality game shows with traditional game-show elements of physical competitions by contestants.
Some shows (e.g. ''[[The Weakest Link]]'') exploit a [[disapproval voting]] system similar to the reality game show, and play up the realistic confrontation between contestants, but are in fact just conventional game shows, where no bodily torture or emotionally stressful situation is created, other than the failure to answer some question or impress hosts. ''[[Dog Eat Dog (television series)|Dog Eat Dog]]'' was even publicised as a reality show despite being basically a revamp of ''[[The Krypton Factor]]'' with a variant of disapproval voting added.
Card games, especially [[poker]] and to a lesser extent [[blackjack]], have recently become the basis for a number of popular shows on various U.S. broadcast and cable/satellite networks. Although these shows appear to meet the third definition above ("a game that involves an element of chance or strategy in addition to, or instead of, a test of general knowledge") an interesting controversy has erupted over whether these "casino games" should be considered game shows. A question-and-answer element is present in ''[[Card Sharks]]'', ''[[Strip Poker]]'', ''[[Gambit (game show)|Gambit]]'' and ''[[Top Card]]'', but not in ''[[(Super) Pay Cards!]]''.
==Game shows around the world==
===[[Argentina]]===
*''[[Buena Fortuna]]''
===[[Australia]]===
* ''[[A Question Of Sport]]'' (Network Ten - 1995-1996)
* ''[[AFL Lovematch]]'' (Fox 8 - 2004-?)
* ''[[All About Faces]]'' (Nine Network - 1971)
* ''[[All-Star Squares]]'' (Seven Network - 1999) ''(See also [[Hollywood Squares]])''
* ''[[Almost Anything Goes]]'' (Network Ten - 1976-1978) ''(See "[[It's a Knockout]]")''
* ''[[A*mazing]]'' (Seven Network - 1994-1998)
* ''[[Ampol Stamp Quiz]]'' (Nine Network - 1964-1965)
* ''[[Any Questions?]]'' (ABC TV - 1950s)
* ''[[Australia's Brainiest Kid]]'' (Network Ten - 2005-)
* ''[[Australia's Brainiest Kid|Australia's Brainiest Specials]]'' (Network Ten - 2005-)
* ''[[Australia's Funniest Home Videos]]'' (Nine Network - 1990-)
* ''[[Battle of the Sexes (TV series)|Battle Of The Sexes]]'' (Network Ten - 1998)
* ''[[The Better Sex]]'' (Nine Network - 1978)
* ''[[Big Nine]]'' (Nine Network - 1969-1970)
* ''[[Big Square Eye]]'' (ABC TV - 1991-1993)
* ''[[Blankety Blanks]]'' (Network Ten - 1977-1980, Nine Network - 1985-1986, 1996)
* ''[[Blind Date]]'' (Network Ten - 1968-70, Seven Network - 1974, Network Ten - 1991)
* ''[[Blockbusters (game show)|Blockbusters]]'' (Seven Network - 1991-1994)
* ''[[Cash Bonanza]]'' (Nine Network - 2001)
* ''[[Casino 10]]'' (Network Ten - 1975-1977)
* ''[[Catch Us If You Can (Game Show)|Catch Us If You Can]]
* ''[[Catchphrase]]'' and ''[[John Burgess|Burgo's]] [[Catchphrase]]'' (Nine Network - 1997-2001, 2002)
* ''[[The Celebrity Game]]'' (Nine Network - 1969, Network Ten - 1976-1977)
* ''[[Celebrity Poker Challenge]]'' (Fox 8 - 2006-)
* ''[[Celebrity Squares]]'' (Network Ten - 1967, Nine Network - 1975-1976)
* ''[[Celebrity Tattletales]]'' (Seven Network - 1980)
* ''[[Coles £3000 Question]]'' and ''[[Coles $6000 Question]]'' (Seven Network - 1960-1971)
* ''[[Concentration (game show)|Concentration]]'' (Nine Network - late 1950s to 1967, Seven Network 1970s, 1997)
* ''[[Crossfire]]'' (Nine Network - 1987-1988)
* ''[[Dancing with the Stars (Australia)|Dancing with the Stars]]'' (Seven Network - 2003-)
* ''[[Deal or no Deal]]'' (Seven Network - 2003-)
* ''[[The Daryl and Ossie Show]]'' (Network Ten - 1978)
* ''[[Does Father Know Best?]]'' (ABC TV - 1950s)
* ''[[Dog Eat Dog]]'' (Seven Network - 2002)
* ''[[Don't Forget Your Toothbrush]]'' (Nine Network - 1995)
* ''[[Double Dare]]'' (Network Ten - 1989-1992)
* ''[[Double Your Dollars]]'' (Nine Network - 1965)
* ''[[Download]]'' (Nine Network - 2000-2002)
* ''[[The Dulux Show]]'' (Seven Network - 1957)
* ''[[EC Plays Lift Off]]'' (ABC TV - 1994)
* ''[[Fairway Fun]]'' (Nine Network - 1960s)
* ''[[Family Bowl Quiz]]'' (ABC TV - 1969)
* ''[[Family Double Dare]]'' (Network Ten - 1989)
* ''[[Family Feud]]'' (Nine Network - 1977-1984, Seven Network - 1989-1996, Nine Network - 1996-)
* ''[[The Family Game]]'' (Network Ten - 1967)
* ''[[Flashback]]'' (ABC TV - 1983, 2000)
* ''[[Flashez]]'' (ABC TV - 1976-1977)
* ''[[Ford Superquiz]]'' (Nine Network - 1981-1982)
* ''[[Free for All]]'' (Nine Network - 1973)
* ''[[Friday Night Games]]'' (Network Ten - 2006-)
* ''[[Gambit (game show)|Gambit]]'' (Nine Network - 1974)
* ''[[Generation Gap]]'' (Network Ten - 1969)
* ''[[Get The Message]]'' (Network Ten - 1971-1972)
* ''[[Gladiators]]'' (Seven Network - 1995-1996)
* ''[[The Golden Show]]'' (Nine Network - 1960s)
* ''[[The Gong Show]]'' (Network Ten - 1976)
* ''[[Good News Week]]'' (ABC TV - 1996-1998, Network Ten - 1999-2000)
* ''[[Great Temptation]]'' (Seven Network - 1970-1976)
* ''[[The Great TV Game Show]]'' (Network Ten - 1989)
* ''[[Greed (game show)|Greed]]'' (Network Ten - 2001)
* ''[[Guess What?]]'' (Nine Network - 1992-1993)
* ''[[Have A Go]]'' (Seven Network - 1987)
* ''[[High Rollers]]'' (Seven Network - 1975)
* ''[[Hot Streak]]'' (Seven Network - 1998)
* ''[[I Do I Do]]'' (Network Ten - 1996)
* ''[[It Could Be You]]'' (Nine Network - 1960-1967, 1969, 1982)
* ''[[It Pays To Be Funny]]'' (Seven Network - 1957-1958)
* ''[[It's a Knockout]]'' (Network Ten - 1985-1987)
* ''[[It's Academic]]'' (Network Ten - 1968-1970, Seven Network - 1970-1978)
* ''[[I've Got A Secret]]'' (Network Ten - 1966, 1968-1969)
* ''[[Jeopardy!]]'' (Seven Network - 1970-1978, Network Ten - 1993)
* ''[[Jigsaw]]'' (Nine Network - 1960s)
* ''[[Joker Poker]]'' (Network Ten - 2005-)
* ''[[Keynotes]]'' (Nine Network - 1964, 1992-1993)
* ''[[The Krypton Factor]]'' (ABC TV - 1987)
* ''[[Let's Make A Deal]]'' (Nine Network - 1968-1969, 1977, Network Ten - 1991)
* ''[[Letterbox]]'' and ''$50,000 Letterbox'' (Seven Network - 1963, 1981)
* ''[[Letter Charades]]'' (Nine Network - 1967)
* ''[[Little Aussie Battlers]]'' (Nine Network - [[10 February]], 1998) (one off special)
* ''[[Long Play]]'' (Network Ten - 1977)
* ''[[The Love Game]]'' (Seven Network - 1984)
* ''[[The Main Event]]'' (Seven Network - 1991-1992)
* ''[[Man O Man]]'' (Seven Network - 1994)
* ''[[The Marriage Game]]'' (Network Ten - 1966-1972)
* ''[[Mastermind]]'' (ABC TV - 1978-1984)
* ''[[Match Game]]'' (Network Ten - 1960s)
* ''[[Matchmates]]'' (Nine Network - 1981-1982)
* ''[[Micro Macro]]'' (ABC TV - 1978)
* ''[[Million Dollar Chance Of A Lifetime]]'' (Seven Network - 1999-2000)
* ''[[Mind Twist]]'' (Network Ten - 1992-1993)
* ''[[Money Makers]]'' (Network Ten - 1971-1973, 1982)
* ''[[My Generation]]'' (Nine Network - 1995-1996)
* ''[[Name That Tune]]'' (TCN9 - 1956-1957, 1975) (The first game show on Australian television. Aired only in Sydney)
* ''[[National Star Quest]]'' (1978 - Talent show with a country theme. Made in Wollongong, aired on regional TV stations)
* ''[[New Faces]]'' (Nine Network - 1963-1985, 1989-1990, Network Ten - 1992-1993)
* ''[[The New Inventors]]'' (ABC - 2004-)
* ''[[The Newlywed Game]]'' (Network Ten - 1968, Nine Network - 1987)
* ''[[Now You See It]]'' (Seven Network - 1985-1993, Nine Network - 1998-1999)
* ''[[Opportunity Knocks]]'' (Seven Network - 1976)
* ''[[The Oz Game]]'' (ABC TV - 1988-1989)
* ''[[Pass The Buck]]'' (Nine Network - 2002)
* ''[[Perfect Match]]'' (Network Ten - 1978, 1984-1989, Seven Network - 2002)
* ''[[Personality Squares]]'' (Network Ten - 1967-1969, 1981)
* ''[[Pick A Box]]'' (Seven Network - 1957-1971)
* ''[[Pick Your Face]]'' (Nine Network - 1999-2003)
* ''[[Play Your Cards Right]]'' (Seven Network - 1984)
* ''[[Play Your Hunch]]'' (Nine Network - 1962-1964)
* ''[[Playcards]]'' (Network Ten - 1969)
* ''[[Pot Luck]]'' (Network Ten - 1987)
* ''[[Pot Of Gold]]'' (Network Ten - 1975-1978)
* ''[[Press Your Luck]]'' (Seven Network - 1987-1988)
* ''[[The Pressure Pak Show]]'' (Seven Network - 1957-1958)
* ''[[The Price Is Right]]'' (ATN7 - 1957-1959, GTV9 - 1958, Seven Network - 1963, Network Ten - 1973-1974, Seven Network - 1981-1986, Network Ten - 1989, Nine Network - 1993-1998, 2003-2005)
* ''[[Pyramid Challenge]]'' (Network Ten - 1978)
* ''[[Quest]]'' (ABC TV - 1976-1978)
* ''[[The Quiz Kids]]'' (Seven Network - 1964-1968)
* ''[[Quiz Master]]'' (Seven Network - 2002)
* ''[[Race Around The World]]'' (ABC TV)
* ''[[Ready, Steady, Cook]]'' (Network Ten - 2005-)
* ''[[Ripsnorters]]'' - (Seven Network - 1997)
* ''[[RockWiz]]'' (SBS - 2005-)
* ''[[Sale of the Century]]'' (Nine Network - 1980-2001)
* ''[[Say G'day]]''
* ''[[Say When]]'' (Nine Networ |
tes' silence.
For many years [[ITN]]'s "[[News at Ten]]" began with an opening sequence which featured Big Ben with the chimes punctuating the announcement of the news headlines. The Big Ben chimes are still used today during the headlines and all [[ITV News]] bulletins use a graphic based on the Westminster clock face. Big Ben can also be heard striking the hour before some news bulletins on [[BBC Radio 4]] (currently 6pm and midnight, plus 10pm on Sundays) and the [[BBC World Service]], a practice that began on [[December 31]], [[1923]]. The chimes are transmitted live via a microphone permanently installed in the tower and connected by line to [[Broadcasting House]].
Big Ben is often used in the [[Physics]] classroom to demonstrate the difference between the [[speed of light]] and the [[speed of sound]] for British children. Specifically, if you were to visit London and stand at the bottom of the clock tower, you will hear the chimes of Big Ben approximately 1/6 of a second later than the bell being struck (assuming a bell height of 55 metres). However, using a microphone placed near the bell and transmitting the sound to a far away destination by radio (for instance [[New York]] or [[Hong Kong]]), that location will hear the bell long before you do on the ground. In fact, if the recipient were to echo the sound back to the observer on the ground, the bell would be heard on the radio before the natural sound reached you. (Example: New York is 3456 miles from London, and radio waves will reach New York in 0.018552 seconds; round trip is 0.037105 seconds, compared to 0.1616 seconds for the natural sound to reach the ground)
==Fiction==
===A cultural cliche===
The easily recognisable image of the clock has become a very well-used visual symbol for the [[United Kingdom]], and specifically for [[London]]. This is particularly true in the visual media. When a television or film-maker wishes to quickly convey to a non-UK audience a generic location in the [[United Kingdom]]; a very popular and [[cliche]]d way to do so is to show an image of "Big Ben", often with a [[Routemaster]] bus in the foreground. This gambit is less often used in the [[United Kingdom]] itself, as it would to most [[British]] people suggest a specific location in London, which may not be the intention.
The sound of the clock chiming has also been used this way in audio media, but as the [[Westminster Quarters]] are heard from many other clocks and other devices elsewhere, the unique nature of this particular sound has been considerably diluted.
There are very many examples in film, televison, and cartoon media of this use and those following are but a few of them.
===Examples===
*The clock features in the climax of [[Don Sharp]]'s [[1978]] film adaptation of [[John Buchan]]'s spy novel ''[[The Thirty-Nine Steps]]'', although it does not appear in either [[Alfred Hitchcock]]'s [[1935]] adaptation nor, more interestingly, Buchan's book.
A similar scene is recreated in the [[2003]] film, ''[[Shanghai Knights]]'' which culminates with [[Jackie Chan]] hanging from the hands of the clock.
*In the monster movie ''[[Gorgo]]'', the mother monster destroys the tower.
*The tower is featured several times during the [[2005]] series of ''[[Doctor Who]]''. It is destroyed in ''[[Aliens of London]]'' by a spacecraft that crashes into the [[River Thames]]; seen during [[the Blitz]] in "[[The Empty Child]]"; and is seen being restored in "[[The Christmas Invasion]]".
*In the [[movie adaptation]] of "[[V For Vendetta]]," the terrorist hero V blows up the tower along with the rest of Parliament.
*In the first entry of the computer military game series "[[Command & Conquer]]," a player has the option of destroying the tower.
*Individual clock faces were stolen by the evil Doctor Dredd in [[The Drac Pack]], and a [[Jack and the Beanstalk]] style giant, who used it for his cuckoo clock ([[Secret Squirrel]]). The whole tower was stolen by the snake-witch Messina in [[Freddie as FRO7]]
*The clock also features in the climax of the [[animated film]] ''[[The Great Mouse Detective|Basil, The Great Mouse Detective]]''.
*Big Ben can be seen on television in ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'' as a large alien destroyer is seen hovering over London with the center of it over the clock tower. (and is eventually destroyed by the plasma ray).
*An earlier film climax on the clock face of Big Ben appears in [[Will Hay]]'s [[1943]] film ''My Learned Friend'', although the scene is more slapstick than thriller.
*In a scene in the Disney classic, ''Peter Pan'', the Darling children and Peter take a rest on the minute hand of Big Ben. The video game ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' has Neverland as one of the last worlds in the game, and it features this same clock.
*In an episode of [[FOX]]'s ''[[The Simpsons]]'', in episode where a [[fortune teller]] helps [[Lisa Simpson]] see her future, we see that Big Ben's four faces have been replaced by [[digital clocks]].
==External links==
{{Commons|Big Ben}}
*[http://www.earthcam.com/uk/england/london/bigben.php Big Ben Webcam, Houses of Parliament, London, UK]
*[http://www.explore.parliament.uk Explore Parliament]
*[http://www.whitechapelbellfoundry.co.uk/bigben.htm Whitechapel Bell Foundry on Big Ben]
*[http://www.parliament.uk/documents/upload/G11.pdf Factsheet from Palace of Westminster (includes details on The Great Clock)]
*[http://www.bigben.freeservers.com/index2.html Big Ben]
*[http://www.raeng.org.uk/news/publications/ingenia/issue9/Mair.pdf ''Innovative engineering to control Big Ben’s tilt''] - A technical paper from Cambridge University
*[http://www.skyscrapernews.com/buildings.php?id=452 Skyscrapernews detail on Big Ben]
*[http://widgets.yahoo.com/gallery/view.php?widget=38452 Big Ben Clock [[widget]] on [[Yahoo!]] widgets]
[[Category:Bell towers]]
[[Category:Bells]]
[[Category:Clock towers]]
[[Category:Clocks]]
[[Category:Landmarks]]
[[Category:National government buildings in London]]
[[Category:Tall buildings and structures in London]]
[[Category:Towers in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in London]]
[[Category:Westminster]]
[[ca:Big Ben]]
[[de:Big Ben]]
[[es:Big Ben]]
[[fi:Big Ben]]
[[fr:Big Ben]]
[[he:ביג בן]]
[[ja:ビッグ・ベン]]
[[nl:Big Ben]]
[[no:Big Ben]]
[[pl:Big Ben]]
[[pt:Big Ben]]
[[sv:Big Ben]]
[[zh:大本钟]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Beechcraft</title>
<id>4282</id>
<revision>
<id>41936526</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T19:15:22Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Peconeto</username>
<id>853615</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[image:beech.bonanza.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|1978 [[Beechcraft Bonanza|Beech Bonanza F33C]].]]
|}
'''The Beech Aircraft Corporation''', now the '''Beechcraft Division''' of [[Raytheon]], is a manufacturer of [[general aviation]] and military aircraft, ranging from light single engine aircraft to business jets and light military transports. Beech airplanes, called Beechcrafts by the company and their many fans, have a long-standing reputation as being among the best made aircraft available. They are also invariable among the most expensive planes in their class.
Beechcraft was founded in 1932 by [[Walter Herschel Beech|Walter H. Beech]] and his wife [[Olive Ann Beech|Olive Ann]]. The Beeches began operations in an idle [[Cessna]] factory. With designer Ted Wells, they developed their first aircraft, the classic [[Beechcraft Staggerwing|Beech Staggerwing model 17]], which flew for the first time in November 1932. Over 750 Staggerwings were built, with 270 manufactured for the [[U.S. Army]] during [[World War II]].
After the war, the Staggerwing was replaced by the revolutionary [[Beechcraft Bonanza]]. Perhaps the best known Beech aircraft, the single-engine Bonanza has been manufactured for nearly 60 years. Other important Beech planes are the [[King Air|King Air]] line of twin-engine turboprops, in production since 1964, and the [[Beechcraft Baron|Baron]], a twin-engine variant of the Bonanza.
In 1950, Olive Ann Beech was installed as president and CEO of the company, after the sudden death of her husband Walter from a heart attack on November 29th of that year. She continued as CEO until Beech was purchased by [[Raytheon|Raytheon Company]] on [[February 8]], [[1980]].
In [[1994]], Raytheon merged Beech into the Hawker product line they had acquired the previous year from [[British Aerospace]], forming Raytheon Aircraft Company. This was a very unpopular move among the Beechcraft faithful and in 2002 the merger decision was reversed, reviving Beechcraft as a brand. Today the company continues as the Beechcraft Division of Raytheon Aircraft. Since its inception Beech has resided in [[Wichita, Kansas]], also the home of chief competitor [[Cessna|Cessna Aircraft Company]].
== Aircraft products ==
Beechcraft aircraft include:
=== Civilian ===
* [[Beechcraft Staggerwing|Model 17 Staggerwing]]
[[image:beech.staggerwing.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|1943 [[Beechcraft Staggerwing|Beech D.17S Staggerwing]].]]
* [[Beechcraft Model 18|Model 18]]
* [[Beechcraft Musketeer|Model 23 Musketeer]] and Sundowner
* [[Beechcraft Sierra|Model 24 Sierra]]
* [[Beechcraft Bonanza|Model 33 Debonair]]
* [[Beechcraft Bonanza|Model 35 Bonanza]]
* [[Beechcraft Bonanza|Model 36 Bonanza]]
* [[Beechcraft Twin Bonanza|Model 50 Twin Bonanza]]
* [[Beechcraft Baron|Model 55 & 58 Baron]]
* [[Beechcraft Duke|Model 60 Duke]]
* [[Beechcraft Queen Air|Model 65 Queen Air]]
* [[Beechcraft Duchess|Model 76 Duchess]]
* [[Beechcraft Skipper|Model 77 Skipper]]
* [[Beechcraft King Air|Model 90 King Air]]
* [[Beechcraft Travel Air|Model 95 Travel Air]]
* [[Beechcraft Model 99|Model 99]] Airliner
* [[Beechcraft King Air|Model 100 King Air]] and Model 200 & 300 Super King Air
* [[Raytheon Hawker 400X |
ff" | 299.4
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | ?
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Metabolism
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | hepatic
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Elimination half-life]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | 3&ndash;4 hours
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | renal
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | Category A ([[Australia]])
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Legal status]]
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | Schedule 8 ([[Australia]]),<br>Schedule II ([[United States]]),<br>Class B ([[United Kingdom|UK]]),<br> CDSA Schedule I ([[Canada]])
|-
| bgcolor="#eeeeee" | Routes of administration
| bgcolor="#ddeeff" | oral, [[subcutaneous|SC]], [[intramuscular|IM]]
|}
'''Codeine''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]]) or '''methylmorphine''' is an [[opioid]] used for its [[analgesic]], [[antitussive]] and antidiarrheal properties. It is marketed as the salts '''codeine sulfate''' and '''codeine phosphate'''.
Codeine is an [[alkaloid]] found in [[opium]] in concentrations ranging from 0.7 to 2.5 [[percent]]. While codeine can be extracted from opium, most codeine used in the [[United States]] is synthesized from [[morphine]] through the process of O-[[methylation]].
==Indications==
Approved indications for codeine include:
*[[Cough]], though its efficacy has been disputed (Schroeder & Fahey, 2001)
*[[Diarrhea]]
*Mild to moderate [[pain]]
Codeine is sometimes marketed in combination preparations with [[paracetamol]] (acetaminophen) as [[co-codamol]], with [[aspirin]] [[co-codaprin]] or with [[ibuprofen]]. These combinations provide greater pain relief than either agent used singly (q.v. [[Synergy#Drug Synergism|Drug Synergy]]).
==Controlled substance==
In the [[United States]], codeine is regulated by the [[Controlled Substances Act]]. It is a Schedule II controlled substance for pain-relief products containing codeine alone. In combination with aspirin or acetaminophen ([[paracetamol]]) it is listed as Schedule III. Codeine is also available outside the United States as an [[over-the-counter_substance|over-the-counter medication]] (Schedule V) in liquid cough-relief formulations. Internationally, codeine is a Schedule II drug under the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]].[http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/yellow.pdf]
In the [[United Kingdom]], codeine is regulated by the [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971]]; it is a [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971#Class B drugs|Class B Drug]].
In [[Australia]] and [[Canada]], codeine is regulated, however it is available without prescription in combination preparations from licensed pharmacists in doses up to 15&nbsp;mg/tablets.
==Pharmacokinetics==
Codeine is considered a [[prodrug]], since it is metabolised ''[[in vivo]]'' to the principal active analgesic agent [[morphine]]. It is, however, less potent than morphine since only about 10% of the codeine is converted. It also has a correspondingly lower [[drug addiction|dependence]]-liability than morphine.
Theoretically, a dose of approximately 200&nbsp;mg (oral) of codeine must be administered to give equivalent analgesia to 30&nbsp;mg (oral) of morphine (Rossi, 2004). It is not used, however, in single doses of greater than 60mg (and no more than 240&nbsp;mg in 24 hours) since there is a [[ceiling effect]].
The conversion of codeine to morphine occurs in the liver and is catalysed by the [[cytochrome P450]] enzyme [[CYP2D6]]. Approximately 6&ndash;10% of the Caucasian population have poorly functional CYP2D6 and codeine is virtually ineffective for analgesia in these patients (Rossi, 2004). Many of the adverse effects, however, are still experienced. Also, some medications are CYP2D6 inhibitors and reduce or even completely eliminate the efficacy of codeine. The most notorious of these are the [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s, such as [[fluoxetine]] (Prozac) and [[citalopram]] (Celexa).
==Pharmacology==
{{main|opioid receptor}}
Codeine itself has weak affinity for the [[opioid receptor#The μ-opioid receptor|&mu;-opioid receptor]]. Its principal analgesic actions are mediated by the affinity of morphine for the &mu;-opioid receptor, though other therapeutic and adverse effects are produced by activation of other opioid receptors.
==Adverse effects==
Common adverse drug reactions (ADRs) associated with the use of codeine include: Itching, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, dry mouth, [[miosis]], [[orthostatic hypotension]], urinary retention and constipation. (Rossi, 2004)
Tolerance to many of the effects of codeine develop with prolonged use, including therapeutic effects. The rate at which this occurs develops at different rates for different effects, with tolerance to the constipation-inducing effects developing particularly slowly for instance.
A potentially serious ADR, as with other opioids, is [[respiratory depression]]. This depression is dose-related and is the mechanism for the potentially fatal consequences of overdose.
==Recreational use==
Codeine is often used as a [[recreational drug]]. This may be due to its easy availability [[over-the-counter]] or on [[prescription]] in combination products (which, in the certain countries, are scheduled lower than codeine as a single-agent). People use it in order to obtain the [[euphoria|euphoric]] effects associated with use of opioids.
* In certain areas of the United States; more specifically Texas, codeine syrup form is called '''Lean'''. It is commonly mixed with alcohol, or a [[Blunt_%28drug_culture%29|blunt]] and smoked. It has been said this is done because it makes you "lean".
* In some countries, cough syrups and tablets containing codeine are available without prescription; people will frequently purchase it from multiple pharmacies so as not to incur suspicions. It is reported that in [[France]], 95% of the consumption of ''Néo-codion'' cough preparation, containing codeine, cannot be attributed to medical use, but is rather used as a substitute for [[heroin]].
* In the [[United Kingdom]], people purchase tablets which combine codeine and [[paracetamol]] (acetaminophen), and consume these at higher-than-recommended doses, without apparent concern of the hepatotoxicity associated with large doses of paracetamol. Some may try to [[extraction|extract]] the codeine from the paracetamol through various methods, the most common and simplest being the [[cold water extraction]].
* While the combination of codeine with [[paracetamol]], at higher-than-recommended doses, can possibly cause hepatotoxicity ([[liver]] damage), combination with [[ibuprofen]] can result in [[kidney]] problems/failure and additional [[stomach]] pain and [[nausea]] and combination with [[aspirin]] can lead to internal [[hemorrhage|hemorrhaging]], particularly [[gastrointestinal]] hemorrhage.
Certain codeine products are encountered on the illicit market, frequently in combination with [[carisoprodol]]. Combinations of codeine and glutethimide (Doriden) used to be fairly commonplace, but are almost unheard of today, due to the withdrawal of glutethimide products from the marketplace in the US and almost all other countries.
==References==
* Rossi S (Ed.) (2004). ''[[Australian Medicines Handbook]] 2004''. Adelaide: Australian Medicines Handbook. ISBN 0-9578521-4-2.
* Schroeder K & Fahey T (2004). Over-the-counter medications for acute cough in children and adults in ambulatory settings. ''The [[Cochrane Library|Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]]'' '''2004''' (4), DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD001831.pub2.
==See also==
*[[dihydrocodeine]]
*[[morphine]]
{{Analgesics}}
[[Category:Alkaloids]]
[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Antitussives]]
[[Category:Natural opium alkaloids]]
[[Category:Opioids]]
[[Category:Schedule II controlled substances]]
[[Category:Schedule III controlled substances]]
[[Category:Schedule V controlled substances]]
[[da:Kodein]]
[[de:Codein]]
[[es:Codeína]]
[[eo:Kodeino]]
[[fr:Codéine]]
[[it:Codeina]]
[[he:קודאין]]
[[hu:Kodein]]
[[ms:Kodeina]]
[[nl:Codeïne]]
[[no:Kodein]]
[[pl:Kodeina]]
[[pt:Codeína]]
[[ru:Кодеин]]
[[sk:Kodeín]]
[[fi:Kodeiini]]
[[sv:Kodein]]
[[th:โคดีอีน]]
[[tr:Kodein]]
[[uk:Кодеїн]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cartesian Coordinate System</title>
<id>7704</id>
<revision>
<id>15905761</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cartesian_coordinate_system]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cartesian coordinates</title>
<id>7705</id>
<revision>
<id>15905762</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cartesian coordinate system]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cartesian coordinate system</title>
<id>7706</id>
<revision>
<id>41535253</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T00:21:16Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gustavb</username>
<id>298588</id>
</contributor>
<comment>png->svg</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Cartesian''''' means relating to the [[France|French]] [[mathematician]] and [[philosopher]] [[René Descartes|Descartes]], who, among other things, worked to merge [[algebra]] and [[Euclidean geometry]]. This work was influential in the development of [[analytic geometry]], [[calculus]], and [[cartography]].
The idea of this system was developed in [[1637]] in two [[writing |
"1">6,917</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,319</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">73</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">74</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other Caribbean</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">87,748</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">64,090</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">32,502</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">14,354</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">9,484</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">6,251</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">74</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">75</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Central America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">651,976</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">491,330</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">223,651</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">107,290</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">79,045</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">69,106</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42,736</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">27,699</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,458</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">75</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">76</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Mexico</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">641,462</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">486,418</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">221,915</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">103,393</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">77,853</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">68,399</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">42,435</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">27,466</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,317</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">76</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">77</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Other Central America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">10,514</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,912</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,736</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,897</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,192</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">707</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">301</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">233</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">141</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">77</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">78</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;South America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">33,623</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">18,551</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">8,228</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,733</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,006</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">4,566</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,565</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">3,263</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,543</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">78</TD>
</TR>
<TR></TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">79</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Northern America</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,310,369</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,138,174</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,209,717</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,179,922</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">980,938</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">717,286</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">493,467</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">249,970</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">147,711</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">79</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">80</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Canada</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,310,369</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,138,174</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,209,717</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">1,179,922</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">980,938</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">717,157</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">493,464</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">249,970</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">147,711</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">80</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">81</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Canada-French</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">370,852</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">307,786</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">385,083</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">395,126</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">302,496</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">81</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">82</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Canada-Other</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">915,537</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">817,139</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">819,554</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">784,796</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">678,442</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">82</TD>
</TR>
<TR ALIGN="right">
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">83</TD>
<TD></TD>
<TD ALIGN="left" NOWRAP><FONT SIZE="1">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Newfoundland</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">23,980</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">13,249</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">5,080</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD>
<TD><FONT SIZE="1">(NA)</TD> |
1997]]. However, in [[2005]], the newest feature film, ''[[Batman Begins]]'', inspired Warner Bros. to release a Two-Disc Special Edition set of all four Burton-Schumacher films in ''Batman: The Motion Picture Anthology 1989-1997''.
Features of the Special Edition DVD include:
*Digitally Remastered Anamorphic Widescreen Transfer
*English [[Dolby Digital]] 5.1 Surround Track
*English [[Digital Theatre System|DTS]] 5.1 Surround Track
*Audio Commentary with Director Tim Burton
*The Bat, The Cat, and The Penguin Cast Recollections
*Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight Part 4: The Dark Side of the Dark Knight
*Beyond Batman Documentary Gallery Including:
**Gotham City Revisited: The Production Design of Batman Returns
**Sleek, Sexy, and Sinister: The Costumes of Batman Returns
**Making Up The Penguin
**Assembling the Arctic Army
**Bats, Matte's and Dark Nights: The Visual Effects of Batman Returns
*"Face to Face" Music Video by [[Siouxsie & the Banshees]]
*The Heroes and The Villains Profile Galleries
*Batman Returns Theatrical Trailer
==Writing the film==
* Neither Tim Burton nor Michael Keaton had been signed up in advance for a sequel; Burton came on board only after the script met all his demands (he hadn't been entirely happy with the first film's screenplay), whilst Keaton was willing to portray the character again with a good script and Tim Burton directing to give him a "comfort zone," as he called it in a 1992 interview.
* The first script draft of ''Batman Returns'' was intended to be a direct-sequel to the previous film. As a result, sub plots and continuity from the first film that would have been addressed included gift shops selling fragments of the destroyed Bat-Wing, further revelations into the past of the now deceased Jack Napier a.k.a [[Joker (comics)|Joker]], and even Bruce Wayne proposing to [[Vicki Vale]] by the end of the film. However, Tim Burton was uncomfortable in making a direct sequel and as a result, the script was rewritten. However, several plot elements from the original script did make it into the final draft. This included the Penguin and Catwoman's alliance, their framing of Batman, and the Dark Knight's escape via Bat-Glider. Further elements even made their way into the third film, ''[[Batman Forever]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]), most notably the storming of Wayne Manor and the Batcave.
* [[Sam Hamm]]'s original screenplay draft had The Penguin and Catwoman going after hidden treasure. Dissatisfied with that, Tim Burton brought in [[Daniel Waters (writer)|Daniel Waters]], writer of ''[[Heathers]]'' (1989), who came up with the concept of an evil mogul backing a bid for the Mayor's office by The Penguin.
* In an another version of the script, [[Two-Face|Harvey Dent]] was set to appear in the movie, played by the same actor as in the first movie, [[Billy Dee Williams]]. He was going to be used in the [[Max Shreck]] role, and the scarring of his face (which would turn him into the villain Two-Face) was set to happen during the finale when Catwoman kisses him while holding onto the Penguin's generator. (This would then, in turn, set up the [[Batman Forever|third movie]], in which Two-Face was going to appear as the main villain.)
* The plot about the Penguin becoming mayor was borrowed from the episodes ''"Hizzoner the Penguin/Dizzoner the Penguin"'' in the Batman TV show.
* In [[Tom Mankiewicz]]'s script for the first movie, that featured The Penguin, he was described as "a tall, proper-looking, thin man".
* In another version of the script, Max Shreck was discovered to be the [[Penguin (comics)|Penguin]]'s older brother.
* An unproduced script featured [[Robin (comics)|Robin]] as a [[homeless]] boy [[vigilante]] whom Batman takes in as his sidekick. Producers considered using Robin in the first film and had even cast an actor in the role, but they eventually dropped the character altogether. [[Marlon Wayans]] was one of the people rumored to have been considered for the part in this movie.
* Screenwriter [[Wesley Strick]] performed an uncredited re-write on the film's screenplay.
== Casting the film==
* This is the second time Michael Keaton and Danny DeVito were in a movie together. They first worked together in ''[[Johnny Dangerously]]''.
* [[Annette Bening]] was cast as Catwoman, but was replaced by Michelle Pfeiffer when she became pregnant.
* [[Lena Olin]] was considered for the role of Catwoman.
* [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] was reportedly considered for the role of Catwoman.
* [[Sean Young]] very much wanted the role of Catwoman. During pre-production she arrived at the studio in a Catwoman costume to confront the makers of the movie. She used other people scouting the studio grounds, using walkie-talkies to communicate, to track down the producers. Tim Burton, who is a tall man, hid behind his desk so as to avoid seeing her.
* Michelle Pfeiffer's $3 million salary was $2 million more than was offered to Annette Bening.
* [[Dustin Hoffman]] was Warner Brothers' first consideration for the Penguin.
* Burgess Meredith (the original Penguin from ''[[Batman (TV series)|Batman]]'' (1966/II)) was asked to play The Penguin's father at the beginning of the movie, he accepted, but couldn't play him due to illness. In Batman Returns, when The Penguin first decides to run for mayor, someone puts a cigarette in his mouth, with a cigarette holder (a reference The Penguin from the Batman TV show).
* [[Christopher Walken]]'s character's name is [[Max Shreck]]. The real-life actor [[Max Schreck]] played the first vampire in movie history in ''[[Nosferatu|Nosferatu, eine Symphonie des Grauens]]'' (1922).
* Christopher Walken, remembering a film he'd seen earlier, requested from director Tim Burton cufflinks made of human molars. He got them, and wore them in the film as the villain, Max Shreck. (The movie, incidentally, was ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' (1974) where the molar cufflinks are worn by the friend of Gatsby who fixed the [[1912 World Series]].)
* [[Paul Reubens]] and [[Diane Salinger]] from ''[[Pee-wee's Big Adventure]]'' ([[1985 in film|1985]]) reunite briefly at the beginning of the film as The Penguin's father and mother.
== Making the film ==
* When Batman takes off his mask to reveal to Catwoman that he is Bruce Wayne, the scene jumps from eye shadow on Keaton to him not having eye shadow.
* The movie is approximately 127 mins. long, making it the longest Batman film until [[2005 in film|2005]], with the release of ''[[Batman Begins]]''.
* Unlike the first film, [[Michael Keaton]] performed all of the fighting as Batman himself, in costume., as opposed to the first film, where Keaton and his stuntman/personal trainer David Lea shared the fighting duties.
* This film is the first US theatrical film to be released with a [[Dolby Digital]] (AC-3) soundtrack.
* The Batman costume weighed 55 lbs. Several modifications were made to the Batsuit, including the color scheme and chestplate logo. At the request of Michael Keaton, the codpiece was altered so that it opened to reveal a zipper, a much appreciated convenience.
* At least 50% of the Warner Brothers lot was taken up with [[Gotham City]] sets.
* The massive Gotham City sets were all constructed to be mobile, and were often shifted between days of filming. Michelle Pfeiffer routinely got lost on her way to filming each day.
* The set for The Penguin's underground lair was filled with half a million gallons of water and a simulated ice floe island.
* It made $47.7 million in its first 3 days, a record at the time.
== Trivia ==
* In the [[United States of America|US]], [[McDonald's]] was forced to cancel a [[Happy Meals]] promotion with the film, after parents protested about its violent and sexual nature being inappropriate for young children.
* Security was so tight on the production that even [[Kevin Costner]] was refused permission to visit the set. Warner Brothers employed a private investigator firm when some shots of Danny DeVito in costume made it into the tabloids.
* Danny DeVito was forbidden to describe The Penguin's makeup to anyone, including his family. He spent two hours a day in make-up.
* The crew had a hard time getting the shot where the monkey delivers the letter from Batman to the Penguin. Evidently, Danny DeVito's make-up terrified the animal.
* Danny DeVito refused a stand-in during the scene where the enguin gets pummeled with vegetables.
* The Penguin's line: ''"I am an animal. I am *not* a human being,"'' is a work on John Hurt's line: ''"I am not an animal! I am a human being! I am a man!"'' as [[John Merrick]] in ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]]'' (1980).
* During the scene where Penguin's henchmen are wrecking a shop, there is a reprise of the "Making Christmas" theme from ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]]), which Danny Elfman also composed. Ironically, in The Nightmare Before Christmas, the Penguin's motif can be heard when Lock, Shock and Barrel bring in the [[Easter Bunny]]
* Michelle Pfeiffer got through 60 catsuits during the 6 month shoot, at a cost of $1,000 a time.
* In order to get the cats to surround Selina when she's knocked out, the filmmakers put tuna on a dummy version of Selina and tuna on Selina's suit.
* When Selina is sitting at the desk in Max's office, the light casts a shadow through her eyeglass frames, creating the outline of the pointed mask Catwoman wore in the original [[DC Comics|DC]] comic.
* Warner Bros. had to constantly submit new Catwoman posters for various cities as many of the bus stop ads were being stolen. It soon got so bad that police officers had to patrol bus stops in order to catch perpetrators before they could break the Plexiglas containers. Today the large scale Catwoman bus ads are worth a great deal of money.
* During an [[A&E Network|A&E]] ''[[Biography (television program)|Biography]]'' centered on |
nt contracts, or other such favorable arrangements with government(s) (see ''[[crony capitalism]]'' and ''[[corporate welfare]]''). The market entrepreneur operates without special favors from government.
==Typical characteristics of entrepreneurship==
* There is a [[leader]], the entrepreneur, who is the driving force behind economic events.
* Inside the mind of this entrepreneur is a vision of a future state that is preferred to the present state.
* Through a semiconscious process of intuition and insight, rooted in experience, the entrepreneur develops this vision and a strategy of how to implement it.
* This vision is promoted diligently and passionately by the entrepreneur. The job for many provides a feeling of being "alive" or the satisfaction of serving society.
* The strategy is deliberate and the overall vision is clear, however details may be malleable, incomplete, and emergent.
* Entrepreneurial strategies tend to go along with simple centralised organisational structures that respond quickly to the entrepreneur's directives.
* Entrepreneurial strategies tend to be used in niche markets that have not been noticed by the large industry leaders.
The above list presents several ideas as to why someone becomes an entrepreneur, some of which belong to the so-called ''psychological theories'' of entrepreneurship, which basically suggests that there are a number of psychological traits possessed by ''the entrepreneur'' which allow him or her to undertake such a task. Other points of the list belong to the ''neoclassical equilibrium theories'', that assume that markets are made up of maximising agents (see [[economics]]) and that there are no unnoticed business opportunities and that only the people who ''choose'' to become entrepreneurs do so - not because the opportunities themselves haven't been noticed by anyone else. The third school of thought is the ''Austrian theories''-school that claims business opportunities arise due to the fact that not everyone has the same amount of information and thus are not equipped to "see" the opportunities. For more about entrepreneurial opportunities from an academic standpoint, see for example the works of Scott A. Shane and Jonathan T. Eckhardt.
==Community entrepreneurship==
Community entrepreneurship is entrepreneurial education. Educational systems must be as concerned with family and community health as they are with individual students in classrooms and the health of the educational system itself.
Too often entrepreneurship is seen as the process of finding capable individuals and providing nourishment (venture capital and know-how). Yet we know that some communities are far more successful than others in entrepreneurship and that such communities are also thriving economically even during times of economic downturn (Florida, 2002). We know that there are social entrepreneurs who invent new cultural systems, from the John Muir's work which led to the U.S. Park System to Florence Nightingale's fight for better patient conditions led to the field of nursing. Community entrepreneurship is about applying entrepreneurial principles to the process of creating a community that is highly supportive of entrepreneurship itself, both within classroom walls and without. We need new social entrepreneurs to invent those designs.
Community entrepreneurship seeks answers to related questions and seeks further related questions.
What are the characteristics of communities that best support entrepreneurship? What measurements can we take to better make comparisons? What needs to be done to better address these factors in public school crriculum? How does the need for entrepreneurial inventiveness and creativity get supported with inventive and creative attitudes and skills in the schools? How much of the gifted and talented curriculum agenda is directly related to the needs and skills of entrepreneurs? How does the growth of creativity in the classroom lead to the growth of a creative (entrepreneurial) class? Given the strong digital foundation of the modern economy, how do computer literacy skills contribute? How is the heterarachical decentralized nature of Internet enterprise changing the nature of economic activity? What aspects of this digital economy need digital entrepreneurial skills? How should school curriculum weave computer literacy, creativity and entrepreneurship across the grade levels?
==See also==
* [[Entrepreneur]]
* [[Entrepreneurial Economics]]
* [[List of management topics]]
* [[Entrepreneurial education]]
* [[Political entrepreneur]]
* [[Social Entrepreneur]]
* [[Junior Enterprise]]
* [[Business incubators]]
* [[Business opportunity]]
==References==
* Bird, B. (1992)"The Roman God Mercury: An Entrepreneurial Archetype", ''Journal of Management Enquiry'', vol 1, no 3, September, 1992.
* Busenitz, L. and Barney, J. (1997) "Differences between entrepreneurs and managers in large organizations", ''Journal of Business Venturing'', vol 12, 1997.
* Cantillon, R. ''Essai sur la Nature du Commerce in Général''. 1759 [http://www.econlib.org/library/NPDBooks/Cantillon/cntNTContents.html]
* Casson, M. (1982) ''The Entrepreneur: An Economic Theory'' Reprint. 1991.
* Cole, A. (1959) ''Business Enterprise in its Social Setting'', Harvard University Press, Boston, 1959.
* Collins, J. and Moore, D. (1970) ''The Organization Makers'', Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1970.
* Corrigan, S (2005) "The Entrepreneur's Guide to the Business cycle" [http://www.sagecapital.com/Archiv/c272.pdf]
* Drucker, P. (1970) "Entrepreneurship in Business Enterprise", ''Journal of Business Policy'', vol 1, 1970.
* Florida, R. (2002) The Rise of the Creative Class: And How It's Transforming Work, Leisure, Community and Everyday Life. Perseus Books Group.
* Fulton Jr., Burton W. (1987) ''The Myth of the Robber Barons'', Young America.
* Hebert, R.F. and Link, A.N. (1988) The Entrepreneur: Mainstream Views and Radical Critiques. New York: Praeger, 2nd edition.
* Knight, K. (1967) "A descriptive model of the intra-firm innovation process", ''Journal of Business of the University of Chicago'', vol 40, 1967.
* McClelland, D. ''The Achieving Society'', Van Nostrand, Princeton NJ, 1961.
* Pinchot, G. (1985) ''Intrapreneuring'', Harper and Row, New York, 1985.
* Schumpeter, J. (1950) ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy'', 3rd edition, Harper and Row, New York, 1950.
* Shane S., (2003) ''A general theory of entrepreneurship : the individual-opportunity nexus / Scott Shane'' New horizons in entrepreneurship series, Edward Elgar Pub
==External links==
Community Forums:
* [http://www.youngentrepreneur.com Young Entrepreneur Forum with resources]
* [http://www.youngentrepreneur.com.au Young Entrepreneur Forum]
* [http://www.younggogetter.com Young Go Getter]
* [http://www.zeromillion.com/talk/ Entrepreneurship]
Organisations:
* [http://www.aiesec.org AIESEC]
* [http://www.jadenet.org JADE European Confederation of Junior Enterprises]
Other Links:
*[http://westaction.org/definitions/def_entrepreneurship_1.html Definitions of entrepreneuership]
* [http://www.strategytree.com/wiki/Main_Page Funding Universe StrategyTree Wiki] is a network for angel investors and entrepreneurs, to extract thousands of successful ideas and business tactics used by actual entrepreneurs, and to place them in a decision tree.
*[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Entrepreneurship.html Reference article on Entrepreneurship] by Mark Casson
* [http://www.lemonadestories.com/ Award-winning film, LEMONADE STORIES, on entrepreneurs and their mums] by [[Mary Mazzio]]
*[http://www.asian-nation.org/small-business.shtml Asian-Nation: Asian American Entrepreneurship] by C.N. Le, Ph.D.
*[http://www.npost.com Entrepreneur Interviews] nPost.com
*[http://www.quebecoislibre.org/000718-11.htm Entrepreneurship Properly Understood]
* [http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~ita/resources.html University and College Entrepreneur Societies]
*[http://www.sba.gov US Small Business Administration]
*[http://artsentrepreneurship.com Artistic Entrepreneurship]
[[Category:Organizational studies and human resource management]]
[[de:Entrepreneurship]]
[[et:Ettevõtlus]]
[[fr:Entrepreneuriat]]
[[nl:Ondernemerschap]]
[[he:יזמות עסקית]]
[[ja:企業家]]
[[pl:Przedsiębiorczość]]
[[pt:Empreendedorismo]]
[[sk:Podnikanie]]
[[fi:Yrittäjyys]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Evolutionary tree</title>
<id>9794</id>
<revision>
<id>39939411</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-16T23:31:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Samsara</username>
<id>19527</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* More examples */ +origin of life template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Phylogenetic tree}}
The '''evolutionary tree''' of living things is currently supposed to run something along the lines of that listed below. Most of the tree was based on ideas from [[cladistics]]; where more than two groups are shown in a single branch, there is disagreement about how they diverged. Hypothetically [[taxonomy]] would follow the tree whenever possible, but in many places it does not at present.
The description as a "tree" results from earlier ideas of life as a progression from lower to higher forms. Although such views are discredited now, the imagery is too well established to be readily lost.
* [[Life]]
** Domain [[Eubacteria]]
***[[Actinobacteria]]
***[[Aquificae]]
***[[Bacteroidetes]]/[[Chlorobi]] group
***[[Chlamydiae]]/[[Verrucomicrobia]] group
***[[Chloroflexi]]
***[[Chrysiogenetes]]
***[[Cyanobacteria]]
***[[Deferribacteres]]
***[[Deinococcus-Thermus]] group
***[[Dictyoglomi]]
***[[Fibrobacteres]]/[[Acidobacteria]] group
***[[Firmicutes]]
***[[Fusobacteria]]
***[[Gemmatimonadetes]]
***[[Nitrospirae]]
***[[Planctomycetes]]
***[[Proteobacteria]]
***[[Spirochaete]]
***[[Thermodesulfobacteria]]
***[[Thermomicrobia]]
***[[Thermot |
Herschel Space Observatory]] a space telescope that will be launched together with [[Planck Surveyor]] in [[2007]]
* [[KEO]] The ESA is sponsoring the [[KEO]] satellite, which will carry messages addressed to future inhabitants of the planet [[Earth]] (a [[time capsule]] expected to return in the year 52006).
* [[JWST]] planned successor to the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] (together with [[NASA]])
* [[LISA Pathfinder]] (aka Smart-2)
===Future projects===
[[image:Phoenix pose.jpg|thumb|right|220px|EADS Phoenix]]
* [[Aurora Programme]] space exploration programme for manned and unmanned exploration of [[Mars]] and other planets in our solar system
* [[Cosmic Vision]] a programme of space science missions for 2015 - 2025
* [[EADS Phoenix]] a possible European unmanned reusable launch system (following [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]])
===Past projects===
* [[Hipparcos]] &mdash; a space-based [[astrometry]] mission
* [[Giotto mission]] &mdash; first deep space mission of ESA, which went to [[Comet Halley]]
* [[Infrared Space Observatory|ISO]] &mdash; Infrared Space Observatory
* [[Cos-B]] &mdash; first project of ESA after foundation (in 1975)
* [[International Ultraviolet Explorer|IUE]] &mdash; ultraviolet astronomical space observatory
==Field installations==
*[[Headquarters]] of ESA, [[Paris]], [[France]]
*[[European Space Operations Centre]] (ESOC), [[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]]
*[[Centre Spatial Guyanais]], [[Kourou]], [[French Guiana]]
*[[European Space Research and Technology Centre]] (ESTEC), [[Noordwijk]], [[Netherlands|The Netherlands]]
*[[European Space Research Institute]] (ESRIN), [[Frascati]], [[Italy]]
*[[European Astronaut Centre]] (EAC), [[Cologne]], [[Germany]]
==See also==
*[[Orfeo Programme]] &mdash; the European high-resolution Earth observation programme
*[[Space exploration]]
*[[EUMETSAT]]
*[[NASA]]
*[[Arianespace]]
*[[Esrange]]
==Notes==
#{{Note|Jaxainterview}} Interview with Jean-Jacques Dordain by Jaxa in 2005. [http://www.jaxa.jp/news_topics/interview/vol4/index_e.html]
#{{Note|russia}} ESA website article on cooperation (especially with Russia). [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Home/SEMCDI1PGQD_0.html]
#{{Note|luxembourg}} Following its ratification of the ESA Convention, Luxembourg has become ESA's 17th Member State with effect from [[30 June]] [[2005]].
#{{Note|esaeu}} ESA information on its relationship to the EU. [http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMFEPYV1SD_index_0.html]
#{{Note|esabudget}} Figures regarding the ESA budget and the three biggest contributors to it. [http://eu.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=15342]
#{{Note|dlrbudget}} Budget figures of the German DLR (in German). [http://www.dlr.de/dlr/Unternehmen]
#{{Note|nasabudget}} PDF-file with detailed information to NASA's budget for 2005. [http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/115071main_FY05_op_plan_may.pdf]).
#{{Note|soyuzlaunch}} Article on the new Russian Kliper spacecraft with a reference to actual Soyuz costs. [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6623693/]
#{{Note|jaxabudget}} Article on the Japanese Space Agency and its budget constraints. [http://www.space.com/news/jaxa_trouble_050428.html]
#{{Note|russianbudget}} Article on the Russian Space Agency and its budget constraints. [http://www.cdi.org/friendlyversion/printversion.cfm?documentID=2513]
#{{Note|ariane}} Information on Ariane 5 provided by ESA. [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Access_to_Space/SEM9UD67ESD_0.html]
#{{Note|soyuz2}} Article by ESA on the launch date of Soyuz from French Guiana. [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Access_to_Space/SEMQ5P57ESD_0.html]
#{{Note|soyuzcoop}} ESA information on the cooperation with Russia on the Soyuz spacecraft. [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Home/SEMCDI1PGQD_0.html].
#{{Note|Vega}} ESA information on the new Vega rocket. [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Access_to_Space/SEMH3E67ESD_0.html]
#{{Note|kliper}} Article in the Guardian from May 22, 2005 [http://www.guardian.co.uk/space/article/0,14493,1489679,00.html]
#{{Note|ISS}} ESA website on the International Space Station and its share of the cots. [http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESAQHA0VMOC_iss_0.html]
#{{Note|ATV}} ESA website on the Automatic Transfer Vehicle. [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/ATV/ESA4ZJ0VMOC_0.html]
==References==
* Bonnet, Roger; Manno, Vittorio (1994). International Cooperation in Space: The Example of the European Space Agency (Frontiers of Space). Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674458354.
* Johnson, Nicholas (1993). Space technologies and space science activities of member states of the European Space Agency. ASIN B0006P4W08 .
* Peeters, Walter (2000). Space Marketing: A European Perspective (Space Technology Library). ISBN 0792367448.
* Zabusky, Stacia (2001). Launching Europe: An Ethnography of European Cooperation in Space Science. ISBN B00005OBX2.
* Harvey, Brian (2003). Europe's Space Programme: To Ariane and Beyond. ISBN 1852337222.
==External links==
*[http://www.esa.int ESA website]
*[http://encarta.msn.com/European_Space_Agency.html Encarta on ESA]
*[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1248176,00.html DW-World 2004 Europe's Great Space Race]
*[http://www.unieurope.org/showarticle.php?id=745 European - American rivalry, a new space race?]
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/space/themes/strategy_space_en.html EUROPA Website: A European strategy for space]
*[http://www.spacetelescope.org European Homepage for the Hubble Space Telescope]
*[http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5744,8585135%255E27703,00.html Europe and NASA in space race to dig up dirt on Mars]
*[http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Aurora/ ESA Aurora pogramme for space exploration]
*[http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEM2VV1DU8E_index_0.html Alcatel Space delivers EGNOS to ESA]
*[http://www.alcatel.com/space/ Alcatel Space]
*[http://www.eads.net EADS Company]
*[http://sseti.gte.tuwien.ac.at/WSW4/ SSETI]
*[http://www.janes.com/aerospace/civil/news/jar/jar060118_1_n.shtml US frets over satellite lead] Article about Galileo from Jane's
*[http://www.hudsonfla.com/ujklich.htm ESA's expansion into Central Europe though PECS]
{{National space programmes}}
[[Category:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]]
[[Category:1975 establishments]]
[[zh-min-nan:Europa Thài-khong Chóng-sú]]
[[ca:Agència Espacial Europea]]
[[cs:Evropská kosmická agentura]]
[[da:ESA]]
[[de:European Space Agency]]
[[et:Euroopa Kosmoseagentuur]]
[[es:Agencia Espacial Europea]]
[[fr:Agence spatiale européenne]]
[[gl:ESA]]
[[it:Agenzia Spaziale Europea]]
[[he:סוכנות החלל האירופית]]
[[hu:ESA]]
[[nl:Europese Ruimtevaartorganisatie]]
[[ja:欧州宇宙機関]]
[[no:Den europeiske romfartsorganisasjonen]]
[[pl:Europejska Agencja Kosmiczna]]
[[pt:Agência Espacial Europeia]]
[[ro:Agenţia spaţială europeană]]
[[ru:Европейское космическое агентство]]
[[scn:ESA]]
[[sk:Európska vesmírna agentúra]]
[[sl:Evropska vesoljska agencija]]
[[sr:Европска Свемирска Агенција (ЕСА)]]
[[fi:Euroopan avaruusjärjestö]]
[[sv:Europeiska rymdorganisationen]]
[[zh:欧洲航天局]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Embouchure</title>
<id>10365</id>
<revision>
<id>41206505</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T20:00:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>80.219.2.188</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Added link to German</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''embouchure''' is the shaping of the lips to the [[mouthpiece]] of a [[wind instrument]]. Less frequently, it is used to mean the mouthpiece itself.
The word is of French origin and is related to the root ''bouche'' (fr.), 'mouth'.
[French, from emboucher, to put or go into the mouth, from Old French : en-, in; + bouche, mouth (from Latin bucca, cheek).]
The proper embouchure allows the instrumentalist to play the instrument at its full range with a full, clear tone and without strain or damage to one's muscles.
== Brass embouchure ==
While performing on a brass instrument, the sound is produced by the player buzzing his or her lips into a mouthpiece. Pitches are changed in part through altering the amount of muscular contraction in the lip formation. The performer's use of the air as well as tongue manipulation can affect how the embouchure works.
Even today, many brass pedagogues take a rigid approach to teaching how a brass player's embouchure should function. Many of these authors also disagree with each other regarding which technique is considered correct. Research done as early as the 1940s as well as more current research suggests efficient brass embouchures are dependent upon the performer using the method that suits the player's particular anatomy. Individual differences in teeth structure, lip shape and size, jaw shape and the degree of jaw malocclusion, and other anatomical factors will affect whether a particular embouchure technique will be effective or not for a particular performer.
[[Philip Farkas]], a noted French horn performer and brass pedagogue, hypothesized in his [[1962]] publication, ''The Art of Brass Playing'', that the air stream traveling through the lip aperture should be directed straight down the shank of the mouthpiece. Farkas believed that it would be illogical to "violently deflect" the air stream downward at the point of where the air moves past the lips (Farkas, 1962). In this text, Farkas also recommends that the lower jaw be protruded so that the upper and lower teeth are aligned.
In [[1970]] Farkas published a second text on brass embouchures, ''A Photographic Study of 40 Virtuoso Horn Players''. This publication contradicted his earlier writing. Out of 40 subjects, Farkas showed that 39 subjects directed the air downward to varying degrees and 1 subject directed the air in an upward direction at various degrees. The lower jaw position seen in these photographs show more variation from Farkas' earlier text as well.
This supports what was written by trombonist and brass pedagogue, Donald S. Reinhardt in [[1942]] with his publications, ''Pivot System For Trumpet'' an |
i + 1] := value;
}
<u>insertionSort</u>(''array'' a, ''int'' length) {
''int'' i := 1;
'''while''' (i < length) {
insert(a, i, a[i]);
i := i + 1;
}
}
__NOTOC__
== Good and bad input cases ==
In the best case of an already sorted array, this implementation of insertion sort takes [[big O notation|O]](''n'') time: in each iteration, the first remaining element of the input is only compared with the last element of the result.
It takes O(''n''<sup>2</sup>) time in the average and worst cases, which makes it impractical for sorting large numbers of elements.
However, insertion sort's inner loop is very fast, which often makes it one of the fastest algorithms for sorting small numbers of elements, typically less than 10 or so.
== Variants ==
D.L. Shell made substantial improvements to the algorithm, and the modified version is called [[Shell sort]].
It compares elements separated by a distance that decreases on each pass. Shellsort has distinctly improved running times in practical work, with two simple variants requiring O(''n''<sup>3/2</sup>) and O(''n''<sup>4/3</sup>) time.
If comparisons are very costly compared to swaps, as is the case for example with string keys stored by reference, then using binary insertion sort can be a good strategy. Binary insertion sort employs [[binary search]] to find the right place to insert new elements, and therefore performs <math>\lceil ln(n!) \rceil</math> comparisons in the worst case, which is &Theta;(''n'' log ''n''). The algorithm as a whole still takes &Theta;(''n''<sup>2</sup>) time on average due to the series of swaps required for each insertion, and since it always uses binary search, the best case is no longer O(''n'') but O(''n log n'').
To avoid having to make a series of swaps for each insertion, we could instead store the input in a [[linked list]], which allows us to insert and delete elements in constant time. Unfortunately, binary search on a linked list is impossible, so we still spend &Omega;(n<sup>2</sup>) time searching. If we instead replace it by a more sophisticated [[data structure]] such as a [[heap (data structure)|heap]] or [[binary tree]], we can significantly decrease both search and insert time. This is the essence of [[heap sort]] and [[binary tree sort]].
In 2004, Bender, Farach-Colton, and Mosteiro published a new variant of insertion sort called ''[[library sort]]'' or ''gapped insertion sort'' that leaves a small number of unused spaces ("gaps") spread throughout the array. The benefit is that insertions need only shift elements over until a gap is reached. Surprising in its simplicity, they show that this sorting algorithm runs with high probability in O(''n'' log ''n'') time. [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/bender04insertion.html]
== Comparisons to other sorts ==
Insertion sort is very similar to [[bubble sort]]. In bubble sort, after ''k'' passes through the array, the ''k'' largest elements have bubbled to the top. (Or the ''k'' smallest elements have bubbled to the bottom, depending on which way you do it.) In insertion sort, after ''k'' passes through the array, you have a run of ''k'' sorted elements at the bottom of the array. Each pass inserts another element into the sorted run. So with bubble sort, each pass takes less time than the previous one, but with insertion sort, each pass may take more time than the previous one.
Some [[divide-and-conquer algorithm]]s such as [[quicksort]] and [[mergesort]] sort by recursively dividing the list into smaller sublists which are then sorted. A useful optimization in practice for these algorithms is to switch to insertion sort for "small enough" sublists on which insertion sort outperforms the more complex algorithms. The size of list for which insertion sort has the advantage varies by environment and implementation, but is typically around 8 to 20 elements.
== Implementations ==
{{main|Insertion sort implementations}}
This section shows just a few representative implementations of insertion sort. For a more comprehensive list of implementations, see ''[[Insertion sort implementations]]''.
<!-- Before adding an implementation, please consider whether it adds significantly in a conceptual way beyond the implementations already present. If not, you can still edit [[Insertion sort implementations]]. If so, you can edit the contents of this section using this link:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Insertion_sort_core_implementations&action=edit
-->
{{Insertion sort core implementations}}
==External links==
* [http://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~minoura/cs162/javaProgs/sort/InsertSort.html An animated Java applet showing a step-by-step insertion sort.]
* [http://literateprograms.org/Category:Insertion_sort Annotated implementations of insertion sort in various languages]
== References ==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 5.2.1: Sorting by Insertion, pp.80&ndash;105.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Section 2.1: Insertion sort, pp.15&ndash;21.
[[Category:Sort algorithms]]
[[de:Insertionsort]]
[[es:Ordenamiento por inserción]]
[[fr:Tri par insertion]]
[[he:מיון הכנסה]]
[[it:Insertion sort]]
[[lt:Įterpimo rūšiavimo algoritmas]]
[[nl:Insertion sort]]
[[ja:挿入ソート]]
[[pl:Sortowanie przez wstawianie]]
[[pt:Insertion sort]]
[[ru:Сортировка методом вставок]]
[[fi:Lisäyslajittelu]]
[[zh:插入排序]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Incompetence</title>
<id>15206</id>
<revision>
<id>40037519</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T17:53:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Run!</username>
<id>635594</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rvv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Incompetence''' can refer to:
:* '''Incompetence''', the condition of a person who is unable to properly perform his or her [[duty]].
:* '''Incompetence''' (in [[law]]), the failure to meet defined standards of [[competence]].
:* '''''[[Incompetence (book)|Incompetence]]''''', a [[novel]] by [[Rob Grant]].
== See also ==
*[[Administrative incompetence]]
*[[Military incompetence]]
*[[Darwin Awards]]
*[[Hanlon's Razor]]
{{disambig}}
[[pt:Incompetência]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ig Nobel Prize</title>
<id>15207</id>
<revision>
<id>40604073</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T19:43:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>165.138.227.252</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Ig Nobel Prizes''' are a [[parody]] of the [[Nobel Prize]]s and are given each year in early fall &mdash; around the time the recipients of the genuine Nobel Prizes are announced &mdash; for ten achievements that "first make people laugh, and then make them think." The name itself is a play on the words [[wikt:ignoble|ignoble]] and "Nobel." Sponsored by the scientific [[Humour|humor]] journal [[Annals of Improbable Research]] (AIR), they are presented by genuine [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Laureates]] at a ceremony in [[Harvard University]]'s [[Sanders Theatre]].
The awards are sometimes veiled criticism &mdash; as in the two awards given for [[homeopathy]] research, or prizes in "science education" to Kansas and Colorado state boards of education for their stance regarding the teaching of evolution &mdash; but more often they draw attention to scientific articles that have some funny or unexpected aspect. Examples range from the discovery that the presence of [[humans]] tends to sexually arouse [[ostrich]]es, to the statement that [[black holes]] fulfill all the technical requirements to be the location of [[Hell]], to research on the "[[five-second rule]]," a tongue-in-cheek belief that food dropped on the floor won't become contaminated if it is picked up within five seconds.
The first Ig Nobels were awarded in [[1991]], when they were described as discoveries "that cannot, or should not, be reproduced." The official pronunciation used during the ceremony is "ig no-BELL", not "ig-noble", but this distinction eludes many people.
The ceremony is followed a few days later by the Ig Informal Lectures at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], in which laureates have the opportunity to explain their achievements and their relevance to the general public.
The annual ceremony is co-sponsored by the [[Harvard Computer Society]], the [[Harvard-Radcliffe Science Fiction Association]], and the [[Harvard-Radcliffe Society of Physics Students]].
With the exception of three prizes in the first year (see [[Administratium]], [[Josiah Carberry]], and [[Paul DeFanti]]), most Ig Nobel Prizes have been for genuine achievements.
== Tours and outreach ==
Unlike the [[Darwin Awards]], whose aim is strictly to entertain, the aim of the Ig Nobel is also to arouse public interest in science. AIR Editor [[Marc Abrahams]] describes the awards as being designed "to make you laugh, and then to make you think."
The ceremony is recorded and broadcast on [[National Public Radio]] and is shown live over the Internet. Two books have been published [[as of 2006]] with writeups on some of the winners: ''The Ig Nobel Prize'' (2002, US paperback ISBN 0-452-28573-9, UK paperback ISBN 0-75284-261-7) and ''The Ig Nobel Prize 2'' (2005, US hardcover ISBN 0-525-94912-7, UK hardcover ISBN 0-75286-461-0).
The Ig Nobel Tour performed shows in [[Britain]] during [[National Science Week]]; it has also traveled to other countries, including |
}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Cook Islands}}
'''Politics of the Cook Islands''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[dependency]], whereby the Chief Minister is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. The Islands are self-governing in free association with [[New Zealand]] and are fully responsible for internal affairs. New Zealand retains some responsibility for external affairs, in consultation with the Cook Islands. In recent years the Cook Islands has taken on more of its own external affairs and as of [[2005]] has diplomatic relations in its own name with 18 other countries. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[Parliament of the Cook Islands]].
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|Queen
|[[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]
|
|[[6 February]] [[1952]]
|-
|Queen's Representative
|Sir [[Frederick Goodwin]] KBE
|
|[[9 February]] [[2001]]
|-
|New Zealand High Commissioner
|[[John Bryan]]
|
|[[August]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of the Cook Islands|Prime Minister]]
|[[Jim Marurai]]
|[[Democratic Alliance Party (Cook Islands)|DAP]]
|[[14 December]] [[2004]]
|}
The monarch is hereditary; her representative is appointed by the monarch. The New Zealand high commissioner is appointed by the New Zealand Government. The cabinet is chosen by the prime minister and collectively responsible to Parliament.
Ten years of rule by the Cook Islands Party (CIP) came to an end [[18 November]] [[1999]] with the resignation of Prime Minister Joe Williams. Williams had led a minority government since October 1999 when the New Alliance Party (NAP) left the government coalition and joined the main opposition [[Democratic Alliance Party (Cook Islands)|Democratic Party]] (DAP). On [[18 November]] [[1999]], DAP leader Dr. Terepai Maoate was sworn in as prime minister. He was succeeded by his co-partisan [[Robert Woonton]]. When he lost his seat in the 2004 elections, [[Jim Marurai]] took over.
==Legislative branch==
The [[Parliament of the Cook Islands]] has 25 members, elected for a five year term in single-seat constituencies.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in the Cook Islands|Elections in the Cook Islands}}
{{Cook_Islands_legislative_election,_2004}}
== International organization participation==
AsDB, ESCAP (associate), FAO, ICAO, ICFTU, IFAD, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), IOC, OPCW, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UNESCO, WHO, WMO
== External link ==
Constitution of the Cook Islands and amendments http://www.paclii.org/ck/legis/num_act/cotci327/
{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Cook Islands]]
[[fr:Vie politique aux Îles Cook]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of the Cook Islands</title>
<id>7072</id>
<revision>
<id>35305319</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-15T20:12:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Natalya</username>
<id>154294</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">This article describes the '''[[economic system|economy]] of the [[Cook Islands]]'''.
Like many other [[Polynesia|South Pacific]] island nations, the Cook Islands' economic development is hindered by the isolation of the country from foreign markets, lack of natural resources, periodic devastation from natural disasters, and inadequate [[infrastructure]]. Agriculture provides the economic base with major exports made up of [[copra]] and citrus fruit. Manufacturing activities are limited to fruit-processing, clothing, and handicrafts. Trade deficits are made up for by remittances from emigrants and by foreign aid, overwhelmingly from [[New Zealand]]. Efforts to exploit tourism potential, encourage offshore banking, and expand the mining and fishing industries have been partially successful in stimulating investment and growth.
; GDP:
: Purchasing power parity - $112 million (1998 est.)
; GDP - real growth rate:
: NA%
; GDP - per capita:
: Purchasing power parity - $5,600 (1998 est.)
; GDP - composition by sector:
:* Agriculture: 18%
:* Industry: 9%
:* Services: 73% (1995)
; Population below poverty line:
: NA%
; Household income or consumption by percentage share:
:* Lowest 10%: NA%
:* Highest 10%: NA%
; Inflation rate (consumer prices):
: 2.6% (1994 est.)
; Labor force:
: 6,601 (1993)
; Labor force - by occupation:
: Agriculture 29%, industry 15%, services 56% (1995)
; Unemployment rate:
: NA%
; Budget:
:* Revenues: $NA
:* Expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
; Industries:
: Fruit processing, tourism
; Industrial production growth rate:
: NA%
; Electricity - production:
: 15 GWh (1998)
; Electricity - production by source:
:* Fossil fuel: 100%
:* Hydro: 0%
:* Nuclear: 0%
:* Other: 0% (1998)
; Electricity - consumption:
: 14 GWh (1998)
; Electricity - exports:
: 0 kWh (1998)
; Electricity - imports:
: 0 kWh (1998)
; Agriculture - products:
: [[Copra]], [[citrus]], [[pineapple]]s, [[tomato]]es, [[bean]]s, [[pawpaw]]s, [[banana]]s, [[yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[taro]], [[coffee]]
; Exports:
: $4.2 million (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
; Exports - commodities:
: Copra, papayas, fresh and canned citrus fruit, coffee; fish; pearls and pearl shells; clothing
; Exports - partners:
: NZ 80%, Japan, Hong Kong (1993)
; Imports:
: $85 million (c.i.f., 1994)
; Imports - commodities:
: Foodstuffs, textiles, fuels, timber, capital goods
; Imports - partners:
: NZ 49%, Italy, Australia (1993)
; Debt - external:
: $141 million (1996 est.)
; Economic aid - recipient:
: $13.1 million (1995); note - New Zealand furnishes the greater part
; Currency:
: 1 New Zealand dollar (NZ$) = 100 cents
; Exchange rates:
: New Zealand dollars (NZ$) per US$1 - 1.9451 (January 2000), 1.8886 (1999), 1.8632 (1998), 1.5083 (1997), 1.4543 (1996), 1.5235 (1995)
; Fiscal year:
: [[1 April]]&ndash;[[31 March]]
See also: [[Cook Islands]]
[[Category:Cook Islands]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Cook Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in the Cook Islands</title>
<id>7073</id>
<revision>
<id>37394082</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T19:31:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>ZachPruckowski</username>
<id>626251</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">This article lists '''[[communication|communications]] in the [[Cook Islands]]'''.
; [[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:
: 4,180 (1994)
; Telephones - mobile cellular:
: 0 (1994)
: In phase of installation of GSM infrastructure (2003)
: GSM 900MHz cellular network in place (2004). Estimated users 1000+
; Telephone system:
:* Domestic: The individual islands are connected by a combination of satellite earth stations, microwave systems, and VHF and HF radiotelephone; within the islands, service is provided by small exchanges connected to subscribers by open wire, cable, and fiber-optic cable
:* International: Satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Pacific Ocean]])
; [[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:
: AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
; Radios:
: 14,000 (1997)
; [[Television]] broadcast stations:
: 2 (plus eight low-power repeaters) (1997)
; Televisions:
: 4,000 (1997)
; [[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):
: 1 (1999)
; [[Country code]]:
: CK
See also: [[Cook Islands]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Cook Islands]]
[[Category:Cook Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transport in the Cook Islands</title>
<id>7074</id>
<revision>
<id>39079276</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T15:57:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Warofdreams</username>
<id>20855</id>
</contributor>
<comment>{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}, {{CIA}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
This article lists '''[[transport]] in the [[Cook Islands]]'''.
; Railways:
: 0 km
; [[Highway]]s:
:* Total: 187 [[kilometre|km]]
:* Paved: 35 km
:* Unpaved: 152 km (1980 est.)
; Ports and [[harbour]]s:
: Avarua, Avatiu
; [[Merchant marine]]:
:* Total: 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totalling 2,310 GRT/2,181 DWT
:* Ships by type: Cargo 1 (1999 est.)
; [[Airport]]s:
: 7 (1999 est.)
; Airports - with paved runways:
:* Total: 1
:* 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
; Airports - with unpaved runways:
:* Total: 6
:* 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3
:* 914 to 1,523 m: 3 (1999 est.)
See also: [[Cook Islands]]
{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}
[[Category:Cook Islands]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Cook Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cook Islands/Military</title>
<id>7075</id>
<revision>
<id>15905167</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-07T00:13:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>-- April</username>
<id>166</id>
</contributor>
<comment>merge with main page</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cook Islands]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer file</title>
<id>7077</id>
<revision>
<id>41647982</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T19:56:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>196.2.124.252</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links and references */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses computer files and file systems in general terms. For a more detailed and technical discussion, see [[File system]].
A '''computer file''' is a collection of information that is stored in a [[computer]] system and can be identified by its full path name. Computer files are so called because they are the computer equivalent of card, paper, o |
Cook]].
The titles of the books are:
[[Image:Last Bus To Woodstock.jpg|right|150px|]]
* ''Last Bus to Woodstock'', [[1975]]
* ''Last Seen Wearing'', [[1976]]
* ''Silent World of Nicholas Quinn'', [[1977]]
* ''Service of All the Dead'', [[1979]]
* ''The Dead of Jericho'', [[1981]]
* ''The Riddle of the Third Mile'', [[1983]]
* ''The Secret of Annexe 3'', [[1986]]
* ''The Wench is Dead'', [[1989]]
* ''The Jewel That Was Ours'', [[1991]]
* ''The Way Through the Woods'', [[1992]]
* ''The Daughters of Cain'', [[1994]]
* ''Death is Now My Neighbour'', [[1996]]
* ''The Remorseful Day'', [[2000]]
Inspector Morse also appears in several stories in Dexter's short story collection, ''Morse's Greatest Mystery and Other Stories'' ([[1993]], expanded edition [[1994]]).
Dexter killed Morse in his last book, and has thus far shown no sign of resurrecting him&mdash;unlike [[Arthur Conan Doyle]], who killed his main character only to bring him back to life. Morse dies in a hospital bed from complications of his neglected [[type 2 diabetes]]&mdash;his diabetes is mentioned repeatedly in the later books, and is one of the more realistic treatments of this disease in fiction.
==Television series==
The Inspector Morse novels have been made into a very successful [[TV series]] (also called ''Inspector Morse'') for the British TV channel [[ITV]]. The series was made by Zenith Productions for [[Central Independent Television|Central]] (a company later acquired by [[Carlton Television|Carlton]]). The series comprises 33 two-hour episodes (100 minutes excluding commercials)&mdash;twenty more episodes than there are novels&mdash;produced between [[1987]] and [[2000]]. The final episode was adapted from the final novel.
[[Image:Inspector Morse.jpg|thumb|right|250px|John Thaw (left) and Kevin Whately (right) as Morse and Lewis]]
The Inspector himself was played by [[John Thaw]] and the faithful Detective Sergeant Lewis by [[Kevin Whately]]. Dexter makes a [[cameo appearance]] in all but three of the episodes. The series remains popular and is frequently repeated on [[ITV]]1 and [[ITV3]] in Britain; in the United States, reruns (often edited to allow additional commercials) regularly appear on a cable network, The Biography Channel, while the uncut versions have been shown on the [[PBS]] show [[Mystery!]]. The series has been issued as cut-price [[VHS|video cassettes]] and [[DVD]]s containing one episode each, together with magazine-size booklets giving background information on each episode, and as a series of 17 double DVDs containing two episodes each (the last disc contains one episode and a two-hour retrospective).
John Thaw had a special appreciation of the fact that Morse was different from classic characters such as [[James Bond]] and [[Sherlock Holmes (character)|Sherlock Holmes]]. Morse was brilliant but he wasn't always right. He often arrested the wrong person or came to the wrong conclusion. As a result, unlike many classic sleuths, Morse does not always simply "[[bust]]" his culprit; ironic circumstances have the case end and the crime brought to him. Also, Morse was a romantic but had little success in meeting women.
It could be argued that Morse was more akin not to the archetype of [[Sherlock Holmes]] but to that of Holmes' older brother, [[Mycroft Holmes]]. Like Mycroft, Morse was lethargic, mainly due to his sedentary lifestyle, and seemed like a man whose talents and intelligence were being wasted in positions that hardly matched his talents, i.e., Morse would have been promoted beyond chief inspector at Thames CID, but has an apparent lack of career ambition to follow through despite his intelligence and Oxford connections.
However, Morse also has qualities that make him different from Mycroft and therefore allow him to be a believable detective. His penchant for drinking, his life filled with difficult personal relationships, and his negligence with his health, however, make him a more tragic character than previous classic sleuths.
John Thaw portrayed these characteristics of Morse with superb skill; however, this may have been in part to the alcoholism that plagued his later life, up to one year before his death.
===List===
The titles of the television episodes are:
* 1st Series, [[1987]]:
** 1. ''The Dead of Jericho''
** 2. ''The Silent World of Nicholas Quinn''
** 3. ''Service of All the Dead''
* 2nd Series, [[1988]]:
** 4. ''The Wolvercote Tongue''
** 5. ''Last Seen Wearing''
** 6. ''The Settling of the Sun''
** 7. ''Last Bus to Woodstock''
* 3rd Series, [[1989]]:
** 8. ''Ghost in the Machine''
** 9. ''The Last Enemy''
** 10. ''Deceived by Flight''
** 11. ''The Secret of Bay 5B''
* 4th Series, [[1990]]:
** 12. ''Infernal Serpent''
** 13. ''The Sins of the Fathers''
** 14. ''Driven to Distraction''
** 15. ''Masonic Mysteries''
* 5th Series, [[1991]]:
** 16. ''Second Time Around''
** 17. ''Fat Chance''
** 18. ''Who Killed Harry Field?''
** 19. ''Greeks Bearing Gifts''
** 20. ''Promised Land'', also known as ''Inspector Morse in Australia''
* 6th Series, [[1992]]:
** 21. ''Dead on Time''
** 22. ''Happy Families''
** 23. ''The Death of the Self''
** 24. ''Absolute Conviction''
** 25. ''Cherubim and Seraphim''
* 7th Series, [[1993]]:
** 26. ''Deadly Slumber''
** 27. ''The Day of the Devil''
** 28. ''Twilight of the Gods''
* Specials, [[1995]]&ndash;[[2000]]:
** 29. ''The Way Through the Woods''
** 30. ''The Daughters of Cain''
** 31. ''Death Is Now My Neighbour''
** 32. ''The Wench Is Dead''
** 33. ''The Remorseful Day''
===Music===
The theme and incidental music for the series was written by [[Barrington Pheloung]] and utilises a [[motif]] based on the [[Morse code]] for "M.O.R.S.E." ('''-- --- ·-· ··· ·''').
According to Pheloung, he had spelled out the name of the killer in Morse code to tell you who did it, and has purposely spelled out someone else to throw you off.
That the makers of the series took great care in the choice of [[European classical music|classical music]] excerpts as additional incidental music{{ref|morse-1}}, reflects in the fact that several collections of "music from the Morse series" recordings were published successfully.
The TV series and the CD's play some of Morse's favorites, [[Mozart]], [[Schubert]], and of course [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]].
#{{note|morse-1}} In <i>Driven to Distraction,</i> Morse is listening to a cassette playing the end of the Prelude from the first Bach 'Cello Suite. Sgt. Maitland asks to hear the other side of the cassette. The start of Prelude plays — making the cassette about two minutes total, with half the Prelude on each side.
===Spinoff series===
A pilot episode, ''[[Lewis (television)|Lewis]]'', starring [[Kevin Whately]] as the now-promoted Inspector Lewis went into production in [[July 2005]]. This pilot was broadcast on ITV on [[29 January]] [[2006]].
== Trivia ==
In November [[2005]], the [[Jaguar Mark 2]] car used in the television series sold for more than GBP 100,000 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4485816.stm].
==External links==
* [http://www.inspectormorse.co.uk/ Official Inspector Morse Website]
* [http://www.chem.ox.ac.uk/oxfordtour/morses%5Foxford/ Morse's Oxford Online Tour (created by Oxford University)]
* [http://www.morsemania.co.uk/ Morse Mania]
* [http://epguides.com/InspectorMorse/guide.shtml Morse episode guide]
* [http://www.detective-fiction.com/ Detective Fiction Books]
* [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/I/htmlI/inspectormor/inspectormor.htm Encyclopedia of Television]
* [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/523493/index.html British Film Institute Screen Online]
[[Category:Crime television series|Morse]]
[[Category:Fictional detectives|Morse, Endeavour]]
[[Category:ITV television programmes]]
[[Category:Series of books]]
[[Category:Television programs based on novels]]
[[Category:Fictional police officers|Morse, Endeavour]]
[[fr:Inspecteur Morse (série télévisée)]]
[[nl:Inspector Morse]]
[[no:Inspektør Morse]]
[[sv:Kommissarie Morse]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of the Isle of Man</title>
<id>14763</id>
<revision>
<id>41314286</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T14:11:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>195.10.104.78</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Brythonic Dominence */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
The '''history of the [[Isle of Man]]''' falls naturally into four periods. In the first of these a [[Brythonic]] people inhabited the island. The next period features the [[Viking]] invasions and the establishment of [[Scandinavia]]n rule. The third period comprises [[England | English]] dominion. Since [[1866]] the island has had an increasing measure of [[Devolution|home rule]].
==Brythonic Dominence==
The secular history of the Isle of Man during the Brythonic period remains mysterious: we have no surviving trustworthy record of any event whatever before the incursions of the Northmen, since the exploits attributed to Baetan MacCairill, king of [[Ulster]], at the end of the 6th century, formally supposed to have taken place in the Isle of Man, really occurred in the country between the Firths of [[Firth of Clyde | Clyde]] and [[Firth of Forth | Forth]]. Even if the supposed conquest of the Menavian islands -- Man and [[Anglesey]] -- by [[Edwin of Northumbria]], in [[616]], did take place, it could not have led to any permanent results; for, when the English were driven from the coasts of [[Cumberland, England|Cumberland]] and [[Lancashire]] soon afterwards, they could not well have retained their hold on the island to the west of these coasts. One can speculate, however, that when [[Ecgfrith of Northumbria | Ecfrid]]'s Northumbrians laid Ireland waste from Dublin to [[Drogheda]] in 684, they temporarily occupied Man.
In the later part of the first millennium AD colonists from Ireland settled in Man. [[Manx language| |
ence" and agreed that the meetings should henceforth be regular rather than taking place while overseas statesmen were visiting London for royal occasions (jubilees, coronations).
The conferences were a key forum for [[Dominions|Dominion]] governments to assert the desire for removing the remaining vestiges of their colonial status. The conference of [[1926]], by [[Balfour Declaration 1926|Balfour Declaration]], marked the acknowledgement that the Dominions would henceforth rank as equals to the [[United Kingdom]], as members of British Commonwealth of Nations. The conference of [[1930]] came to conclusion to remove the legislative supremacy of the British Parliament as it was expressed through the [[Colonial Laws Validity Act]], and recommended a declaratory enactment of the United Kingdom Parliament, passed with the consent of the Dominions. The [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] was enacted by the imperial Parliament in pursuance of that recommendation.
After [[World War II]], with the transformation of the British Empire into the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], Imperial Conferences were replaced by biennial [[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]].
==See also==
*[[Imperial War Cabinet]]
[[Category:British Empire]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Interpreter</title>
<id>15394</id>
<revision>
<id>35750243</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-19T00:33:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rogerd</username>
<id>205136</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.79.149.242|81.79.149.242]] ([[User talk:81.79.149.242|talk]]) to last version by RoySmith</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Interpreter''' can mean one of the following:
*[[Interpreter (communication)]], a person who facilitates dialogue between parties who use different languages.
*[[Interpreter (computing)]], a program designed to run other non-executable programs directly.
*[[Interpreter (history)]], a person who acts the role of a historical character in a living museum.
*[[The Interpreter]], a 2005 movie starring Nicole Kidman and Sean Penn.
----
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International Refugee Organization</title>
<id>15395</id>
<revision>
<id>40364476</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Refugee Organization''' (IRO) was founded in [[1946]] to deal with the massive refugee problem created by [[World War II]]. It was a [[United Nations]] [[specialized agency]] and took over many of the functions of the earlier [[United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration]]. In [[1952]] its operations ceased, and it was replaced by the Office of the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR). It is the only specialized agency to have ever gone out of existence.
It was established by the Constitution of the International Refugee Organization, adopted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] on December 15, 1952.
'''IRO''' is also the abbreviation for the International Ragnarok Online server, servicing Ragnarok Players of North America.
==External links==
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/decade/decad053.htm Constitution of the International Refugee Organization]
[[Category:United Nations specialized agencies]]
[[Category:1946 establishments]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IRO</title>
<id>15396</id>
<revision>
<id>15912871</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Refugee Organization]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IBAN</title>
<id>15397</id>
<revision>
<id>15912872</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Bank Account Number]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irrealism in music</title>
<id>15399</id>
<revision>
<id>15912874</id>
<timestamp>2004-08-10T18:49:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michael Snow</username>
<id>34289</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>merged</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Irrealism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isabella d'Este</title>
<id>15401</id>
<revision>
<id>42081001</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T18:19:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>205.147.242.4</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Corrected typos.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Isabella_d'Este.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Isabella d'Este]]
One of the leading women of the [[Italy|Italian]] [[Renaissance]], '''Isabella d'Este''' ([[18 May]] [[1474]] - [[13 February]] [[1539]]) was a major cultural and political figure.
She was a daughter of [[Ercole d'Este I|Ercole I d'Este]], Duke of [[Ferrara]], and [[Eleonora Of Aragon]], daughter of [[Ferdinand I of Aragon]] and [[Isabel de Claremont]]. Her younger sister was the equally famous [[Beatrice d'Este]], Duchess of [[Milan]] as consort to [[Lodovico Sforza]]. She was related by birth or marriage to almost every ruler in Spain and is known as "The First Lady Of The Renaissance".
Isabella d'Este was very well-educated in her youth, as her voluminous correspondence from [[Mantua]] reveals. The [[Este]] sisters were exposed to many of the new Renaissance ideas: later Isabella became a passionate, even greedy collector of Roman sculpture and commissioned modern sculptures in the antique style. At the age of 16 she was married to [[Francesco II of Gonzaga | Francesco Gonzaga]], Marquis of [[Mantua]]. They were [[Ariosto]]'s patrons while he was writing ''[[Orlando Furioso]]'' and both she and her husband were greatly influenced by [[Baldassare Castiglione]], author of [[The Book of the Courtier | ''Il Cortigiano'' ('The Courtier')]] a model for aristocratic decorum for two hundred years, and it was at his suggestion that [[Giulio Romano]] was summoned to Mantua to enlarge the Castello and other buildings. Under her auspices the court of Mantua became one of the most cultured in Europe. Among the other important artists, writers, thinkers, and musicians being drawn to it were [[Raffaello Santi|Raphael]], [[Andrea Mantegna]], and the composers [[Bartolomeo Tromboncino]] and [[Marchetto Cara]]. Her court sculptor was [[Pier Jacopo Alari Bonacolsi]], who re-interpreted works of antiquity in small finely-finished and often partly gilded bronzes that earned him the nickname "L'Antico". She was painted twice by [[Titian]], (see illustration at right), and [[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s portrait drawing of her is at the [[Musee du Louvre|Louvre]]. She was a keen musician herself, who considered stringed instruments, such as the [[lute]], superior to winds, which were associated with vice and strife; she also considered poetry incomplete until it was set to music, and sought the most skilled composers of the day to complete the task.
After the death of her husband, Isabella ruled Mantua as regent for her child. She began to play an important role in Italian politics, steadily advancing Mantua's position. Her many important accomplishments include advancing Mantua to a Duchy and also obtaining a [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]ate for her younger son. She also showed great diplomatic and political skill in her negotiations with [[Cesare Borgia]], who had dispossessed [[Guidobaldo da Montefeltre]], duke of [[Urbino]], the husband of her sister-in-law and intimate friend.
[[Elisabetta Gonzaga]] (1502).
[[Category:1474 births|d'Este, Isabella]]
[[Category:1539 deaths|d'Este, Isabella]]
[[Category:Italian nobility|d'Este, Isabella]]
[[de:Isabella d'Este]]
[[fr:Isabella d'Este]]
[[it:Isabella d'Este]]
[[ja:&#12452;&#12470;&#12505;&#12521;&#12539;&#12487;&#12473;&#12486;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>International standard</title>
<id>15402</id>
<revision>
<id>37324337</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T06:12:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alvestrand</username>
<id>50958</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[standardization|Standard]]s are produced by many organizations, some for internal usage only, others for use by a groups of people, groups of companies, or a subsection of an industry. A problem arises when different groups come together, each with a large user base doing some well established thing that between them is mutually incompatible. Establishing international standards is one way of preventing or overcoming this problem.
There are many national and regional standards organisations, but the three [[international organization]]s having the highest international recognition are the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), and the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU). All three of these have existed for more than 50 years (founded in 1947, 1906, and 1865, respectively) and they are all based in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]. They have established tens of thousands of standards covering almost every conceivable topic. Many of these are then adopted worldwide replacing various incompatible 'homegrown' standards. Many of these standards are naturally ev |
creation and of the Trinity. With reference to the Trinity, he says we cannot know God from himself, but only after the analogy of his creatures. The special analogy used is the self-consciousness of man. The peculiar double nature of consciousness, memory and intelligence, represent the relation of the Father to the Son. The mutual love of these two, proceeding from the relation they hold to one another, symbolizes the Holy Spirit. The further theological doctrines of man, such as original sin and free will, are developed in the ''Monologion'' and other mixed treatises.
Finally, in Anselm's greatest work, ''Cur Deus Homo'' ("Why did God become Man?"), he undertook to make plain, even to infidels, the rational necessity of the Christian mystery of the [[atonement]]. The theory rests on three positions: that satisfaction is necessary on account of God's honor and justice; that such satisfaction can be given only by the peculiar personality of the God-man Jesus; that such satisfaction is really given by the voluntary death of this infinitely valuable person. The demonstration is, in brief, this. All the actions of men are due to the furtherance of God's glory; if, then, there be sin, ''i.e.'' if God's honour be wounded, man of himself can give no satisfaction. But the justice of God demands satisfaction; and as an insult to infinite honour is in itself infinite, the satisfaction must be infinite, ''i.e.'' it must outweigh all that is not God. Such a penalty can only be paid by God himself, and, as a penalty for man, must be paid under the form of man. Satisfaction is only possible through the God-man. Now this God-man, as sinless, is exempt from the punishment of sin; His passion is therefore voluntary, not given as due. The merit of it is therefore infinite; God's justice is thus appeased, and His mercy may extend to man. This theory has exercised immense influence on church doctrine, providing the basis for the [[Roman Catholic]] concept of the [[treasury of merit]]. It is certainly an advance on the older patristic theory, in so far as it substitutes for a contest between God and Satan, a contest between the goodness and justice of God. However, it can be said that Anselm puts the whole issue on a merely legal footing, giving it no ethical bearing, and neglects altogether the consciousness of the individual to be redeemed. In this respect it contrasts unfavorably with the later theory of [[Peter Abélard]].
===Recognition===
In the middle ages, Anselm's writings did not receive the respect and attention they deserved. This was probably due to their unsystematic character, for they are generally tracts or dialogues on detached questions, not elaborate treatises like the great works of [[Aquinas]], [[Albert of Aix]], and [[Scotus Erigena|Erigena]]. They have, however, a freshness and philosophical vigor which more than makes up for their want of system, and which raises them far above the level of most scholastic writings.
The anniversary of his death on [[21 April]] is celebrated in the [[Catholic Church]] as Anselm's memorial day. Anselm was proclaimed as a [[Doctor of the Church]] in [[1720]] by [[Pope Clement XI]]. Eight hundred years after his death, on [[21 April]] [[1909]], [[Pope Pius X]] issued an encyclical ''Communion Rerum'' praising Anselm and his ecclestical career and his writings.
==References==
The main primary sources for the history of St. Anselm and his times are [[Eadmer]]'s ''Vita Anselmi'' and his ''Historia Novorum''.
References from 1911 Britannica:
* Eadmer's Vita Anselmi and his Historia Novorum, edited by Martin Rule in [[Rolls Series]] (London, 1884)
* [[Philibert Ragey]], ''Histoire de Saint Anselme'' (Paris, 1890), and ''Saint Anselme professeur'' (Paris, 1890)
* [[Johann Adam Möhler]], ''Anselm Erzbischof von Canterbury ''(Regensburg, 1839; Eng. trans. by Henry Rymer, London, 1842)
* [[Friedrich Rudolf Hasse]], ''Anselm von Canterbury'' (2 vols., Leipzig, 1842-1853)
* [[C. de Rémusat]], ''S. Anselme de Cantorbéry'' (Paris, 1853, new ed. 1868)
* [[R. W. Church]], ''St. Anselm'', first published in Sunday Library (London, 1870; often reprinted)
* [[Martin Rule]], ''Life and Times of St. Anselm'' (London, 1883).
* [[Dom Gerberon]] ''S. Anselmi opera omnia, necnon Eadmeri monachi Cantuar. Historia Novorum et alia opuscula'' Paris, (1675); edition of Anselms's works; reprinted with many notes in 1712; incorporated by [[J. Migne]] in his ''Patrologia Latina'', tomi clviii.-clix. (Paris. 1853-1854). Migne's reprint contains many errors.
* The ''Cur Deus homo'' in the editions published by [[D. Nutt]] (London, 1885) and by Griffith Farran Browne (1891).
* The ''Mariale'', or poems in honour of the Blessed Virgin, has been carefully edited by Philibert Ragey (Tournai, 1885)
* The ''Monologion'' and ''Proslogion'', edited by [[C. E. Ubaghs]] (Louvain, 1854; Eng. trans. by S. N. Deane, Chicago, 1903)
* The ''Meditationes'', many of which are wrongly attributed to Anselm, have been frequently reprinted, and were included in Methuen's Library of Devotion (London, 1903).
* Among the important historical criticisms of Anselm's philosophical works are those by [[J. M. Rigg]], ''St. Anselm of Canterbury: A Chapter in the History of Religion'' (London, 1896), and ''Saint Anselme'' by [[Edmond Charles Eugène Domet de Vorges]], (Grands Philosophes series, Paris, 1901).
*Bibliography in [[A. Vacant]]'s ''Dictionnaire de théologie''.
Current references:
* There is a recent Critical Edition of Anselms's works by [http://www.uky.edu/Libraries/record.php?lir_id=35 F. S. Schmitt (1961)]
* The ''Proslogion'' has been translated by [[M. J. Charlesworth]] with an introduction and commentary (OUP, 1965, reprinted by University of Notre Dame Press, 1979)
* {{cite book | author= [[Richard Southern|Southern, Richard W.]] | title=St. Anselm : A Portrait in a Landscape| publisher=Cambridge University Press| year=1992 | id=ISBN 0521438187}}
* {{cite book | author= [[Alban Butler|Butler, Alban]]; edited by Burns, Paul | title=Butler's Lives of the Saints: April; New Full Edition | publisher=Liturgical Press| year=1999 | id=ISBN 0814623808}}
==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anselm/ ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' article on Saint Anselm]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01546a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' article on St. Anselm]
*[http://www.cla.umn.edu/jhopkins/ Professor Jasper Hopkins' homepage] which contains English translations of nearly every major work by St. Anselm
*St. Anselm at the [http://www.ccel.org Christian Classics Ethereal Library]: http://www.ccel.org/a/anselm/
*St. Anselm at the [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com Latin Library]: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/anselm.html
*Pope St. Pius X's [http://www.catholic-forum.com/SAINTS/stp06009.htm Encyclical] on St. Anselm, containing many quotes from St. Anselm's Letters
[[Category:Archbishops of Canterbury|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Benedictines]]
[[Category:British philosophers|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Catholic philosophers|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Christian philosophers|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:English theologians|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Medieval literature|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Medieval philosophers|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Saints|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Scholastic philosophers|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Theologians|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:1033 births|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:1109 deaths|Anselm of Canterbury]]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Lanfranc]]| title=[[Archbishop of Canterbury]] | after=[[Ralph d'Escures]] | years=1093&ndash;1109}}
{{end box}}
* {{1911}}
[[cs:Anselm z Canterbury]]
[[de:Anselm von Canterbury]]
[[es:Anselmo de Canterbury]]
[[fr:Anselme de Cantorbéry]]
[[gl:Anselmo de Canterbury]]
[[ko:안셀무스]]
[[it:Anselmo d'Aosta]]
[[he:אנסלם מקנטרברי]]
[[ka:ანსელმ კენტერბერიელი]]
[[lt:Anzelmas Kenterberietis]]
[[nl:Anselmus van Canterbury]]
[[ja:アンセルムス]]
[[no:Anselm av Canterbury]]
[[pl:Anzelm z Canterbury]]
[[pt:Anselmo de Cantuária]]
[[ro:Anselm de Canterbury]]
[[ru:Ансельм Кентерберийский]]
[[sk:Anselm z Canterbury]]
[[sv:Anselm av Canterbury]]
[[uk:Ансельм Кентерберійський]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>African Hunting Dog</title>
<id>2200</id>
<revision>
<id>37287072</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-30T00:51:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Gdrbot</username>
<id>263608</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = African Hunting Dog
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = african_wild_dog.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Canidae]]
| genus = '''''Lycaon'''''
| genus_authority = [[Joshua Brookes|Brookes]], 1827
| species = '''''L. pictus'''''
| binomial = ''Lycaon pictus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], [[1820]])
}}
The '''African Hunting Dog''' (''Lycaon pictus''), also called '''African Wild Dog''', is a mammal of the [[Canidae]] family, and thus related to the domestic [[dog]]. It is the only [[species]] in its [[genus]], '''''Lycaon'''''. They are, as their name indicates, found only in [[Africa]], especially in scrub [[savanna]] and other lightly wooded areas. The Latin name of the species means ''painted wolf'' and it is characteristic of the species that no two individuals have the same pattern of coat.
[[Image:Lightmatter African painted dog.jpg|thumb|left|An African Hunting Dog gnawing on a bone]]
African Hunting Dogs hunt in packs. Their main prey are [[impala]] and similar medium sized [[ungulate]]s. They're known for their stamina and for bein |
tistics show Singapore as the largest point of origin of imports, accounting for 25% in 1997. However, this figure includes some transshipments, since most of Brunei's imports transit Singapore. Japan and Malaysia were the second-largest suppliers. As in many other countries, Japanese products dominate local markets for motor vehicles, construction equipment, electronic goods, and household appliances. The United States was the third-largest supplier of imports to Brunei in 1998.
Brunei's substantial foreign reserves are managed by the Brunei Investment Agency (BIA), an arm of the Ministry of Finance. BIA's guiding principle is to increase the real value of Brunei's foreign reserves while pursuing a diverse investment strategy, with holdings in the United States, Japan, western Europe, and the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries.
The Brunei Government actively encourages more foreign investment. New enterprises that meet certain criteria can receive pioneer status, exempting profits from income tax for up to 5 years, depending on the amount of capital invested. The normal corporate income tax rate is 30%. There is no personal income tax or capital gains tax.
One of the government's most important priorities is to encourage the development of Brunei Malays as leaders of industry and commerce. There are no specific restrictions of foreign equity ownership, but local participation, both shared capital and management, is encouraged. Such participation helps when tendering for contracts with the government or Brunei Shell Petroleum.
Companies in Brunei must either be incorporated locally or registered as a branch of a foreign company and must be registered with the Registrar of Companies. Public companies must have a minimum of seven shareholders. Private companies must have a minimum of two but not more than 50 shareholders. At least half of the directors in a company must be residents of Brunei.
The government owns a cattle farm in Australia that supplies most of the country's beef. At 2,262 square miles (5,859 km&sup2;), this ranch is larger than Brunei itself. Eggs and chickens are largely produced locally, but most of Brunei's other food needs must be imported. Agriculture and fisheries are among the industrial sectors that the government has selected for highest priority in its efforts to diversify the economy.
Recently the government has announced plans for Brunei to become an International Offshore Financial Center as well as a Center for Islamic Banking. Brunei is keen on the development of Small and Medium Enterprises and also is investigating the possibility of establishing a "cyber park" to develop an information technology industry. Brunei also hopes to foster tourism through its "Visit Brunei 2001" campaign.
'''Economy - overview:'''
This small, wealthy economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation and welfare measures, and village tradition. It is almost totally supported by exports of crude oil and natural gas, with revenues from the petroleum sector accounting for over half of GDP. Per capita GDP is far above most other [[Third World]] countries, and substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all medical services and subsidizes food and housing. The government has shown progress in its basic policy of diversifying the economy away from oil and gas. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion although it has taken steps to become a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum. Growth in 1999 is estimated at 2.5% due to higher oil prices in the second half.
==See also==
*[[Brunei]]
{{APEC}}
{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Brunei]]
[[Category:Brunei]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Brunei]]
[[Category:Economy of Brunei]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communications in Brunei</title>
<id>3662</id>
<revision>
<id>29726834</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-30T20:38:23Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Tedernst</username>
<id>3700</id>
</contributor>
<comment>disambiguation link repair [[broadcast]] ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
90,000 (2002)
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
57,000 (1998)
'''Mobile Subscribers'''
177,300 (2003E)
'''Telephone system:'''
service throughout country is excellent; international service good to [[Europe]], [[United States|US]], and [[East Asia]]
<br>''domestic:''
NA
<br>''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] (1 [[Indian Ocean]] and 1 [[Pacific Ocean]]); digital submarine [[cable]] links to [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], and the [[Philippines]]
'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 3, FM 10, shortwave 0 (1998)
'''Radios:'''
362,712 (2000)
'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
2 (1997)
'''Televisions:'''
216,223 (2000)
'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
2 (2003) : Brunet (part of Jabatan Telekom Brunei) and Simpurnet of DSTCom
'''[[Country code]]:''' BN
:''See also :'' [[Brunei]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Brunei]]
[[Category:Brunei]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Transportation in Brunei</title>
<id>3663</id>
<revision>
<id>35668975</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-18T12:41:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Novelty</username>
<id>610535</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Railway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
13 km (private line)
<br>''narrow gauge:''
13 km 0.610-m gauge
'''[[Highway]]s:'''
<br>''total:''
1,150 km
<br>''paved:''
399 km
<br>''unpaved:''
751 km (1996 est.)
'''Waterways:'''
209 km; navigable by craft drawing less than 1.2 m
'''[[Pipeline]]s:'''
[[crude oil]] 135 km; [[petroleum]] products 418 km; [[natural gas]] 920 km
'''Ports and harbors:'''
[[Bandar Seri Begawan]], [[Kuala Belait]], [[Muara]], [[Seria]], [[Tutong (city)|Tutong]]
'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
<br>''total:''
7 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 348,476 GRT/340,635 DWT
<br>''ships by type:''
liquified gas 7 (1999 est.)
'''[[Airport]]s:'''
2 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
1
<br>''over 3,047 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
<br>''total:''
1
<br>''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (1999 est.)
'''National airline''':
*[[Royal Brunei]]
'''[[Heliport]]s:'''
3 (1999 est.)
:''See also :'' [[Brunei]]
[[Category:Brunei]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Brunei]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Military of Brunei</title>
<id>3664</id>
<revision>
<id>21057903</id>
<timestamp>2005-08-15T11:26:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Hammersfan</username>
<id>64883</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">The Sultan is both Minister of Defense and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces (RBAF). All servicement in the [[Brunei Army]], [[Royal Brunei Navy]], and [[Royal Brunei Air Force]] units are made up of volunteers. There are two infantry brigades, equipped with armored reconnaissance vehicles and armored personnel carriers and supported by Rapier air defense missiles and a flotilla of coastal patrol vessels armed with surface-to-surface missiles.
Brunei has a defense agreement with the United Kingdom, under which a battalion of the [[Royal Gurkha Rifles]] is permanently stationed in Seria, near the centre of Brunei's oil industry. The RBAF has joint exercises, training programs, and other military cooperation with the United Kingdom and many other countries, including the United States.
'''Military branches:'''
Land Forces, Navy, Air Force, Royal Brunei Police
'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age
'''Military manpower - availability:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
104,447 (2000 est.)
'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
<br>''males age 15-49:''
60,395 (2000 est.)
'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
<br>''males:''
2,957 (2000 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$343 million (FY98)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
5.1% (FY98)
==References and Links==
*[[Brunei]]
[[Category:Military of Brunei|*]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Brunei</title>
<id>3665</id>
<revision>
<id>42051892</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T13:43:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>58.105.43.244</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Brunei}}
[[Brunei]] joined [[ASEAN]] on [[January 7]] [[1984]]--1 week after resuming full independence --and gives its ASEAN membership the highest priority in its foreign relations. Brunei joined the [[UN]] in September 1984. It also is a member of the [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC) and of the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) forum. Brunei hosted the APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting in November 2000. In 2005 it attended the inaugural [[East Asia Summit]].
'''Disputes - international:'''
possibly involved in a complex dispute over the [[Spratly Islands]] with the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Malaysia]], [[Philippines]], [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]], and [[Vietnam]]; in 1984, Brunei established an exclusive fishing zone that encompasses Louisa Reef in the southern Spratly Islands, but has not publicly claimed the island
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Brunei, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bulgaria/History</title>
<id>3667</id>
<revision>
< |
are. Iodine vapor is very irritating to the [[eye]] and to mucous membranes. Concentration of iodine in the air should not exceed 1 [[milligram|mg]]/[[cubic metre|m³]] (eight-hour time-weighted average).
== Compounds ==
*[[Ammonium iodide]] (NH<sub>4</sub>I)
*[[Caesium iodide]] (CsI)
*[[Copper(I) iodide]] (CuI)
*[[Hydroiodic acid]] (HI)
*[[Iodic acid]] (HIO<sub>3</sub>)
*[[Iodine cyanide]] (ICN)
*[[Iodine heptafluoride]] (IF<sub>7</sub>)
*[[Iodine pentafluoride]] (IF<sub>5</sub>)
*[[Lead(II) iodide]] (PbI<sub>2</sub>)
*[[Lithium iodide]] (LiI)
*[[Nitrogen triiodide]] (NI<sub>3</sub>)
*[[Potassium iodide]] (KI)
*[[Sodium iodide]] (NaI)
''See also [[:category:Iodine compounds]]''
==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/53.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Iodine]
== External links ==
{{Commons|Iodine}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/I/index.html WebElements.com - Iodine]
*[http://www.chemicalelements.com/elements/i.html ChemicalElements.com - Iodine]
*[http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241592001.pdf who.int - WHO Global Database on Iodine Deficiency]
*[http://www.iodinenetwork.net Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency]
== See also ==
* [[Iodized salt]]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Halogens]]
[[Category:Antiseptics]]
[[Category:Staining dyes]]
[[ca:Iode]]
[[cs:Jód]]
[[da:Jod]]
[[de:Iod]]
[[et:Jood]]
[[es:Yodo]]
[[eo:Jodo]]
[[fa:ید]]
[[fr:Iode]]
[[ko:아이오딘]]
[[io:Iodo]]
[[is:Joð]]
[[it:Iodio]]
[[he:יוד]]
[[lv:Jods]]
[[lt:Jodas]]
[[hu:Jód]]
[[nl:Jodium]]
[[ja:ヨウ素]]
[[no:Jod]]
[[oc:Iòde]]
[[pl:Jod]]
[[pt:Iodo]]
[[ru:Иод]]
[[sl:Jod]]
[[sr:Јод]]
[[fi:Jodi]]
[[sv:Jod]]
[[th:ไอโอดีน]]
[[uk:Йод]]
[[zh:碘]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>IKEA</title>
<id>14751</id>
<revision>
<id>41998949</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T03:16:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.189.83.210</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Community impact */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company|
company_name = IKEA International Group|
company_logo = [[Image:Ikea.gif]]|
company_type = [[Private company|Private]]|
foundation = [[1943]] in [[Älmhult Municipality|Älmhult]], [[Småland]], [[Sweden]]|
location = [[Delft]], [[South Holland]], [[The Netherlands]] |
key_people = • [[Ingvar Kamprad]], Founder<br />• [[Anders Dahlvig]], [[President]]<br />• [[Hans Gydell]], [[Vice President|VP]]|
industry = [[Retailer|Retail (Specialty)]]|
products = [[self-assembly furniture]], [[#Products|See section on products]]|
revenue = $15.425B [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[Image:green up.png]] 24%) ([[Fiscal year|FY]] [[2004]])|
num_employees = 84,000 ([[2004]])|
homepage = [http://www.ikea.com/ www.ikea.com]|
}}
'''IKEA''' is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] home [[furniture|furnishings]] [[retailer]]. It has 229 stores in 33 [[country|countries]], most of them in [[Europe]], the rest in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Asia]] and [[Australia]]. More than 20 opened during [[2005]]. IKEA is one of the few store chains to have locations both in [[Israel]] and in other [[Middle East]]ern nations.
IKEA is generally pronounced ([[IPA chart for English|IPA]] {{IPA|/i'ke.a/}}) but in many English-speaking regions, it is pronounced (IPA {{IPA|/a&#618;'ki:ə/}}) rhyming with the word "idea".
The IKEA [[Catalog|catalogue]], containing about 12,000 products, is printed in 160 million copies (2006) worldwide, and distributed free of charge. {{ref|Catalogue}}
IKEA is famous for its affordable furniture which consumers are required to assemble for themselves.
== History ==
[[Image:IKEA Map.PNG|right|275px|thumb|A map of the countries that have IKEA stores {{ref|Map}}]]
IKEA was founded in [[1943]] by [[Ingvar Kamprad]], then 17. The company name is a composite of the first letters in his name and the names of the property and the village in which he grew up: Ingvar Kamprad Elmtaryd Agunnaryd. This acronym is incidentally similar to the [[Greek language|Greek]] word οικία [''oikia''] (home) and to the [[finnish language|Finnish]] word oikea (correct).
Originally, IKEA sold [[pen]]s, [[wallet]]s, [[picture frame]]s, [[Furniture#table|table]] runners, [[watch]]es, [[Jewellery|jewelry]] and [[nylon]] [[stockings]] or practically anything Kamprad found a need for that he could fill with a product at a reduced price. [[Furniture]] was first added to the IKEA product range in [[1947]] and, in [[1955]], IKEA began to design its own furniture. The company motto is: "Well designed affordable quality furniture to the many people".
At first, Kamprad sold his goods out of his home and by [[mail order]], but eventually a store was opened in the nearby town of [[Älmhult Municipality|Älmhult]]. It was also the location for the first IKEA "warehouse" store which came to serve as a model for IKEA establishments elsewhere and on [[March 23]], [[1963]], the first store outside Sweden was opened in [[Asker]], a [[Norway|Norwegian]] municipality outside [[Oslo]]. (The store was located in the same building which houses the Bellevue hotel, about two [[Kilometre|km]] from the present site at Billingstad/Slependen, which opened in [[1975]]. The store in Asker is currently undergoing a major expansion and remodeling.)
== Products ==
IKEA furniture is well known for its modern (often unusual) [[design]]. Also, because much of it is [[self-assembly furniture]] (also known as "flat-pack"), it is designed to be assembled by the consumer rather than being sold pre-assembled. IKEA claims this permits them to reduce costs and use of packaging by not [[shipping]] [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]&mdash;the [[volume]] of a bookcase, for example, is considerably less if it is shipped unassembled rather than assembled.
[[Image:SWE Ikea.jpg|thumb|left|300px|IKEA in Kungens Kurva, just south of Stockholm, Sweden]]
IKEA also claims to have pioneered the use of more sustainable approaches to mass [[Consumerism|consumer culture]]. Its founder calls it "democratic design," meaning that the company applies an integrated approach to [[manufacturing]] and [[design]] (see also [[environmental design]]). Responding to the explosion of human population&mdash;and material expectations&mdash;in the [[20th century]], the company has mastered [[economies of scale]], capturing material streams and creating manufacturing processes that hold costs and resource use down, such as the extensive use of [[particle board]]. The intended result is flexible, adaptable home furnishings, scaleable both to larger homes and smaller dwellings.
IKEA has also expanded their product base to include flat-pack houses, in an effort to cut prices involved in a first-time buyer's home. The product, named [http://www.boklok.com/ BoKlok] was launched in Sweden in [[1996]] in a joint venture with [[Skanska]]. Now working in the Nordic countries and in UK, sites confirmed in [[England]] include London, [[Manchester]], [[Leeds]] and [[Liverpool]]. [http://shopping.guardian.co.uk/household/story/0,1587,1403793,00.html]
Every IKEA product is identified by a name, either [[Swedish language|Swedish]] in origin or Swedish-sounding. Most names have an [[etymology]] regarding their function or appearance {{De icon}} [http://www.stern.de/wirtschaft/unternehmen/index.html?eid=504885&id=506948&nv=ex_rt]:
* ''Upholstered furniture, coffee tables, rattan furniture, bookshelves, media storage, doorknobs'': Swedish placenames
* ''Beds, wardrobes, hall furniture'': Norwegian placenames
* ''Dining tables and chairs'': Finnish placenames
* ''Bookcase ranges'': Occupations
* ''Bathroom articles'': Scandinavian lakes, rivers and bays
* ''Kitchens'': grammatical terms, sometimes also other names
* ''Chairs, desks'': men’s names
* ''Materials, curtains'': women’s names
* ''Garden furniture'': Swedish islands
* ''Carpets'': Danish placenames
* ''Lighting'': terms from music, chemistry, meteorology, measures, weights, seasons, months, days, boats, sailors’ language
* ''Bedlinen, bedcovers, pillows/cushions'': flowers, plants, precious stones
* ''Children’s items'': mammals, birds, adjectives
* ''Curtain accessories'': mathematical and geometrical terms
* ''Kitchen utensils'': foreign words, spices, herbs, fish, mushrooms, fruits or berries, functional descriptions
* ''Boxes, wall decoration, pictures and frames, clocks'': colloquial expressions, also Swedish placenames
For example, ''AKTION'' is a name for a pepper mill, ''DINERA'' for tableware, ''KASSETT'' for media storage. The entire office furniture line is named ''EFFEKTIV''.
Company founder Ingvar Kamprad, who is [[dyslexia|dyslexic]], found that naming the furniture with a name, rather than a product code, made the names easier to remember.
== Community impact ==
IKEA's goals of sustainability and environmental design in their merchandise may be trumped by the impact a new IKEA store can have on a community:
Like all [[big-box store]]s, IKEA stores draw consumers from a very large area. Although they were in the [[United States|U.S.]] before the United Kingdom and other European countries, IKEA had very few stores until recently. Because they have few stores, they often drew consumers from out-of-state. The handful of American cities which accepted IKEA stores were delighted by the subsequent surge in [[sales tax]] revenue, yet dismayed at the accompanying surge in [[traffic congestion]].
[[Image:Ikea-stern.jpg|thumb|right|300px|IKEA Barkarby]]
For example, when an IKEA opened in [[April 2000]] in [[Emeryville, California|Emeryville]], [[California]], the traffic was so severe that most local [[traffic light]]s were rendered useless. Emeryville police were forced to manually direct traffic daily for three months. When an IKEA opened in [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [ |
ion in the academic world. Josep Calveras used it for the first time in 1925, in his work ''La reconstrucció del llenguatge literari català'': «"Catalan-Valencian-Balear" would be the proper name that would satisfy everyone, if it were not because it is too long and the philologists are used to say briefly: Catalan language». The official dictionary of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans has the title ''Diccionari català-valencià-balear''.--[[User:Periku|Periku]] 10:04, [[27 October]] [[2005]] (UTC) -->
|nation=[[Andorra]]; [[Catalonia]], [[Balearic Islands]], [[Land of Valencia|Valencia]] in [[Spain]]
|agency=[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]]<br>[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]
|iso1=ca|iso2=cat|lc1=cat|ld1=Catalan|ll1=Catalan language}}
{{Catalan-speaking world|align=right}}
'''Catalan''' (''Català'') or '''Valencian''' (''Valencià'') is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]], the national language of [[Andorra]] and co-official in several regions of [[Spain]]. Spain has the majority of active Catalan speakers, and Catalan is the country's second most widely spoken language. It is spoken or understood by as many as 12 million people who live not only in Andorra and Spain, but also in parts of [[France]] and [[Italy]].
==Classification==
According to the [[Ethnologue]], its specific classification is a member of the [[East Iberian languages|East Iberian]] branch of the [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance]] branch of the [[Gallo-Iberian languages|Gallo-Iberian]] branch of the [[Western Italo-Western|Western]] sub complex of the [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] complex of the [[Romance languages|Romance]] group of the [[Italic languages|Italic]] branch of the [[Indo-European]] [[language family]]. It shares many features with both [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[French language|French]], and is the language nearest to [[Occitan]], and is often thought of as a sort of "transitory" language between the [[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian]] and [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallic languages]] when comparing the modern descendants of [[Latin]].
==Geographic distribution==
[[Image:Catalan in Europe.png|thumb|right|Catalan in Europe]]
{{main|Catalan countries}}
Catalan is spoken in:
*[[Catalonia]] in [[Spain]].
*[[La Franja|An adjacent strip]] of [[Aragon]], [[Spain]], in particular the ''comarques'' of Baixa [[Ribagorça]], [[Llitera]], [[Baix Cinca]], and [[Matarranya]].
*[[Balearic Islands]] in [[Spain]].
*[[Andorra]].
*Part of the [[Land of Valencia]] in [[Spain]]. (where is called [[valencian]])
*[[Northern Catalonia]] in [[France]].
*The city of [[Alghero]] (''l'Alguer'') on [[Sardinia]], an island in [[Italy]].
*A small region in [[Murcia (autonomous community)|Murcia]], Spain, known as ''el Carche'' in [[Spanish language|Castilian]] and ''el Carxe'' in Catalan.
All these areas are informally called [[Catalan countries]] (Catalan ''Països Catalans''), a denomination based originally on cultural affinity and common heritage, that some have subsequently interpreted politically.
===Official status===
Catalan is the official language of [[Andorra]]. It is co-official in the Spanish regions of [[Catalonia]], the [[Balearic Islands]], and [[Land of Valencia|Valencia]]. It has no official status in the parts of [[Aragon]] where it is spoken, but has gained some recognition by Aragonese laws since 1990. It has no official status in the other places where it is spoken.
=== Number of Catalan speakers ===
==== Territories where Catalan is official ====
{| style="margin: 0 0 0.5em 1.4em; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;" border=1
|- style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;"
|Region
|Understands
|Can speak
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
|[[Catalonia]] ([[Spain]])
| align="right" |5,837,874
| align="right" |4,602,611
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
|[[Land of Valencia]] ([[Spain]])
| align="right" |3,512,236
| align="right" |1,972,922
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
|[[Balearic Islands]] ([[Spain]])
| align="right" |733,466
| align="right" |504,349
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
|[[Andorra]]
| align="right" |62,381
| align="right" |49,519
|- style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"
|'''TOTAL'''
| align="right" |'''10,145,957'''
| align="right" |'''7,129,401'''
|}
==== Other territories ====
{| style="margin: 0 0 0.5em 1.4em; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;" border=1
|- style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;"
|Region
|Understands
|Can speak
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
|[[Alghero]] ([[Sardinia]], [[Italy]])
| align="right" |20,000
| align="right" |17,625
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
|[[Roussillon]] ([[France]])
| align="right" |203,121
| align="right" |125,622
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
|[[Franja de Ponent|Aragonese Fringe]] ([[Spain]])
| align="right" |47,250
| align="right" |45,000
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
|[[Carxe]] ([[Murcia]], [[Spain]])
| align="right" |No data
| align="right" |No data
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
|Rest of World
| align="right" |No data
| align="right" |350,000
|- style="background-color:#FFFFFF;"
|'''TOTAL'''
| align="right" |'''270,371'''
| align="right" |'''538,247'''
|}
==== World ====
{| style="margin: 0 0 0.5em 1.4em; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;" border=1
|- style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;"
|Region
|Understands
|Can speak
|- style="background-color:#CCCCCC;"
|[[Catalan Countries]] ([[Europe]])
| align="right" |10,416,328
| align="right" |7,317,648
|- style="background-color:#E4E4E4;"
|Rest of World
| align="right" |No data
| align="right" |350,000
|-
|'''TOTAL'''
| align="right" |'''10,416,328'''
| align="right" |'''7,667,648'''
|}
<small>'''''Notes:''''' The number of people who understand Catalan includes those who can speak it.</small>
<small>'''''Sources:''''' '''Catalonia''':
Statistic data of 2001 census, from ''Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya, Generalitat catalana'' [http://www.idescat.net/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&V0=3&V1=3&V3=876&V4=17&ALLINFO=TRUE&PARENT=1&CTX=B]. '''Land of Valencia''': Statistical data from 2001 census, from ''Institut Valencià d'Estadística, Generalitat Valenciana'' [http://ive.infocentre.gva.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/cvcifras/2004/val/cvx2004_02.pdf]. '''Balearic Islands''': Statistical data from 2001 census, from ''Institut Balear d'Estadística, Govern de les Illes Balears'' [http://www.caib.es/ibae/demo/catala/t2.htm]. '''Northern Catalonia''': ''Media Pluriel'' Survey commissioned by Prefecture of [[Languedoc-Roussillon Region]] done in October 1997 and published in January 1998 [http://www.linmiter.net/information_catalan.html]. '''Andorra''':
Sociolinguistic data from Andorran Government, 1999 [http://www.catala.ad/CatalaAnd/DadSocLin.htm]. '''Aragon''': Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/catala/an/e19/e19.html]. '''Alguer''': Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/homect/index2.html]. '''Rest of World''': Estimate for 1999 by the ''Federació d'Entitats Catalanes'' outside the Catalan Countries.</small>
==Dialects==
[[Image:Dialectal_map_of_Catalan_Language.png|thumb|right|250px|Dialectal Map of Catalan Language]]In 1861, [[Manuel Milà i Fontanals]] proposed a dialectal division of Catalan in two major blocks: [[Eastern Catalan]] and [[Western Catalan]].
There is no precise linguistic border between one dialect and another because there is nearly always a dialect transition zone of some size between pairs of geographically identified dialects, (except for dialects specific to an island). The main difference between both blocks is:
*'''Western Catalan''' (''Bloc o Branca del Català Occidental''):
**Unstressed vowels: {{IPA|[a] [e] [i] [o] [u]}}. Distinctions between ''e'' and ''a'' and ''o'' and ''u''.
**Initial or <!-- this next word is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --> post-consonatic ''x'' is affricate {{IPA|/tʃ/}}. Between vowels or <!-- this next pair of words is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --> final preceded of ''i'', {{IPA|/jʃ/}}.
**<!-- this next phrase is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --> 1st person of Indicative's present desinence is -e or -o.
**<!-- this next word is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --> Inchoative in -ix, -ixen, -isca
**Maintenance of medieval nasal plural in <!-- this next word is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --> proparoxiton words: hòmens, jóvens
**Specific Vocabulary: espill, xiquet, granera, melic...
*'''Eastern Catalan''' (''Bloc o Branca del Català Oriental''):
**Unstressed vowels {{IPA|[ə] [i] [u]}}. The unstressed vowels ''e'' and ''a'' becomes /ə/ and ''o'' and ''u'' becomes /u/.
**Initial or <!-- this next word is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --& |
(Ed Bahr, trombone, euphonium, tuba)
*[[Eastman School of Music]] (Mark Kellogg, trombone and euphonium)
*[[Florida State University]] (Paul Ebbers, tuba and euphonium)
*[[George Mason University]] (Roger Behrend, euphonium)
*[[Indiana University]] (Dan Perantoni, tuba)
*[[James Madison University]] (Kevin Stees, tuba)
*[[Louisiana State University]] (Joe Skillen, tuba)
*[[Michigan State University]] (Philip Sinder, tuba)
*[[University of Georgia]] (David Zerkel, tuba)
*[[University of Michigan]] (Fritz Kaenzig, tuba)
*[[University of Kansas]] (Scott Watson, tuba)
*[[University of North Texas]] (Brian Bowman, euphonium)
*[[Ball State University]] (Mark Mordue, tuba)
*[[Tennessee Technological University]] (R. Winston Morris, tuba and euphonium)
==Lists of important players==
The euphonium world is and has been more crowded than is commonly thought, and there have been many noteworthy players throughout the instrument's history. This list is not intended to be exhaustive, but gives an idea of some of the major names in euphonium playing, divided into three categories: great players of the present, great players of the past, and some "up-and-coming" younger players.
'''Today's premiere players'''
These are some of the most universally respected and influential euphonium players and teachers today in the world today.
*[http://www.navyband.navy.mil/MUCMRBehrend.htm Roger Behrend], soloist with the [http://www.navyband.navy.mil/ U.S. Navy Band] and professor of euphonium at [[George Mason University]] [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/music/]
*[http://www.music.unt.edu/bio/bowman.shtml Dr. Brian Bowman], former soloist with the U.S. Navy Band (1971-75) and [http://usafband.com/ U.S. Air Force Band] (1976-91); now professor of euphonium at the [[University of North Texas]] [http://www.music.unt.edu]
*[http://www.marineband.usmc.mil/who_we_are/members/popups/euphonium.htm Phil Franke], principal euphonium of [http://marineband.usmc.mil "The President's Own" United States Marine Band]
*[http://www.blackdykeband.co.uk/bdb/2003/mtb/mtbmain.htm Dr. Nicholas Childs] Welsh soloist, Director of the [http://www.blackdykeband.co.uk/bdb/2003/index.htm Black Dyke Band] in England
*Dr. Robert Childs, brother of Dr. Nicholas Childs, former soloist with the Black Dyke Band; now Director of Brass Bands at the Royal Welsh College of Music
*[http://www.tormodflaten.com/ Tormod Flaten], principal player with the European brass band [http://www.ebml.no Eikanger-Bjørsvik]
*Angie Hunter, teacher at the German Bible Institute in Koenigsfeld, Germany
*[http://homepage.mac.com/akihiko_ito/en/member/sho.html Shoichiro Hokazono], soloist with the Central Band of the Japanese Air Self-Defense Force
*[http://www.euphonium.net/ Steven Mead], English euphonium soloist and professor at the [http://www.rncm.ac.uk Royal Northern College of Music]
*[http://homepage.mac.com/akihiko_ito/en/member/toru.html Toru Miura], professor of euphonium at the [http://www.kunitachi.ac.jp/ Kunitachi College of Music]; soloist and clinician
*[http://www.euphonium.com/IEIJukka.html Jukka Myllys], Finnish soloist and clinician; trombonist with the [http://www.oulusinfonia.fi/english/ Oulu Symphony Orchestra]
*[http://www.uscg.mil/band/Bios/cgbandvinson.html Danny Vinson], current soloist with the U.S. Coast Guard Band (since 1984) and instructor of euphonium at the [http://www.music.uconn.edu/ University of Connecticut]
*[http://www.dwerden.com/bio-dw.cfm David Werden], former soloist with the [http://www.uscg.mil/band/ U.S. Coast Guard Band]; now adjunct professor of tuba and euphonium at the [[University of Minnesota]] [http://www.music.umn.edu]
'''Important players of the past'''
These are players who have died or retired from regular playing and teaching who have had a profound impact on euphonium playing today through their influence on playing style, development of the instrument itself, or through their students who went on to major success in their own right. Many of today's top players can trace their "teaching ancestry" back to one or more of these people.
*Harold Brasch (deceased), former soloist with the U.S. Navy Band; responsible for introducing the modern British-style compensating euphonium into the U.S. military service bands c. 1939
*John "Buddy" Burroughs (deceased), former player with the [http://www.marineband.usmc.mil/ "The President's Own" U.S. Marine Band] (1935-66); known for his vast music collection
*Dr. Paul Droste, retired professor and marching band director at the [[Ohio State University]]
*Leonard Falcone (deceased), Italian-American soloist and longtime director of bands at [[Michigan State University]]
*Arthur Lehman, former soloist with the [http://www.marineband.usmc.mil/ U.S. Marine Band] (1947-71)
*Earl Louder, former soloist with the U.S. Navy Band (1956-68), retired professor at [http://www.morehead-st.edu/music/ Morehead State University] (1968-96); now soloist with the [http://www.newsousaband.com/ New Sousa Band] and guest soloist with many other groups
*Simone Mantia (deceased), euphonium soloist with the John Philip Sousa Band (1896-1903)
*[[Rich Matteson]][http://www.jazzprofessional.com/interviews/Rich%20Matteson.htm] (deceased), groundbreaking jazz euphonium player, longtime faculty member at the [[University of North Texas ]], and founding member of the Modern Jazz Tuba Project
*Joseph M. Raffayola (deceased), former player with the John Philip Sousa Band (1892-1903)
*John Perfetto (deceased), former player with the John Philip Sousa Band (1904-21)
*Raymond Young (deceased), former professor of low brass and director of bands at the [[University of Southern Mississippi]]
'''Younger players'''
Finally, here are some of the new generation of euphonium players (roughly 35 and younger) who have already carved an important place for themselves in the euphonium world, either through teaching, releasing recordings, giving masterclasses, or appearing as a featured soloist.
*[http://www.davechilds.com/ David Childs], 24-year-old Welsh soloist, son of Dr. Robert Childs
*[http://www.uelikipfer.ch/ Ueli Kipfer], Swiss euphonium solist, conductor, teacher and clinician
*[http://www.marineband.usmc.mil/who_we_are/members/popups/euphonium.htm Matt Summers], euphoniumist (1997-present) with [http://marineband.usmc.mil "The President's Own" United States Marine Band].
*[http://www.euphonium.com/ Adam Frey], Atlanta-based soloist, clinician, and teacher; affiliate at [[Emory University]] [http://music.emory.edu] and adjunct professor at [[Georgia State University]] [http://www.music.gsu.edu]
*[http://www.jasondham.com/ Jason Ham], New York-based Euphonium Soloist & Teacher, member of the United States Military Academy Band, West Point, New York
*[http://www.matthewmurchison.com/ Matthew Murchison], member of the [http://www.rcbb.com/ River City Brass Band] and soloist
*[http://www.benpierce.com/ Dr. Benjamin Pierce], professor of tuba and euphonium at the [[University of Arkansas]] [http://www.uark.edu/depts/uamusic/]
*[http://www.patstuckemeyer.com/ Pat Stuckemeyer], one of the youngest soloists on the instrument, with educational articles and media available on his website
*[http://www.davidthornton.eu.com/ David Thornton], current soloist with the Black Dyke Mills Band in England
*[http://www.music.ua.edu/people/showperson.html?id=5 Demondrae Thurman], assistant professor of tuba and euphonium at the [[University of Alabama]] and founding member of the [http://www.tubaquartet.com/ Sotto Voce Tuba Quartet]
*[http://www.emich.edu/music/html/tropman.html Matthew Tropman], former soloist with the [http://www.marineband.usmc.mil/ U.S. Marine Band]; now adjunct professor of tuba and euphonium at [[Eastern Michigan University]] [http://www.emich.edu/music/] and Executive Director of the [http://www.bbbc.net/index.htm Brass Band of Battle Creek]
==Important literature==
These are some of the major works of the original euphonium repertoire, divided into three rough categories of difficulty: solos that would be appropriate for high schoolers, solos at the undergraduate college level, and solos that probably are appropriate only for graduate-level or professional players.
'''High school''':
*J. Edouard Barat, ''Introduction and Dance'' and ''Morceau de Concours''
*[http://www.curnowmusicpress.com/jamescurnow.htm James Curnow], ''Rhapsody''
*Joseph Deluca, ''Beautiful Colorado''
*Donald Haddad, ''Suite for Baritone''
*D. Warner Hutchison, ''Sonatina''
*Donald White, ''Lyric Suite''
'''Undergraduate''':
*Fred Clinard, Jr., ''Sonata'' (unaccompanied)
*[[Gordon Jacob]], ''Fantasia''
*Joseph Horovitz, ''Concerto''
*Simone Mantia, ''Fantasia Originale'' and ''Believe Me, If All Those Endearing Young Charms''
*Philip Sparke, ''Fantasy'', ''Song for Ina'', ''Pantomime'' and ''Party Piece''
'''Graduate/Professional''':
*[[Samuel Adler (composer)|Samuel Adler]], ''Four Dialogues for Euphonium and Marimba''
*Jan Bach, ''Concert Variations''
*Arthur Butterworth, ''Partita''
*Vladimir Cosma, ''Concerto'' (with orchestra)
*[http://www.curnowmusicpress.com/jamescurnow.htm James Curnow], [http://www.curnowmusicpress.com/CMPMusicLow/James%20Curnow/Symphonic%20Variants.mp3 ''Symphonic Variants for Euphonium and Band'']
*Martin Ellerby, ''Concerto''
*David Gillingham, ''Blue Lake Fantasies'' (unaccompanied) and ''Vintage''
*John Golland, ''Concertos'' nos. 1 and 2
*[[Amilcare Ponchielli]], ''Concerto per Flicorno Basso''
*Philip Sparke, ''Concerto''
*John Stevens, ''Soliloquies''
*Roland Szentpali, ''Pearls''
Because the repertoire for euphonium is somewhat limited in scope and historical depth, euphoniumists often play transcriptions of literature written for other instruments, including [[cornet]], [[trombone]], [[bassoon]], [[Voice_instrumental_music|voice]], and [[cello]]. These pieces may be transposed for the sake of range or key, they may be simplified technically, or they may |
the club, and the Arsenal Independent Supporters' Association, which maintains an independent line. The club's supporters also publish [[fanzine]]s such as ''The Gooner'', ''Highbury High'', ''Gunflash'' and the less cerebral ''Up The Arse!'' In addition to the usual English [[football chant]]s, Arsenal's supporters sing "One-Nil to the Arsenal" (to the tune of "[[Go West]]") and "Boring, Boring Arsenal", which used to be a common taunt from opposition fans but is now sung ironically by Arsenal supporters when the team is playing well.
In recent times, a supporter's attachment to a football club has become less dependent on geography, so Arsenal now have many fans not just from London but all over England and indeed the world. While there have always been small pockets of supporters abroad, Arsenal's support base has widened considerably with the advent of [[satellite television]], and there are now significant supporters' clubs in [[Scandinavia]], [[South East Asia|South East]] and [[East Asia]] and the [[United States]]. A 2005 report by Granada Ventures, which owns a 9.9% stake in the club, estimated Arsenal's global fanbase at 27 million, the third largest in the world.{{ref|fanbase}}
Arsenal's longest-running and deepest rivalry is with their nearest major neighbour, [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]], with matches between the two being referred to as [[North London derby|North London derbies]]. Matches against other London sides, such as [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] and [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]] are also [[derby match|derbies]], but the rivalry is not as intense as that between Arsenal and Tottenham. In addition, Arsenal and [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] have had a strong on-pitch rivalry since the late 1980s, which has intensified in recent years when both clubs have been competing for the Premier League title.
==Ownership==
Arsenal's parent company, Arsenal Holdings, operates as a [[public limited company]]. However, Arsenal's ownership is considerably different from that of other football clubs. Only 62,000 shares in Arsenal have been issued, and they are not traded on a public exchange such as the [[FTSE]] or [[AIM]]; instead, they are traded infrequently on [[OFEX]], a specialist market. As of December 2005, Arsenal's [[market capitalization]] value is £290m, and the club made a [[corporation tax|pre-tax]] [[profit]] of £19.3m in the 2004-05 [[financial year]].{{ref|ofex}}
Currently, the club's largest shareholders are Danny Fiszman (a London [[diamond]] dealer) and Nina Bracewell-Smith (a descendant by marriage of former chairman [[Bracewell Smith|Sir Bracewell Smith]]), who hold 25.2% and 15.9% respectively. Vice-chairman [[David Dein]] holds 14.6% while club [[chairman]] [[Peter Hill-Wood]] owns less than 1%.{{ref|afc-accounts}} Arsenal's board of directors hold the majority of the club's shares, but in recent years, with Arsenal becoming a significant media asset, outside organisations have bought into the club. These include entertainment firm Granada Ventures (a subsidiary of [[ITV plc]]) (9.9%) and [[hedge fund]] [[Lansdowne Partners]] (2.7%); Lansdowne used to have a stake in [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] before selling it to [[Malcolm Glazer]].{{ref|lansdowne}}
==Arsenal in popular culture==
As one of the most successful teams in the country, Arsenal have often featured when football is depicted in [[British culture]]. The club were the backdrop to one of the earliest football-related [[film]]s, ''[[The Arsenal Stadium Mystery]]'' (1939). The film is centred on a [[friendly match]] between Arsenal and an amateur side, one of whose players is poisoned whilst playing. Many Arsenal players appeared as themselves, although only manager George Allison was given a speaking part.
More recently, the book ''[[Fever Pitch]]'' by [[Nick Hornby]] was an [[autobiography|autobiographical]] account of Hornby's life and relationship with football and Arsenal in particular. Published in 1992, it formed part of, and may have played an active part in, the revival and rehabilitation of football in British society during the 1990s. The book was later made into a film starring [[Colin Firth]], which centred on the club's [[1988-89 in English football|1988–89]] title win.
Arsenal's perceived tendency to be defensive and "boring" through the 1970s and 1980s made the team the butt of jokes by many comedians such as [[Eric Morecambe]]. The theme was repeated in the 1997 film ''[[The Full Monty]]'', in a scene where the lead actors move in a line and raise their hands, deliberately mimicking the Arsenal defence's [[Offside law (football)|offside]] trap, in an attempt to co-ordinate their [[stripping]].
The club is also mentioned in several ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' sketches, and in [[Douglas Adams]]' ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'': a barman remarks that the impending [[end of the world]] is a "lucky escape" for Arsenal, who are playing that afternoon. Most recently, in the 2004 box office hit ''[[Ocean's Twelve]]'' the stars put on Arsenal tracksuits to escape from a hotel as part of one of their European heists.
==Arsenal Ladies==
{{details|Arsenal L.F.C.}}
[[Arsenal L.F.C.|Arsenal Ladies]] are the [[Women's football (soccer)|women's football]] club affiliated to Arsenal. Founded in 1987, they turned semi-professional in 2002 and are one of the most successful teams, if not the dominant team, in [[Women's football in England|English women's football]] today. They are managed by [[Vic Akers]], who is also kit manager for the men's side, and play in the [[FA Women's Premier League National Division|FA Women's Premier League]]. They are currently reigning League champions, having won their seventh title in 2005.
As well as their seven League titles, Arsenal Ladies have won the [[FA Women's Cup]] six times and the [[Women's League Cup]] eight times; this includes two Trebles in 1993 and 2001. They have also reached the semifinals of the [[UEFA Women's Cup]] twice, the furthest any English women's club have ever got. While the men's and women's clubs are formally separate they have quite close ties; Arsenal vice-chairman [[David Dein]] is president of Arsenal Ladies, and the ladies are entitled to play once a season at Highbury (they usually play their home matches at [[Boreham Wood F.C.|Boreham Wood]]).
==Statistics and records==
{{details|Arsenal F.C. records}}
[[David O'Leary]] holds the record for Arsenal appearances, having played 722 first-team matches between 1975 and 1993. Fellow [[centre half]] and former captain [[Tony Adams (footballer)|Tony Adams]] comes second, having played 668 times. The record for a [[goalkeeper]] is held by [[David Seaman]], with 563 appearances.
Current Arsenal captain [[Thierry Henry]] is the club's top goalscorer with 201 goals in all competitions (as of [[February 22]], [[2006]]), having surpassed [[Ian Wright]]'s total of 185 in October 2005. Wright's record had stood since 1997, a feat which overtook the longstanding total of 178 goals set by winger [[Cliff Bastin]] in 1939. Henry also holds the club record for goals scored in the League (152), a record that had been held by Bastin until February 2006.
Arsenal's record home attendance is 73,707, for a [[UEFA Champions League]] match against [[RC Lens]] on [[November 25]], [[1998]] at [[Wembley Stadium]], where Arsenal formerly played home European matches because of the limits on Highbury's capacity. The record attendance for an Arsenal match at Highbury is 73,295, for a 0-0 draw against [[Sunderland A.F.C|Sunderland]] on [[9 March]] [[1935]]. The current capacity of Highbury is 38,500, and the planned capacity of Emirates Stadium is 60,000, so these records are unlikely to be broken in the near future.
Arsenal have also set records in English football, most notably the most consecutive seasons spent in the top flight (79, as of 2005) and the longest run of unbeaten League matches (49 between May 2003 and October 2004). This included all 38 matches of the [[2003-04 in English football|2003–04]] season, making Arsenal only the second club ever to finish a top-flight campaign unbeaten, after [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] (who played only 22 matches) in [[1888-89 in English football|1888–89]].
==Current squad==
''As of [[February 9]], [[2006]]:''
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player | no=1 | nat=Germany | pos=GK | name= [[Jens Lehmann]]}}
{{Fs player | no=2 | nat=France | pos=MF | name= [[Abou Diaby]]}}
{{Fs player | no=3 | nat=England | pos=DF | name= [[Ashley Cole]]}}
{{Fs player | no=7 | nat=France | pos=MF | name= [[Robert Pirès]]}}
{{Fs player | no=8 | nat=Sweden | pos=MF | name= [[Fredrik Ljungberg]]}}
{{Fs player | no=9 | nat=Spain | pos=FW | name= [[José Antonio Reyes]]}}
{{Fs player | no=10 | nat=Netherlands| pos=FW | name= [[Dennis Bergkamp]] | }}
{{Fs player | no=11 | nat=Netherlands| pos=FW | name= [[Robin van Persie]]}}
{{Fs player | no=12 | nat=Cameroon | pos=DF | name= [[Lauren Etame Mayer|Lauren]]}}
{{Fs player | no=13 | nat=Belarus | pos=MF | name= [[Aliaksandr Hleb|Alexander Hleb]]}}
{{Fs player | no=14 | nat=France | pos=FW | name= [[Thierry Henry]] | other=captain}}
{{Fs player | no=15 | nat=Spain | pos=MF | name= [[Francesc Fàbregas]]}}
{{Fs player | no=16 | nat=France | pos=MF | name= [[Mathieu Flamini]]}}
{{Fs player | no=17 | nat=Cameroon | pos=MF | name= [[Alexandre Song]] | other=on loan from [[Sporting Club de Bastia|Bastia]]}}
{{Fs player | no=18 | nat=France | pos=DF | name= [[Pascal Cygan]]}}
{{Fs player | no=19 | nat=Brazil | pos=MF | name= [[Gilberto Silva]]}}
{{Fs player | no=20 | nat=Switzerland| pos=DF | name= [[Philippe Senderos]]}}
{{Fs player | no=21 | nat=Estonia | pos=GK | name= [[Mart Poom]]}}
{{Fs mid}}
{{Fs player | no=22 | nat=France | pos=DF | name= [[Gaël Clichy]]}}
{{Fs player | no=2 |
nd place on the all-time RBI list. Aaron got his 2,000 career RBI when he homered off [[Houston Astros|Astros]]' [[Jim York]]. Aaron tied then surpassed [[Babe Ruth]] for the most home runs by a player with a single team when he homered for the 659th time as a Brave on [[July 19]] against the [[Pittsburgh Pirates|Pirates]]' [[Nelson Briles]] and for the 660th on [[July 25]] against the [[Cincinnati Reds|Reds]]' [[Wayne Simpson]]. At the first [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Game]] in Atlanta, Aaron thrilled the hometown crowd by homering in the sixth inning off the [[Cleveland Indians]]' [[Gaylord Perry]]. Aaron homered twice against the [[Philadelphia Phillies|Phillies]] to break [[Stan Musial]]'s major league record for total bases (6,134).
====Racism and the record====
[[Image:hank_aaron_jersey.jpg|thumb|200px|Hank Aaron's jersey worn when he broke Babe Ruth's record]]
The chase to beat the [[Babe Ruth|Babe]] heated up in the summer of [[1973 in sports|1973]] and with it the mail. Aaron needed a secretary to sort it as he received more than an estimated 3,000 letters a day, more than any American outside of [[politics]]. Unfortunately, [[racist]]s initially did much of the writing. A sampling:
<blockquote>''"Dear [[Nigger]] Henry,<BR>You are (not) going to break this record established by the great Babe Ruth if I can help it. ...<br/> Whites are far more superior than '''jungle bunnies'''. My gun is watching your every black move."''</blockquote>
<blockquote>''"Dear Henry Aaron,<BR>How about some [[sickle cell anemia]], Hank?"''</blockquote>
The letters came from every state, but most were postmarked in northern cities. They were filled with hate; more hate than Aaron had ever imagined. "This", Aaron said later about the letters, "changed me".
Aaron hit his 700th home run off of the [[Philadelphia Phillies|Phillies]]' [[Ken Brett]]. The 1973 season ended with Aaron at 713 homers after hitting a remarkable 40 in just 392 at-bats. He was 39. The Braves became the first team to have three players hit 40 or more homers in a season. [[Darrell Evans]] and [[Davey Johnson]] also reached the 40-homer mark.
Over the winter, Aaron endured [[death threat]]s and a barrage of [[racist]] hate mail from people who did not want to see a black man break Ruth's home run record. [[Lewis Grizzard]], then sports editor the ''Atlanta Journal'' became so concerned that he had an obituary written just in case. However, when the harassment became widely known, the ballplayer enjoyed a massive flood of public support motivated at least partially to counter the [[bigotry]]. This included Babe Ruth's widow who denounced the racists and declared that her husband would have enthusiastically cheered Aaron's attempt at the record. As the [[1974 in sports|1974]] season began, Aaron's pursuit of the home run record caused a small controversy.
[[Image:Aaron 1976.jpg|thumb|175px|left|Aaron as a Milwaukee Brewer]]The Braves opened the season on the road in [[Cincinnati]] with a three game series. Braves management wanted him to break the record in [[Atlanta]]. Therefore, they were going to have Aaron sit out the first three games of the season. Commissioner [[Bowie Kuhn]] ruled that he had to play two out of three. He tied [[Babe Ruth]]'s record in his very first at bat, but did not hit another home run in the series. The largest crowd in Braves history (53,775) watched Hank Aaron break the record on [[April 8]], [[1974]] with a home run in the 4th inning off [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Los Angeles]] pitcher [[Al Downing (baseball player)|Al Downing]]. The ball landed in the Braves bullpen where reliever [[Tom House]] caught it. While cannons were firing in celebration and Aaron rounded the bases, two college students appeared and ran alongside of him before security stepped in. Aaron's mother ran onto the field and into the arms of her son, tears brimming in her eyes. Mrs. Aaron wasn't just proud of her son; she rushed the plate because she thought her son had been shot. On [[October 2]], [[1974]], Aaron hit his 733rd and final home run as a Brave.
One month later, on [[November 2]], [[1974]], the Braves traded Aaron to the [[Milwaukee Brewers]] for [[Roger Alexander]] and [[Dave May]]. Because the Brewers were an [[American League]] team, Aaron could extend his career by taking advantage of the [[designated hitter]] rule.
As a popular member of the long-missed [[Atlanta Braves|Milwaukee Braves]] club, Aaron brought credibility to the new Brewers franchise.
Aaron broke baseball's all time RBI record on [[May 1]], [[1975]] and on [[July 20]], [[1976 in sports|1976]] Hank Aaron hit his 755th and final home run off the [[California Angels]]' [[Dick Drago]] at [[Milwaukee County Stadium]].
==Post-playing career==
{{MLB HoF}}
[[Image:HankAaronHallofFamePlaque.jpg|thumb|right|Hank Aaron's Plaque at the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]]]]
Aaron rejoined the Atlanta Braves organization as player development director four days after retiring from baseball. On [[August 1]], [[1982 in sports|1982]] Hank Aaron was inducted into the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]], receiving votes on 97.8 percent of the ballots. At the time, only [[Ty Cobb]] received a higher percentage (98.2) of votes cast.
Aaron became one of the first blacks in Major League Baseball upper-level management as Atlanta's vice president of player development. Since December [[1989 in sports|1989]], he has served as senior vice president and assistant to the president, but he is more active for [[Turner Broadcasting]] as a corporate vice president of community relations and a member of TBS' board of directors. He also is vice president of business development for [[The Airport Network]].
On [[February 5]], [[1999 in sports|1999]], at a celebration for his 65th birthday, Aaron was honored for his achievements as a player and a person. [[Major League Baseball]] announced the introduction of the [[Hank Aaron Award]], to be presented annually to the best hitters in the [[American League]] and [[National League]]. The first major award to be introduced in more than thirty years, it is also the first to be named after a former player still living at the time the award was inaugurated. Later that year, he ranked number 5 on ''[[The Sporting News]]''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was elected to the [[Major League Baseball]] All-Century Team.
In [[2002]] Aaron received the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]], the nation's highest civilian honor.
Aaron attended Game 4 of the [[2004 World Series]] at [[Busch Stadium]] in [[St. Louis, Missouri]] and personally awarded the Hank Aaron Award to winners &ndash; [[Barry Bonds]] in the NL, [[Manny Ramirez]] in the AL.
His autobiography ''I Had a Hammer'' was published in [[1990]]. Aaron now owns Hank Aaron [[BMW]] of south Atlanta where every car is sold with an [[autograph]]ed baseball.
Statues of Aaron now stand outside the front entrance of both [[Turner Field]] and [[Miller Park]], where the Braves and Brewers currently play. ([[Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium]] and [[Milwaukee County Stadium]], which were Aaron's home parks for his entire career, were demolished in [[1997]] and [[2001]], respectively, and parking lots for the current ballparks now occupy the sites.)
Turner Field's home address is 755 Hank Aaron Drive SE, in honor of Aaron's 755 career home runs.
Aaron's jersey number "44" has been retired by both the Atlanta Braves and the Milwaukee Brewers.
==Records and achievements==
* All-time home run leader: 755
* All-time games played: 3,298 (at time of retirement, currently 3rd behind [[Pete Rose]] and [[Carl Yastrzemski]])
* All-time at-bats leader: 12,364 (at time of retirement, currently 2nd behind [[Pete Rose]])
* All-time RBI leader: 2,297
* All-time total bases leader: 6,856
* All-time extra-base hits leader: 1,477
* NL [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP]]: [[1957 in sports|1957]]
* Gold Glove award: [[1958 in sports|1958]] – [[1960 in sports|1960]]
* The Sporting News NL Player of the Year: [[1956 in sports|1956]], [[1963 in sports|1963]]
* NL batting champion: [[1956 in sports|1956]] (.328), [[1959 in sports|1959]] (.355)
* NL home run champion: [[1957 in sports|1957]] (44), [[1963 in sports|1963]] (44), [[1966 in sports|1966]] (44), [[1967 in sports|1967]] (39)
* NL RBI leader: [[1957 in sports|1957]] (132), [[1960 in sports|1960]] (126), [[1963 in sports|1963]] (130), [[1966 in sports|1966]] (127)
* NL total bases leader: [[1956 in sports|1956]] (340), [[1957 in sports|1957]] (369), [[1959 in sports|1959]] (400), [[1960 in sports|1960]] (334), [[1961 in sports|1961]] (358), [[1963 in sports|1963]] (370), [[1967 in sports|1967]] (344), [[1969 in sports|1969]] (332)
* NL slugging percentage leader: [[1959 in sports|1959]] (.636), [[1963 in sports|1963]] (.586), [[1971 in sports|1971]] (.669)
* NL runs scored leader: [[1957 in sports|1957]] (118); [[1963 in sports|1963]] (121); [[1967 in sports|1967]](113)
* [[Lou Gehrig Memorial Award]]: [[1970 in sports|1970]]
* NL hits leader: [[1956 in sports|1956]] (200), [[1959 in sports|1959]] (223)
* NL doubles leader: [[1955 in sports|1955]] (37), [[1956 in sports|1956]] (34), [[1961 in sports|1961]] (39), [[1965 in sports|1965]] (40)
* Three home runs in one game: [[June 21]], [[1959 in sports|1959]]
* Elected to Baseball Hall of Fame: [[1982 in sports|1982]]
* [[List of major league players with 2,000 hits|Third in career hits]] (3,771)
* Only player to hit at least 30 home runs in 15 seasons
* Only player to hit at least 20 home runs in 20 seasons
* Hit 40 home runs in a season 8 times
* First player to reach 3,000 hits and 500 home runs
* 21 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star]] appearances
==Statistics==
{| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="2" style="border: 1px solid black;"
|- align="cen |
evil.' Some also believe that because the word 'evil' itself is 'live' spelt backward, the word originated through the nature of evil being "against living things," or the antithesis of life itself. Both claims are false, as the words are etymologically derived from pre-existing languages.
===Further development===
When the [[Bible]] was translated into [[Latin]] (the [[Vulgate]]), the name [[Lucifer]] appeared as a translation of "[[Morning Star]]", or the planet [[Venus]], in [[Isaiah]] 14:12. Isaiah 14:1-23 is a passage largely concerned with the plight of [[Babylon]], and its king is referred to as "morning star, son of the dawn". This is because the Babylonian king was considered to be of godly status and of symbolic divine parentage ([[Bel (mythology)|Bel]] and [[Ishtar]], associated with the planet Venus).
While this information is available to scholars today via translated Babylonian [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] text taken from clay tablets, it was not as readily available at the time of the Latin translation of the Bible. Thus, early Christian tradition interpreted the passage as a reference to the moment Satan was thrown from [[Heaven]]. Lucifer became another name for Satan and has remained so due to Christian [[dogma]] and popular tradition.
The [[Hebrew Bible]] word which was later translated to "Lucifer" in English is הילל (transliterated HYLL). Though this word, ''Heilel'', has come to be translated as "morning-star" from the Septuagint's translation of the Scriptures, the letter ה in Hebrew often indicates singularity, much as the English "the," in which case the translation would be ה "the" ילל "yell," or "the wailing yell."
Later, for unknown reasons, [[Christian demonology|Christian demonologists]] appeared to designate "Satan", "Lucifer", and "Beelzebub" as different entities, each with a different rank in the hellish hierarchy. One hypothesis is that this might have been an attempt to establish a hellish trinity with the same person, akin to the Christian [[Trinity]] of [[God the Father|Father]], [[Son of God|Son]] and the [[Holy Spirit]], but most demonologists do not carry this view.
===In Christian tradition===
Christian tradition differs from that of Christian demonology in that ''Satan'', ''Lucifer'', ''Leviathan'' and ''Beelzebub'' all are names that refer to "''the Devil''", and ''Prince of this World'', ''The Beast'' and ''Dragon'' (and rarely ''Serpent'' or ''The Old Serpent'') use to be elliptic forms to refer to him. ''The Enemy'', ''The Evil One'' and ''The Tempter'' are other elliptic forms to name the Devil. ''[[Belial]]'' is held by many to be another name for the Devil. Christian demonology, in contrast, does not have several nicknames for Satan.
It should be noted that the name ''[[Mephistopheles]]'' is used by some people to refer to the Devil, but it is a mere folkloric custom, and has nothing to do with Christian demonology and Christian tradition. ''Prince of Darkness'' and ''Lord of Darkness'' are also folkloric names, although they tend to be incorporated to Christian tradition.
The [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[Cathar]]s believed that the [[Old Testament]] [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] was, in fact, the devil, based partially on ethical interpretations of the [[Bible]] and partially on the beliefs of earlier [[gnosticism|gnostic]] sects (such as the [[Marcionism|Marcionists]]) who regarded the god of the Old Testament as evil or as an imperfect [[Demiurge]]. Early [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]] called the Demiurge ''[[Yaw (god)|Yao]],'' the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] cognate to the [[Tetragrammaton]], YHWH (Yahweh). Moreover, research into [[Ugarit]]ic texts revealed that the names of the Jewish god were the same as separate gods worshipped in the same region; Yahweh is cognate to Ugaritic [[Yaw (god)|Yaw]] who is there the god of chaos, evil, and world domination.
==The devil in literature==
Many writers have incorporated the character of Satan into their works. Among the most famous are:
*[[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[The Divine Comedy#Inferno|Inferno]]'' (1321)
*[[Christopher Marlowe]]'s ''[[Faust|Doctor Faustus]]'' (1604)
*[[Joost van den Vondel]]'s ''[[Lucifer]]'' (1654)
*[[John Milton]]'s ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' (1667)
*[[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]]'s ''[[Faust]]'' (Part 1, 1808; Part 2, 1832)
*[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]]'s [[Brothers Karamazov]] (1880)
*[[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[The Mysterious Stranger]]'' (1916)
*[[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s [[Markheim]] (1925)
*[[Steven Vincent Benet|Steven Vincent Benét]]'s ''[[The Devil and Daniel Webster]]'' (1937)
*[[Thomas Mann]]'s ''[[Doktor Faustus]]'' (1947)
*[[William Golding]]'s ''[[The Lord of the Flies]]'' (1954)
*[[Mikhail Bulgakov]]'s ''[[The Master and Margarita]]'' (1967)
*[[Piers Anthony]]'s ''[[Incarnations of Immortality]]'' series (1983-1990)
*''Isaac Asimov’s Magical Worlds of Fantasy #8: Devils'', an anthology of 18 fantasy short stories [[edit]]ed by [[Isaac Asimov]], Martin Greenburg, and Charles Waugh (1987)
*[[Tim LaHaye]] and [[Jerry B. Jenkins]]'s ''[[Left Behind]]'' series (1995-present)
*[[Anne Rice]]'s ''[[Memnoch the Devil]]'' (1996)
*[[Eoin Colfer]]'s [[The Wish List]] (2000)
==The devil in music==
A few songs that make reference to the Devil are:
* ''[[Devil's Trill Sonata]]'' by [[Giuseppe Tartini]]
* ''[[N.I.B.]]'' by [[Black Sabbath]]
* ''[[Sympathy for the Devil]]'' by [[The Rolling Stones]]
* ''[[The Devil Went Down to Georgia]]'' by the [[Charlie Daniels|Charlie Daniels Band]]
* ''[[Lucifer Over London]]'' by [[Current 93]]
* ''[[Friend of the Devil]]'' by [[The Grateful Dead]]
* ''[[Lord Of The Flies (song) | Lord Of The Flies]]'' by [[Iron Maiden]]
* ''[[Draconian Trilogy]]'' by [[Therion (band)|Therion]]
* ''[[Worship Him]]'' by [[Samael (band) |Samael]]
* ''[[Devil's Path]]'' by [[Dimmu Borgir]]
* ''[[Spellbound by the Devil]]'' by [[Dimmu Borgir]]
* ''[[Inno a Satana]]'' by [[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]
* ''[[As flittermice as Satan's spys]]'' by [[Darkthrone]]
* ''[[Prince Of Darkness]]'' by [[Megadeth]]
* ''[[Running With The Devil]]'' by [[Van Halen]]
* ''[[Devil's Dance Floor]]'' by [[Flogging Molly]]
* ''[[Titties And Beer]]'' by [[Frank Zappa]]
* ''[[Tribute (song)|Tribute]]'' by [[Tenacious D]]
The Devil is a common theme in an extreme form of underground music known as [[black metal]].
The musical interval of an Augmented 4th is sometimes known as "The Devil In Music", a name given to it circa. 1400, given its unusual sound. Composers were encouraged to stay away from the interval, and whilst it is sometimes found in non-religious music of the time, it was never used in religious music until the existing system of keys came into use.
==The devil in film and television==
Many films and television programs have portrayed the Devil in one form or another. Among these are:
*''[[Häxan]]'' ([[1922]])
*''[[The Twilight Zone]]'' in such episodes as "[[The Howling Man]]" and "[[Printer's Devil]]."
*''[[Bedazzled (1967 film)|Bedazzled]] ([[1967]], [[Bedazzled (2000 film)|remade]] in [[2000]])
*''[[The Omen]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[The Devil and Max Devlin]]'' [[1981]]
*''[[Oh, God! You Devil]]'' ([[1984]])
*''[[Legend (film)|Legend]]'' ([[1985]])
*''[[Angel Heart]]'' ([[1987]])
*''[[The Last Temptation of Christ]]'' ([[1988]])
*''[[Bill and Ted's Bogus Journey]]'' ([[1991]])
*''[[The Simpsons]]'' in the [[Treehouse of Horror IV]] short "The Devil and Homer Simpson", ironically taking the form of [[Ned Flanders]].
*''[[The Prophecy]]'' ([[1995]])
*''[[Tales from the Hood]]'' ([[1995]])
*''[[The Devil's Advocate (film)|The Devil's Advocate]]'' ([[1997]])
*''[[Brimstone (television series)|Brimstone]]'' featured the devil as a regular character.
*[[The Collector (television series)|The Collector]]'' has a different charecter playing the devil in each episode.
[[Image:Devil.jpg|thumb|The Red guy from Cow & Chicken]]
*''[[Cow and Chicken]]'' (1997-1999) and ''[[I Am Weasel]]'' both have a character called the [[Red Guy]], who looks very much like Satan.
*''[[End of Days]]'' ([[1999]])
*''[[South Park]]'' features The Devil as a recurring character in the series as well as in the film ''[[South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut]]'' ([[1999]])
*''[[The Ninth Gate]]'' ([[1999]])
*''[[Little Nicky (film)|Little Nicky]]'' ([[2000]])
*''[[Futurama]]'' periodically featured a character known as "The Robot Devil."
*''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'' ([[2004]])
*''[[Constantine (film)|Constantine]]'' ([[2005]])
* ''[[Dominion: Prequel to the Exorcist]]'' ([[2005]])
* ''[[The Exorcism of Emily Rose]]'' ([[2005]])
==The devil in video games==
As with films, the Devil (or some nearly identical character) has appeared in numerous [[video game]]s. A few of them are:
*''[[Devil May Cry]]''
*''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]''
*''[[Diablo II]]''
*''[[Doom 3]]'' (you don't see him, but you can hear him)
*''[[Ghosts 'n Goblins]]''
*''[[Ghouls 'n Ghosts]]''
*''[[Tekken]]''
==Bibliography==
{{Expandsect}}
* ''[[The Origin of Satan]]'', by Elaine Pagels (Vintage Books, New York 1995) explores the development, the "demonization" of the character of Satan against the background of the bitter struggle between the early Church and the Synagogue to be the legitimate heir of ancient Hebrew religious tradition. She discusses how Satan becomes a figure that reflects our own hatreds and prejudices, and the struggle between our loving selves and our fearful, combative selves.
* ''[[The Old Enemy: Satan & the Combat Myth]]'', by Neil Forsyth (Princeton, New Jersey 1987) seeks to show how Satan emerged from ancient mythological traditions and is best understood not as a principle of evil, but as a narrative character in the context of "the Combat Myth". Forsyth tells the Devil's story from the Epic of Gilgamesh through to the wr |
cal Correctness: A Brief History"] Updated April 4, 2005. <http://www.narth.com/docs/schoenewolf2.html>
* [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/138/2/210 Spitzer, RL, "The diagnostic status of homosexuality in DSM-III: a reformulation of the issues."] Am J Psychiatry. 1981 Feb;138(2):210-5. <http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/138/2/210?
== External links ==
* [http://www.iglhrc.org/files/iglhrc/reports/990604-antidis.pdf Antidiscrimination Legislation, April 1999, a worldwide summary] IGLHRC (pdf)
* [http://www.iglhrc.org/site/iglhrc/ International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission] (IGLHRC)
* [http://www.ilga.info/Information/Legal_survey/ilga_world_legal_survey%20introduction.htm International Lesbian and Gay Association World Legal Survey] (2000)
* [http://www.ilga.org/steph/StateHomophobia3.jpg State Homophobia], world map, ILGA (2004)
* [http://www.iglhrc.org/site/iglhrc/content.php?type=1&id=77 Where Having Sex is a Crime: Criminalization and Decriminalization of Homosexual Acts], IGLHRC (2003)
* [http://www.iglhrc.org/site/iglhrc/content.php?type=1&id=91 Where You Can Marry: Global Summary of Registered Partnership, Domestic Partnership, and Marriage Laws], IGLHRC (November 2003)
==Further reading==
*Bullough, Vern L. (ed.) [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Stonewall.htm ''Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context''], New York, London, Oxford: Harrington Park Press, 2002
*Johansson, Warren and Percy, William A. [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Outing.htm ''Outing: Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence.''] New York and London: Haworth Press, 1994.
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<page>
<title>Great Victoria Desert</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Great Victoria Desert''' is a barren, arid and sparsely populated [[desert]] [[ecoregion]] in southern [[Australia]]. It falls inside the states of [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]] and consists of many small [[sandhill]]s, [[grassland]]s and [[salt lake]]s. It is over 700 [[kilometre]]s (435 [[mile]]s) wide (from [[west]] to [[east]]) and covers and area of 424,400 square kilometers (163,900 mile&sup2;). The [[Western Australia Mallee shrub]] ecoregion lies to the west, the [[Little Sandy Desert]] to the northwest, the [[Gibson Desert]] and the [[Central Ranges xeric shrublands]] to the north, the [[Tirari-Sturt stony desert]] to the west, and the [[Nullarbor Plain]] to the south separates it from the [[Southern Ocean]].
Due to the aridity and dryness of the desert, almost no [[agriculture|farming]] activity is carried out there, and it is a protected area of Western Australia, .
The average annual [[rain|rainfall]] is low, but not as low as many [[desert]]s, ranging from 200 to 250 [[millimetre|mm]] (8 to 10 [[inch|in]]) per year. Thunderstorms are relatively common in the Great Victoria Desert, with an average of 15 - 20 thunderstorms per annum. Summer daytime temperatures range from 32 to 40 [[Degree Celsius|°C]] (90 to 104 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]). In winter, this falls to 18 to 23 °C (64 to 75 °F). Snow never falls in the Great Victoria Desert.
It is inhabited by many different groups of [[Indigenous Australians]], including the [[Kogara]] and the [[Mirning]].
In [[1875]], [[United Kingdom|British]] [[exploration|explorer]] [[Ernest Giles]] became the first [[European]] to cross the desert. He named the desert after the then-reigning British monarch, [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]].
==See also==
*[[Australasia ecozone]]
*[[Ecoregions of Australia]]
==External links==
*[http://home.iprimus.com.au/ozthunder/oz/gibson.html Climate of the Great Victoria Desert and Gibson Desert]
[[Category:Deserts of Australia]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of Australia]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Western Australia]]
[[de:Große Victoria-Wüste]]
[[et:Suur Victoria kõrb]]
[[ja:グレートビクトリア砂漠]]
[[pl:Wielka Pustynia Wiktorii]]</text>
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<page>
<title>GNU Lesser General Public License</title>
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<username>Hayabusa future</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ [[id:LGPL]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heckert GNU white.svg|thumb|200px|right|[[GNU]] logo]]
The '''GNU Lesser General Public License''' (formerly the '''GNU Library General Public License''') is an [[Free Software Foundation|FSF]] approved [[free software]] license designed as a compromise between the [[GNU General Public License]] and simple permissive licenses such as the [[BSD license]] and the [[MIT License]]. It was written in [[1991]] (and updated in [[1999]]) by [[Richard Stallman]] and [[Eben Moglen]].
The main difference between the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] and the LGPL is that the latter can be linked to a non-(L)GPLed program, which may be free software or [[proprietary software]], if the terms allow "modification for the customer's own use and reverse engineering for debugging such modifications." <!-- commented-out - see talk: Another major difference is that derivative works (which are not GPLed) must be software libraries.-->
The LGPL places [[copyleft]] restrictions on the program itself but does not apply these restrictions to other software that merely links with the program. There are, however, certain other restrictions on this software. Essentially, it must be possible for the software to be linked with a newer version of the LGPL-covered program. The most commonly used method for doing so is to use "a suitable [[shared library]] mechanism for linking". Alternatively, [[Statically linked library]] is allowed if either source code or linkable object files are provided.
The LGPL is primarily intended for [[Library (computer science)|software libraries]], although it is also used by applications such as [[OpenOffice.org]] and [[Mozilla]].
One feature of the LGPL is that one can convert any LGPLed piece of software into a GPLed piece of software (section 3 of the license). This feature is useful if one wants to create a version of the code that software companies cannot use in proprietary software products. It is also necessary to ensure that the LGPL is "GPL-compatible", so that GPL-covered programs can use LGPL-covered libraries.
The former name of "GNU Library General Public License" gave some people the impression that the FSF wanted all libraries to use the LGPL and all programs to use the GPL. In [[1999]], [[Richard Stallman]] wrote an essay explaining why this was not the case, and that one shouldn't ''necessarily'' use the LGPL for libraries.
:''Which license is best for a given library is a matter of strategy, and it depends on the details of the situation. At present, most GNU libraries are covered by the Library GPL, and that means we are using only one of these two strategies'' <nowiki>[allowing/disallowing proprietary programs to use a library]</nowiki> '', neglecting the other. So we are now seeking more libraries to release under the ordinary GPL.''
Contrary to popular impression, however, this does not mean that the FSF [[deprecation|deprecate]]s the LGPL, but merely says that it shouldn't be used for ''all'' libraries &mdash; the same essay goes on to say:
:''Using the ordinary GPL is not advantageous for every library. There are reasons that can make it better to use the Library GPL in certain cases.''
Indeed, Stallman and the FSF sometimes advocate licenses even less restrictive than the LGPL as a matter of strategy (to maximize the freedom of users). A prominent example was Stallman's endorsement of the use of a [[BSD license|BSD-style]] license by the [[Vorbis]] project for its libraries [http://lwn.net/2001/0301/a/rms-ov-license.php3].
The license uses terminology which is mainly intended for applications written in [[C programming language]] or its family. Franz Inc. published its own preamble to the license to clarify terminology in [[Lisp programming language]] context. LGPL with this preamble is sometimes referred as LLGPL. [http://opensource.franz.com/preamble.html]
== See also ==
*[[BSD and GPL licensing]]
*[[GNU Free Documentation License]]
*[[GNU General Public License]]
*[[GNAT Modified General Public License]]
==External links==
*[http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/lesser.html Text of the new "Lesser" GPL]
*[http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/lgpl.html Text of the old "Library" GPL]
*Richard Stallman, "[http://www.gnu.org/licenses/why-not-lgpl.html Why you shouldn't use the Library GPL for your next library]" (February 1999).
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<page>
<title>Garrison Keillor</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-04T05:45:19Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GarrisonKeillor.jpg|frame|right|Garrison Keillor]]
'''Garrison Keillor''' (born '''Gary Edward Keillor''' on [[August 7]], [[1942]]) is an [[United States of America|American]] author, [[humorist]], [[columnist]], musician, [[satirist]], and radio personality.
He is best known as founder and host of the [[American Public Media]] show ''[[A Prairie Home Companion]]'' (also known as ''[[Garrison Keillor's Radio Show]]'' on [[BBC 7]] and in Ireland). Keillor's trademark storyline is the weekly ''[[Lake Wobegon|News from Lake Wobegon]],'' a [[monologue]] about a [[Fictional city#L|fictional town]] (based on [[Anoka, Minnesota]], Garrison's hometown or possibly [[Freeport, Minnesota]], near the center of the state where Keillor lived for a short period of time), "where the women are strong, the men are good looking, and all the children are above average."
Keillor has also written many articles for ''[[The New Yorker]]'' and ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]''. Keillor is the host of ''[[The Writer's Almanac]]'', a five-minute program which is broadcast daily on some public radio stations in the United States.
Mr. Keillor's works from <i>The New Yorker</i> and other magazines have been gathered into two collections: <i>Happy to Be Here</i>, published in 1981 (and later acquired, and republished with 5 additional pieces, by UK outlet Penguin Books) and <i>We are Still Married</i>, which features newer articles, literary outtakes, poems and additional Lake Wobegon tales which were all written by him in the 1980's. When Penguin acquired WASM for republishing it also added new pieces from around that period to the collection; 6 in this case.
Garrison Keillor did the voiceover for the 2003 [[Honda Accord]] commercial entitled "[[Cog (television commercial)|Cog]]". The two minute television ad features a complex system of car parts that react with each other to create a chain reaction similar to a [[Rube Goldberg]] cartoon. The commercial ends with Keillor asking, "Isn't it nice when things just work?" [http://www.creativeclub.co.uk/prelogin/mg.aspx?m=tv&r=208543&ref=] Keillor also sang the voiceover in the 2004 Honda Diesel commercial entitled "Grrr".
His laid back style is often the subject of criticism and parody. ''[[The Simpsons]]'' parodies Keillor in an episode where Keillor is shown reading his monologue and the studio audience laughing wildly, with Homer wondering, "What the hell's so funny?" [http://www.snpp.com/episodes/1F03.html] In practice, Keillor rarely reads his monologue directly from the script, but the monotonous intonation and style of dress caricature Keillor successfully. One Boston radio critic likens Keillor and his "down comforter voice" to "a hypnotist intoning, 'You are getting sleepy now', while noting that Keillor does play to listeners' intelligence. [http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2005/07/17/air_waves_bostons_public_radio_scene_gets_interesting?mode=PF]
In the UK, his commercials have been parodied especially his song (for Honda): "Hate something, Change something, Make something better" (clip available below).
During the summer of 2005, production began on a film version of ''A Prairie Home Companion'' written by Keillor and directed by [[Robert Altman]].
==Mr. Blue==
He also authored an [[Agony aunt|advice column]] on ''[[Salon.com]]'', titled "Mr. Blue". Following a heart operation, he resigned on [[September 4]], [[2001]] in [http://www.salon.com/books/col/keil/2001/09/04/adieu/index.html an article entitled "Every dog has his day"]:
:Illness offers the chance to think long thoughts about the future (praying that we yet have one, dear God), and so I have, and so this is the last column of Mr. Blue, under my authorship, for Salon.
:Over the years, Mr. Blue's strongest advice has come down on the side of freedom in our personal lives, freedom from crushing obligation and overwork and family expectations and the freedom to walk our own walk and be who we are. And some of the best letters have been addressed to younger readers trapped in jobs like steel suits, advising them to bust loose and go off and have an adventure. Some of the advisees have written back to inform Mr. Blue that the advice was taken and that the adventure changed their lives. This was gratifying.
:So now I am simply taking my own advice. Cut back on obligations: Promote a certain elegant looseness in life. Simple as that. Winter and spring, I almost capsized from work, and in the summer I had a week in [[Saint Marys Hospital (Rochester)|St. Mary's Hospital]] to sit and think, and that's the result. Every dog has his day and I've had mine and given whatever advice was mine to give (and a little more). It was exhilarating to get the chance to be useful, which is always an issue for a writer (What good does fiction do?), and Mr. Blue was a way to be useful. Nothing human is beneath a writer's attention; the basic questions about how to attract a lover and what to do with one once you get one and how to deal with disappointment in marriage are the stuff that fiction is made from, so why not try to speak directly? And so I did. And now it's time to move on.
In June 2005, Mr. Keillor started a syndicated newspaper column, which Salon.com runs.
==Personal information==
Garrison Keillor was born in [[Anoka, Minnesota|Anoka]], [[Minnesota]]. Raised in the [[Plymouth Brethren]], which he has since left. He is six feet, four inches tall and is of [[Norwegian-American|Norwegian]] and [[Scotland|Scottish]] ancestry. Keillor is a member of the [[Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party|Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party]]. He is a [[Lutheran]] and often uses his religious roots in his material. He graduated from the [[University of Minnesota]] with a [[bachelor's degree]] in English in [[1966]]. While there, he began his broadcasting career on the student-operated radio station, known today as [[Radio K]].
Keillor is married to violinist [[Jenny Lind Nilsson]]; they have a daughter, Maia. His first wife was [[Mary Guntzel]], with whom he had a son, Jason. His second wife was [[Ulla Skaerved]].
==Bibliography==
Keillor's work includes:
*''Good Poems for Hard Times'' ([[2005 in literature|2005]]), ISBN 0670034363
*''Homegrown Democrat'' ([[2004 in literature|2004]]), ISBN 0670033650
*''Love Me'' ([[2003 in literature|2003]]), ISBN 0670032468
*''Good Poems'' ([[2002 in literature|2002]]), ISBN 0670031267
*''Lake Wobegon Summer 1956'' ([[2001 in literature|2001]]), ISBN 0571210147
*''Me, by Jimmy Big Boy Valente'' ([[1999 in literature|1999]]), ISBN 067088796X
*''Wobegon Boy'' ([[1997 in literature|1997]]), ISBN 0670878073
*''The Sandy Bottom Orchestra'' (with Jenny Lind Nilsson, [[1996 in children's literature|1996]]), ISBN 0786812508
*''The Book of Guys'' ([[1993 in literature|1993]]), ISBN 067084943X
*''WLT: A Radio Romance'', ([[1991 in literature|1991]]), ISBN 0670818577
*''We Are Still Married'' ([[1989 in literature|1989]]), ISBN 0670826472
*''Leaving Home'' ([[1987 in literature|1987]]), ISBN 067081976X
*''Lake Wobegon Days'' ([[1985 in literature|1985]]), ISBN 0140131612; a recorded version of this won a [[Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word or Non-musical Album]] [[Grammy Awards of 1988|in 1988]]
*''Happy to be Here'' ([[1982 in literature|1982]]), ISBN 0068112017
==References==
*Keillor, Garrison. [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0012/feature5/index.html In search of Lake Wobegon]. ''National Geographic.'' Dec. 2000.
*[http://www.opinion.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2003/04/13/nhonda13.xml&sSheet=/news/2003/04/13/ixhome.html "Lights! Camera! Retake!"]. ''Telegraph'' (2003). Retrieved Jun. 7, 2005.
===See also===
*[[List of famous Minnesotans]] ''(Hidden Hometown Heroes)''
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/generalfiction/story/0,6000,1163066,00.html Minnesota Zen Master] - a detailed profile of Garrison Keillor, published in ''The Guardian'', [[March 6]], [[2004]].
*[http://www.creativeclub.co.uk/prelogin/mg.aspx?m=tv&r=208543&ref= Cog] - Honda Accord commercial
*[http://multimedia.honda-eu.com/diesel/Movie.swf Grr] Grr Advert - Honda - "Hate Something, Change Something, Make Something Better"
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/garrisonkeillor/ Audio Interviews with Garrison Keillor by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
*[http://www.mnspeak.com/mnspeak/archive/post-733.cfm The MNspeak t-shirt case]
*[http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/opinion/chi-0603010138mar01,0,1451901.story?coll=chi-newsopinioncommentary-hed Mr. Keillor has had enough of GW Bush]
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and grindcore from [[hardcore punk]]), each influencing the development of the other, but with early [[grindcore]] having a much more obvious [[hardcore punk]] and [[anarcho-punk|peace punk]] influence. Some early grind bands: Napalm Death, Electro Hippies, Fear of God. Grindcore eventually increased in speed and harshness, into newer bands such as Narcosis, Pigsty, and Agoraphobic Nosebleed.
There are also other heavy metal subgenres that have come from fusions between death metal and other non-metal genres, such as the fusion of death metal and [[Jazz]] played by [[Pestilence (band)|Pestilence]] on their ''Spheres'' album, or the work of Florida bands Atheist and Cynic, the former of which sometimes went as far as to include [[jazz]]-style drum solos on albums, and the latter of which incorporated notable influences from [[fusion (music)|fusion]].
==Key artists==
<!-- Don't add or remove bands without discussion on the talk page! -->
Key death metal bands include [[Atheist (band)|Atheist]], [[Autopsy (band)|Autopsy]], [[Cannibal Corpse]], [[Carcass (band)|Carcass]], [[Death (band)|Death]], [[Deicide (band)|Deicide]], [[Entombed (band)|Entombed]], [[Immolation (band)|Immolation]], [[Morbid Angel]], [[Napalm Death]], [[Obituary (band)|Obituary]], [[Possessed (band)|Possessed]], and [[Suffocation (band)|Suffocation]].
==See also==
*[[List of death metal bands]]
*[[Death growl]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.hmas.org Carnage Inc.] Band profiles, audio, videos, lyrics, images and more
*[http://www.deathmetal.com DeathMetal.com]
*[http://www.anus.com/metal/about/deathmetal.html Genre analysis and historical information]
*[http://www.choosingdeath.com Choosing Death: The Improbable History of Death Metal & Grindcore] Extensive history of the genres written by Albert Mudrian
==Notes==
#{{note|Bowar}} {{cite web | title=Cookie Monster Vocals | work=about.com | url=http://heavymetal.about.com/od/glossary/g/gl_cookiemonste.htm | accessdate=January 21 | accessyear=2006}}. See further examples of this usage at {{cite web | title=The cookie monster vocal explained | work=rocknerd | url=http://rocknerd.org/article.pl?sid=04/07/15/1626209 | accessdate=January 21 | accessyear=2006}} and {{cite web | title=The categorization of death metal | work=metalstorm.ee | url=http://www.metalstorm.ee/articles/article.php?id=18 | accessdate=January 21 | accessyear=2006}}.
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about the fictional character and novel. For other meanings, see [[Don Quixote (disambiguation)]].''
'''''Don Quixote de la Mancha''''' (now usually spelled '''''Don Quijote''''' by Spanish-speakers; '''''Don Quixote''''' is an archaic spelling) ({{IPA2|don ki'xote ð̞e la 'manʧa}}) is a [[novel]] by the [[Spain|Spanish]] author [[Miguel de Cervantes|Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra]]. Published in [[1605]], it is one of the earliest written [[novel]]s in a modern [[European language]] and is considered by some to be the finest book in the [[Spanish language]]. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/programmes/masterpiece.shtml]. Nevertheless, it is almost universally accepted to be the emblematic work of Spanish literature.
The adjective "quixotic", at present meaning "idealistic and impractical", derives from the protagonist's name, and the expressions "[[jousting|tilting]] at [[windmill]]s" and "fighting windmills" come from this story.
There are many adaptations of the book, mostly designed to modernise and shorten the text. One such adaptation is authored by Agustín Sánchez and runs to only 150 pages.
[[Image:Don Quixote.jpg|right|thumbnail|200px|Statues of Don Quixote (left) and Sancho Panza (right)]]
== The book ==
{{spoiler}}
The novel actually consists of two parts: the first, titled ''El ingenioso [[hidalgo]] Don Quixote de la Mancha'', was published in [[1605]] (off [[Juan de la Cuesta]]'s printing press in Madrid on [[December 20]], [[1604]], and made available to the public on [[January 16]], 1605) and the second, ''Segunda parte del ingenioso caballero Don Quixote de la Mancha'', in [[1615]] (a year before the author's death). In [[1614]], between the first and second parts, a fake Don Quixote sequel was published by somebody using the pen name [[Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda]]. French Don Quixote specialist [[Dominique Aubier]] suspects seriously [[Lope de Vega]] of being the author of that literary jest. For this reason, Part II contains several references to an imposter, whom Quixote rails against and Part II ends with the death of Don Quixote (so no imposter could experiment again with Cervantes's character).
Cervantes tells that the first chapters come from the "chronicles of La Mancha" and the rest was translated by a [[morisco]] from a [[found manuscript]] by the original Arabic author Cide Hamete Benengeli ("Mr. Hamid [[Eggplant]]"). This and other narrative resources parody the then-popular genre of [[romance (genre)|chivalric romance]].
[[Image:Quixote8788.png|right|frame|Don Quixote is knighted by an inn-keeper]]
The plot covers the journeys and adventures of Don Quixote and [[Sancho Panza]]. Alonso Quijano is an ordinary Spaniard (a [[Hidalgo (disambiguation)|hidalgo]], the lowest rank of the Spanish nobility) who is obsessed with stories of [[knight-errant|knights errant]] (''[[libros de caballerías]]''), especially those written by [[Feliciano de Silva]]. His friends and family think he is crazy when he decides to take the name of ''Don Quixote de la Mancha'' and become a knight errant himself (a ''[[don]]'' being a title of a higher nobility, and a ''quixote'' in Spanish was a piece of armor). Then he sorties to wander [[Spain]] on his thin horse [[Rocinante]], righting wrongs and protecting the oppressed.
Don Quixote is visibly crazy to most people. He believes ordinary inns to be enchanted castles, and their peasant girls to be beautiful princesses. He mistakes windmills for oppressive giants sent by evil enchanters. He imagines a neighboring peasant to be ''[[Dulcinea]] del [[El Toboso|Toboso]]'', the beautiful maiden to whom he has pledged love and fidelity.
Sancho Panza, his simple squire, believes his master to be a bit crazy. In particular, he knows that there is "really" no Dulcinea, but he plays along, hoping to get rich. He and Quixote agree for instance that because Dulcinea is not as pretty nor does she smell as good as she should, she "must have been enchanted", and from that point on the mission is to disenchant her.
[[Image:529px-Quijote-1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Illustration to Don Quixote by [[Jean Ignace Isidore Gérard|Grandville]], 1848]]
[[Image:Quijote-2.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Illustration to Don Quixote by [[Jean Ignace Isidore Gérard|Grandville]], 1848]]
Both master and squire undergo complex change and development throughout the story, and each character takes on attributes of the other as the novel goes on. At the end of the second book, Quixote decides on his deathbed that his actions have been madness. Sancho begs him not to give up, but to no avail. He burns all of his books of knight-errantry save one: [[Amadis of Gaul]], the originator of the genre.
Master and squire have numerous adventures, often causing more harm than good in spite of their noble intentions. They meet criminals sent to the [[galley]]s, and are victims of an elaborate prank by a pair of Dukes, when Sancho is made "governor" of the nonexistent [[Barataria]].
Many Americans may be more familiar with the musical ''[[Man of la Mancha]]'' than with the book itself. If they read the book, they would be in for some surprises: for example Dulcinea, or [[Aldonza Lorenzo]], one of the main characters of the play, is never seen in the book.
In the novel, she is constantly invoked by Don Quixote as his lady, but never appears, allowing his hyperbolic statements of her beauty and virtue to go untested.
=== Opening sentence ===
[[Image:Cervantes Don Quixote 1605.gif|thumb|190px|left|Cervantes' ''Don Quixote'' (1605), original title page]]
:''En un lugar de la Mancha, de cuyo nombre no quiero acordarme, no ha mucho tiempo que vivía un hidalgo de los de lanza en astillero, adarga antigua, rocín flaco y galgo corredor''.
<!--[enunlu'&#611;arðela'mant&#643;a de'ku&#607;o'nombreno'kjeroakor'ðarme noa'mut&#643;o'tjempokeβi'βiauni'ðal&#611;o ðelozðe'lanθaenasti'&#654;ero a'ðar&#611;aan'ti&#611;wa rro'θin'flako i'&#611;al&#611;okorre'ðor]-->
:"In some village in La Mancha, whose name I do not care to recall, there dwelt not so long ago a gentleman of the type wont to keep an unused lance, an old shield, a greyhound for racing, and a skinny old horse."
The phrase ''de cuyo nombre no quiero acordarme'' (whose name I do not care to recall) was made fa |
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|homo}}
'''Homo''' may refer to:
* [[Homo (genus)]]
* [[HOMO/LUMO]], Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital
* [[Swedish Ombudsman against Discrimination on Grounds of Sexual Orientation]], short form: HomO
* Slang for a [[homosexual]] person, generally considered offensive in the [[United States]].
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''(This article is about political movements affecting the delivery of healthcare and healthcare systems. For more information about movements to improve health, see [[Health reform]].)''
----
'''Healthcare reform''' is a general rubric used for discussing major policy changes--for the most part, governmental policy changes--to any existing [[healthcare system]] in a given place. Healthcare reform typically attempts to:
* Broaden the population covered by private or public [[health insurance]]
* Broaden the choice of healthcare providers
* Improve the access to healthcare specialists
* Improve the quality of [[healthcare]]
* Decrease the cost of healthcare
* Decrease the cost of health insurance
In the [[United Kingdom]] a massive programme of attempted reform of the [[British National Health Service]] has begun. In the [[United States]], healthcare reform was the major [[United States]] concern of the [[Clinton administration]] headed up by First Lady [[Hillary Clinton]], however, her complex proposal was not enacted into law. U.S. efforts to achieve universal coverage began with Theodore Roosevelt and continue to today.
As evidenced by the large variety of different health care plans seen across the world, there are several different pathways that a country could take when thinking about reform. Germany for instance, makes use of sickness funds, which citizens are obliged to join but are able to opt out (Belien 87). The Netherlands uses a similar system but the financial threshold for opting out is lower (Belien 89). The Swiss, on the other hand use more of a privately based health insurance system where citizens are risk-rated by age and sex, among other factors (Belien 90). The United States employs a different "system" where health insurance is not in fact available to all of its citizens.
One point worth noting when considering different proposals of health reform is the relationship between total health care spending per capita and GDP per capita. Many people feel that the level of health spending may be indicative of enacting reform. However, when this data is graphed comparing developed countries across the world, a nearly linear relationship is revealed, with the United States and Luxembourg as the clear outliers (RAND 4). This data leads one to think that regardless of which type of coverage a country employs, it is likely to be spending the same amount on health insurance. Therefore, it is important to consider health outcomes and use of medical services, to name a few additional factors. This further complicates the process of the healthcare reform, making it all the more difficult to find the correct system (if one exists) for a country.
==References==
Belien, Paul. "Healthcare Systems - A New European Model?" PharmacoEconomics. Vol 18, supplement 1, (2000). 85-93.
Goldman, Dana and Elizabeth McGlynn. "U.S. Health Care - Facts About Cost, Acess, and Quality." RAND Corporation (2005).
==See also==
*[[US health reform 1912-1920]]
*[[US health reform under FDR]]
*[[US health reform under Truman]]
*[[US health reform under Nixon]]
*[[US health reform under Carter]]
*[[US health reform under Clinton]]
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<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Henrymayhew.png|thumb|Henry Mayhew, from London Labour and the London Poor (1861)]]
'''Henry Mayhew''' ([[November 25|25 November]] [[1812]] - [[July 25|25th July]] [[1887]]) was an English journalist and one of the founders of the humorous magazine ''[[Punch magazine|Punch]]'', and the [[magazine]]'s editor for its beginning days.
He is most famous now for his newspaper articles in the ''[[Morning Chronicle]]'', in which he carried out a survey of the poor of [[London]].
He wrote: "''I shall consider the whole of the metropolitan poor under three separate phases, according as they ''will'' work, they ''can't'' work, and they ''won't'' work''."
He interviewed everyone&mdash;beggars, street-entertainers (such as [[Punch and Judy]] men), market traders, [[prostitute|prostitutes]], labourers, [[sweatshop]] workers, even down to the "mudlarks" who searched the stinking mud on the banks of the [[River Thames]] for wood, metal, rope and coal from passing ships, and the "pure-finders" who gathered dog faeces to sell to tanners. He described their clothes, how and where they lived, their entertainments and customs, and made detailed estimates of the numbers and incomes of those practicing each trade. The books make fascinating reading, showing how marginal and precarious many peoples lives were, in what, at that time, must have been the richest city in the world.
The articles were collected together in book form under the title ''[[London Labour and the London Poor]]''. This was in three volumes in 1851: the 1861 edition included a fourth volume on the lives of prostitutes, thieves and beggars.
==External links==
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2000.01.0026&layout=&loc=iv&query=toc London Labour and the London Poor: Volume 1] ''Bolles London'' collection
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cg |
cted by [[Freddie Francis]]; Poe is played by [[Hedger Wallace]].
*''[[Nella stretta morsa del ragno]]'' (1971) [[horror film]] directed by [[Antonio Margheriti]]; Poe is played by [[Klaus Kinski]].
*''[[The Specte of Edgar Allan Poe]]'' (1974); Poe is portrayed by [[Robert Walker, Jr.]].
*''Child of Night'' ([[1975]]) by [[Anne Edwards]]
*''Evermore'' ([[1978]]), a novel by Barbara Steward
*''Poe Must Die'' (1978), a novel by Marc Olden
*''The Man Who Was Poe'' ([[1989]]), a juvenile novel by [[Edward Irving Wortis|Avi]]
*''The Hollow Earth'' ([[1990]]), a novel by [[Rudy Rucker]] in which Poe explores the [[Hollow Earth|inhabited center of the world]]
*''The Black Throne'' (1990), a novel by [[Roger Zelazny]] and [[Fred Saberhagen]]
*Writer Stephen Marlowe adapted the strange details of Poe's death into his 1995 novel ''The Lighthouse at the End of the World''.
*''Tale of a Vampire'' ([[1992]]) [[horror film]] directed by [[Shimako Sato]]; [[Kenneth Cranham]] plays "Edgar", [[Suzanna Hamilton]] is Virginia and her reincarnation Anne, and [[Julian Sands]] is Alex, the vampire who completes the triangle.
*''Nevermore'' ([[1999]]), a novel by [[Harold Schechter]]
*''[[The Phantom]]'' [[comic strip]] ([[2000]]), written by Tony De Paul and drawn by César Spadari
*''The Hum Bug'' ([[2001]]), a novel by Harold Schechter
*''The Mask of Red Death'' ([[2004]]), a novel by Harold Schechter
*''[[Edgar Allan Poe: Once Upon a Midnight]]'', starring [[John Astin]] as Poe.
==Notes==
#{{note|name}} [http://www.eapoe.org/geninfo/poeallan.htm Poe's Middle Name]. ''The Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore ''
#{{note|umm}} Benitez, R. Michael (Sep. 24, 1996). [http://www.umm.edu/news/releases/news-releases-17.html Edgar Allan Poe Mystery]. ''University of Maryland Medical News''
#{{note|cemetery}} [http://www.baltimoresun.com/entertainment/visitor/college/59074,0,5453484.location Baltimore Sun article] about Westminster Hall.
#{{note|lawschool}} [http://www.law.umaryland.edu/ UM School of Law] homepage.
#{{note|obit}}To read Griswold's full obituary, see [[wikisource:Edgar Allan Poe obituary|Edgar Allan Poe obituary]] at Wikisource.
#{{note|music}} [http://www.americansymphony.org/dialogues_extensions/99_2000season/1999_10_15/leon.cfm Tales of Edgar Allan Poe]. ''American Symphony Orchestra''
#{{note|beer}} [http://www.ravenbeer.com/home.html Baltimore-Washington Beer Works]
#{{note|camb}} See "Poe and popular culture" by Mark Neimeyer, (2002). Discussion of the modern presentation of Edgar Allan Poe found in ''The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe'': University Press; Cambridge, UK. ISBN 0521793262
==General references==
*''The Poe Encyclopedia'' by Frederick S. Frank and Anthony Magistrale. Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut and London, (1997) ISBN 0313277680
*''Collected Works of Edgar Allan Poe'', three volumes (I and II Tales and Sketches, III Poems), edited by Thomas Ollive Mabbott, The Belknap Press Of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England, 1978
*''Collected Works of Edgar Allan Poe'', Walter J. Black Inc, New York, (1927)
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
{{commons|Edgar Allan Poe}}
===About Poe===
* [http://www.nps.gov/edal/index1.html Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site] - Poe's Spring Garden home
* [http://www.poemuseum.org/ Poe Museum in Richmond, Virginia]
* [http://www.opcommunication.com/grapho/Edgar_Allen_Poe.gif Edgar Allan Poe's Signature]
===Works===
*{{gutenberg author|id=Edgar_Allan_Poe|name=Edgar Allan Poe}}
*[http://eserver.org/books/poe/ Complete Works of Edgar Allan Poe] at [http://eserver.org EServer.org]
* [http://artofhacking.com/iet/poe/index.htm Works of Edgar Allan Poe - Full Text]
* [http://www.quotesandpoem.com/poems/PoetsAndPoems/Poe Poetry, Prose and Quotes by Poe]
*[http://search.able2know.com/Books___Literature/Poetry/P/Poe__Edgar_Allan/index.html Full text of Poe's poems] via [http://able2know.com/ Able2Know Portal]
* [http://www.poestories.com/ PoeStories.com] - A well organized site with summaries, quotes, and full text of Poe's short stories, a Poe timeline, and image gallery. Stories have linked vocabulary words and definitions for educational reading.
* [http://www.comnet.ca/~forrest/library.html The Edgar Allan Poe Virtual Library]
===Miscellaneous===
*[http://librivox.org LibriVox] - Free audio recordings of [http://librivox.org/the-raven-by-edgar-allan-poe/ "The Raven"], "The Black Cat" ([http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-001/ version 1] [http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-002/ version 2]), [http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-001/ "The Tell-Tale Heart"], [http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-002/ "The Cask of Amontillado"], and others.
* [http://64.57.86.186/edgarsDB/edgarDB.php Edgar Allan Poe Awards Database] at the Mystery Writers of America web site
* [http://www.eapoe.org/ The Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore] - Poe's complete works and a wealth of biographical and critical material, including [http://www.eapoe.org/geninfo/poedeath.htm a review of the known facts about Poe's death]
* [http://www.poedecoder.com The Poe Decoder]: An extremely useful site relating to some of the works of Edgar Allan Poe
* [http://www.wiredforbooks.org/kensilverman/ 1992 audio interview of Ken Silverman, biographer of Edgar Allan Poe. Interview by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
* [http://www.bokler.com/eapoe_challengesolution.html Cipher Solved, but mystery remains]
* [http://www.bealepapers.com/ The last Haunting of Edgar Allen Poe]
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/edgarallanpoe/usher.ram Listen to a reading of Poe's "The Fall of the House of Usher" - RealAudio]
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/edgarallanpoe/thetell.ram Listen to a reading of Poe's "The Tell-Tale Heart" - RealAudio]
*[http://www.lurkerfilms.com/catalog/product_info.php?cPath=28&products_id=58&osCsid=a32f09a6a0aeb5e18c1335136fe51fc9 Information about the Edgar Allan Poe Collection DVD released by Lurker Films]
[[Category:1809 births|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:1849 deaths|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:American poets|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Bostonians|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Burials at Westminster Hall and Burying Ground|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Edgar Allan Poe|*]]
[[Category:Massachusetts writers|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Non-graduate alumni of West Point|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:People from Baltimore|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:People from Virginia|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Romanticism|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:University of Virginia|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
{{Link FA|sl}}
[[ar:أيدغار آلان بو]]
[[ast:Edgar Allan Poe]]
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[[zh:爱伦·坡]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electricity</title>
<id>9550</id>
<revision>
<id>42077222</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T17:45:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>161.210.251.100</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Electric power */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''For songs called ''Electricity'', see [[Electricity (song title)]].
[[Image:Lightning.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[[Lightning]] strikes during a night-time thunderstorm. [[Energy]] is radiated as [[light]] as the [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] of [[Earth's atmosphere]] is shifted from [[gas]] to [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] and back.]]
'''Electricity''' is a property of energy that results from the presence or movement of [[electric charge]]. Together with [[magnetism]], it constitutes the [[fundamental interaction]] known as [[electromagnetism]]. Electricity is responsible for many well-known [[physics|physical]] phenomena such as [[lightning]], [[electric field]]s and [[electric current]]s, and is put to use in industrial applications such as [[electronics]] and [[electric power]].
==Concepts in electricity==
In casual usage, the term ''electricity'' is applied to several related concepts that are better identified by more precise terms.
*[[Electric charge]]: a fundamental conserved property of some [[subatomic particle]]s, which determines their [[electromagnetic interaction]]s. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, [[electromagnetic field]]s.
*[[Electric field]] is an effect produced by an electric charge that exerts a force on charged objects in its vicinity.
*[[Electric potential]]: the potential energy per unit charge associated with a static (time-invariant) electric field.
*[[Current (electricity)|Electric current]]: a movement or flow of electrically charged particles.
*[[Electrical energy]]: energy made available by the flow of electric charge through a conductor or from the forces between charged particles.
*[[Electric power]]: The rate at which electric energy is converted into another form, such as light, heat, or mechanical energy (or converted from another form into electric energy).
== History ==
===Ancient===
According to [[Thales|Thales of Miletus]], writing [[600 BC]], a form of electricity was known to the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] who found that rubbing [[fur]] on various substances, such as [[amber]], would cause a p |
ond hand F-16 As and Bs from European countries.
==Manufacturers==
*[[General Dynamics]] / [[Lockheed Martin|Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company]] ([[United States|USA]])
*[[Turkish Aerospace Industries]] ([[Turkey]])
*[[Fokker]] ([[Netherlands]])
*[[Société Anonyme Belge de Constructions Aéronautiques|SABCA]] ([[Belgium]])
*[[Denmark]]
*[[Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace|Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk]] and others ([[Norway]])
*[[Korea Aerospace Industries]] ([[Korea]])
==Specifications (F-16)==
[[Image:F-16Schematic.jpg|thumb|300px|F-16 3 View Schematic]]
[[Image:F-16C.jpg|thumb|350px|]]
===General characteristics===
* '''Crew:''' 1 (A/C/E), 2 (B/D/F)
* '''Length:''' 49 ft 5 in (14.8 m)
* '''Wingspan:''' 32 ft 8 in (9.8 m)
* '''Height:''' 16 ft (4.8 m)
* '''Wing area:''' 300 ft&sup2; (27.87 m&sup2;)
* '''Empty:''' 18,238 lb (8,272 kg)
* '''Loaded:''' 26,463 lb (12,003 kg)
* '''Maximum takeoff:''' 42,300 lb (16,875 kg)
* '''Powerplant:'''
** '''F-16A/B:''' [[Pratt & Whitney F100]]-PW-200 turbofan, 14,670 lbf (64.9 kN), afterburning 23,830 lbf (106.0 kN)
** '''F-16C/D:'''
*** '''Block 25/32/42:''' [[Pratt & Whitney F100]]-PW-220 turbofan, 14,590 lbf (64.9 kN), afterburning 23,770 lbf (105.7 kN)
*** '''Block 30/40:''' [[General Electric F110]]-GE-100 turbofan, 17,155 lbf (76.3 kN), afterburning 28,984 lbf (128.9 kN)
*** '''Block 50:''' [[General Electric F110]]-GE-129 turbofan, 17,155 lbf (76.3 kN), afterburning 28,984 lbf (128.9 kN)
*** '''Block 52:''' [[Pratt & Whitney F100]]-PW-229 turbofan, 17,000 lbf (75.6 kN), afterburning 28,500 lbf (127 kN)
** '''F-16E/F:''' [[General Electric F110]]-GE-132 turbofan, 19,000 lbf (84.5 kN), afterburning 32,500 lbf (144.6 kN)
===Performance===
* '''Maximum speed:''' 1,321 mph = 2100 km/h = 600 m/s (Mach 2.05 at altitude)
* '''Range:''' more than 2,000 miles ferry range
* '''Service ceiling:''' 55,000+ ft (15,240 m)
* '''Rate of climb:''' 50,000 ft/min
* '''Wing loading:''' 53 lb/ft&sup2;
* '''Thrust/weight:''' 0.91 lbf/lb (8.8 N/kg)
===Armament===
*'''Guns:''' 1x [[M61 Vulcan]] 20 mm [[Gatling gun]]
*'''Rockets:''' [[CRV-7]]
*'''Missiles:'''
**'''Air-to-air:''' 6x [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]], 6x [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]]
**'''Air-to-ground:''' 6x [[AGM-65 Maverick]], 4x [[AGM-88 HARM]]
**'''Anti-ship:''' 4x [[Penguin missile|AGM-119 Penguin]]
*'''Bombs:''' 2x [[CBU-87]] cluster, 2x [[CBU-89]] gator mine, 2x [[CBU-97]], 2x GBU-10 [[Paveway]], [[GBU-12 Paveway II]], [[Paveway]]-series laser-guided bombs, 2x [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|JDAM]], 6x [[Mark 84 bomb|Mk 80 series]], and also nuclear bombs such as the [[B61 nuclear bomb]].
==Films==
The F-16 can be seen in the 1983 film ''[[Blue Thunder]]'', ''1985'' ''[[Jewel Of The Nile]]'', 1986 ''[[Iron Eagle]]'', 2002 ''[[The Sum of All Fears]]''.
==Games==
Due to its widespread adoption, the F-16 has been a popular model for PC flight simulators, appearing in over 20 games. Most notable among them is [[Falcon (computer game)]], regarded as the most accurate F-16 simulation and arguably one of the most accurate military flight simulations. For example, it has the option of simulating the actual pre-flight checks, which consist of several minutes of button toggling before one can light the engine.
Other F-16 flight simulators include ''[[F-16 Fighting Falcon (computer game)|F-16 Fighting Falcon]]'' (1984), ''[[Falcon (computer game)|Falcon]]'' (1987), ''[[Jet (computer game)|Jet]]'' (1989), ''[[Falcon (computer game)|Falcon 3.0]]'' (1991), ''[[iF-16]]'' by Interactive Magic (1997), ''[[F-16 Multi-role Fighter]]'' by [[Novologic]] (1998), and ''[[F-16 Aggressor]]'' by [[General Simulation]] (1999).
==External links==
*[http://www.f-16.net F-16.net] Extensive and up-to-date F-16 Fighting Falcon resource.
*[http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/f-16.htm Federation of American Scientists] The F-16 Weapons Platform
*[http://www.habu2.net/vipers/index.html F-16 Viper Information Page] - Extensive F-16 reference related to scale models of the F-16, covering almost all available kits.
==Related content==
{{aircontent|
|similar aircraft=
[[IAI Lavi]] -
[[Light Combat Aircraft]] -
[[Saab Gripen]] -
[[Chengdu J-10]] -
[[Dassault Mirage 2000|Dassault Mirage 2000]] -
[[JF-17]]
|sequence=
[[Lockheed YF-12|YF-12]] -
[[F-14 Tomcat|F-14]] -
[[F-15 Eagle|F-15]] -
'''F-16''' -
[[YF-17 Cobra|F-17]] -
[[F/A-18 Hornet|F/A-18]] -
[[F-20 Tigershark|F-20]]
|see also=
[[Mitsubishi F-2]] -
[[KAI T-50 Golden Eagle]]
}}
==See also==
{{Commons|General Dynamics F-16}}
*[[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
*[[List of fighter aircraft]]
*[[Comparison of 21st century fighter aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1970-1979]]
[[ar:أف 16]]
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[[zh:F-16戰隼式戰鬥機]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Food additives</title>
<id>11814</id>
<revision>
<id>15909534</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Food additive]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Food additive</title>
<id>11815</id>
<revision>
<id>42125698</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:07:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>86.141.66.209</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Numbering */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Food additives''' are substances added to food to preserve flavour or improve its taste and appearance.
Some additives have been used for centuries; for example, preserving food by [[pickling]] (with [[vinegar]]), [[edible salt|salt]]ing, as with [[bacon]], or using [[sulfur dioxide]] as in some [[wine]]s. With the advent of processed foods in the second half of the [[20th century]], many more additives have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin.
==Numbering==
To regulate these additives, and inform consumers, each additive is assigned a unique number. Initially these were the "[[E number]]s" used in [[Europe]] for all approved additives. This numbering scheme has now been adopted and extended by the [[Codex Alimentarius]] Committee to internationally identify all additives, regardless of whether they are approved for use.
E numbers are all prefixed by "[[E]]", but countries outside Europe use only the number, whether the additive is approved in Europe or not.
For example, [[acetic acid]] is written as E260 on products sold in Europe, but is simply known as additive 260 in some countries. Additive 103, [[alkanet]], is not approved for use in Europe so does not have an E number, although it is approved for use in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].
See [[list of food additives]] for a complete list of all of the numbers.
==Categories==
Food additives can be divided into several groups, although there is some overlap between them.
;Acids : Food [[acid]]s are added to make flavours "sharper", and also act as preservatives and antioxidants. Common food acids include [[vinegar]], [[citric acid]], [[tartaric acid]], [[malic acid]], [[fumaric acid]], [[lactic acid]].
;Acidity regulators : [[Acidity regulator]]s are used to change or otherwise control the acidity and [[alkaline|alkalinity]] of foods.
;Anticaking agents : [[Anticaking agent]]s keep powders such as milk powder flowing freely.
;Antifoaming agents : [[Antifoaming agent]]s reduce or prevent foaming in foods.
;Antioxidants : [[Antioxidant]]s such as [[vitamin C]] act as preservatives by inhibiting the effects of [[oxygen]] on food, and are generally beneficial to health.
;Bulking agents : [[Bulking agent]]s such as [[starch]] are additives that increase to bulk of a food without affecting its nutritional value.
;Food coloring : [[Food coloring|Colorings]] are added to food to replace colours lost during preparation, or to make food look more attractive.
;Colour retention agents : In contrast to colourings, [[colour retention agent]]s are used to preserve a food's existing colour.
;Emulsifiers : [[Emulsifier]]s allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an [[emulsion]], as in [[mayonnaise]], [[ice cream]], and homogenised [[milk]].
;Flavours : [[Flavour]]s are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural ingredients or created articially.
;Flavour enhancers : [[Flavour enhancer]]s enhance a food's existing flavours.
;Flour treatment agents : [[Flour treatment agent]]s are added to [[flour]] to improve its colour or its use in [[baking]].
;Humectants : [[Humectant]]s prevent foods from drying out.
;Preservatives : [[Preservative]]s prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to [[fungi]], [[bacterium|bacteria]] and other [[microorganism]]s.
;Propellants : [[Propellant]]s are pressurised gases used to expel food from its container.
;Stabilizers : [[Stabilizer]]s, thickeners and gelling agents, like [[agar]] or [[pectin]] (used in [[jam]] for example) give foods a firmer texture. While they are not true [[emulsifier]]s, they help to stabilize [[emulsion]]s.
;Sweeteners : [[Sweetener]]s are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than [[sugar]] are added to keep the [[food energy]] ([[calorie]]s) low, or because they have beneficial effects for [[diabetes mellitus]] and [[tooth decay]].
;Thickeners : [[Thickener]]s are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase its [[viscosity]] without substantially modifying its other pro |
circuit]]s are becoming increasingly common.
Mixed circuits contain both analog and digital components. [[analog to digital converter]]s and [[digital to analog converter]]s are the primary examples. Other examples are [[transmission gate]]s and buffers.
== Heat dissipation and thermal management==
{{Main|Thermal management of electronic devices and systems}}
Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and improve long term reliability. Techniques for ''heat dissipation'' can include [[heatsink]]s and [[fan (implement)|fans]] for air cooling, and other forms of [[computer cooling]] such as [[liquid cooling for computers]] .
== Noise ==
{{main|electronic noise}}
Associated with all electronic circuits is noise. Noise is generally defined as any unwanted signal that is not present at the input of the circuit. Noise is not the same as distortion caused by the circuit.
==Electronics theory==
{{Main|Mathematical methods in electronics}}
Mathematical methods are integral to the study of electronics. To become proficient in electronics it is also necessary to become proficient in the mathematics of circuit analysis.
Circuit analysis is the study of methods to solve linear systems for the unknown variables such as the voltage at a certain [[node]] or the current though a certain [[branch]] of a [[network]]. A common representation of this is the [[SPICE]] circuit simulator.
Also important to electronics is the study and understanding of [[electromagnetic field theory]].
== Electronic test equipment ==
{{Main|Electronic test equipment}}
Electronic test equipment is used to create stimulus signals and capture responses from electronic Devices Under Test (DUTs).
In this way, the proper operation of the DUT can be proven or faults in the device can be traced and repaired.
Practical electronics engineering and assembly requires the use of many different kinds of electronic test equipment ranging from the very simple and inexpensive (such as a test light consisting of just a light bulb and a test lead) to extremely complex and sophisticated such as Automatic Test Equipment.
== Computer aided design ==
{{Main|Electronic design automation}}
Today's electronics engineers have the ability to [[Circuit design|design]] [[Electrical network|circuit]]s using premanufactured building blocks such as [[power supply|power supplies]], [[resistor]]s, [[capacitor]]s, [[semiconductor]]s (such as [[transistor]]s), and [[integrated circuit]]s. [[Electronic design automation]] software programs include [[schematic capture]] programs such as [[ORCAD]], used to make [[circuit diagram]]s and [[printed circuit board]] layouts.
== Construction methods ==
Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years starting with point to point wiring using tag boards attached to chassis, through printed circuit boards and ending with highly integrated circuits.
Some of the methods previously used are:
**[[Point-to-point construction]]
**[[Cordwood construction#Other meanings|Cordwood construction]]
**[[Wire wrap]]
**[[Printed circuit boards]]
==Branch pages==
{{backlink|Electrical engineering}}
*[[Digital electronics]]
*[[Analogue electronics]]
*[[Microelectronics]]
*[[Fuzzy electronics]]
*[[Circuit Design|Electronic Devices and Circuits]]
*[[Integrated circuit]]
*[[Optoelectronics]]
*[[Printed circuit board]]
*[[Semiconductor]]
*[[Semiconductor device]]
==See also==
*[[Electrical engineering]]
*[[Circuit diagram]]
*[[Signal theory]]
*[[transducer]]
*[[Computer engineering]]
*[[Datasheet]]
*[[Mechatronics]]
*[[E-waste]]
== External links ==
{{Wikibooks}}
=== Tutorials and projects ===
* [http://www.electronicsinfoline.com/ Electronics Infoline] Directory for electronics projects.
* [http://www.opamp-electronics.com/tutorials/index.htm Basic Electronic Tutorials On DC, AC, Semiconductor and Digital Theory] Extensive free tutorial material and store.
* [http://www.electronics-tutorials.com/ Electronics tutorials] Modest site, mostly focused on radio electronics, awkward layout.
* Ian Purdie's [http://my.integritynet.com.au/purdic Electronics tutorials]
* Iguana Labs' [http://www.iguanalabs.com/maintut.htm Electronics Tutorials and Kits]
* [http://www.electronicdefinitions.com Electronic Meanings and Acronyms]
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/obp/electricCircuits/ Lessons in Electric Circuits] &ndash; A free series of textbooks on the subjects of electricity and electronics.
* [http://www.radio-electronics.com/ Radio-Electronics.Com] Free information and resources covering radio and electronics
* [http://www.falstad.com/circuit/ Circuit simulator with voltage and current visualization](java applet)
* [http://allaboutcircuits.com A comprehensive guide to making integrated circuits]
* [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/etroncon.html HyperPhysics]
* [http://www.talkingelectronics.com/te_interactive_index.html "Talking Electronics"] Great for amateurs, commercial kits.
* [http://electronics.esolberg.com/ Electronic parts library]
* [http://www.work-readyelectronics.org Work Ready Electronics] Free instructional online course materials for Community College Electronics Instructors and Students.
* [http://www.electronics-radio.com Electronics and Radio Today ] Free basic guides and overviews of electronics and electronics principles.
* [http://0rz.net/8916u Free books about electronics and other fields related to it]
=== Some other good sites ===
* [http://endtas.com/robot/ Endtas robotics community website with lots of free robotic projects. Do it yourself]
* [http://www.ieee.org/ IEEE]
* [http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/ IEEE spectrum]
* [http://www.elexp.com/links.htm Electronix Express]
* [http://www.electronicspoint.com/ Electronics Discussions] Web access to electronics related newsgroups.
* [http://www.wikidevices.org/ Wikidevices.org] A MediaWiki-powered website focusing entirely on electronic devices.
* [http://linuxlinks.com/Software/Scientific/Electronic/ LinuxLinks.com] Linux Electronic Software.
{{Technology}}
[[Category:Electronics]]
[[Category:Electronic engineering]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Erewhon</title>
<id>9664</id>
<revision>
<id>38279569</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-05T07:36:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kelly Martin</username>
<id>158241</id>
</contributor>
<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] fix use of "a lot of" and other cleanup</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''''Erewhon, or Over the Range''''' is a [[novel]] by [[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler]] published anonymously in [[1872]]. The title is also the name of a country, supposedly discovered by the protagonist. In the novel it is not revealed in which part of the world Erewhon is, but it is clear that it is a [[fictional country]]. Butler obviously meant the title to be a clear anagram of ''Nowhere'', it is likely that he did this to protect himself from accusations of being unpatriotic, although Erewhon is obviously a satire of [[Victorian era|Victorian]] society.
The first few chapters of the novel, dealing with the discovery of Erewhon, are in fact based on Butler's own experiences in [[New Zealand]], where as a young man he was a [[sheep]] [[farmer]] for about four years ([[1860]]-[[1864]]) and where he explored parts of the interior of the [[South Island]]. (One of the country's largest sheep farms, located near where Butler lived, is named Erewhon in his honour. It is near [[Mesopotamia Station]], a large sheep farm.)
==Content==
The greater part of the book consists of a description of Erewhon. The nature of this nation is clearly intended to be ambiguous. At first glance Erewhon appears to be a [[utopia]], yet it soon becomes clear that this is far from the case. Yet for all the failings of Erewhon it is also clearly not a [[dystopia]] (or anti-utopia), an undesirable society such as that depicted by [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''. As a satirical utopia ''Erewhon'' has sometimes been compared to ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' (1726) by [[Jonathan Swift]], the image of Utopia in this latter case also bearing strong parallels with the self-view of the [[British Empire]] at the time.
''Erewhon'' satirizes various aspects of Victorian society, including criminal punishment, [[religion]] and [[anthropocentrism]]. In Erewhon law, offenders are treated as if they were ill, whilst ill people are looked upon as criminals, for example. Another feature of Erewhon is that there are no machines, because they are considered to be dangerous: they might develop consciousness and supersede humankind. This last aspect of ''Erewhon'' reveals the influence of [[Charles Darwin]]'s evolution theory; Butler had read ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' soon after it was published in [[1859]].
===The Book of Machines===
The three chapters of ''Erewhon'' that make up "The Book of the Machines" were de |
2006 (see [http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&u=/nm/20050629/pl_nm/politics_fieldpoll_dc_3]], [[http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&u=/afp/20050621/ts_alt_afp/uspolitics_050621195840]).
When asked about the lessons of the poll, Schwarzenegger has responded "People make mistakes sometimes, and I think that we learn. [...] These are very clear messages that we must work together, and so I am looking forward to that."
To some degree, Governor Schwarzenegger's unpopularity has had to do with his confrontations with three popular labor groups: nurses, teachers, and firefighters. Some unions and activists reacted with anger (see [http://www.sfist.com/archives/2005/04/05/fk_arnold_nurses_firefighters_and_teachers_protest_the_governator.php],
[http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/politics/12112103.htm],
[http://cbs5.com/topstories/local_story_192212252.html],
[http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/local/states/california/northern_california/11964407.htm]), and others with humor (see [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/7445648/site/newsweek/],
[http://arnoldwatch.org/assets/governator_rap.mp3],
[http://talent.pratt.edu/user/114/114_-711700702-main.jpg]).
====Summer 2005====
=====Accusation of conflict of interest=====
While governor, Schwarzenegger continued to hold a position of executive editor of two [[American Media]] magazines. He announced in March 2004 that his $250,000 a year salary would be donated to charity. Schwarzenegger has an extensive history with the magazines and was frequently their star in his body-building days. As executive editor, he produces monthly columns based on his body-building history.
Schwarzenegger drew fire when a second contract, a consulting position, was subsequently discovered in [[SEC filing]]s, by the ''L.A. Times''. This second contract would net him an estimated $8,000,000 (USD) over the next five years (see [http://www.latimes.com/features/health/nutrition/la-me-bill15jul15,1,6217015.story?coll=la-health-nutrition-news]). His consulting duties are not clear, except that the job allegedly "takes up little time."
''[[The New York Times]]'' further reported (on July 15) that under the five-year November 2003 contract, signed two days before his inauguration as Governor, '''Oak Productions''', Mr. Schwarzenegger's company, is to receive 1 % of the net print advertising revenues of '''Weider Publications'''. But the payment must be at least $1,000,000 (USD) per year. Mr. Schwarzenegger has also been granted '''phantom equity''', a way of sharing in the growth of the value of the company. The equity could become worth 1% of the company's value, which was stated at the time of the contract as $520,000,000 (USD)" (see [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/15/national/15calif.html?ex=1279080000&en=d59de5489ea19d3b&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss]).
This contract was seen as a conflict of interest by critics, who note that the magazines receive much of their revenue from advertisements for dietary supplements, a government-regulated industry affected by Schwarzenegger's veto (September 2004) of a bill that would ban schools from accepting sponsorships from firms that make performance-enhancing dietary supplements. In Schwarzenegger's reason for his veto, he drew a distinction between performance-enhancing dietary supplements and steroid usage, which he says is what needs to be prevented in high school students. (see [http://www.townhall.com/news/politics/200507/POL20050718a.shtml]).
Supporters point out that he did sign into law a bill that prohibited companies from selling the supplements to minors. Following the accusation, Schwarzenegger responded he would end the contracts with the magazines.
In August 2005, the [[Washington Post]] reported that American Media had paid former TV actress [[Gigi Goyette]], $20,000 (USD) to keep silent about a seven-year extramarital affair Schwarzenegger had with her beginning in 1975, when Goyette was 16 years old (see [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/12/AR2005081201651_pf.html]]). Since the [[age of consent]] in California is 18 years, Schwarzenegger may have committed [[statutory rape]]. In addition, American Media's knowledge of the Goyette affair put it in a position of being able to [[blackmail]] Schwarzenegger, providing further reason for Schwarzenegger to align his interests with theirs.
Also in August, the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' reported that five non-profit organizations had collected $3,000,000 (USD), chiefly from large businesses, in order to help defray Schwarzenegger's personal and political expenses, including the rent on the $6,000-a-month hotel suite that Schwarzenegger uses when in Sacramento (see [http://ktla.trb.com/news/local/la-me-nonprofits24aug24,0,3132004.story?coll=ktla-news-1]]). The governor's spokesman subsequently reported that Schwarzenegger had directed the disclosure of the contributors to the "residence fund" (see [[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-ed-funds29aug29,0,213871.story?coll=la-home-oped]).
====Fall 2005====
On [[September 29]], [[2005]], Schwarzenegger vetoed the California gay marriage bill after it had passed both houses of the legislature (see [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=46212], [http://www.southernvoice.com/thelatest/thelatest.cfm?blog_id=2680]). He stated that he vetoed the bill because he felt that it was in opposition to the will of the voters as expressed by [[Proposition 22]], that had passed in 2000 with 61.4% of the vote. Proposition 22 stated that only marriages between a man and a woman would be recognized in the state of California.
On [[September 16]], [[2005]], Schwarzenegger announced that he would seek a second term as governor. Despite his initially high approval ratings, a Field Poll conducted the week before indicated that only 36% of California voters were inclined to reelect him.
Schwarzenegger vetoed SB 469 (Bowen) October 7. It would have required people circulating petitions to say whether the signature gatherers are volunteers or are being paid to collect signatures.
Running up to the November special election, Schwarzenegger campaigned heavily throughout the state for his slate of propositions. Through an organization called "Join Arnold", tens of millions of dollars were funneled into the state, mostly from corporate interests, to fund the campaign. Schwarzenegger even reportedly spent 7 million dollars of his own money. Schwarzenegger characterized the four propositions as being key to his reform agenda. State unions and other groups opposed to the measures spent large sums of money opposing Schwarzenegger. Total spending by both sides leading up to the election was estimated at $300 million.
Schwarzenegger made personal appearances at numerous so-called "town hall meeting" events throughout the state to promote the measures. In reality these events were highly choreographed, and typically featured Hollywood-style set lighting and coordinated electronic displays. A group of four or so "ordinary citizens", pre-selected by local Republican operatives, would appear on stage with Schwarzenegger to ask him questions at the appropriate time. The time and location of these events would not be released to the public until two hours in advance, to limit the time anti-Schwarzenegger forces had to organize protests.
In the [[November 8]], [[2005]] special election, California voters dealt a devastating blow to Schwarzenegger by soundly rejecting all four ballot initiatives that Schwarzenegger had proposed to reform the state government. All propositions were defeated by a margin of at least 7 percentage points. The two propositions most key to Schwarzenegger's agenda, propositions 76 and 77, were defeated by 24 and 19 points respectively.
The defeat left Schwarzenegger significantly weakened politically, depriving him of the one source of leverage he had against the Democratic legislature. Some opponents took to calling him "the One-terminator", a play on his popular role as "the Terminator" in films, implying that his chances of winning re-election had been diminished.
In the aftermath of the election, Schwarzenegger has moved back to the center. He has hired a former aide of [[Gray Davis]] as his chief of staff, and is working with California State Senate Majority Leader, [[Don Perata]], for development of a bond, estimated in the billions of dollars, to accelerate construction of [[infrastructure]] such as freeways and waterworks.
===Electoral History===
*'''2003 Recall Election for Governor'''
**Arnold Schwarzenegger (R), 49%
**[[Cruz Bustamante]] (D), 32%
**[[Tom McClintock]] (R), 13%
==Miscellaneous==
*On [[January 8]], [[2006]], while riding his [[Harley Davidson]] [[motorcycle]], with his son in the sidecar, another driver backed into the street he was riding on causing him and his son to collide with the car at a low speed. While his son and the other driver were unharmed, the govenor sustained a minor injury to his lip, forcing him to get 15 [[sutures]]. "No citations were issued" said officer Jason Lee, a police spokesman. Schwarzenegger, who famously rode motorcycles in the [[Terminator]] movies, has never actually obtained an M-1 or M-2 endorsement on his [[California]] [[driver's license]] that would allow him to legally ride one on the street. In December 2001, he broke six ribs and was hospitalized for four days after another motorcycle crash in L.A.
* In honor of its most famous son, Schwarzenegger's home town of [[Graz]] had named its [[soccer]] stadium after him. The Arnold Schwarzenegger Stadium, now officially titled [[Stadion Graz-Liebenau]], is the home of both [[Grazer AK]] and [[Sturm Graz]]. Following the [[Stanley Tookie Williams]] execution and after street protests in his home town, several local politicians began a campaign to r |
===Technology===
In 1906, Gerland published a volume of Leibniz's writings bearing on his many practical inventions and engineering work. To date, few of these writings have been translated into English. Nevertheless, it is well understood that Leibniz was a serious inventor, engineer, and applied scientist, with great respect for practical life. Following the motto ''theoria cum praxis'', he urged that theory be combined with practical application, and thus has been claimed as the father of [[applied science]]. He designed wind-driven propellers and water pumps, mining machines to extract ore, hydraulic presses, lamps, submarines, clocks, etc. With [[Denis Papin]], he invented a [[steam engine]]. He even proposed a method for desalinating water. He struggled, 1680-85, to overcome the chronic flooding that afflicted the ducal silver mines in the Harz Mountains, but his efforts were not crowned with success. (Aiton 1985: 107-114, 136)
====Information technology====
Leibniz may have been the first computer scientist and information theorist. Early in life, he discovered the [[binary number]] system (base 2), the one subsequently employed on all computers, then revisited that system throughout his career. On Leibniz and binary numbers, see Couturat (1901: 473-78). Leibniz anticipated Lagrangian interpolation and [[algorithmic information theory]]. His [[calculus ratiocinator]] anticipated aspects of the [[universal Turing machine]]. In 1934, [[Norbert Wiener]] claimed to have found in Leibniz's writings a mention of the concept of [[feedback]], central to Wiener's later [[cybernetics|cybernetic]] theory.
In 1671, Leibniz began to invent a machine that could execute all four arithmetical operations, gradually improving it over a number of years. This machine attracted fair attention and was the basis of his election to the [[Royal Society]] in 1673. A number of such machines were made during his years in Hanover, by a craftsman working under Leibniz's supervision. It was not an unambiguous success because it did not fully mechanize the operation of carrying. Couturat (1901: 115) reported finding an unpublished note by Leibniz, dated 1674, describing a machine capable of performing some algebraic operations.
Leibniz was groping towards hardware and software concepts worked out much later by [[Charles Babbage]] and [[Ada Lovelace]], 1830-45. In 1679, while mulling over his binary arithmetic, Leibniz imagined a machine in which binary numbers were represented by marbles, governed by a rudimentary sort of punched cards.[http://www.edge.org/discourse/schirrmacher_eurotech.html] Modern electronic digital computers replace Leibniz's marbles moving by gravity with shift registers, voltage gradients, and pulses of electrons, but otherwise they run roughly as Leibniz envisioned in 1679. Davis (2000) discusses Leibniz's prophetic role in the emergence of calculating machines and of formal languages.
===The librarian===
In his capacity as librarian of the ducal libraries in [[Hanover]] and [[Wolfenbuettel]], Leibniz effectively became one of the founders of [[library science]].[http://members.tripod.com/ClintonGreen/universal.html#6] The latter library was enormous for its day, as it contained more than 100,000 volumes, and Leibniz helped design a new building for it, believed to be the first building explicitly designed to be a library. He also designed a book [[library classification|indexing system]] in ignorance of the only other such system then extant, that of the [[Bodleian Library]] at [[Oxford University]]. He also called on publishers to distribute abstracts of all new titles they produced each year, in a standard form that would facilitate indexing. He hoped that this abstracting project would eventually include everything printed from his day back to [[Gutenberg]]. Neither proposal met with success at the time, but something like them became standard practice among English language publishers during the 20th century, under the aegis of the [[Library of Congress]] and the [[British Library]].
He called for the creation of an [[empirical]] [[database]] as a means of furthering all the sciences. His [[characteristica universalis]], [[calculus ratiocinator]], and a "community of minds", intended, among other things, bringing political and religious unity to Europe, can be seen as distant unwitting anticipations of artificial languages (e.g., [[Esperanto]] and its rivals), [[symbolic logic]], even the [[World Wide Web]].
===Advocate of scientific societies===
Leibniz emphasized that [[research]] was a collaborative endeavor. Hence he warmly advocated the formation of national scientific societies along the lines of the British Royal Society and the French Academie Royale des Sciences. More specifically, in his correspondence and travels he urged the creation of such societies in Dresden, Saint Petersburg, Vienna, and Berlin. Only one such project came to fruition; in 1700, the [[Berlin Academy of Sciences]] was created. Leibniz served as its first President , for life,and drew up its first statutes. That Academy evolved into the German Academy of Sciences, the publisher of the ongoing critical edition of his works. On Leibniz’s projects for scientific societies, see Couturat (1901: App. IV).
==Lawyer, moralist, theologian==
No philosopher has ever had as much experience with practical affairs of state as Leibniz, [[Marcus Aurelius]] possibly excepted. Leibniz's writings on law, ethics, and politics (e.g., AG 19, 94, 111, 193; Riley 1988; LL §§2, 7, 20, 29, 44, 59, 62, 65; W I.1, IV.1-3) were long overlooked by English speaking scholars but this has changed of late; see (in order of difficulty) Jolley (2005: chpt. 7), Gregory Brown's chapter in Jolley (1995), Hostler (1975), and Riley (1996).
While Leibniz was no apologist for absolute monarchy a la [[Hobbes]], or for tyranny in any form, neither did he echo the political and constitutional views of his contemporary [[John Locke]], views invoked in support of democracy, first in 18th century America and subsequently elsewhere. The following excerpt from a 1695 letter to Baron J. C. Boineburg's son Philipp is very revealing of Leibniz's political sentiments:
<blockquote>"As for.. the great question of the power of sovereigns and the obedience their peoples owe them, I usually say that it would be good for princes to be persuaded that their people have the right to resist them, and for the people, on the other hand, to be persuaded to obey them passively. I am, however, quite of the opinion of [[Grotius]], that one ought to obey as a rule, the evil of revolution being greater beyond comparison than the evils causing it. Yet I recognize that a prince can go to such excess, and place the well-being of the state in such danger, that the obligation to endure ceases. This is most rare, however, and the theologian who authorizes violence under this pretext should take care against excess; excess being infinitely more dangerous than deficiency." (LL: 59, fn 16. Translation revised.)</blockquote>
Leibniz foresaw the European Union. In 1677, he (LL: 58, fn 9) called for a European confederation, governed by a council or senate, whose members would represent entire nations and would be free to vote their consciences. Europe would adopt a uniform religion. He reiterated these proposals in 1715.
Most of the secondary literature on Leibniz the [[theology|theologian]] is in French. On Leibniz and the concept of [[God]], see Blumenfeld's chapter in Jolley (1995). Although Leibniz's writings very freely invoked God, and discussed [[Christian]] [[theology]] with great assurance, he was never seen at Sunday services during the last two decades of his life, and declined to take [[Eucharist|Communion]] on his deathbed. Consequently, his fellow Hanoverians suspected him of [[atheism]], and much of Europe also did so after his death. In fact, Leibniz sitll comes off as far more religious than [[Descartes]] the tepid [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]], [[Spinoza]] the [[Jew]] expelled from his synagogue, [[Locke]] the suspected [[Socinian]], and [[Hobbes]] the near-atheist.
===Ecumenism===
Leibniz devoted considerable intellectual and diplomatic effort to what would now be called [[ecumenism|ecumenical]] endeavor, seeking to reconcile first the [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Lutheran]] churches, later the Lutheran and [[Reformed]] churches. In this respect, he followed the example of his early patrons, Baron von Boineburg and the Duke [[John Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg|John Frederick]], both cradle Lutherans who converted to Catholicism as adults, who did what they could to encourage the reunion of the two faiths, and who warmly welcomed such endeavors by others. (The House of [[Brunswick-Lüneburg|Brunswick]] remained Lutheran because the Duke's children did not follow their father.) These efforts included corresponding with the French bishop [[Bossuet]], and involved Leibniz in a fair bit of theological controversy. He evidently thought that the thoroughgoing application of reason would suffice to heal the breach caused by the [[Reformation]].
==Philologist==
Leibniz was an avid student of languages, eagerly latching on to any information about [[vocabulary]] and [[grammar]] that came his way. He refuted the belief, widely held by Christian scholars in his day, that [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] was the primeval language of the [[human race]]. He also refuted the argument, advanced by Swedish scholars in his day, that some sort of proto-[[Swedish language|Swedish]] was the ancestor of the [[Germanic languages]]. He puzzled over the origins of the [[Slavic languages]], was aware of the existence of [[Sanskrit]], and was fascinated by classical Chinese. Scholarly appreciation of Leibniz the [[philologist]] is hampered by the fact that the first volume of the Academy edition series "Historical and Linguistic Writings" has yet to appear.
==Si |
en involved in the [[Bofors scandal]]. Bachchan was not implicated in the corruption and has since distanced himself from the Gandhi family. Bachchan denies that the these events were connected, commenting that he "should have never got into politics." {{ref|politics}}
In 1995, Amitabh went into business, founding Amitabh Bachchan Corporation Ltd., an entertainment company that specialized in film production and event management. The company did not succeed and Bachchan was pushed into huge debt when a big-budget production bombed at the Bollywood box office. He did not, however, file for bankruptcy. Apart from what is a commonly held belief that influential public figures such as Sahara Group chairman Subroto Roy and politician Amar Singh helped bail Bachchan financially out of his debts, the actor also took on visibly more acting and endorsing contracts to pay off his creditors. According to most accounts, with his return to the small screen for a second season of Kaun Banega Crorepati, his debts may have been completely cleared in 2005. Some observers speculate that he will try to revive his company.
He was admited to hospital in November 2005 for Ulcerative Colitis. For weeks this formed the basis of the main news stories in the Indian media. Such is the popularity of Amitabh that prayers were held all over India and special ‘pujas' conducted, in scenes reminiscient of the Coolie film accident.
In 2006, Indian National Organisation for Tobacco Eradication (Note) accused Bachchan of breaking national law by appearing smoking a cigar on advertising posters for the film ''Family''. India's government banned tobacco advertisements in 2003, and Note threatened the film star with legal action.
==Trivia==
Amitabh Bachchan has played a character named Vijay in at least seventeen of his films! Veteran Hindi actor Raaj Kumar was first approached to play the role of Police Inspector in Zanjeer, for some reason Raaj Kumar (who was known for his eccentric mannerisms)didn't accept the role and the role went to Amitabh. Had Raaj Kumar accepted the Zanjeer's hero's role, Amitabh might not have been what he is today.
==Awards==
Bachchan has received the [[Padma Shri]] (1983) and [[Padma Bhushan]] (2005), civilian honours from the [[Government of India|Indian government]]. In 1990, he won the National Award for his portrayal of a mafia don in ''Agneepath''. In 1999, he was named [[BBC]] Superstar of the Millennium. He has also won 14 [[Filmfare Award]]s in various categories.He recently won the 2006 FilmFare award for best actor for his role in film Black.
==Filmography==
{{ActingFilmography}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Kamagata Maru]] |
Year = 2006 |
Role =
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Happy New Year (film)|Happy New Year]] |
Year = 2007 |
Role =
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Baiju Aur Tansen |
Year = 2006 |
Role = Tansen
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Sholay]] |
Year = 2006 |
Role = Gabbar Singh
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Darna Zaroori Hai |
Year = 2006 |
Role =
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = God Tussi Great Ho |
Year = 2006 |
Role =
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna]] |
Year = 2006 |
Role = Mohinder Sharma
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Baabul]] |
Year = 2006 |
Role = Balraj Kapoor
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Eklavya (film)|Eklavya]] |
Year = 2006 |
Role =
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Khazan |
Year = 2006 |
Role =
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Struggler |
Year = 2006 |
Role =
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Zamaanat |
Year = 2006 |
Role = Shiv Shankar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Family |
Year = 2006 |
Role = Viren Sahai
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Ek Ajnabee]] |
Year = 2005 |
Role = Suryaveer Singh
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Dil Jo Bhi Kahey... |
Year = 2005 |
Role = Shekhar Sinha
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Viruddh]] |
Year = 2005 |
Role = Vidhyadar Ramkrishna Patwardhan
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Parineeta]] |
Year = 2005 |
Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Sarkar (film)]] |
Year = 2005 |
Role = Subhash Nagare 'Sarkar'
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Paheli]] |
Year = 2005 |
Role = The Shepherd
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Ramji Londonwale]] |
Year = 2005 |
Role = Amitabh Bachchan as Himself
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Bunty Aur Babli]] |
Year = 2005 |
Role = DCP Dashrath Singh
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Waqt]] |
Year = 2005 |
Role = Ishwarchand Thakur
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Black (The Movie)|Black]] |
Year = 2005 |
Role = Debraj Sahai
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Khakee]] |
Year = 2004 |
Role = DCP Anant Kumar Shrivastav
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Aetbaar |
Year = 2004 |
Role = Dr. Ranveer Malhotra
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Rudraksh |
Year = 2004 |
Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Insaaf: The Justice |
Year = 2004 |
Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Dev]] |
Year = 2004 |
Role = Dev
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Lakshya]] |
Year = 2004 |
Role = Col. Sunil Damle
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Deewaar]] |
Year = 2004 |
Role = Maj. Ranvir Kaul
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Kyun...! Ho Gaya Na]] |
Year = 2004 |
Role = Raj Chauhan
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Hum Kaun Hai? |
Year = 2004 |
Role = Dual Role (Major Frank John Williams & Frank James Williams)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Veer-Zaara]] |
Year = 2004 |
Role = Chaudhary Sumer Singh
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Ab Tumhare Hawale Watan Saathiyo |
Year = 2004 |
Role = Major General Amarjeet Singh
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Fun2shh |
Year = 2003 |
Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Baghban]] |
Year = 2003 |
Role = Raj Malhotra
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Boom]] |
Year = 2003 |
Role = Bade Mia
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Mumbai Se Aaya Mera Dost ]] |
Year = 2003 |
Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Armaan |
Year = 2003 |
Role = Dr. Siddharth Sinha
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Khushi |
Year = 2003 |
Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Kaante]] |
Year = 2002 |
Role = Yashvardhan Rampal 'Major'
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Agnivarsha |
Year = 2002 |
Role = Indra
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Hum Kisise Kum Nahi |
Year = 2002 |
Role = Dr. Rastogi
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Aankhen |
Year = 2002 |
Role = Vijay Singh Rajput
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Lagaan]] |
Year = 2001 |
Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham]] | Year = 2001 | Role = Yashvardhan 'Yash' Raichand
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Aks]] |
Year = 2001 |
Role = Inspector Manu Verma
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Ek Rishta - The Bond of Love |
Year = 2001 |
Role = Vijay Kapoor
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = [[Mohabbatein]] |
Year = 2000 |
Role = Narayan Shankar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
Title = Kohraam |
Year = 1999 |
Role = Col. Balbir Singh Sodi, aka Devraj Hathoda/Dada Bhai
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = Hindustan Ki Kasam
| Year = 1999
| Role = Kabeera
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Hello Brother]]
| Year = 1999
| Role = Voice of God
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = Sooryavansham
| Year = 1999
| Role = Dual Role (Thakur Bhanu Pratap Singh & Heera Singh)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = Lal Baadshah
| Year = 1999
| Role = Dual Role (Lal 'Baadshah' Singh & Ranbhir Singh)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Bade Miyan Chhote Miyan]]
| Year = 1998
| Role = Dual Role (Inspector Arjun Singh & Bade Miyan)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = Majorsaab
| Year = 1998
| Role = Maj. Jasbir Singh Rana
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Mrityudata]]
| Year = 1997
| Role = Dr. Ram Prasad Ghayal
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = Tere Mere Sapne
| Year = 1996
| Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Insaniyat]]
| Year = 1994
| Role = Inspector Amar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Khuda Gawah]]
| Year = 1992
| Role = Baadshah Khan
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Indrajeet]]
| Year = 1991
| Role = Indrajeet
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Hum]]
| Year = 1991
| Role = Tiger/Shekhar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Akayla]]
| Year = 1991
| Role = Inspector Vijay Verma
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Ajooba]]
| Year = 1991
| Role = Ajooba/Ali
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = Krodh
| Year = 1990
| Role =
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Agneepath]]
| Year = 1990
| Role = Vijay Deenanath Chauhan
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Aaj ka Arjun]]
| Year = 1990
| Role = Bheema
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Toofan]]
| Year = 1989
| Role = Dual Role (Toofan & Shyam)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Main Azaad Hoon]]
| Year = 1989
| Role = Azaad
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Jaadugar]]
| Year = 1989
| Role =
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = Soorma Bhopali
| Year = 1988
| Role = (Guest Appearance)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = [[Shahenshah]]
| Year = 1988
| Role = Inspector Vijay Kumar Srivastava/Shahenshah
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Title = Kaun Jeeta Kaun Haara (Guest)
| Year = 1988
| Role =
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie
| Ti |
creased illegal emigration (escapes - Republikflucht in German) from 2.5 million between [[1949]] and [[1962]] to 5,000 between [[1962]] and [[1989]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9078806?query=berlin%20wall&ct= | title="Berlin Wall" | work = Encyclopedia Britannica | accessdate=2006-02-23}}</ref>
However, the creation of the Wall was a propaganda disaster for East Germany and for the communist bloc as a whole. It became a key symbol of what Western powers regarded as Communist tyranny, particularly after the high-profile shootings of would-be defectors. Political liberalization in the late [[1980]]s, associated with the decline of the [[Soviet Union]], led to relaxed border restrictions in East Germany, culminating in mass demonstrations and the fall of the East German government. When a government statement that crossing of the border would be permitted was broadcast on [[November 9]], 1989, masses of East Germans approached and then crossed the wall, and were joined by crowds of West Germans in a celebratory atmosphere. The Wall was subsequently destroyed by a jubilant public over a period of several weeks, and its fall was the first step toward [[German reunification]], which was formally concluded on [[October 3]], [[1990]].
==Background==
[[Image:Besatzungszonen ohne text.gif|thumb|200px|Occupied Germany in 1945]]
After the [[end of World War II in Europe]], Germany had been divided into four occupation zones. The old capital of [[Berlin]], as the seat of the [[Allied Control Council]], was itself subdivided into four occupation zones. Although the intent was for the occupying powers to govern Germany together in the borders from 1947, the advent of [[Cold War]] tension caused the [[France|French]], [[Britain|British]] and [[United States|American]] zones to be formed into the [[West Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]] (and [[West Berlin]]) in 1949, excluding the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] zone which then formed the [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] (including [[East Berlin]]) the same year.
===Divergence of German states===
From 1949 onwards, the Federal Republic of Germany developed into a western capitalist country with a "social market economy" and a [[democracy|democratic]] parliamentary government. Prolonged economic growth starting in the 1950s fuelled a 30-year "economic miracle" ([[Wirtschaftswunder]]). Across the border, the German Democratic Republic established an authoritarian government with a Soviet-style [[planned economy|command economy]]. While the GDR became the richest, most advanced country in the Eastern bloc, many of its citizens still looked to the West for political freedoms and economic prosperity. The flight of growing numbers of East Germans to non-communist countries via West Berlin led to East Germany erecting the [[GDR border system]] (of which the Berlin Wall was a part) in [[1961]] to prevent any further exodus.
===Massive emigration===
From 1949 to 1961 huge numbers of professionals and skilled workers migrated daily between East and West Berlin, frequently because of lucrative opportunities in the [[Marshall Plan]] rebuilding West (one day the entire [[Mathematics]] Department of the [[University of Leipzig]] defected). Furthermore, many West Berliners travelled into East Berlin to do their shopping at state-[[Subsidy|subsidized]] stores, where prices were much lower than in West Berlin. This drain of labour and economic output threatened East Germany with economic collapse. This had ramifications for the whole [[Eastern bloc|Communist bloc]] and particularly the [[Soviet Union]], because East Germany's economy was being subsidized by the Soviet government, and simultaneously, the now-threatened East German production was responsible for all war reparations to [[Poland]] and the Soviet Union.
===Proposed barrier===
The impetus for the creation of the Berlin Wall came from East German leader [[Walter Ulbricht]], approved by Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] but with conditions imposed. Ulbricht's proposal for a second air blockade was refused, and the construction of a barrier was permitted provided that it was composed at first of [[barbed wire]]. If the Allies challenged the barrier, the East Germans were to fall back and were not to fire first under any circumstances.
==Construction begins, 1961==
[[image:Karte_berliner_mauer_en.jpg|thumb|300px|Position and course of the Berlin Wall and its border control checkpoints (1989)]]
Construction of 45 km (28 miles) around the three western sectors began on Sunday [[13 August]], [[1961]] in East Berlin. That morning the zonal boundary had been sealed by East German troops. The barrier was built by East German troops and workers, not directly involving the Soviets. It was built a little way inside East German territory to ensure that it did not encroach on West Berlin at any point; if one stood next to the West Berlin side of the barrier (and later the Wall), one was actually standing on East Berlin soil. Some streets along which the barrier ran were torn up to make them impassable to most vehicles and a barbed-wire fence was erected, which was later built up into the full-scale Wall. It physically divided the city and completely surrounded West Berlin. During the construction of the Wall, [[National People's Army|NVA]] and [[Combat Groups of the Working Class|KdA]] soldiers stood in front of it with orders to shoot anyone who attempted to defect.
Additionally, the whole length of the border between East and West Germany was closed with chain-fences, walls, minefields, and other installations (see [[GDR border system]]).
===Immediate effects===
Many families were split. Many East Berliners were cut off from their jobs and from chances for financial betterment; West Berlin became an isolated enclave in a hostile land. West Berliners demonstrated against the wall, led by their mayor [[Willy Brandt]], who strongly criticized the United States for failing to respond. Allied intelligence agencies had hypothesized about a wall to stop the flood of refugees but the main candidate for its location was around the perimeter of the city.
[[Image:Kennedy_in_Berlin.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy visiting the Berlin Wall on [[June 26]], 1963]]
[[John F. Kennedy]] had accepted in a speech on [[25 July]], [[1961]] [http://www.jfklibrary.org/jfk_berlin_crisis_speech.html] that it could only really hope to defend West Berliners and West Germans; to attempt to stand up for East Germans would only result in an embarrassing climbdown. Accordingly, the administration made polite protests at length via "the usual channels", but without fervour, even though it was a violation of the postwar Four Powers Agreements, which gave the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]] and the [[United States]] a say over the administration of the whole of Berlin. Indeed, a few months after the barbed wire went up, the U.S. government would inform the Soviet government that it accepted the Wall as "a fact of international life" and would not challenge it by force.
The East German government claimed that the Wall was an "anti-fascist protection barrier", intended to dissuade aggression from the West. However, this position was viewed with scepticism even in East Germany; its construction had caused considerable hardship to families divided by the Wall, and the Western view that the Wall was a means of preventing the citizens of East Germany from entering West Berlin was widely seen as being the truth.
===Secondary response===
It was clear both that West German morale needed more and that there was a serious potential threat to the viability of West Berlin. If West Berlin fell after all the efforts of the [[Berlin Blockade#The Berlin Airlift|Berlin Airlift]], how could any of America's allies rely on her? On the other hand, in the face of any serious Soviet threat, an enclave like West Berlin could not be defended except with nuclear weapons. As such, it was vitally important for the Americans to show the Soviets that they could push their luck no further.
Accordingly, General [[Lucius D. Clay]], who was deeply respected by Berliners after commanding the American effort during the Berlin Airlift (1948&ndash;49), and was known to have a firm attitude towards the Soviets, was sent to Berlin with ambassadorial rank as Kennedy's special advisor. He and Vice President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] arrived at [[Tempelhof International Airport|Tempelhof Airport]] on the afternoon of Saturday [[19 August]].
They arrived in a city defended by what would soon be known as the "[[Berlin Brigade]]", which then consisted of the 2nd and 3rd Battle Groups of the 6th Infantry, with Company F, 40th Armor. The battle groups were pentatomic, with 1362 officers and men each. On [[16 August]], Kennedy had given the order for them to be reinforced. Early on [[19 August]], the 1st Battle Group, 18th Infantry (commanded by Col. Glover S. Johns Jr.) was alerted.
On Sunday morning, lead elements in a column of 491 vehicles and trailers carrying 1500 men divided into five march units and left the Helmstedt-Marienborn checkpoint at 06:34. At Marienborn, the Soviet checkpoint next to [[Helmstedt]] on the West German/East German border, U.S. personnel were counted by guards. The column was 160 km (~100 miles) long, and covered 177 km (~110 miles) from Marienborn to Berlin in full battle gear, with VoPos (East German traffic police) watching from beside trees next to the autobahn all the way along. The front of the convoy arrived at the outskirts of Berlin just before noon, to be met by Clay and Johnson, before parading through the streets of Berlin to an adoring crowd. At 0400 on Monday, [[21 August]], Lyndon Johnson left a visibly reassured West Berlin in the hands of Gen. Frederick O. Hartel and his brigade, now of 4224 officers and men. Every thr |
fighters in Afghanistan in response to the Soviet invasion of the country. The [[Mujahedeen]] trained by the CIA later formed [[Osama bin Laden]]'s Al Qaeda terrorist organization. [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], the National Security Advisor under President [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]], has [[Zbigniew Brzezinski#Afghanistan|discussed]] U.S. involvement in Afghanistan in several publications.
Later, the CIA facilitated the so-called [[Reagan Doctrine]], channelling weapons and other support (in addition to the Mujahedeen and the Contras) to [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s [[National Union for Total Independence of Angola|UNITA]] rebel movement in Angola in response to [[Cuba]]n military support for the [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola|MPLA]], thus turning an otherwise low-profile African civil war into one of the larger battlegrounds of the Cold War.
===Highly-illegal activities===
The Intelligence Community in the 21st Century, Staff Study, Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, House of Representatives, One Hundred Fourth Congress: [http://www.loyola.edu/dept/politics/intel/ic21_files/ic21009.html]
<blockquote>"Most of the operations of the CS [Clandestine Service] are, by all accounts, the
most tricky, politically sensitive, and troublesome of those in the
IC [Intelligence Community] and frequently require the DCI's [Director of Central Intelligence's] close personal attention. The [Clandestine Service] is the only part of the [Intelligence Community], indeed of the government, where hundreds of employees on a daily basis are directed to break extremely serious laws in countries around the world in the face of frequently sophisticated efforts by foreign governments to catch them. A safe estimate is that several hundred times every day (easily 100,000 times a year) DO [Directorate of Operations] officers engage in highly illegal activities (according to foreign law) that not only risk political embarrassment to the U.S. but also endanger the freedom if not lives of the participating foreign nationals and, more than occasionally, of the clandestine officer himself. In other words, a typical 28 year old, GS-11 case officer has numerous opportunities every week, by poor tradecraft or inattention, to embarrass his country and President and to get agents imprisoned or executed. Considering these facts and recent history, which has shown that the DCI, whether he wants to or not, is held accountable for overseeing the CS, the DCI must work closely with the Director of the CS and hold him fully and directly responsible to him."</blockquote>
<!--However, it is important to understand that both the passive and active collection of information from informant-agents and technological means such reconaissance satellites regarding the means, methods, and plans of foreign governments or organizations is usually deemed as illegal by foreign entities. Unfortunately, given the state of the world as it exists today, regrettably illegal methods of information acquisition - eavesdropping and spying, are the most effective means of gaining "actionable intelligence".-->
=== Criticism for ineffectiveness ===
The agency has also been criticized for ineffectiveness as an intelligence gathering agency. These criticisms included allowing a [[double agent]], [[Aldrich Ames]], to gain high position within the organization, and for focusing on finding informants with information of dubious value rather than on processing the vast amount of [[open source intelligence]]. In addition, the CIA has come under particular criticism for failing to predict the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] and [[India]]'s [[nuclear test]]s or to forestall the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].
Conversely, proponents of the CIA respond by stating that only the failures become known to the public, whereas the successes cannot be known until decades have passed. Immediate release of successful operations would reveal operational methods to foreign intelligence, which could affect future and/or ongoing missions. Some successes for the CIA include the [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] and [[SR-71]] programs, anti-[[Soviet Union|Soviet]] operations in [[Afghanistan]] in the mid-[[1980s]] (though with the serious downsides noted earlier, the ultimate worth of these operations is open to considerable debate), and perhaps others which may not come to light for some time.
=== Drug trafficking ===
Allegations have repeatedly been made that the CIA has been involved in drug trafficking to fund illegal operations. For example, it has been alleged that the CIA was involved in the sale of cocaine in Los Angeles to help fund the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] (see [http://www.csun.edu/CommunicationStudies/ben/news/cia/]). Ms. Waters, stated in Congress:
:In 1982, the Attorney General and the Director of Central Intelligence entered into an agreement that excluded the reporting of narcotics and drug crimes by the CIA to the Justice Department. Under this agreement, there was no requirement to report information of drug trafficking and drug law violations with respect to CIA agents, assets, non-staff employees and contractors. This remarkable and secret agreement was enforced from February 1982 to August of 1995. This covers nearly the entire period of U.S. involvement in the Contra war in Nicaragua and the deep U.S. involvement in the counterinsurgency activities in El Salvador and Central America. [http://www.csun.edu/CommunicationStudies/ben/news/cia/7May98/waters2.html]
On October 8, 1998, CIA Inspector General Hitz published Volume Two of his internal investigation of CIA connections with crack distribution in the United States and with Latin American drug dealers. The report published evidence that drug trafficking and money laundering had made its way into Reagan's National Security Council. The report describes how the Reagan-Bush administration had deliberately thwarted federal investigations into drug crimes by protecting more than 50 contras and other drug traffickers. ([[Gary Webb]]; "Dark Alliance" by Gary Webb; "Whiteout" by Alexander Cokburn.)
It has also been alleged that the CIA has been involved in the opium/heroin trade in Asia. (see [http://www.serendipity.li/cia.html]).
=== Assassinations ===
The CIA has been linked to several assassination attempts on foreign leaders, including former leader of Panama [[Omar Torrijos]] and the President of Cuba, [[Fidel Castro]]. (See [[Church Committee]])
On [[January 13]], 2006, the CIA launched an [[Damadola airstrike|airstrike on Damadola]], a [[Pakistan]]i village near the Afghan border, where they believed [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] was located. The airstrike killed eight men, five women and five children but al-Zawahiri was not among them. At least four known terrorists were killed in the attack. The Pakistan government issued a strong protest against the US attack, considered a violation of Pakistan's sovereignty. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2089-1986114,00.html] [http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.php?id=130830]
===CIA operations in Iraq===
According to certain authors[http://www.muslimedia.com/archives/features98/saddam.htm] [http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/iraq/history/1963cialist.htm] [http://www.zmag.org/shalomhate.htm]
[http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article2849.htm] the CIA appears to have supported the 1963 military [[coup]] in [[Iraq]] and the subsequent [[Saddam Hussein]]-led government up until the point of the 1990 Iraqi invasion of [[Kuwait]]. U.S. support was predicated on the notion that Iraq was a key buffer state in relations with the [[Soviet Union]]. There are court records [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/iraq61.pdf] indicating that the CIA gave military and monetary assistance to Iraq during the [[Iran-Iraq War]]. The CIA were also involved in the failed 1996 coup against Saddam Hussein (see [[Iyad Allawi]]).
In 2002 an unnamed source, quoted in the [[Washington Post]], says that the CIA was authorized to undertake a covert operation, if necessary with help of the [[Special Forces]], that could serve as a preparation for a full-scale military attack of Iraq. [http://www.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/06/16/iraq.congress/]
The unreliability of U.S. intelligence on [[weapons of mass destruction]] in Iraq have been a focus of intense scrutiny in the U.S. In 2004, the continuing armed resistance against the U.S. invasion of Iraq, and the widely perceived need for [[systematic review]] of the respective roles of the CIA, [[FBI]] and the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] are prominent themes.
On [[July 9]] [[2004]] the [[Senate Report of Pre-war Intelligence on Iraq]] of the [[Senate Intelligence Committee]] stated that the CIA described the danger presented by [[weapons of mass destruction]] in [[Iraq]] in an unreasonable way, largely unsupported by the available intelligence. [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/09/national/09CND-INTEL.html?hp]
Nevertheless, the weapons of mass destruction remain unaccounted for today.
===Secret CIA prisons===
A story by reporter [[Dana Priest]] published in ''[[The Washington Post]]'' of [[November 2]] [[2005]], reported: "The CIA has been hiding and interrogating some of its most important alleged al Qaeda captives at a Soviet-era compound in Eastern Europe, according to U.S. and foreign officials familiar with the arrangement."[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/01/AR2005110101644_pf.html] However, a Council of Europe investigation has found no evidence that such prisons exist. [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/24/international/europe/24cnd-cia.html?_r=1]
The report contends that the CIA has a worldwide [[CIA prison system|covert prison system]] with facilities in Asia, Eastern Europe, and in Guantanamo Bay in Cuba. The system is central to the agency's anti-terror role, and according to the report has been kept secret from government official |
steads, and ultimately some small townships such as [[Hall, Australian Capital Territory|Hall]] and [[Tharwa, Australian Capital Territory|Tharwa]], were established in the area.
One homestead of special historical interest was Lambrigg, near Tharwa. This was the place in which [[William Farrer]] developed the [[rust (fungus)|rust]]-resistant Federation [[wheat]] strain that had a major beneficial effect on Australia's wheat industry. Farrer died at Lambrigg in 1906.
When the [[Constitution of Australia|constitution]] for the [[Commonwealth of Australia]] was being negotiated between the colonies, [[Melbourne]] was nominated as the Capital city of Australia, however, [[Sydney]] disputed this and wanted to become the capital. To cease the dispute created by [[Sydney]] a new capital city would be built. When finally decided, the Constitution specified that the new capital city would be located in territory taken from [[New South Wales]], but be at least 100 [[statute miles]] from Sydney.
The present site was chosen in 1908{{ref|GovAct1908}}, with additional territory at [[Jervis Bay Territory|Jervis Bay]] (now a naval base on the NSW coast) allocated so the national capital could have a seaport. In 1909 New South Wales transferred the land for the territory to federal control and in 1910 an act of parliament created the legal framework for the territory{{ref|SeatofGov1909}}{{ref|SeatGovAct1910}}. The Minister for Home Affairs, [[King O'Malley]], who had charge of the legislation creating the ACT, also proposed a bill making the ACT an alcohol-free area. With his strong support, the bill became law later that year. In 1911 an international design competition was held, which was won by [[Walter Burley Griffin]]. The official naming of Canberra and its official construction began on [[March 12]], [[1913]].
The seat of the Federal Government officially moved to the ACT from Melbourne on the formal opening of the [[Provisional Parliament House]] on [[9 May]] [[1927]]. Among the first acts passed by the parliament in its new location was the repealing of the prohibition laws. At first the public service continued to be based in Melbourne, but the various departments were gradually moved to Canberra over many years.
The territory was initially known as the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). In 1938, the territory was formally named the Australian Capital Territory.
In a 1978 referendum, Canberrans rejected self-government by 63% of the vote {{ref|PatWACT}}. Despite this, in December 1988, the ACT was granted full self-government through an Act of the Commonwealth Parliament that made the ACT a body politic under the crown{{ref|SelfGovAct1988}}. Following the first elections in February 1989, a 17-member Legislative Assembly sat at its offices in London Circuit, Civic, on [[May 11]], [[1989]]. The [[Australian Labor Party]] formed the ACT's first government, led by the Chief Minister [[Rosemary Follett]], who made history as Australia's first female head of government.
==Geography==
[[Image:ACT-Jervis Bay-Sydney-MJC.png|left|thumb|125px|Location of the ACT and Jervis Bay]]
Apart from [[Canberra]] city, the Australian Capital Territory also contains agricultural land ([[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[dairy cattle]], [[vineyard]]s and a small amount of crops), and a large area of national park ([[Namadgi National Park]]), much of it mountainous and forested. Small townships and communities located within the ACT include Williamsdale, Naas, [[Uriarra, Australian Capital Territory|Uriarra]], [[Tharwa, Australian Capital Territory|Tharwa]] and [[Hall, Australian Capital Territory|Hall]].
Tidbinbilla is a locality to the south-west of Canberra that features the [[Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve]] and the [[Canberra Deep Space Communications Complex]], operated by [[NASA]] as part of its [[Deep Space Network]].
There are a large range of mountains, rivers and creeks in the Namadgi National Park. These include the Naas and Murrumbidgee Rivers.
In 1915 the ''[[Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915]]'' created the [[Jervis Bay Territory]] as an annexe to the Australian Capital Territory. In 1988 when the ACT gained self-government, Jervis Bay became a separate territory administered by the Minister for Territories.
===Climate===
Because of its elevation and distance from the coast, the Australian Capital Territory experiences four distinct seasons, unlike many other Australian cities whose climates are moderated by the sea. Canberra is notorious for hot, dry summers, and cold winters with heavy [[fog]] and frequent [[frost]]s. Many of the higher mountains in the territory's south-east are snow covered for at least part of the winter. [[Thunderstorm]]s can occur between October and March, and annual rainfall is 623&nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]], with rainfall maximums in spring and summer and minimum in winter.
'''Highest maximum temperature:''' 42.2&nbsp;°C (108.0&nbsp;°F), [[Canberra]], [[1 February]] [[1968]]
'''Lowest minimum temperature:''' -10.0&nbsp;°C (14.0&nbsp;°F), [[Canberra]], [[11 July]] [[1971]]
===Geology===
{{main|Natural history of the Australian Capital Territory}}
Notable geological formations in the Australian Capital Territory include the ''Canberra Formation'', the ''Pittman Formation'', ''Black Mountain Sandstone'' and ''State Circle Shale''.
In the 1840s [[fossil]]s of [[brachiopod]]s and [[trilobite]]s from the [[Silurian]] period were discovered at Woolshed Creek near [[Duntroon, Australian Capital Territory|Duntroon]]. At the time these where the oldest fossils discovered in Australia, though this record has now been far surpassed.{{ref|Woolshedheritage}} Other specific geological places of interest include the State Circle cutting and the Deakin anticline.{{ref|StateCircleCutting}}{{ref|DeakinAnticlineNT}}
The oldest rocks in the ACT date from the [[Ordovician]] around 480 million years ago. During this period the region along with most of Eastern Australia was part of the ocean floor; formations from this period include the ''Black Mountain Sandstone'' formation and the ''Pittman Formation'' consisting largely of [[quartz]]-rich [[sandstone]], [[siltstone]] and [[shale]]. These formations became exposed when the ocean floor was raised by a major [[orogeny|volcanic activity]] in the [[Devonian]] forming much of the east coast of Australia.
==Governance==
{{see also|Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly}}
[[Image:ACT Legislative Assembly.JPG|thumb|The ACT Legislative Assembly building]]
The ACT has internal self-government, but it does not have the legislative independence of the Australian states. It is governed by a Ministry headed by a Chief Minister (currently [[Jon Stanhope]], [[ALP|Australian Labor Party]]). Laws are made in a 17-member [[Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] that has all state and local government functions. However, its decisions can be overruled by the Australian Government under section 122 of the [[Australian Constitution]]. (See also [[Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories]]). The ACT Government is a member of the [[Council of Australian Governments]].
Unlike other self-governing Australian territories (e.g. [[Norfolk Island]], [[Northern Territory]]), the ACT does not have an Administrator. The Crown is represented by the [[Governor-General of Australia]] in the government of the ACT.
In Australia's [[Parliament of Australia|Federal Parliament]], the ACT is represented by four members: two [[Australian Senate|Senators]], and two members of the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]; the [[Division of Fraser]] and the [[Division of Canberra]].
==Demographics==
In the 2001 census the population of the ACT was 311,947, of which only 429 were outside Canberra. The ACT median weekly income for people aged over 15 was in the range $500-$599 while the population living outside Canberra was at the national average of $300-$399. The average level of education in the ACT is significantly higher than the national average. Within the ACT 4% of the population have a postgraduate degree compared to just 1.4% in the whole of Australia.
==Education==
{{main|Education in the Australian Capital Territory}}
[[Image:Canberra school of art.JPG|right|thumb|[[Australian National University|ANU]] school of art, originally built as Canberra High School]]
Almost all educational institutions in the Australian Capital Territory are located within [[Canberra]]. The ACT public education system schooling is normally split up into [[Pre-School]], [[Primary School]] (K-6), [[High School]] (7-10) and [[College#Australia|College]] (11-12) followed by studies at [[university]] or [[TAFE]]. Many private high schools include years 11 and 12 and are referred to as colleges.
In February 2004 there were 140 [[List of schools in the Australian Capital Territory|public and non-governmental schools]] in Canberra; 96 were operated by the Government and 44 are non-Government.{{ref|ABSACTSchools}} In 2005 there where 60,275 students in the ACT school system. 59.3% of the students where enrolled in government schools with the remaining 40.7% in non-government schools. There where 30,995 students in primary school, 19,211 in high school, 9,429 in College and a further 340 in special schools. {{ref|ACTenrolments}}
As of May 2004, 30% of people in the ACT aged 15&ndash;64 had a level of educational attainment equal to at least an [[bachelor's degree]], significantly higher that the national average of 19%. {{ref|2004Education}} The two main tertiary institutions are the [[Australian National University]] (ANU) in [[Acton, Australian Capital Territory|Acton]] and the [[University of Canberra]] (UC) in [[Bruce, Australian Capital Territory|Bruce]]. There are also two religious university campuses in Canberra: Signadou is a campus of the [[Australian Catholic University]] and St Mark's Theological C |
machines used the other, regardless of whether there was software available which could make sense of the other format.
For quite a while in the 1980s, users could purchase a special tool called a "disk notcher" which would allow them to cut a second "write unprotect" notch in these diskettes and thus use them as "flippies" (either inserted as intended or upside down): both sides could now be written on and thereby the data storage capacity was doubled. Other users made do with a steady hand and a [[hole punch]] or [[scissors]]. For re-protecting a disk side, one would simply place a piece of opaque tape over the notch or hole in question<!--wouldn't you need a second hole for the sector 0 indexing as well?-->. These "flippy disk procedures" were followed by owners of practically every home-computer single sided disk drives. Proper disk labels became quite important for such users.
== More on floppy disk formats ==
=== Using the disk space efficiently ===
In general, data is written to floppy disks in a series of sectors, angular blocks of the disk, and in tracks, concentric rings at a constant radius, e.g. the HD format of 3½-inch floppy disks uses 512 bytes per sector, 18 sectors per track, 80 tracks per side and two sides, for a total of 1,474,560 bytes per disk. (Some disk controllers can vary these parameters at the user's request, increasing the amount of storage on the disk, although these formats may not be able to be read on machines with other controllers; e.g. [[Microsoft]] applications were often distributed on [[Distribution Media Format]] (DMF) disks, a hack that allowed 1.68 MB (1680 KiB) to be stored on a 3½-inch floppy by formatting it with 21 sectors instead of 18, while these disks were still properly recognized by a standard controller.) On the [[IBM PC]] and also on the [[MSX]], [[Atari ST]], [[Amstrad CPC]], and most other microcomputer platforms, disks are written using a [[Constant Angular Velocity|Constant Angular Velocity (CAV)]]&mdash;Constant Sector Capacity format. This means that the disk spins at a constant speed, and the sectors on the disk all hold the same amount of information on each track regardless of radial location.
However, this is not the most efficient way to use the disk surface, even with available drive electronics. Because the sectors have a constant angular size, the 512 bytes in each sector are packed into a smaller length near the disk's center than nearer the disk's edge. A better technique would be to increase the number of sectors/track toward the outer edge of the disk, from 18 to 30 for instance, thereby keeping constant the amount of physical disk space used for storing each 512 byte sector (see ''[[zone bit recording]]''). Apple implemented this solution in the early Macintosh computers by spinning the disk slower when the head was at the edge while keeping the data rate the same, allowing them to store 400 KB per side, amounting to an extra 160 KB on a double-sided disk. This higher capacity came with a serious disadvantage, however: the format required a special drive mechanism and control circuitry not used by other manufacturers, meaning that Mac disks could not be read on any other computers. Apple eventually gave up on the format and used standard HD floppy drives on their later machines.
=== The Commodore 64/128 ===
Commodore started its tradition of special disk formats with the 5¼-inch disk drives accompanying its [[Commodore PET|PET/CBM]], [[Commodore VIC-20|VIC-20]] and [[Commodore 64]] home computers, like the [[Commodore 1540|1540]] and (better-known) [[Commodore 1541|1541]] drives used with the latter two machines. The standard Commodore [[Group Code Recording]] scheme used in 1541 and compatibles employed four different data rates depending upon track position (see ''[[zone bit recording]]''). Tracks 1 to 17 had 21 sectors, 18 to 24 had 19, 25 to 30 had 18, and 31 to 35 had 17, for a disk capacity of 170 KB (170.75 KiB<!--- (17*21 + 7*19 + 6*18 + 5*17) *256 = 174,848 bytes --->).
Eventually Commodore gave in to disk format standardization, and made its last 5¼-inch drives, the [[Commodore 1570|1570]] and [[Commodore 1571|1571]], compatible with [[Modified Frequency Modulation|Modified Frequency Modulation (MFM)]], to enable the [[Commodore 128]] to work with [[CP/M]] disks from several vendors. Equipped with one of these drives, the C128 was able to access both C64 and CP/M disks, as it needed to, as well as MS-DOS disks (using third-party software), which was a crucial feature for some office work.
Commodore also offered its 8-bit machines a 3½-inch 800 KB disk format with its [[Commodore 1581|1581]] disk drive.
=== The Commodore Amiga ===
The [[Commodore International|Commodore]] [[Commodore Amiga|Amiga]] computers used an 880 KB format (eleven 512-byte sectors per track<!--- times 80 tracks, times two sides --->) on a 3½-inch floppy. Because the entire track was written at once, inter-sector gaps could be eliminated, saving space. The Amiga floppy controller was much more flexible than the one on the PC: it did not impose arbitrary format restrictions, and foreign formats such as the IBM PC could also be handled (by use of CrossDos, which was included in later versions Workbench). On the PC, however, there is no way to read an Amiga disk without special hardware or a second floppy drive ([http://www.jschoenfeld.com/products/catweasel_e.htm][http://www.oldskool.org/disk2fdi]), which is also a crucial reason for an [[emulator]] being technically unable to access real Amiga disks inserted in a standard PC floppy disk drive.
Commodore never upgraded the [[Original Amiga chipset|Amiga chip set]] to support high-density floppies, but sold a custom drive (made by Chinon) that spun at half speed (150 [[RPM]]) when a high-density floppy was inserted, enabling the existing floppy controller to be used.
This drive was introduced with the launch of the [[Amiga 3000]], although the later [[Amiga 1200]] was only fitted with the standard DD drive.
The Amiga HD disks could handle 1760 KB, but using special software programs it could hold even more data. A company named Kolff Computer Supplies also made an external HD floppy drive (KCS Dual HD Drive) available which could handle HD format diskettes on all Amiga computer systems. They were also famous for the KCS Power Cartridge.
Because of storage reasons, the use of emulators and preserving data, many disks were packed into disk-images. Currently popular formats are <tt>.ADF</tt> ([[Amiga Disk File]]), <tt>.DMS</tt> ([[DiskMasher]]) and <tt>.IPF</tt> ([[Interchangeable Preservation Format]]) files. DiskMasher is copyright protected and had problems storing particular sequences of bits due to bugs in the compression algorithm, it was also widely used in the pirate and demo scenes. [[Amiga Disk File|ADF]] has been around for almost as long as the Amiga itself though it was not initially called by that name. Only with the advent of the Internet and Amiga emulators has it become a popular way of distributing disk images. IPF files were created to allow preservation of commercial games, which is something that ADF and DMS unfortunately cannot do.
=== The Acorn Archimedes ===
Another machine using a similar "advanced" disk format was the British [[Acorn Archimedes]], which could store 800K on a 3½-inch DD floppy using the ADFS D and E formats. Later Archimedes models and the [[Risc PC]] could also store 1600 KB on a 3½-inch HD floppy using ADFS's F format. It could also read and write disk formats from other machines, for example the Atari ST and the IBM PC. It was also capable of reading and writing the 640K format of earlier versions of ADFS for the BBC model B, B+, Master and the Acorn Electron. With third party software it could even read the BBC Micro's original single density DFS disks. The Amiga's disks could not be read as they used a non-standard sector size and unusual sector gap markers.
=== 12-inch floppy disks ===
In the late 1970s some IBM mainframes also used a 12-inch (30 cm) floppy disk, but little information is currently available about their internal format or capacity.
=== 4-inch floppies ===
IBM in the mid-80s developed a 4-inch floppy. This program was driven by aggressive cost goals, but missed the pulse of the industry. The prospective users, both inside and outside IBM, preferred standardization to what by release time were small cost reductions, and were unwilling to retool packaging, interface chips and applications for a proprietary design. The product never appeared in the light of day, and IBM wrote off several hundred million dollars of development and manufacturing facility.
=== Auto-loaders ===
IBM developed, and several companies copied, an autoloader mechanism that could load a stack of floppies one at a time into a drive unit. These were very bulky systems, and suffered from media hangups and chew-ups more than anyone liked, but they were a partial answer to replication and large removable storage needs. The smaller 5¼- and 3½-inch floppy made this a much easier technology to perfect.
=== Floppy mass storage ===
A number of companies, including IBM and Burroughs, experimented with using large numbers of unenclosed disks to create massive amounts of storage. The Burroughs system used a stack of 256 12-inch disks, spinning at high speed. The disk to be accessed was selected by using air jets to part the stack, and then a pair of heads flew over the surface as in any standard hard disk drive. This approach in some ways anticipated the Bernoulli disk technology from Iomega, but [[head crash]]es or air failures were spectacularly messy. The program did not reach production.
=== 2-inch floppy disks ===
A small floppy disk was also used in the late 1980s to store video information for still video cameras such as the [[Sony]] Mavica (not to be confused wit |
of statements in that theory may very well be algorithmically decidable. Examples of this include [[Presburger arithmetic]], [[real closed field]]s and [[Static typing|static type systems]] of [[Programming language|programming languages]].
However, the general first-order theory of the [[natural numbers]] expressed in [[Peano axioms|Peano's axioms]] cannot be decided with such an algorithm. This also follows from Turing's argument given above.
==References==
* Alonzo Church, "An unsolvable problem of [[elementary number theory]]", American Journal of Mathematics, 58 (1936), pp 345 - 363
* Alonzo Church, "A note on the Entscheidungsproblem", Journal of Symbolic Logic, 1 (1936), pp 40 - 41.
* Alan Turing, "On [[computable number]]s, with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem", Proceedings of the [[London Mathematical Society]], Series 2, 42 (1936), pp 230 - 265. [http://www.abelard.org/turpap2/tp2-ie.asp Online version]. Errata appeared in Series 2, 43 (1937), pp 544 - 546.
* [[Martin Davis]], "The Undecidable, Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems And Computable Functions", Raven Press, New York, 1965. Turing's paper is #3 in this volume. Papers include those by Godel, Church, Rosser, Kleene, and Post.
* [[Andrew Hodges]], Alan Turing: The Enigma, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1983. Allen M. Turing's biography. Cf Chapter "The Spirit of Truth" for a history leading to, and a discussion of, his proof.
* Stephen Toulmin, "Fall of a Genius", a book review of "Alan Turing: The Enigma by Andrew Hodges", in The New York Review of Books, January 19, 1984, p. 3ff.
* [[Alfred North Whitehead]] and [[Bertrand Russel]], Principia Mathematica to *56, Cambridge at the University Press, 1962. Re: the problem of paradoxes, the authors discuss the problem of a set not be an object in any of its "determining functions", in particular "Introduction, Chap. 1 p. 24 "...difficulties which arise in formal logic", and Chap. 2.I. "The Vicious-Circle Principle" p.37ff, and Chap. 2.VIII. "The Contradictions" p.60 ff.
== See also ==
{{wiktionary}}
* [[Halting Problem]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[Category:Theory of computation]]
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[[fr:Problème de la décision]]
[[pt:Entscheidungsproblem]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Einhard</title>
<id>9674</id>
<revision>
<id>42014072</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:38:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>134.219.170.42</ip>
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<comment>/* External links */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Einhard.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Einhard as scribe]]
'''Einhard''' (also '''Eginhard''' or '''Einhart''') (born about 775 in the valley of the [[Main River|River Main]], died [[March 14]], [[840]], at [[Seligenstadt]], [[Germany]]) was a [[Franks|Frankish]] historian and a dedicated servant of [[Charlemagne]]. He is the writer of the [[Royal Frankish Annals]].
He wrote a number of works, the most famous of which was produced at the request of Charlemagne's son and successor [[Louis the Pious]]. Einhard wrote a [[biography]] of Charlemagne, the ''Vita Karoli Magni'' or ''Life of Charlemagne'' (c. 817&ndash;830), which provides much direct information about Charlemagne's life and character. In composing this he made full use of the Frankish Royal annals. Einhard's literary model was the classical work of the Roman historian [[Suetonius|Suetonius]], the ''Lives of the Caesars''. His work is biased in the sense that it was written as a praise of Charlemagne&mdash;he glossed over certain issues which would be of [[embarrassment]] to Charlemagne (such as the morality of his daughters), and we are not necessarily to believe that Charlemagne was really a [[giantism|giant]]. However, in comparison to other contemporary sources it appears to be a fairly accurate description of events.
Einhard was from the eastern part of the Frankish kingdom, the portion that is still [[German language|German speaking]]. He was educated at [[Fulda]] which was one of the most impressive centres of learning in the Frankish lands. He was accepted into the court of Charlemagne around 791 or 792. Charlemagne actively sought to amass [[scholar|scholarly]] men around him and established a royal school led by the [[Northumbria|Northumbrian]] scholar [[Alcuin]]. He evidently was a talented builder and [[construction]] manager, because Charlemagne put him in charge of the completion of several [[palace]] complexes including [[Aachen]] and [[Ingelheim]]. Despite the fact that Einhard was on intimate terms with Charlemagne he never achieved office in his [[reign]]. In 814, on Charlemagne's death his son [[Louis the Pious]] made Einhard his private [[secretary]]. Einhard retired from [[royal court|court]] during the time of the [[controversy|dispute]]s between Louis and his sons, in around 828.
== See also ==
* [[Royal Frankish Annals]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ein.html ''Vita Karoli Magni''] -- Einhard's ''Life of Charlemagne,'' Latin text at [[The Latin Library]]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/einhard.html ''Life of Charlemagne''] -- Einhard's ''Life of Charlemagne,'' 19th century English translation.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05366b.htm Einhard] at the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Ester</title>
<id>9675</id>
<revision>
<id>41222124</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-25T22:02:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>83.151.195.33</ip>
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<comment>Set internal link to Dissociation to the relevant, chemistry related article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
[[Image:GeneralEster.png|right|frame|General formula of an ester of a carboxylic acid.]]
In [[chemistry]], '''esters''' are [[organic compound]]s in which an [[organic radical|organic group]] (symbolized by '''R'''' in this article) replaces a [[hydrogen]] [[atom]] (or more than one) in an [[oxygen]] [[acid]]. An oxygen acid is an acid whose [[molecule]] has an '''-{{Hydroxide}}''' [[functional group|group]] from which the hydrogen (H) can [[Dissociation (chemistry)|dissociate]] as an H<sup>+</sup> [[ion]].
The most common esters are the '''carboxylate esters''', where the acid in question is a [[carboxylic acid]]. For example, if the acid is [[acetic acid]], the ester is called an [[acetate]]. Esters may also be formed with [[inorganic]] acids; for example, [[dimethyl sulfate]] is an ester, and sometimes called "[[sulfuric acid]], di[[methyl]] ester".
Esters are named similarly to [[salt]]s; although they don't really have [[cation]]s and [[anion]]s, the terminology follows the same pattern: a more electropositive part followed by a more electronegative part.
An ester can be thought of as a product of a [[condensation reaction]] of an acid (usually an [[organic acid]]) and an [[alcohol]] (or [[phenols|phenol]] compound), although there are other ways to form esters. Condensation is a type of [[chemical reaction]] in which two [[molecule]]s with '''-OH''' groups are joined with eliminating a [[water (molecule)|water molecule]] from their -OH groups. A condensation reaction to form an ester is called [[esterification]]. Esterification can be catalysed by the presence of H<sup>+</sup> ions. Sulfuric acid is often used as a [[catalyst]] for this reaction. The name ester is derived from the German '''Es'''sig-Ä'''ther''', an old name for acetic acid ethyl ester ([[ethyl acetate]]).
==Naming of esters==
[[Image:Ethylethanoate.png|right|frame|Ethyl acetate structure]]
Esters can be produced by an [[equilibrium reaction]] between an [[alcohol]] and a [[carboxylic acid]]. The ester is named according to the ''[[alkyl]]'' group (the part from the [[alcohol]]) and then the ''alkanoate'' (the part from the [[carboxylic acid]]) which make it up.{{Ref|IUPAC1}} For example, the reaction between [[methanol]] and [[butyric acid]] yields the ester [[methyl butyrate]] C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>7</sub>-COO-CH<sub>3</sub> (as well as water). The simplest ester is H-COO-CH<sub>3</sub> ([[methyl formate]], also called methyl methanoate).
For esters derived from the simplest carboxylic acids, the traditional names are recommended by IUPAC,{{Ref|IUPAC2}} ''viz'', formate, acetate, propionate, butyrate, though out of these only acetate may carry further substituents. For esters from higher acids, the alkane name with an ''-oate'' ending is generally preferred, e.g., hexanoate. Common esters of aromatic acids include [[benzoate]]s such as [[methyl benzoate]], and [[phthalates]], with substitution allowed in the name.
==Physical properties==
Esters participate in [[hydrogen bond]]s as hydrogen-bond acceptors, but cannot act as hydrogen-bond donors, unlike their parent alcohols. This ability to participate in hydrogen bonding makes them more [[water]]-[[soluble]] than their parent [[hydrocarbon]]s. However, the limitations on their hydrogen bonding also make them more hydrophobic than either their parent alcohols or parent acids. Their lack of hydrogen-bond-donating ability means that ester [[molecule]]s cannot hydrogen-bond to each other, which makes esters generally more volatile than an [[carboxylic acid]] of similar molecular weight. This property makes them very useful in organic analytical chemistry: unknown organic acids with low volatility can often be esterified into a volatile ester, which can then be analysed using [[gas chromatography]], [[gas liquid chromatography]], or [[mass spectrometry]].
Many esters have distinctive odo |
uently used. It corresponds in the frequency domain to a high-pass filter, which means that high-frequency noise is amplified.
== Limitations ==
In general, analog computers are limited by real, non-ideal effects. An analog signal is composed of four basic components: DC and AC magnitudes, frequency, and phase. The real limits of range on these characteristics limit analog computers. Some of these limits include the [[noise floor]], [[non-linearity|non-linearities]] and [[Microelectronics|parasitic effects]] within semiconductor devices, and the finite charge of an [[electron]]. Incidentally, for commercially available electronic components, ranges of these aspects of input and output signals are always figures of merit.
Analog computers, however, have been replaced by digital computers for almost all uses. It may be stretching a point to regard some physical simulations such as [[wind tunnel]]s as analog computers, because the data so obtained must then also be scaled, for example, for [[Reynolds number]] and [[Mach number]]. There is a point of view in physics based on [[information processing]] which attempts to map the physical [[process]]es to [[computation]]s. Thus, from these points of view, the wind tunnel data gathering is either an [[experiment]] or a [[computation]].
== Current Research ==
While digital computation is extremely popular, research in analog computation is being done by a handful of people worldwide. In the United States, [[Jonathan Mills]] has been working on research using Extended Analog Computers. At the [[Harvard Robotics Laboratory]], analog computation is a research topic.
== Practical analog computers ==
These are examples of analog computers that have been constructed or practically used:
* [[nomogram]]
* [[The MONIAC Computer|Moniac computer]]
* [[astrolabe]]
* [[operational amplifier]]
* [[planimeter]]
* [[mechanical integrator]]
* [[Torquetum]]
* [[Tide predictor]]s
* [[Water integrator]]
* [[Target Data Computer]]
* [[Norden bombsight]]
* [[Hydraulic model of UK economy]]
* the [[Antikythera mechanism]]
* and the [[slide rule]]
[[Analog synthesizer]]s can also be viewed as a form of analog computer, and their technology was originally based on electronic analog computer technology.
== Idealized analog computers ==
Computer theorists often refer to idealized analog computers as [[real computer]]s (so called because they operate on the set of [[real number]]s). Digital computers, by contrast, must first [[quantize]] the signal into a finite number of values, and so can only work with the [[rational number]] set (or, with an approximation of irrational numbers).
These idealized analog computers may ''in theory'' solve problems that are [[intractable]] on digital computers; however as mentioned, in reality, analog computers are far from attaining this ideal, largely because of noise minimization problems. Moreover, given ''unlimited'' time and memory, the (ideal) digital computer may also solve real number problems.
== Reference ==
* A.K. Dewdney. "On the Spaghetti Computer and Other Analog Gadgets for Problem Solving", ''Scientific American'', 250(6):19-26, June 1984. Reprinted in ''The Armchair Universe'', by A.K. Dewdney, published by W.H. Freeman & Company (1988), ISBN 0716719398.
== See also ==
*[[signal (information theory)]]
*[[signal (computing)]]
*[[set theory]]
*[[Computability theory (computation) | computability theory]]
*[[differential equation]]
*[[dynamical system]]
*[[chaos theory]]
*[[slide rule]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.vaxman.de/analog_computing/analog_computing.html Lots of documentation about analog computers as well as detailed descriptions of some historic machines]
* [http://www.play-hookey.com/analog/ Analog computer basics]
* [http://www.yorku.ca/sasit/sts/sts3700b/lecture20a.html Lecture 20: Analog vs Digital] ''(in a series of lectures on "History of computing and information technology")''
* [http://www.eetimes.com/story/OEG19981103S0017 Analog computer trumps Turing model]
<!-- * [http://dcoward.best.vwh.net/analog/ Doug Cowards's Analog Computer Museum] Removed because his definition of a digital computer as a (strictly) sequential computer is incorrect! There have been many parallel processing digital computers which have been designed and built— word parallel and bit sequential— which can process thousands of operands in parallel, (e.g., for searching, as in the IBM Digital Address Translator (DAT) box or Goodyear's MPP http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/context/40653/0).-->
* [http://www.cs.indiana.edu/~jwmills/ANALOG.NOTEBOOK/klm/klm.html Jonathan W. Mills's Analog Notebook]
* [http://www.cs.indiana.edu/Facilities/hardware/extended_analog_computer/ Indiana University Extended Analog Computer]
* [http://hrl.harvard.edu/analog/ Harvard Robotics Laboratory Analog Computation]
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[[Category:History of computing]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Audio</title>
<id>2429</id>
<revision>
<id>41350709</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T19:54:04Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>GilliamJF</username>
<id>506179</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+de, nl</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Audio''' can mean:
*[[Sound]] that can be heard.
*[[Audio frequency]] signals in frequencies audible to humans (about 20&ndash;20,000&nbsp;Hz).
*[[Broadcasting]] or reception of sound.
*High-fidelity [[sound reproduction]].
*[[Sound recording]] and reproduction in general.
*"I hear" in [[Latin]].
''[[Audio (Blue Man Group)|Audio]]'' is also the debut album of the [[Blue Man Group]].
'''Audible''' can also refer to:
*[[Audible.com]], an online audiobook store.
*In [[American football]], "calling an audible" refers to a tactic where the [[quarterback]] decides to change the play at the line of scrimmage before the snap by calling additional signals. This is usually done if the quarterback notices changes in the opposing team's defensive setup on the field.
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</page>
<page>
<title>Minute of arc</title>
<id>2431</id>
<revision>
<id>39049334</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T10:07:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MHD</username>
<id>457371</id>
</contributor>
<comment>added merge tag <-- arcsecond</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|arcsecond}}
A '''minute of arc''', '''arcminute''', or '''MOA''' is a unit of [[angle|angular measurement]], equal to one sixtieth (1/60) of one [[degree (angle)|degree]]. Since one degree is defined as one three hundred and sixtieth (1/360) of a circle, 1 MOA is 1/21600 of the amount of arc in a closed circle, or (&pi;/10800) [[radian]]s. Its usage is limited to those fields which require a handy unit for the expression of very small amounts of arc, such as [[astronomy]]. The symbol for marking the arcminute is the [[prime (mark)|prime]] (&#8242;) (<code>U+2032</code>, <code>&amp;prime;</code>). One arcminute would be 1&#8242; (or 1''&#39;''). It is also abbreviated as '''arcmin''', or less commonly the prime with an arch over it (<math>\hat {'}</math>), or '''amin'''.
The subdivision of the minute of arc is the [[arcsecond]].
==Uses==
===Firearms===
This unit is commonly found in the [[firearms]] industry and literature, particularly that concerning high-powered [[rifle]]s. It is popular because 1 MOA almost exactly subtends one [[inch]] at 100 [[yard]]s, a traditional distance on [[Shooting range|target ranges]]. A shooter can easily readjust his or her rifle [[telescopic sight|scope]] simply by measuring the distance in inches the bullet hole is from the desired impact point, and adjusting the scope that many MOA in the opposite direction. Most target scopes designed for long distances are adjustable in quarter (1/4) or eighth (1/8) MOA "clicks". One eighth MOA is equal to approximately an eighth of an inch at 100 yards or one inch at 800 yards.
Sometimes, a firearm will be "measured" in MOA. This simply means that under ideal conditions, the gun is capable of repeatedly producing a group of shots that fit into a circle, the diameter of which can be subtended by that amount of arc. (E.g.: a "1 MOA rifle" should be capable, under ideal conditions and when locked into a [[vise]], of shooting a 1-inch group at 100 yards.) However, ideal performance in a [[ballistics]] lab is often very different from real-world results.
===Cartography===
Minutes of angle (and its subunit, seconds of angle or SOA&mdash;equal to a sixtieth of a MOA) are also used in [[cartography]] and [[navigation]]. At [[sea level]], one minute of angle equals about 1.15 [[mile]]s or 1.86 [[kilometre|km]], approximately one [[nautical mile]] (approximately, because the [[Earth]] is slightly [[oblate]]). In humans, the ability to resolve a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute of arc is considered normal [[visual acuity]].
Traditionally positions are given using degrees, minutes, and seconds of angles in two measurements: one for [[latitude]], the angle north or south of the [[equator]]; and one for [[longitude]], the angle east or west of the [[Prime Meridian]]. Using this method, any position on or above the face of the Earth can be precisely given. However, because of the somewhat clumsy base-60 nature of MOA and SOA, many people now prefer to give positions using degrees only, expressed in decimal form to an equal amount of precis |
l rights]]
*[[Ombudsman]]
*[[Prisoners' rights]]
*[[Rights]]
*[[Right of rebellion]], first theorized by [[John Locke]]
*[[Women's rights]]
*[[Bas de Gaay Fortman]]
=== General ===
*[[Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam]] (1990)
*[[Democratic ideals]]
*[[Femicide]]
*[[Genocide]]
*[[Human rights abuse]]
*[[Human rights education]]
*[[International human rights instruments]]
*[[Social justice]]
*[[Slavery]]
*[[Trafficking in human beings]]
*[[Three generations of human rights]]
*[[Torture]]
=== Weblogs on Human Rights ===
[http://udhr.blogspot.com Human Rights Issues]
=== Human rights organizations ===
*[[Amnesty International]]
*[[Ansar Burney Trust]] - Working in Pakistan and the Middle East
*[[Bahrain Centre for Human Rights]]
*[[ARTICLE 19]]
*[[Carter Center]]
*[[Forum 18]]
*[[Freedom House]]
*[[Human Rights Campaign]]
*[[Human Rights Watch]]
*[[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]]
*[[International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights]]
*[[Memorial (society)]]
*[[Montagnard Foundation]]
*[[Network Against Prohibition]]
*[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]]
*[[Peace Brigades International]]
*[[Prisoners Overseas]]
*[[Southern Poverty Law Center]]
{{main|List of human rights articles by country}}
====Africa====
{{main|Human rights in Africa}}
*[[South Africa]]: [[Human rights in South Africa]]
*[[Sudan]]: [[Human rights in Sudan]]
*[[Tunisia]]: [[Human rights in Tunisia]]
*[[Uganda]]: [[Human rights in Uganda]]
*[[Zimbabwe]]: [[Human rights in Zimbabwe]]
**Note: Citizens of the African nations are provided supranational human rights protection by the [[African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights]].
====Americas====
*[[Brazil]]: [[Human rights in Brazil]]
*[[Canada]]: [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] and [[Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms]]
*[[Cuba]]: [[Human rights in Cuba]]
*[[Mexico]]: [[Human rights in Mexico]]
*[[Peru]]: [[APRODEH]]
*[[United States|USA]]: [[Human rights in the United States]]
**Note: Citizens of the American nations enjoy varying degrees of supranational human rights protection from the [[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights]] and the [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]].
<!-- *[[Canada]]: Canada attempts to resolve tension between international human rights norms and sovereignty by allowing legislative primacy on a temporary and renewable basis [[notwithstanding clause|notwithstanding]] that the law infringes the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]. *** What does this sentence mean? Which law is it that is infringing on the charter?--The laws enacted under legislative primacy? -->
<!--
answer to above, and for further comments and edits
The notwithstanding clause is an "override" clause in principle. If the provinces want to make a law that conflict with the Charter, the provinces use the notwithstanding clause to override the Charter. This ensures that the law is active, although it conflicts with the Charter. You can try researching Quebec's (a province) 101 bill. Also Quebec's law that makes Quebec's only official language French, in contrast to English and French in all the other provinces in Canada.
-->
====Asia====
:''See [[Human rights in East Asia]] and [[Human rights in Central Asia]]''
*[[Bangladesh]]: [[Human rights in Bangladesh]]
*[[Cambodia]]: [[Human rights in Cambodia]]
*[[Kazakhstan]]: [[Human rights in Kazakhstan]]
*[[India]]: [[Human rights in India]]
*[[Iran]]: [[Human rights in Iran]]
*[[Iraq]]: [[Human rights in Iraq]]
*[[Japan]]: [[Human rights in Japan]]
*[[Malaysia]]: [[Human rights in Malaysia]]
*[[Mongolia]]: [[Human rights in Mongolia]]
*[[Myanmar]] (Burma): [[Human rights in Myanmar]]
*[[North Korea]]: [[Human rights in North Korea]]
*[[Pakistan]]: [[Human rights in Pakistan]]
*[[People's Republic of China|PRC]]: [[Human rights in the People's Republic of China]]
*[[Russia]]: [[Human rights in Russia]]
*[[South Korea]]: [[Human rights in South Korea]]
*[[Saudi Arabia]]: [[Human rights in Saudi Arabia]]
*[[Sri Lanka]]: [[Human rights in Sri Lanka]]
*[[Thailand]]: [[Human rights in Thailand]]
*[[Turkmenistan]]: [[Human rights in Turkmenistan]]
*[[Uzbekistan]]: [[Human rights in Uzbekistan]]
*[[Vietnam]]: [[Human rights in Vietnam]]
====Europe====
* ''See [[Human rights in Europe]]''
** Note: The most powerful human rights organization is the [[European Court of Human Rights]], which is the only international court with jurisdiction to deal with cases brought by individuals (not states).
====Oceania====
*[[Australia]]: [[Human rights in Australia]]
==References==
* Steiner, Henry J. & Alston, Philip. (1996). ''International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 019825437X
* Donnelly, Jack. (2003). ''Universal Human Rights in Theory & Practice.'' 2nd ed. Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press.
* Forsythe, David P. (2000). ''Human Rights in International Relations.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Ignatieff, Michael. ''Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry.'' Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press.
* Shute, Stephen & Hurley, Susan (eds.). (1993). ''On Human Rights: The Oxford Amnesty Lectures.'' New York: BasicBooks.
* Sunga, Lyal S. (1992) Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations, Nijhoff Publishers.
==External links==
=== Information ===
*[http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/human_rights_quarterly/index.html Human Rights Quarterly]
*[http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html United Nations- Universal Declaration of Human Rights]
*[http://www.un.org/rights/ United Nations- Human Rights]
*[http://www.betterworldlinks.org/menschenrechte.htm Better World Links] Biggest Link List on Human Rights
*[http://www.tamilink.org.uk/ A Tamil human rights news portal]
*[http://www.rightsphilosophyforum.org/ Rights Philosophy Forum]
*[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/hr/c1470.htm Country reports on human rights] from the U.S. Department of State
*[http://www.ngochr.org/custom/index.php ngoCHR.org] &ndash; Volunteer reporting on the United Nations Commission on Human Rights
*[http://www.le.ac.uk/library/hmb11/law/humanr.html University of Leicester, UK, list of sources and links.]
*[http://www.tamilnation.org/humanrights.htm Introduction to Human Rights & Humanitarian Law]
*[http://www.detroitfocus.org/Issues/0410/CryForCompassion/index.html Photojournalist's approach to human rights in Sudan]
*[http://www.liberalislam.net/adam.html A Muslim approach to human rights]
*[http://www.missionandjustice.org Mission and Justice] &ndash; Human Rights, Justice and Peace news from the Asia Pacific region.
*[http://www.tamilnation.org/humanrights/tamil.htm Sri Lanka &ndash; Human Rights of the Tamil People]
*[http://www.childrensrights.ie/convention.php Children's Rights Alliance]
*[http://www.yihrc.org Human rights development in Asia]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rights-human/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
*[http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts University of Minnesota Human Rights Library] - Over 23,000 documents and 4,000 links
*[http://www.hrusa.org University of Minnesota Human Rights Resource Center] - Creating and distributing Human Rights Education (HRE) resources, training activists, professionals, and students & building advocacy networks
*[http://www.ifex.org International Freedom of Expression Exchange] - Monitoring censorship around the world
*[http://www.newsxs.com/en/preset/324 Human Rights News Headlines by NewsXS] - Aggregated news and RSS feed
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/rcip//sbh.html Survivor bashing - bias motivated hate crimes]
*[http://www.humanrightsproject.org/ Human Rights Video Project] - NVR's Program in Public Libraries
*[http://www.humanrightsandpeacestore.org/ Human Rights and Peace Store]
*[http://www.thisismyhome.org/ This is My Home: A Minnesota Human Rights Education Experience] - Human rights curriculum and activities
*[http://www.carlosmime.com/humanrights The Human Rights in Mime]
=== Human rights organizations ===
*[http://www.amnesty.org Amnesty International]
*[http://www.ansarburney.org Ansar Burney Welfare Trust]
*[http://www.antislavery.org Anti Slavery]
*[http://www.ahrchk.net Asian Human Rights Commission]
*[http://www.humanrights.gov.au Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission]
*[http://www.betterworldlinks.org/book20b.htm Better World Links on Human Rights Organizations]
*[http://www.punjabjustice.org Committee for Information and Initiative on Punjab]
*[http://www.dalithumanrights.org Dalit Human Rights (DHR)]
*[http://www.ensaaf.org ENSAAF: Fighting Impunity in India]
*[http://www.fian.org FoodFirst Information and Action Network]
*[http://www.globalrights.org Global Rights: Partners for Justice]
*[http://www.hrw.org Human Rights Watch]
*[http://www.iohr.org International Order of Human Rights - IOHR]
*[http://www.justicefortheworld.org Justice For The World]
*[http://www.olympicwatch.org/ Olympic Watch: Human Rights in China and Beijing 2008]
*[http://www.ohrc.on.ca/ Ontario Human Rights Commission]
*[http://www.internationalvoice.org/ The International Voice: A Youth Human Rights Newsmagazine]
*[http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/center University of Minnesota Human Rights Center]
*[http://come.to/humanrights The Magnus Hirschfeld Center for Human Rights]
*[http://www.dd-rd.ca International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development (Rights & Democracy)]
[[Category:Human rights|*]]
[[Category:International relations]]
[[Category:Rights]]
[[ar:حقوق الإنسان]]
[[ca:Drets humans]]
[[cs:Lidská práva]]
[[da:Menneskerettighederne]]
[[de:Menschenrechte]]
[[es:Derechos humanos]]
[[fi:Luonnonoikeusteoria]]
[[fr:Droits de l'Homme]]
[[he:זכויות האדם]]
[[hr:Ljudska prava]]
[[id:Hak Asasi Manusia]]
[[is:Mannréttindi]]
[[it:Diritti umani]]
[[ja:人権]]
[[ko:인권]]
[[lt:Žmogaus teisės]]
[[lv:Cilvēktiesības]]
[[nl:Rechten van de Mens]]
[[no:Menneskerettigheter]]
[[pl:Pr |
of a second autistic child may be as high as one in twenty. Diagnosis is based on a list of [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] criteria, and a series of standardized clinical tests may also be used.
Autism may not be [[Physiology|physiologically]] obvious. A complete physical and [[neurological]] evaluation will typically be part of diagnosing autism. Some now speculate that autism is not a single condition but a group of several distinct conditions that manifest in similar ways.
By definition, autism must manifest delays in "social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play," with "onset prior to age 3 years", according to the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]. The [[ICD-10]] also says that symptoms must "manifest before the age of three years." There have been large increases in the reported [[Autism epidemic|incidence of autism]], for reasons that are heavily debated by [[research]]ers in [[psychology]] and related fields within the [[scientific community]].
Some children with autism have improved their social and other skills to the point where they can fully participate in mainstream education and social events, but there are lingering concerns that an absolute cure from autism is impossible with current technology. However, many autistic children and adults who are able to communicate (at least in writing) are opposed to attempts to cure their conditions, and see such conditions as part of who they are.
==History==
[[image:Asperger_kl2.jpg|frame|right|Dr. [[Hans Asperger]] described a form of autism in the 1940s that later became known as [[Asperger's syndrome]].]]
The word ''autism'' was first used in the [[English language]] by Swiss psychiatrist [[Eugene Bleuler]] in a 1912 number of the ''American Journal of Insanity''. It comes from the Greek word for "self".
However, the [[Medical classification|classification]] of autism did not occur until the middle of the [[twentieth century]], when in 1943 psychiatrist Dr. [[Leo Kanner]] of the [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] in Baltimore reported on 11 child patients with striking behavioral similarities, and introduced the label ''early infantile autism''. He suggested "autism" from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &alpha;&upsilon;&tau;&omicron;&sigmaf; (''autos''), meaning "self", to describe the fact that the children seemed to lack interest in other people. Although Kanner's first paper on the subject was published in a (now defunct) journal, ''The Nervous Child'', almost every characteristic he originally described is still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders.
At the same time an [[Austria|Austrian]] scientist, Dr. [[Hans Asperger]], described a different form of autism that became known as [[Asperger's syndrome]]&mdash;but the widespread recognition of Asperger's work was delayed by [[World War II]] in [[Germany]], and by the fact that his seminal paper wasn't translated into English for almost 50 years. The majority of his work wasn't widely read until 1997.
Thus these two conditions were described and are today listed in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] DSM-IV-TR (fourth edition, text revision 1) as two of the five [[Pervasive developmental disorder|pervasive developmental disorders]] (PDD), more often referred to today as [[Autistic spectrum|autism spectrum disorders]] (ASD). All of these conditions are characterized by varying degrees of difference in [[communication skill]]s, social interactions, and restricted, repetitive and stereotyped patterns of [[Human behavior|behavior]].
Few clinicians today solely use the DSM-IV criteria for determining a diagnosis of autism, which are based on the absence or delay of certain developmental milestones. Many clinicians instead use an alternate means (or a combination thereof) to more accurately determine a [[diagnosis]].
==Terminology==
{{wiktionarypar2|autism|autistic}}
When referring to someone diagnosed with autism, the term ''autistic'' is often used. However, the term ''person with autism'' can be used instead. This is referred to as ''[[person-first terminology]]''. The [[autistic community]] generally prefers the term ''autistic'' for reasons that are fairly controversial. This article uses the term ''autistic'' (see [[Talk:Autism|talk page]]).
==Characteristics==
[[Image:kanner_kl2.jpg|frame|right|Dr. [[Leo Kanner]] introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in 1943.]]
There is a great diversity in the skills and behaviors of individuals diagnosed as autistic, and physicians will often arrive at different conclusions about the appropriate diagnosis. Much of this is due to the [[sensory system]] of an autistic which is quite different from the sensory system of other people, since certain [[stimulus|stimulations]] can affect an autistic differently than a non-autistic, and the degree to which the sensory system is affected varies wildly from one autistic person to another.
Nevertheless, professionals within [[pediatric]] care and development often look for early indicators of autism in order to initiate treatment as early as possible. However, some people do not believe in treatment for autism, either because they do not believe autism is a disorder or because they believe treatment can do more harm than good.
===Social development===
Typically, developing infants are social beings&mdash;early in life they do such things as gaze at people, turn toward voices, grasp a finger, and even smile. In contrast, most autistic children prefer objects to faces and seem to have tremendous difficulty learning to engage in the give-and-take of everyday human interaction. Even in the first few months of life, many seem indifferent to other people because they avoid eye contact and do not interact with them as often as non-autistic children.
Children with autism often appear to prefer being alone to the company of others and may passively accept such things as hugs and cuddling without reciprocating, or resist attention altogether. Later, they seldom seek comfort from others or respond to parents' displays of [[anger]] or [[affection]] in a typical way. Research has suggested that although autistic children are attached to their [[parent]]s, their expression of this attachment is unusual and difficult to interpret. Parents who looked forward to the joys of cuddling, [[teaching]], and playing with their child may feel crushed by this lack of expected [[attachment theory|attachment]] behavior.
Children with autism appear to lack "[[Theory of mind|theory of mind]]", the ability to see things from another person's perspective, a behavior cited as exclusive to human beings above the age of five and, possibly, other higher [[primate]]s such as adult [[gorilla]]s, [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]]s and [[bonobos]]. Typical 5-year-olds can develop insights into other people's different knowledge, feelings, and intentions, interpretations based upon social cues (e.g., gestures, facial expressions). An individual with autism seems to lack these interpretation skills, an inability that leaves them unable to predict or understand other people's actions. The [[social alienation]] of autistic and Asperger's people is so intense from childhood that many of them have [[imaginary friend]]s as companionship. However, having an imaginary friend is not necessarily a sign of autism and also occurs in non-autistic children.
Although not universal, it is common for autistic people to not regulate their behavior. This can take the form of crying or verbal outbursts that may seem out of proportion to the situation. Individuals with autism generally prefer consistent routines and environments; they may react negatively to changes in them. It is not uncommon for these individuals to exhibit aggression, increased levels of self-stimulatory behavior, self-injury or extensive withdrawal in overwhelming situations.
===Sensory system===
A key indicator to clinicians making a proper assessment for autism would include looking for symptoms much like those found in [[Sensory Integration Dysfunction|sensory integration dysfunction]]. Children will exhibit problems coping with the normal sensory input. Indicators of this disorder include oversensitivity or underreactivity to touch, movement, sights, or sounds; physical clumsiness or carelessness; poor body awareness; a tendency to be easily distracted; impulsive physical or verbal behavior; an activity level that is unusually high or low; not unwinding or calming oneself; difficulty learning new movements; difficulty in making transitions from one situation to another; social and/or emotional problems; delays in [[Speech delay|speech]], [[Language delay|language]] or [[motor skills]]; specific learning difficulties/delays in academic achievement.
One common example is an individual with autism [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]]. A person with Autism may have trouble hearing certain people while other people are louder than usual. Or the person with autism may be unable to filter out sounds in certain situations, such as in a large crowd of people (see [[cocktail party effect]]). However, this is perhaps the part of the autism that tends to vary the most from person to person, so these examples may not apply to every autistic.
It should be noted that sensory difficulties, although reportedly common in autistics, are not part of the [[DSM-IV]] diagnostic criteria for ''autistic disorder''.
===Communication difficulties===
By age 3, typical children have passed predictable language learning milestones; one of the earliest is babbling. By the first birthday, a typical toddler says words, turns when he or she hears his or her name, points when he or she wants a toy, and when offered something distasteful, makes it clear that the answer is "no." Speech development in people with au |
11]] - [[Hank Greenberg]], [[baseball]] player, (d. [[1986]])
*[[1912]] - [[Kim Philby]], spy (d. [[1988]])
*[[1917]] - [[Jule Gregory Charney]], meteorologist, (d. [[1981]])
*[[1919]] - [[J. D. Salinger]], novelist
*[[1922]] - [[Rocky Graziano]], [[boxing|boxer]], born "Rocky Barbella", (d. [[1990]])
*[[1925]] - [[Stymie Beard]], actor, (d. [[1981]])
* 1925 - [[Idi Amin]], dictator of [[Uganda]]
*[[1927]] - [[Doak Walker]], [[American football]] star
*[[1928]] - [[Ernest Tidyman]], writer, (d. [[1984]])
*[[1933]] - [[Joe Orton]], writer, (d. [[1967]])
*[[1940]] - [[Frank Langella]], actor
* 1940 - [[Helmut Jahn]], architect
*[[1942]] - [[Country Joe McDonald]], musician, ([[Country Joe and the Fish]])
*[[1943]] - [[Don Novello]], actor, comedian, writer ("[[Father Guido Sarducci]]")
*[[1945]] - [[Jacky Ickx]], [[automobile]] racer
*[[1950]] - [[Rajnikanth]], Actor,south India,Tamil
*[[1958]] - [[Grand Master Flash]], singer
*[[1970]] - [[Paul Thomas Anderson]], film director, writer, producer
*[[1974]] - [[Sachin Ramesh Tendulkar]], Cricket Player, India
*[[1979]] - [[Koichi Domoto]], artist
==Deaths==
*[[898]] - [[Odo, Count of Paris]]
*[[1817]] - [[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]], chemist, (b. [[1743]])
*[[1894]] - [[Heinrich Hertz]], physicist, (b. [[1857]])
*[[1953]] - [[Hank Williams]], [[country music]] singer
*[[1972]] - [[Maurice Chevalier]], actor and singer
*[[1977]] - [[Elvis Aron Presley]], singer and acter (b. [[1935]])
*[[1986]] - [[Alfredo Binda]], Italian cyclist
*[[1992]] - [[Grace Hopper]], [[computer]] pioneer
*[[1994]] - [[Cesar Romero]], actor
*[[1997]] - [[Townes Van Zandt]], musician
*[[2001]] - [[Ray Walston]], actor
==Holidays and observances==
* Many countries around the world using [[Gregorian Calendar]] - [[New Year's Day]]; often celebrated at 0:00 with [[fireworks]].
*[[Vienna New Year's Concert]]
*[[United States]] - [[Copyright Expiration Day]], celebrating the expiration of the copyright of a year's worth of works of authorship into the [[public domain]]. Not celebrated from [[1978]] to [[2018]] because of [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act|repeated copyright term extensions]].
*[[Catholic]]ism - Octave of [[Christmas]], [[Blessed Virgin Mary]], Mother of God.
*[[Catholic]]ism - [[National Migration Week]] begins (varying official support by the office of U.S. President, not strictly religious)
*[[Haiti]] Independence Day
*[[Taiwan]] Founding of [[Republic of China]].
*[[Sudan]] Independence Day
*[[Cuba]] Liberation Day
*[[Slovakia]]: Establishment of Slovak Republic.
*[[Switzerland]]: The new [[President of the Confederation (Switzerland)|President of the Confederation]] takes office for one year.
*Last day of [[Kwanzaa]]
*[[Pasadena, California]] - The [[Tournament of Roses]] parade and, traditionally, the [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]]
*[[World Day for Prayer for Peace]]
------
==See also==
[[December 31]] - [[January 2]] - [[December 1]] - [[February 1]] -- [[List of historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[Category:WikiProjects|Days of the Year]]
[[af:01-01]]
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[[de:1. Januar]]
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[[es:1 de enero]]
[[et:1. jaanuar]]
[[fr:1er janvier]]
[[it:1 gennaio]]
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[[ko:1&#50900; 1&#51068;]]
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[[no:1. Januar]]
[[pl:1 stycznia]]
[[sv:1 januari]]
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<page>
<title>Historical anniversaries/November 27</title>
<id>13366</id>
<revision>
<id>15910981</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T22:29:20Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[November 27]]</text>
</revision>
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<page>
<title>HyperReal numbers</title>
<id>13368</id>
<revision>
<id>15910983</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-10T11:32:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#redirect [[Hyperreal number]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Hyperreal number]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Huntingtons Chorea</title>
<id>13369</id>
<revision>
<id>15910984</id>
<timestamp>2002-08-24T11:24:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>fixing redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Huntington's disease]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Helsingborg Municipality</title>
<id>13370</id>
<revision>
<id>40364250</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Kommun2|
name=Helsingborg|
fullname=Helsingborg Municipality|
isocode=&nbsp;|
capital=Helsingborg|
governor=|
county=[[Skåne County]]|
province=[[Skåne|Scania]]|
arearank=218th|
area=346|
areapercent=x.x|
population_as_of=2005|
populationrank=9th|
population=121,179|
populationpercent=x.x|
populationdensity=350|
coatofarms=[[Image:Helsingborg.png|60px|Coat of Arms]]|
map=[[Image:svcmap skane.png|100px]] <br> Helsingborg Municipality in southern Sweden <br> [[Image:Lägeskarta Helsingborgs stad.png|180px]]
}}
The '''municipality of Helsingborg''' {{IPA|['h&#x025b;lsiŋ'b&#x0254;rj]}} is a municipality in the county of [[Skåne]] (Scania) in southernmost [[Sweden]]. The city [[Helsingborg]] is the seat of the municipality and its largest loclity with a population of 87,000.
==Towns in the municipality==
<table border=0 width="60%"><tr valign=top><td width="50%">
*[[Allerum]]
*[[Bårslöv]]
*[[Domsten]]
*[[Fjärestad]]
*[[Fleninge]]
*[[Gantofta]]
*[[Grå läge]]
*[[Görarp]]
*[[Hasslarp]]
*[[Helsingborg]]
*[[Hittarp]]
*[[Hjortshög]]
*[[Hässlunda]]
</td><td>
*[[Kattarp]]
*[[Kvistofta]]
*[[Magnihill-Lydestad]]
*[[Mörarp]]
*[[Påarp]]
*[[Rydebäck]]
*[[Tånga och Rögle]]
*[[Utvälinge]]
*[[Vallåkra]]
*[[Väla by]]
*[[Välinge]]
*[[Ödåkra]]
*[[Östra Ramlösa]]
</td></tr></table>
== See also ==
* [[Municipalities of Sweden]]
* [[European route E4]]
==External links==
*[http://www.helsingborg.se/ Helsingborg homepage]
*[http://hd.se/ The local daily newspaper]
{{Skåne County}}
[[Category:Municipalities of Sweden]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Skåne County]]
[[Category:West Skåne]]
[[Category:Skåne]]
[[sv:Helsingborgs stad]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Henry Ford</title>
<id>13371</id>
<revision>
<id>42100233</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T20:58:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Smeggysmeg</username>
<id>515427</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rev vandalism</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherpeople|Henry Ford}}
[[Image:Timehenryford.jpg|thumb|''[[TIME|Time]] Magazine'', [[January 14]], [[1935]]]]
'''Henry Ford''' ([[July 30]], [[1863]] &ndash; [[April 7]], [[1947]]) was the founder of the [[Ford Motor Company]] and the [[Henry Ford Company]] (which later became [[Cadillac]]). He was one of the first to apply [[assembly line]] manufacturing to the mass production of affordable [[automobile]]s. This achievement not only revolutionized industrial production in the United States and the rest of the world, but also had such tremendous influence over modern culture that many social theorists identify this phase of economic and social history as "[[Fordism]]." Some credit him with contributing to the creation of a [[middle class]] in [[United States|American]] society.
==Early Life==
[[Image:Henry Ford 1888.jpg|thumb|150px|Henry Ford, 1888]]
Ford was born on a prosperous farm in Springwells Township (now in the city of [[Dearborn, Michigan]]) owned by his parents, William Ford (1826-1905) and Mary Litogot (c1839-1876), immigrants from [[County Cork]], [[Ireland]]. His siblings include: Margaret Ford (1867-1868); Jane Ford (c1868-1945); William Ford (1871-1917) and Robert Ford (1873-1934).
During the summer of 1873, Henry saw his first self-propelled road machine, a Nichols, Shepard & Co., stationary steam engine that could be used for threshing or to power a saw mill. The operator, Fred Reden, had mounted it on wheels connected with a drive chain. Henry was fascinated with the machine and Reden over the next year taught Henry how to fire and operate the engine. Ford later said, it was this experience "that showed me that I was by instinct an engineer."{{ref|Ford1}}
Henry took this passion about mechanics into his home. His father had given him a pocket watch in his early teens. By fifteen, he had a reputation as a watch repairman, having dismantled and reassembled timepieces of friends and neighbors dozens of times.{{ref|Ford2}}
His mother died in 1876. It was a blow that devastated Henry. His father expected Henry to eventually take over the family farm, but Henry despised farm work. And with his mother dead, little remained to keep him on the farm. He later said, "I never had any particular love for the farm. It was the mother on the farm I loved."{{Ref|Ford3}}
In 1879, he left home for the nearby city of [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] to work as an apprentice machinist, first with James F. Flower & Bros., and later with the Detroit Dry Dock Co. In 1882, he returned to Dearborn to work on the family farm and became adept at operating the Westinghouse portable steam engine. This led to his being hired by [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]] company to service their steam engines.
Upon his marriage to Clara Bryant in 1 |
uable in the early stages.
== Treatment ==
Supportive care with monitoring of all vital functions is the cornerstone of successful management. Because the immune mechanisms play a role in pathogenesis, plasma exchange or intravenous [[immunoglobulin]]s over a course of treatment lasting five days may improve the outcome, preventing the need for a ventilator to be used. The use of intravenous immunoglobulins is not without risk, occasionally causing hepatitis, or in rare cases, renal failure if used for longer than five days. Although the [[corticosteroid]]s may be used in treatment, they are no longer considered the drug of first choice in modern practice because they may occasionally worsen symptoms.
Following the acute phase, the patient may also need rehabilitation to regain lost functions. This treatment will focus on improving ADL (activities of daily living) functions such as brushing teeth, washing and getting dressed. Depending on the local structuring on health care, there will be established a team of different therapists and nurses according to the patients needs. An occupational therapist can offer equipment (such as wheel chair and cutlery) to help the patient achieve ADL independence. A physio therapist would plan a progressive training programme, and guide the patient to correct, functional movement avoiding harmful compensations which might have a negative effect in the long run. There would also be a doctor, nurse and perhaps a speech trainer involved, depending on the needs of the patient. This team contribute with their knowledge to guide the patient towards his goal, and it is important that all goals set by the separate teammembers are relevant for the patient's own priorities.
After rehabilitation the patient should be able to function in his own home and attend necessary training as needed.
== Prognosis ==
Approximately 80% of patients have a complete recovery and about 5-10% recover with severe disability. However, this is a grave disease and despite all improvements in treatment and supportive care, the death rate among patients with this disease is still about 2-3% even in the best intensive care units. Worldwide, the death rate runs slightly higher (4%), mostly from a lack of availability of life support equipment during the lengthy plateau lasting 4 to 6 weeks when a ventilator is needed in the worse cases.
== History ==
The disease was first described by the French physician [[Jean Landry]] in [[1859]]. In [[1916]], [[Georges Guillain]], [[Jean Alexandre Barré]] and [[Andre Strohl]] discovered the key diagnostic abnormality of increased spinal fluid protein production, but normal cell count.
== External links ==
* [http://www.gbsfi.com/ Guillain-Barré syndrome forum and information]
[[Category:Eponymous diseases]]
[[Category:Autoimmune diseases]]
[[Category:Neurology]]
[[de:Polyradikulitis]]
[[es:Síndrome de Guillain-Barré]]
[[fr:Syndrome de Guillain-Barré]]
[[lb:Guillain-Barré-Syndrom]]
[[ms:Sindrom Guillain-Barré]]
[[nl:Syndroom van Guillain-Barré]]
[[ja:ギラン・バレー症候群]]
[[tr:Guillain-Barré sendromu]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gheorghe Hagi</title>
<id>12276</id>
<revision>
<id>40030785</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T16:58:36Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Messager</username>
<id>882534</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Football player infobox |
playername = Gheorghe Hagi |
image = [[Image:hagi3.jpg|200px]] |
fullname = Gheorghe Hagi |
nickname = ''Maradona din Carpaţi'' |
dateofbirth = [[February 5]], [[1965]] |
cityofbirth = [[Săcele]] |
countryofbirth = [[Romania]] |
currentclub = Retired |
position = Attacking Midfielder |
youthyears = &nbsp; |
youthclubs = &nbsp; |
years = [[1982]]-[[1983|83]]<br/>[[1983]]-[[1987|87]]<br/>[[1987]]-[[1990|90]]<br/>[[1990]]-[[1992|92]]<br/>[[1992]]-[[1994|94]]<br/>[[1994]]-[[1996|96]]<br/>[[1996]]-[[2001|01]]|
clubs = FC Constanţa<br/>Sportul Studenţesc<br/>Steaua Bucureşti<br/>Real Madrid CF<br/>Brescia Calcio<br/>FC Barcelona<br/>Galatasaray Istanbul |
caps(goals) = 18 (7)<br/>107 (58)<br/>97 (76)<br/>63 (15)<br/>61 (15)<br/>35 (7)<br/>132 (59) |
nationalyears = [[1983]]-[[2000|00]] |
nationalteam = [[Romania national football team|Romania]] |
nationalcaps(goals) = 125 (35)
}}
'''Gheorghe Hagi''' {{IPA|/'gěor.ge 'ha.ʤi/}} (born [[February 5]] [[1965]] in [[Sacele, Constanta|Săcele]], [[Constanţa County]]) is a [[Romania]]n [[football (soccer)|football]] player who played for the [[Romania national football team|Romanian national team]] in three [[Football World Cup|World Cup]]s. Nicknamed "The [[Diego Maradona|Maradona]] of the Carpathians", he is a hero in his homeland as well as in [[Turkey]]. He has won his country's Player of the Year award a record six times, and was recently named Romania's player of the century. Most notably, he was named the best player of the 1990s by FIFA.
During the [[Football World Cup 1994|1994 World Cup]], Hagi made highlights by scoring vital goals for Romania, including a 35 meter lob against [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]].
Having played for Farul [[Constanta|Constanţa]] (1979/1980 and 1982/83), Luceafărul [[Bucharest]] (1980/1982), [[Sportul Studenţesc]] (1983/1986), [[Steaua Bucharest]] (1986/1990), [[Real Madrid]] (1990/1992), [[Brescia]] (1992/1994) and [[FC Barcelona]] (1994/1996), Hagi then joined [[Galatasaray]], the [[Turkey|Turkish]] club team that captured the [[UEFA Cup]] title in 2000. Prior to his third retirement in 2001, he won 125 international caps, scoring 35 goals.
Hagi made his debut for the national side at the age of 18 in 1983. Since then he has been, literally, the cause of the rise of Romanian soccer in the 1990s. His playing style revolutionized the Romanian game - his speed and creativity made those famous counter-attacks possible.
At 5'8" tall, wearing size five boots, Hagi is one of the more diminutive players on the field, but in terms of his impact on the game, and the status of Romanian soccer, he is larger than life. By bringing so much respect to Romanian soccer, Hagi opened up opportunities for future players, as clubs from all over Europe come to scout talent in Romania.
Hagi has since returned to [[football (soccer)|football]] as a coach. He became the head coach of the Romanian national team in 2001, although he only lasted six months as the team failed to qualify for the [[Football World Cup 2002|2002 World Cup]]. He then took over as coach of Turkish first division side [[Bursaspor]] but left that club after a disappointing start to the season.
After a 18 month hiatus spent running a coastal [[Black Sea]] hotel and appearing in television commercials, he then returned to club management at the helm of the club at which he won his first European trophy, [[Galatasaray]]. He resigned from this position, on [[May 30]] [[2005]], at the end of his first season in the role. For many Galatasaray fans, a third place finish in the League (and therefore missing out on a prestigious berth in the 2005/2006 [[UEFA Champions League]] competition) was highly disappointing, despite the club's success in the Turkish Cup.
In November 2005, Gheorghe Hagi took over as manager at [[FCU Politehnica Timisoara]], signing a contract until 2008.
Hagi is ethnically [[Aromanian]]. In March [[2004]], he was named among the [[FIFA 100|top 125 living footballers]] by [[Pelé]]. Hagi is [[Adrian Mutu]] and [[Alexandra Mutu]]'s godfather.
== External links ==
*[http://www.hagi.ro Gheorghe Hagi's official website]
*[http://www.hagi10.com Hagi fansite]
*[http://www.iaki.ro Hagi's Iaki Hotel]
[[Category:1965 births|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Living people|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Romanian footballers|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Romanian football managers|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Real Madrid players|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:FC Barcelona footballers|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Galatasaray players|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Galatasaray football managers|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[de:Gheorghe Hagi]]
[[es:Gheorghe Hagi]]
[[fr:Gheorghe Hagi]]
[[nl:Gheorge Hagi]]
[[ja:ゲオルゲ・ハジ]]
[[no:Gheorghe Hagi]]
[[pl:Gheorghe Hagi]]
[[ro:Gheorghe Hagi]]
[[fi:Gheorghe Hagi]]
[[sv:Gheorghe Hagi]]
[[tr:Gheorghe Hagi]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gordon Banks</title>
<id>12277</id>
<revision>
<id>41750622</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T13:57:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Slumgum</username>
<id>580636</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>cat</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''For the politician, see [[Gordon Banks (politician)]]''
'''Gordon Banks, [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]]''' (born [[Sheffield]], [[England]], [[30th December]], [[1937]]) is a former English [[football (soccer)|footballer]], considered by many to be the best [[goalkeeper]] to have played the game.
Banks' crowning glory came as the keeper when [[England national football team|England]] won the [[Football World Cup 1966|1966 World Cup]], enhancing his reputation further with one of football's most iconic saves at the [[Football World Cup|1970]] tournament, against [[Pelé]] during the group match against [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]].
==Early years==
A careful student of goalkeepers during childhood, Banks played in local [[colliery]] football as a boy and was offered an [[apprentice]]ship by [[Chesterfield F.C.|Chesterfield]] after initially going to work down a [[mining|mine]] and then as a [[bricklayer]] on leaving school.
After performances in the youth and A teams gained him promotion to the reserves, Banks was posted to [[Germany]] with the Royal Signals on [[National Service]], winning the Rhine Cup |
mascot costume]] in with their advertising campaigns. Think of the [[Kool Aid Man]] or the [[Fruit of the Loom Guys]]. The comsumer identifies with the character and this helps tie all of the adverising campaign together.
Costumes are often worn with [[make-up]] or [[wigs]] to enhance the illusion.
==See also==
*[[Cosplay]]
*[[Sexy Costumes]]
*[[Lingerie]]
==External links==
*[http://www.costumers.com/ Pierre's Costumes]
*[http://www.costumers.org/ National Costumers Association - USA]
*[http://www.1000costumes.com/ ''1000 Costumes''].
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GT513xL32/ ''LACY'S DRAMATIC COSTUMES''], collected & edited by Thomas Hailes Lacy, 1865 & 1868. ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] & [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GT513xL32/1f/ layered PDF] format)''
*[http://www.costumes.org/ ''The Costumer's Manifesto''].
*[http://www.cosx.co.kr/ ''The Costume X Image of Korea''].
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/DConU/ DConU]- Dedicated to costume convention lifestyle.
[[Category:Clothing]]
[[de:Kostüm]]
[[da:Kostume]]
[[nl:Kostuum]]
[[ja:&#26381;&#35013;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cable car (railway)</title>
<id>7674</id>
<revision>
<id>37989567</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T12:15:39Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chris j wood</username>
<id>82307</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Relation to Funiculars */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|(For 'cable car' systems where the vehicles are suspended and not on rails, see [[aerial lift]])}}
[[Image:Cable_Car.jpg|thumb|right|Cable Car in San Francisco]]
[[Image:Sf_cable_car.jpg|thumb|right|A San Francisco cable car]]
A '''cable car''' or '''cable railway''' is a [[mass transit]] system using rail cars that are propelled by a continuously moving cable running at a constant speed. Individual cars stop and start by releasing and gripping this cable as required. Cable cars are sometimes confused with [[funicular]]s, where the cars are permanently attached to the cable.
==Operation==
The cable is itself powered by a stationary motor or engine situated in a cable house or power house. The speed at which it moves is relatively constant, although affected by the current load.
The cable car begins moving when a clamping device, called a ''grip'', is connected to the moving cable. Conversely the car is stopped by detaching it from the cable and applying the brakes. This gripping and ungripping action may be manual, as was the case in all early cable car systems, or automatic, as is the case in some recent cable operated [[people mover]] type systems. Gripping must be an even and gradual process in order to avoid bringing the car to cable speed too quickly and unacceptably jarring the [[passenger]]s.
In the case of manual systems, the grip resembles a very large pair of [[pliers]], and considerable strength and skill are required to operate the car. As many early cable car operators discovered the hard way, if the grip is not applied properly, it can damage the cable, or even worse, become entangled in the cable. In the latter case, the cable car may not be able to stop and can wreak havoc along its route until the cable house realizes what is going on and halts the cable.
One claimed advantage of the cable car is its relative energy efficiency, because of the economy of centrally-located power stations, and the ability for cars going down hill to transfer energy to cars going up. However this advantage is not unique to cable cars, as electric cars fitted with [[regenerative braking]] offer the same advantages, and in any case they must be offset against the cost of moving the cable.
Because of the constant and relatively low speed, cable cars can be underestimated in an accident. Even with a cable car traveling at only 9 miles per hour, the mass of the cable car and the combined strength of the cables, can do quite a lot of harm to pedestrians if hit.
== History ==
Though there may have been earlier attempts to pull cars by endless ropes, the first cable car installation in operation was the [[IRT Ninth Avenue Line|West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway]] in [[New York]], which ran from [[1 July]] [[1868]] to [[1870]]. The cable technology used in this elevated railway involved collar-equipped cables and claw-equipped cars, and proved cumbersome. The line was closed and rebuilt, and reopened with [[steam locomotives]].
[[image:Cable_Car_Station.jpg|thumb|right|Machinery driving the San Francisco Cable Car]]
The first cable cars to use grips were those of the [[Clay Street Hill Railroad]], which later became part of the [[San Francisco cable car system]]. This building of this line was promoted by [[Andrew Smith Hallidie]] with design work by [[William Eppelsheimer]], and it was first tested in [[1873]]. The success of these grips ensured that this line became the model for other cable car transit systems, and this model is often known as the ''Hallidie Cable Car''.
In [[1881]] the [[Dunedin cable tramway system]] opened in [[Dunedin]], [[New Zealand]] and became the first such system outside San Francisco. For Dunedin, [[George Smith Duncan]] further developed the Hallidie model, introducing the pull curve and the slot brake; the former was a way to pull cars through a curve, since Dunedin's curves were too steep to allow coasting, while the latter forced a wedge down into the cable slot to stop the car. Both of these innovations were generally adopted by other cities, including San Francisco.
Cable cars rapidly spread to other cities, although the major attraction for most was the ability to displace [[horse]]-drawn (or other animal-drawn) systems rather than the ability to climb hills. Many people at the time viewed horse-drawn transit as unnecessarily cruel, and the fact that a typical horse could work only four or five hours per day necessitated the maintenance of large stables of draft animals that had to be fed (typically 30 lb (14 kg) of feed each day), housed, groomed, medicated and rested. Thus for a period economics worked in favour of cable cars even in relatively flat cities.
For example, the [[Chicago City Railway]], also designed by Eppelsheimer, opened in [[Chicago, Illinois]] in [[1882]] and went on to become the largest and most profitable cable car system. As with many cities, the problem in flat Chicago was not one of grades but of transportation capacity. This caused a different approach to the combination of grip car and trailer. Rather than using a grip car and single trailer, as many cities did, or combining the grip and trailer into a single car, like San Francisco's ''California Cars'', Chicago used grip cars to pull trains of up to three trailers.
In [[1883]] the [[New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway]] was opened, which had a most curious feature: though it was a cable car system, it used [[steam locomotive]]s to get the cars into and out of the terminals. After [[1896]] the system changed to one where a motor car was added to each train to manoeuvre at the terminals, while en route the trains were still propelled by the cable.
On [[25 September]] [[1883]] a test of a cable car system was held by [[Liverpool United]] in [[Kirkdale, Liverpool|Kirkdale]]. This was the first cable car system in Europe, but Liverpool United decided against implementing it. Other cable car systems were implemented in Europe, though, among which was the [[Glasgow Subway | Glasgow District Subway]], the first underground cable car system, in [[1896]]. ([[London]]'s first deep-level tube railway, the [[City & South London Railway]], had earlier also been built for cable haulage but had been converted to electric traction before opening in [[1890]].) A few more cable car systems were built in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Portugal]] and [[France]], but European cities, having much more curves in their streets, were less suitable for cable cars than American cities.
Though some new cable car systems were still being built, by [[1890]] the cheaper to construct and simpler to operate [[electricity|electrically]]-powered [[trolley]] or tram started to become the norm, and eventually started to replace existing cable car systems. For a while hybrid cable/electric systems operated, for example in Chicago where electric cars had to be pulled by grip cars through the loop area, due to the lack of trolley wires there. Eventually, San Francisco became the only street-running manually-operated system to survive - Dunedin, the second city with such cars, was also the second-last city to operate them, closing down in [[1957]].
In the last decades of the 20th century cable cars have seen a limited revival as automatic [[people mover]]s. They are completely computer controlled and can be switched easily from one continuous loop to another. They are normally used in resort areas, airports and huge hospital centers. The biggest manufacturer is Poma-Otis, a company formed by the merger of the cable car interests of the POMA ski lift company and the Otis elevator company - they can almost be considered to be horizontal elevators. Most of these cable car systems operate above ground on supported guideways, but some have sections that go underground.
== Relation to Funiculars == <!-- Do not make this section about funiculars -->
A cable car is superficially very similar to a [[funicular]] but differs from such a system in that its cars are not permanently attached to the cable and can stop independently, whereas a funicular has cars that are permanently attached to the propulsion cable, which is itself stopped and started. A cable car cannot climb as steep a grade as a funicular, but many more cars can be operated with a single cable, making it more flexible, and allowing a higher capacity. During the rush hour on San Francisco's Market Street Railway, a car would leave the terminal ever |
er their rule. These included the young Swedish kingdom, [[Denmark]], the Republic of [[Novgorod]] in Northwestern [[Russia]] and probably the German crusading orders as well. Finns had their own chiefs, but no central authority. Despite the cultural and linguistic similarity, feelings of common "Finnish identity" must have been very vague, if existing at all. The name "Finland" signified only the southwestern province that has been known as "[[Finland Proper]]" since the 18th century. The concept of a Finnish "country" in the modern sense developed only slowly during the period of the 15th&ndash;18th centuries. This development was chiefly promoted by the unifying effect of the Catholic Church that considered the populated parts of present-day Finland to be one [[episcopal see]] and took it for granted that the Christians of that see would consider themselves as kinsmen.
It was apparently the Swedish regent, [[Birger Jarl]], who managed to stabilize Swedish rule in Finland after a "crusade", most often dated to [[1238]] or [[1249]]. Novgorod gained the rule in [[Karelia]], the region immediately east of Finland, with a population still today closely related to the Finns in a linguistic and ethnic sense. <!-- In fact, it is successfully argued that the Finnic peoples that came under Swedish rule were equally much different as they were compared to them who came under Novgorod's influence. --> Thus, the border between Catholic and Orthodox Christendom came to lie at the eastern border of Finland.
During the 13th century Finland was integrated in medieval European civilization. The [[Dominican order]] arrived in Finland [[1250s|around 1249]] and came to exercise huge influence there. In the early 14th century, the first documents of Finnish students at [[Collège de Sorbonne|Sorbonne]] appear. In the south-western part of the country, an urban settlement evolved in [[Turku]]. Turku was one of the biggest towns in the Kingdom of Sweden, and its population included German merchants and craftsmen. Otherwise the degree of urbanization was very low in medieval Finland. Southern Finland and the long [[littoral]] of the [[Gulf of Bothnia|Bothnian Gulf]] had a sparse farming settlement, organized as parishes and castellanies. In the other parts of the country a small population of [[Sami people|Sami]] hunters, fishermen and small-scale farmers lived. These were exploited by the Finnish and Karelian tax collectors. During the 12th and 13th centuries, great numbers of Swedish settlers moved to the southern and north-western coasts of Finland, to the [[Åland Islands]] and to the archipelago between Turku and the Åland Islands: in these regions, the Swedish language is widely spoken even today. Swedish came to be the language of the high-status people in many other parts of Finland as well.
During the 13th century, the bishopric of Turku was established, sometimes identified as the medieval counterpart to Finland of our days, since there were no other sees in Finland. The cathedral of Turku was the center of the cult of Saint Henry, and naturally the cultural center of the bishopric. The bishop had the ecclesiastical authority over much of today's Finland and was usually the most powerful man there. Bishops were often Finns, whereas the commanders in the castles were more often Scandinavian or German noblemen. In [[1362]], representatives from Finland were called to participate in the elections of king for Sweden; and this year is often held to signify the incorporation of what would become Finland into the kingdom of Sweden. Similarly to the Scandinavian part of the kingdom, a [[gentry]] or (lower) [[nobility]] consisted of magnates and yeomen who could afford armament for a man and a horse. These were concentrated in the southern part of Finland.
The strong fortress of [[Viipuri]] (Swedish: [[Viborg]]) guarded the eastern border of Finland. Sweden and Novgorod signed the [[Peace of Nöteborg]] in [[1323]], but that would not last long. For example, in [[1348]] the Swedish king [[Magnus Eriksson]] staged a failed crusade against the Orthodox "[[heretic]]s", managing only to alienate his supporters and finally losing his crown. The bones of contention between Sweden and Novgorod were the northern coast-line of the Bothnian Gulf and the wilderness regions of [[Savo]] in Eastern Finland. [[Novgorod]] considered these as hunting and fishing grounds of its Karelian subjects, protesting against the slow infiltration of Catholic settlers from the West. Occasional raids and clashes between Swedes and Novgorodians occurred during the late 14th and 15th centuries, but for most of the time an uneasy peace prevailed. There existed internal tensions as well. During the [[1380s]] a civil war in the Scandinavian part of Sweden brought unrest to Finland, too. The victor of this struggle was Queen [[Margaret I of Denmark]], who brought the three Scandinavian kingdoms of [[Sweden]], [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]] under her rule (the "[[Kalmar Union]]") in [[1389]]. The next 130 years or so were characterized by attempts of different Swedish factions to break out of the Union. Finland was sometimes involved in these struggles, but in general the 15th century seem to have been a relatively prosperous time, characterized by population growth and economic development. Towards the end of the century, however, the situation on the eastern border was becoming more tense. The [[Principality of Moscow]] conquered Novgorod, preparing the way for a unified [[Russians|Russian]] [[nation-state]], and soon tensions arose with Sweden. In [[1495]]&ndash;[[1497]], a brutal war was fought. The fortress-town of [[Viipuri]] stood against a Russian siege: according to a contemporary legend, it was saved by a miracle.
==The 16th century==
In 1521, the Kalmar Union finally collapsed and [[Gustav Vasa]] became the King of [[Sweden]]. During his rule, the Swedish church was reformed (1527). The state administration underwent extensive reforms and development too, giving it a much stronger grip on the life of local communities - and ability to collect higher taxes. Following the policies of the Reformation, in 1551 [[Mikael Agricola]], bishop of Turku, published his translation of the [[New Testament]] into the [[Finnish language]].
In 1550, [[Helsinki]] was founded by [[Gustav Vasa]], but remained little more than a fishing village for more than two centuries.
King Gustav Vasa died in 1560 and his crown was passed to his three sons in separate turns. King [[Erik XIV]] started an era of expansion when the Swedish crown took the city of [[Tallinn]] in [[Estonia]] under its protection in 1561. It was the beginning of an extremely warlike era which lasted for 160 years. In the first phase, Sweden fought for the lordship of Estonia and [[Latvia]] ("[[Livonia]]") against [[Denmark]], [[Poland]] and Russia. The common people of Finland suffered because of drafts, high taxes, and abuse by military personnel. This resulted in the [[Cudgel War]] of 1596-7, a desperate peasant rebellion, which was suppressed brutally and bloodily. A peace treaty ([[Treaty of Teusina|Peace of Täyssinä]]) with Russia in 1595 moved the border of Finland further to the east and north.
An important part of the 16th century history of Finland was growth of the area settled by the farming population. The crown encouraged farmers from the [[Savo]] province to settle the vast wilderness regions in Middle Finland. This was done, and the original [[Sami people|Sami]] population often had to leave. Some of the wilderness settled was traditional hunting and fishing territory of [[Karelia]]n hunters. During the 1580´s, this resulted in a bloody guerrilla warfare between the Finnish settlers and Karelians in some regions.
==The 17th century - the Swedish Empire==
In [[1617]] - [[1632]] Sweden was ruled by King [[Gustavus Adolphus]], whose military reforms transformed the Swedish army from a peasant militia into an efficient fighting machine, possibly the best one in Europe. The conquest of [[Livonia]] was now completed, and some territories were taken from internally divided [[Russia]] in the [[Treaty of Stolbova]]. In 1630, the Swedish (and Finnish) armies marched into Central Europe, as Sweden had decided to take part in the great struggle between Protestant and Catholic forces in Germany, known as the [[Thirty Years War]]. The Finnish light cavalry, known as the [[Hakkapeliitta|Hakkapeliitat]], spread fear among the Catholic troops in Germany who were used to more orderly warfare (and, maybe, less brutal treatment of prisoners and civilians).
After the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in 1648, Sweden was ranked among the great European powers (the [[Swedish Empire]]). During the war, several important reforms had been made in Finland:
*[[1637]]-[[1640|40]] and [[1648]]-[[1654|54]] Count [[Per Brahe]] functioned as general governor of Finland. Many important reforms were made and many towns were founded. His period of administration is generally considered very beneficial to the development of Finland.
*[[1640]] Finland's first university, the [[Academy of Åbo]], was founded in Turku at the proposal of Count Per Brahe by [[Queen Christina of Sweden]]. This is said to be the only European university founded by a female.
*[[1642]] The whole [[Bible]] was finally published in Finnish.
However, the high taxation, continuing wars and the cold climate (the [[Little Ice Age]]) made the Imperial era of Sweden rather gloomy times for Finnish peasants. In 1655 - 1660, a [[Northern Wars|new series of bitter wars]] was fought, taking Finnish soldiers to the battle-fields of [[Livonia]], [[Poland]] and [[Denmark]]. In 1676, the political system of Sweden was transformed into an [[Charles XI of Sweden|absolute monarchy]].
In Middle and Eastern Finland, great amounts of [[tar]] were produced for export. European nations needed |
OpenOffice.org]] (2000)
*[[AmerisourceBergen Corporation|AmerisourceBergen]] ([[2001]])
*ChevronTexaco (now [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]]) (2001)
*[[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]] (2001)
*[[RuneScape]] (2001)
*[[ConocoPhillips]] ([[2002]])
*[[OpenCola]]
*[[JPMorgan Chase & Co.]]
* Weekly supplements of ''[[The Guardian]]'', such as ''SocietyGuardian'' (2005)
*NetOp (???)
*[[MediaWiki]] (2001?)
This fashion has become so pervasive that it is often incorrectly applied to names that do not use it officially, as in ''[[Transamerica|TransAmerica]]'' (Transamerica), ''[[Mozilla Firefox|FireFox]]'' (Firefox), ''[[Usenet|UseNet]] (Usenet)'', ''[[Time Warner|TimeWarner]]'' (Time Warner, whose new logo does appear in CamelCase fashion), ''[[Game Boy|GameBoy]]'' (Game Boy), ''[[Microsoft|MicroSoft]]'' (Microsoft) and ''[[KarmelKorn]]'' (Karmelkorn).
===History of the name===
The original name of the practice, used in [[media studies]], [[grammar]]s, and the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', was "medial capitals". The fancier names such as "InterCaps", "CamelCase", and variations thereof are relatively recent, and seem more common in computer-related communities.
The earliest known occurrence of ''InterCaps'' on Usenet is in an April 1990 post to the group <tt>alt.folklore.computers</tt> by [[Avi Rappoport]] [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/alt.folklore.computers/msg/21f332e5b813313e], with ''BiCapitalization'' appearing slightly later in a 1991 post by [[Eric S. Raymond]] to the same group [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=1ZJ7Y0%233w7TXB3X6xdT7Fp8Dg1SnxYw%3Deric%40snark.thyrsus.com&output=gplain]. The earliest use of the name "CamelCase" occurs in 1995, in a post by [[Newton Love]]. [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=newton.212.30563F09%40michelob.wustl.edu&output=gplain]. "With the advent of programming languages having these sorts of constructs, the humpiness of the style made me call it HumpyCase at first, before I settled on CamelCase. I had been calling it CamelCase for years," said Newton, [http://sluug.org/~newt/] "The citation above was just the first time I had used the name on USENET."
==See also==
*[[All caps]]
*[[CamelCase and Wiki]]
*[[StudlyCaps]]
<!-- [[Wikipedia:CamelCase and Wikipedia]] -->
==References==
*[http://www.netbros.com/CamelCase ''NetVillage: What is CamelCase?'']
==External links==
*[http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?CamelCase Examples and history of CamelCase]
*[http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/cpgenref/html/cpconcapitalizationstyles.asp .NET Framework General Reference Capitalization Styles]
*[http://www.theslot.com/webnames.html What's in a nAME(cq)?], by Bill Walsh, at The Slot
*[http://www.microsoft.com/typography/ctfonts/WordRecognition.aspx The Science of Word Recognition], by Kevin Larson, Advanced Reading Technology, Microsoft Corporation
[[Category:Typography]]
[[Category:Typesetting]]
[[Category:Naming conventions]]
[[ca:CamelCase]]
[[da:WikiOrd]]
[[de:Binnenmajuskel]]
[[es:CamelCase]]
[[fr:CamelCase]]
[[it:CamelCase]]
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[[ja:キャメルケース]]
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[[sv:CamelCase]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Complete works of Plato</title>
<id>6699</id>
<revision>
<id>15904820</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-13T03:56:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ap</username>
<id>122</id>
</contributor>
<comment>redirect to [[Plato]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Plato]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cereal</title>
<id>6700</id>
<revision>
<id>40046472</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-17T19:14:42Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Keenan Pepper</username>
<id>124371</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>dablink</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about grains in general. See also [[breakfast cereal]].}}
'''Cereal''' [[agriculture|crops]] are mostly [[Poaceae|grasses]] cultivated for their edible [[seed]]s (actually a [[fruit]] called a [[caryopsis]]). Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities worldwide than any other type of crop and provides more [[food energy]] to the [[human]] race than any other crop. In some [[developing nation]]s, cereal grains constitute practically the entire diet of common folk. In [[developed nation]]s, cereal consumption is more moderate but still substantial. The word '''cereal''' has its origin in the Roman goddess of [[grain]], ''[[Ceres (goddess)|Ceres]]''. [[Staple food]] grains are traditionally called ''corn'' in [[Britain]], though that word became specified for ''[[maize]]'' in the United States, Canada and Australia.
[[Image:Various grains.jpg|thumb|300px|Oats, barley, and some products made from them.]]
== Cereal crops ==
=== True cereals ===
The cereal crops are (in approximate order of greatest annual production):
*[[wheat]], the primary cereal of [[temperate climate|temperate]] regions
*[[rice]], the primary cereal of [[tropics|tropical]] regions
*[[maize]], a staple food of peoples in [[North America]], [[South America]], and [[Africa]] and of [[livestock]] worldwide; called "corn" or "Indian corn" in North America and Australia
*[[millet]]s, a group of similar but distinct cereals that form an important staple food in Asia and Africa.
*[[sorghum]]s, important staple food in Asia and Africa and popular worldwide for livestock
*[[rye]] and [[triticale]], important in cold climates
*[[oat]]s, formerly the staple food of [[Scotland]] and popular worldwide for livestock
*[[barley]], grown for [[malt]]ing and livestock on land too poor or too cold for wheat
*[[teff]], popular in [[Ethiopia]] but scarcely known elsewhere
*[[wild rice]], grown in small amounts in North America
*[[spelt]], a close relative of wheat
[[Category:lists of foods|Cereal]]
=== Pseudocereals ===
In addition, several non-grasses that are grown for their seed may also be referred to as cereals. These '''pseudocereals''' include (in no particular order):
*[[buckwheat]]
*[[amaranth]]
*[[quinoa]]
*[[kañiwa]]
*[[cockscomb]]
== Cultivation ==
[[image:040719_172_dorset_marnhull.jpg|thumb|220px|A wheat field in [[Dorset]], [[England]].]]
While each individual species has its own peculiarities, the cultivation of all cereals crops is similar. All are [[annual plant]]s; consequently one planting yields one harvest. Wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, and spelt are the '''cool-season''' cereals.
These are hardy plants that grow well in moderate weather and cease to grow in hot weather (approximately 30&nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]] but this varies by species and variety).
The other '''warm-season''' cereals are tender and prefer hot weather.
Barley and rye are the hardiest cereals, able to overwinter in the [[subarctic]] and [[Siberia]]. Wheat is the most popular. All cool-season cereals are grown in the tropics, but only in the cool highlands, where it may be possible to grow multiple crops in a year.
=== Planting ===
The warm-season cereals are grown in tropical lowlands year-round and in temperate climates during the frost-free season.
Cool-season cereals are well-adapted to temperate climates. Most varieties of a particular species are either '''winter''' or '''spring''' types. Winter varieties are sown in the autumn, germinate and grow vegetatively, then become [[dormancy|dormant]] during winter. They resume growing in the springtime and mature in late spring or early summer. This cultivation system makes optimal use of water and frees the land for another crop early in the growing season. Winter varieties do not flower until springtime because they require '''vernalization''' (exposure to low temperature for a genetically determined length of time).
Where winters are too warm for vernalization or exceed the hardiness of the crop (which varies by species and variety), farmers grow spring varieties.
Spring cereals are planted in early springtime and mature later that same summer, without vernalization. Spring cereals typically require more irrigation and yield less than winter cereals.
=== Harvest ===
Once the cereal plants have grown their seeds, they have completed their life cycle. The plants die and become brown and dry. As soon as the parent plants and their seed kernels are reasonably dry, harvest can begin.
In developed countries, cereal crops are universally machine-harvested, typically using a [[combine harvester]], which cuts, threshes, and winnows the grain during a single pass across the field. In developing countries, a variety of harvesting methods are in use, from combines to hand tools such as scythes.
If a crop is harvested during wet weather, the grain may not dry adequately in the field to prevent spoilage during its storage. In this case, the grain is sent to a dehydrating facility, where artificial heat dries it.
In North America, farmers commonly deliver their newly harvested grain to a [[grain elevator]], a large storage facility that consolidates the crops of many farmers. The farmer may sell the grain at the time of delivery or maintain ownership of a share of grain in the pool for later sale.
== Food value ==
Cereal grains supply most of their [[food energy]] as [[starch]]. They are also a significant source of [[protein]], though the [[amino acid]] balance is not optimal. Whole grains (see below) are good sources of [[dietary fiber]], [[essential fatty acid]]s, and other important [[nutrient]]s.
Rice is eaten as cooked entire grains, although rice flour is also produced. Oats are rolled, ground, or cut into bits (steel-cut oats) and cooked into [[porridge]]. Most other cereals are ground into [[flour]] or meal, that is '''milled'''. The outer layers of bran and germ are removed (see [[Grain|grain (fruit)]] and [[seed]]). This lessens the [[nutrition]]al va |
children, and that is the first claim of the Jews to Israel.
Judaism ascribes a special trait to each Patriarch. Abraham's had kindness. Because of this, Judaism considers kindness to be an inherent Jewish trait.
Jewish tradition teaches the origins of Abraham's [[monotheism]]. His father Terah owned a store that sold idols. Abraham, at the age of three, started to question their authenticity. This culminated in Abraham destroying some idols.
Abraham was then brought to the king, and sentenced to death, along with his brother Haran, unless they recanted their position. Abraham did not, and was thrown into a fire. When Abraham exited unscathed, Haran also would not recant, and was thrown into the fire. Haran, who did not truly believe, died in the fire. This is hinted at in Genesis 11:28.
Abraham then went to the city of Haran with his father and brother. His father died there. God spoke to Abraham for the first time, and told him of great things He would give him if he would leave Haran. Abraham did. He was seventy-five during this time.
Abraham started a school for teaching his beliefs in God, and some say he wrote the [[Sefer Yetzirah]].
== Abraham in Christianity ==
Abraham stands out prominently as the recipient of the promises (Gen. 12:2-7, 13:14-17, 15, 17, 18:17-19, 22:17-18, 24:7). In the [[New Testament]] Abraham is mentioned prominently as a man of [[faith]] (see e.g., [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 11), and the apostle [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] uses him as an example of [[salvation]] by faith (in e.g. [[Epistle to Galatians|Galatians]] 3). Abraham also plays significantly in the theology of [[Paul]] as the progenator of the [[Christ]] (or [[Messiah]]) (see [[Galatians]] 3:16).
Authors of the New Testament report that Jesus cited Abraham to support belief in the [[resurrection]] of the dead. "But concerning the dead, that they rise, have you not read in the book of [[Moses]], in the [[burning bush]] passage, how God spoke to him, saying, "I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob?" He is not the God of the dead, but the God of the living. You are therefore greatly mistaken." ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 12:26-27) "By faith Abraham, when he was tested, offered up Isaac, and he who had received the promises offered up his only begotten son, of whom it was said, "In Isaac your seed shall be called," concluding that God was able to raise him up, even from the dead, from which he also received him in a figurative sense." (''Hebrews'' 11:17-19)
The [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]], [[Baptist]] and traditional [[Protestant]] view in Christianity is that the chief promise made to Abraham in ''Genesis'' 12 is that through Abraham's seed, all the people of earth would be blessed. This promise was fulfilled through Abraham's seed, Jesus. It is also a consequence of this promise that Christianity is open to people of all races and not limited to the Jews.
The [[Roman Catholic Church]] calls Abraham "our father in Faith," in the [[Eucharistic prayer]] called the ''Roman Canon'', recited during the [[Mass]]. (See [[Abraham in Liturgy]]).
Christian tradition sees Abraham as a figure of God, and Abraham's attempt to offer up [[Isaac]] is a foreshadowing of [[God]]'s offering of his Son, [[Jesus]] (Gen. 22:1-14; Heb. 11:17-19). Just as Isaac carried wood for the sacrifice up the mountain and willingly submitted to being offered, so Jesus carried his [[Cross]] up the hill and allowed himself to be [[crucified]].
==Abraham in Islam==
Abraham (called '''Ibrahim''') is very important in [[Islam]], both in his own right as prophet and as the father of the prophet [[Ishmael|Ismail]] (Ishmael), his firstborn son, who is considered the ''Father of the Arabs''. Abraham is considered one of the first and most important prophets of Islam, and is commonly termed ''Khalil Ullah'', Friend of God. (Islam regards most of the [[Old Testament]] "patriarchs" as [[prophets of Islam|prophets]] of God, and hence as Muslims.)
The faith of Abraham is called [[Millat-e-Ibrahim]] in the [[Qur'an]]. Muslims believe that Abraham was a prophet of God, in accordance with the narrative of his life in the [[Qur'an]]. In the Qur'an, Muslims are instructed to pray facing in the direction of the [[Ka'bah]] in [[Mecca]], which is described as having been built by Abraham and his son Ismail ([[al-Baqara|Qur'an 2]]:125). Abraham also takes an important role in one of the [[Pillars of Islam]], the [[Hajj]], which is a pilgrimage to the Holy Mosque. A part of the Hajj is a commemoration of the sacrifice of the wife of Abraham, Hagar, for her son Ismail, when Abraham had settled his wife and son in the valley of Mecca by God's order to pioneer a civilization. (It was from this civilization that the final prophet of Islam, [[Muhammad]], was later born)
Muslims have a specific ''[[dua]]'' that (in some traditions) they recite daily which asks God to bless both Abraham and [[Muhammad]]. Islamic prayer, [[Salat]], that occurs five times a day, also includes many parts that ask God for his blessings upon Abraham; the most in the prayer. According to Islamic tradition, he is buried in [[Hebron]]. In the [[Masjid al Haram]] in [[Mecca]], there is an area known as the "station of Ibrahim" (''Maqam Ibrahim'' مقام), which bears an impression of his footprints.
There are numerous references to Abraham in the Qur'an. According to the Qur'an, Abraham is the spritual father of all the believers. He is mentioned as an upright person who was neither a polytheist nor a Christian or a Jew ([[Al Imran|Qur'an 3]]:67). An example is like the one below:
<blockquote>
''O ye who believe! Bow down and prostrate yourselves, and worship your Lord, and do good, that haply ye may prosper And strive for Allah with the endeavor which is His right. He hath chosen you and hath not laid upon you in religion any hardship; the faith of your father Abraham (is yours). He hath named you Muslims of old time and in this (Scripture), that the messenger may be a witness against you, and that ye may be witnesses against mankind. So establish worship, pay the poor due, and hold fast to Allah. He is your Protecting Friend. A blessed Patron and a blessed Helper.'' ([[Al-Hajj|Qur'an 22]]:78)
</blockquote>
According to the Qur'an, Abraham reached the conclusion that anything subject to disappearance could not be worthy of worship, and thus became a [[monotheist]] ([[Al-An'am|Qura'n 6]]:76-83). While some Muslims &mdash; like Jews &mdash; believe that Azar who was an idol-maker was the father of Abraham, majority of the Muslims believe that Tarakh was his father and Azar was Abraham's uncle [http://al-islam.org/encyclopedia/chapter5a/8.html (Father of Ibrahim).] Abraham broke his uncle's idols, calling on his community to worship God instead. They then cast him into a fire, which miraculously failed to burn him ([[as-Saaffat|Qur'an 37]]:83-98). The well-known but wholly non-canonical ''Qisas al-Anbiya'' ([[Ibn Kathir]]) records considerably more detail about his life, which are commonly referred to in Islamic accounts of his life.
Traditionally, Muslims believe that it was [[Ishmael]] rather than [[Isaac]] whom Abraham was told to sacrifice. In support of this, Muslims note that the text of [[Genesis (Hebrew Bible)|Genesis]], despite specifying Isaac, appears to state that Abraham was told to sacrifice his only son ("Take now thy son, thine only son, whom thou lovest, even Isaac," [http://www.breslov.com/bible/ Jewish Publication Society] translation, Genesis/Bereshit 22:2) to God. Since Isaac was Abraham's second son, it is arguable there was no time at which he would have been Abraham's "only son", and that this supports the Muslim belief that there was an original text that must have named Ishmael rather than Isaac as the intended sacrifice. The [[Qur'an]] itself does not specify by name which son Abraham nearly sacrificed saying only that it was his only son ([[As-Saaffat|Qur'an 37]]:99-111). Isaac ([[Ishaq]] in Islam) is also considered a prophet in Islam.
Also, unlike Jewish belief, Muslims note that nowhere in the Qur'an does God say that it was He who told Abraham to sacrifice his son nor does God say He gave Abraham the dream of the sacrifice. The Qur'an teaches that God never advocates evil. Thus, it is said that for a father to slaughter his son, is an evil that cannot be coming from God; it can only come from [[Satan]]. Furthermore, Muslims state that God would not contradict Himself and, therefore, would not order Abraham to commit what he prohibited, even as a test. Since Abraham thought the dream was from God and he proceeded to sacrifice his son Ismail, God sent him the lamb to be sacrificed instead, and to save Ismail and the father-son sacred relationship. Furthermore, Muslims believe that God promised to protect His righteous believers from Satan's tricks, and he saved Abraham and his son, Ismail, from this exact test.
It is believed that Ibrahim's dream was a test from God. And when Ibrahim told his dream to Ismail, it was Ismail who convinced Ibrahim to fulfill God's order. So this was test for both Ibrahim, whom had longed for a son for such a long time, and for Ismail. When the devil teased them before the sacrifice, Ibrahim and Ismail threw stones at the devil. This reincarnated as jumrah, one of the rites undertaken by Muslims making the Hajj (pilgrimage). The entire episode of the sacrifice is regarded as a trial that Abraham had to face from God. It is celebrated by Muslims on the day of [[Eid ul-Adha]].
==Abraham in the Bahá'í Faith==
Bahá'ís believe that Abraham was a "[[Manifestation of God]]," or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Abraham shares an exalted station with [[Moses]], [[Buddha]], [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]], [[the Báb |
El C</username>
<id>92203</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.63.168.34|202.63.168.34]] ([[User talk:202.63.168.34|talk]]) to last version by Marcelo-Silva</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Computer hardware''' is the physical part of a [[computers|computer]], as distinguished from the [[computer software]] or computer programs and data that operate within the hardware. The hardware of a computer is infrequently changed, in comparison with software and data which are "soft" in the sense that they are readily created, modified or erased on the computer. [[Firmware]] is special software that rarely, if ever, needs to be changed and so is stored on hardware devices such as [[read-only memory]] (ROM) where it is not readily changed (and therefore is "firm" rather than just "soft").
Most computer hardware is not seen by normal users as it is enclosed as [[embedded systems]] in automobiles, microwave ovens, [[electrocardiograph]] machines, [[compact disc]] players, and many other household appliances. [[Personal computer]]s, the computer hardware familiar to the most people, form only a small minority of computers (about 0.2% of all new computers produced in 2003) [[Microprocessor#Market_statistics|Market statistics]].
== Personal computer hardware ==
A typical [[personal computer]] consists of a [[Computer_case|case]] or chassis in desktop or tower shape and the following parts:
* [[Motherboard]] or system board with slots for expansion cards and holding parts including:
** [[Central processing unit]] (CPU)
** [[Random Access Memory]] (RAM) - for program execution and short term data storage, so the computer doesn't have to take the time to access the hard drive to find something. More RAM can contribute to a faster PC.
** [[Computer_bus|Buses]] :
*** [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] bus
*** [[PCI Express|PCI-E]] or [[Accelerated Graphics Port|AGP]] bus
*** [[Industry_Standard_Architecture|ISA]] bus (outdated)
*** [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]]
* [[Power supply]] - a case that holds a transformer, voltage control and fan
* Storage controllers of [[Integrated Drive Electronics|IDE]], [[SATA]], [[SCSI]] or other type, that control [[hard disk]], [[floppy disk]], [[CD-ROM]] and other drives; the controllers sit directly on the motherboard (on-board) or on expansion cards
* [[Graphics card|Video display controller]] that produces the output for the [[computer display]]
* [[Computer bus]] controllers ([[parallel port|parallel]], [[serial port|serial]], [[USB]], [[FireWire]]) to connect the computer to external [[peripheral]] devices such as [[computer printer|printer]]s or [[image scanner|scanners]]
* Some type of a removable [[Computer storage|media]] writer:
** [[CD]] - the most common type of removable media, cheap but fragile.
*** [[CD-ROM|CD-ROM Drive]]
*** [[CD writer|CD Writer]]
** [[DVD]]
*** [[DVD-ROM|DVD-ROM Drive]]
*** [[DVD|DVD Writer]]
*** [[DVD-RAM|DVD-RAM Drive]]
** [[Floppy disk]]
** [[Zip drive]]
** [[USB Flash Drive]]
** [[Tape drive]] - mainly for backup and long-term storage
* Internal storage - keeps data inside the computer for later use.
** [[Hard disk]] - for medium-term storage of data.
** [[Disk array controller]]
* [[Sound card]] - translates signals from the system board into analog voltage levels, and has terminals to plug in speakers.
* [[Computer networks|Networking]] - to connect the computer to the [[Internet]] and/or other computers
** [[Modem]] - for dial-up connections
** [[Network card]] - for DSL/Cable internet, and/or connecting to other computers.
* Other [[peripheral]]s
In addition, hardware can include external components of a computer system. The following are either standard or very common.
* [[Input]] or [[Input device]]s
** [[Text]] input devices
*** [[Computer keyboard|Keyboard]]
** [[Pointing device]]s
*** [[Computer mouse|Mouse]]
*** [[Trackball]]
** [[Gaming]] devices
*** [[Joystick]]
*** [[Gamepad]]
** [[Image]], [[Video]] input devices
*** [[Image scanner]]
*** [[Webcam]]
** [[Sound reproduction|Audio]] input devices
*** [[Microphone]]
* [[Output]] or [[Output device]]s
** [[Image]], [[Video]] output devices
*** [[Computer printer|Printer]]
*** [[Computer display|Monitor]]
** [[Sound reproduction|Audio]] output devices
*** [[Computer speaker|Speakers]]
*** [[Headset]]
== See also ==
*[[E-waste]]
*[[Computer architecture]]
*[[legacy system]]
*[[Open hardware]]
*[[optical computer]]
*[[DNA computer]]
*[[History of computing hardware]]
*[[List of computer term etymologies|Origins of computer terms]]
*[[Tapeware]]
== Wiki links ==
{{Wikibookspar||How To Build A Computer}}
* [http://www.themodwiki.org TheModWiki.org]
* [http://wiki.debian.net/index.cgi?Hardware DebianWiki: Hardware]
== External links ==
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Hardware/Technical_Evaluations_and_Product_Reviews/ Hardware review sites]
* [http://www.corelimits.com Your source for computer news and reviews]
* [http://www.google.com/search?q=computer+hardware Google Result For Computer Hardware]
* [http://www.tomshardware.com Another source for computer news and reviews]
* [http://www.furytech.net Yet another source for computer reviews]
* [http://www.techneek.co.uk Informative UK based site for computer hardware]
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Hardware/ Computer Hardware Directory @ dmoz]
* [http://www.elook.org/computing/hardware.htm Definition of hardware at eLook Computing Reference]
* [http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/H/hardware.html Definition of Computer hardware @ Webopedia]
* [http://www.tech-forums.net Computer Discussion Forums]
[[Category:Computer hardware|*Comp]]
[[Category:Digital electronics]]
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[[fr:Matériel informatique]]
[[gl:Hardware]]
[[ko:컴퓨터 하드웨어]]
[[hr:Hardver]]
[[id:Perangkat keras]]
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[[he:חומרה]]
[[lt:Techninė įranga]]
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[[sl:Strojna oprema]]
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[[tr:Donanım]]
[[zh:硬件]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computer programming</title>
<id>5311</id>
<revision>
<id>41839757</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T02:04:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Ambush Commander</username>
<id>93732</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Software development */ bypass disambig</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|computer programming|programming in a music context|Programming (music)}}
[[Image:Html-source-code.png|thumb|300px|[[HTML]] and [[JavaScript]] in an [[Integrated Development Enviroment|IDE]] that uses [[color coding]] to highlight various [[keyword]]s and help the developer see the function of each piece of code.]]
'''Computer programming''' (often simply '''programming''') is the craft of implementing one or more interrelated abstract [[algorithm]]s using a particular [[programming language]] to produce a concrete [[computer program]]. Programming has elements of [[mathematical beauty]], [[science]], [[mathematics]], and [[engineering]].
==Programming languages==
{{main|Programming language}}
A [[programmer]] writes [[source code]] in a particular programming language.
Different programming languages support different styles of programming (called ''[[programming paradigm]]s''). Part of the art of programming is selecting one of the programming languages best suited for the task at hand. Different programming languages require different levels of detail to be handled by the programmer when implementing algorithms, often resulting in a compromise between ease of use and performance (a trade-off between "programmer time" and "computer time").
The only programming language a computer can directly execute is [[machine language]] (sometimes called "machine code"). Originally all programmers worked out every detail of the machine code, but this is hardly ever done anymore. Instead, programmers write source code, and a computer (running a [[compiler]], an [[interpreter]] or occasionally an [[assembler]]) translates it through one or more translation steps to fill in all the details, before the final machine code is executed on the target computer. Even when complete low-level control of the target computer is required, programmers write [[assembly language]], whose instructions are mnemonic one-to-one transcriptions of the corresponding machine language instructions.
In some languages, an interpretable ''[[p-code]]'' binary (or ''[[byte-code]]'') is generated, rather than machine language. Bytecode is used in the popular [[Java programming language]] by [[Sun Microsystems]] as well as [[Microsoft]]'s recent [[.NET Framework|.NET]] family of languages and [[Visual Basic]] previous to the .NET version.
{{wikibookspar||Computer programming}}
==Software development==
{{main|Software engineering}}
''[[Software]]'' is a [[mass noun]] for computer programs and data. The accompanying documentation and [[software license]] are also considered an essential part of the software, even though they don't involve any actual coding.
Creating software involves:
* [[Requirements Analysis]]
* [[Specification]]
* [[Design and Architecture]]
* [[Coding]]
* [[Compilation]]
* [[Software testing]]
* [[Documentation]]
* [[Integration]]
* [[Maintenance]]
== Demographics ==
In the U.S.:
* Nearly half of all computer programmers held a bachelor’s degree in 2002; about 1 in 5 held a graduate degree. [http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos110.htm]
* Education requirements range from a 2-ye |
by [[Necronomicon Press]], with a new afterword by the author. Used copies of the first edition are rare. An adequate alternative is Joshi's abridged ''A Dreamer & A Visionary: H. P. Lovecraft in His Time''. Most recently, an English translation of [[Michel Houellebecq]]'s ''HP Lovecraft: Against the World, Against Life'' was published by Believer Books in 2005.
Other significant Lovecraft-related works are ''An H. P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia'' (informative but expensive) and ''Lovecraft's Library: A Catalogue'' (a meticulous listing of many of the books in Lovecraft's now scattered library), both by Joshi, and also ''Lovecraft at Last,'' an account by [[Willis Conover]] of his teenage correspondence with Lovecraft. For those interested in studying in detail Lovecraft's writings and philosophy, Joshi's ''A Subtler Magick: The Writings and Philosophy of H. P. Lovecraft'' is useful both for the analysis it provides and for the thorough bibliography appended to it. [[Andrew Migliore]] and John Strysik's ''Lurker in the Lobby: A Guide to the Cinema of H.P. Lovecraft'' and [[Charles P. Mitchell]]'s ''The Complete H. P. Lovecraft Filmography'' are both practicable for their discussion of films containing Lovecraftian elements (see [[H._P._Lovecraft#Adaptations|Adaptations]], below).
Lovecraft's prose fiction has been published numerous times, but, even ''after'' the "corrected texts" were released by Arkham House in the 1980s, many non-definitive collections of his stories have appeared, including Ballantine Books editions and, also, three popular Del Rey editions, which nonetheless have interesting introductions. The two collections published by Penguin, ''The Call of Cthulhu and Other Weird Stories'' and ''The Thing on the Doorstep and Other Weird Stories'', incorporate the modifications made in the corrected texts.
Many readers, when they first encounter Lovecraft's works, find his writing style difficult to read &mdash; owing, no doubt, to his fondness for adjectives, long paragraphs, and archaic diction. This characteristic style differs greatly from the fashion standards in literature of the early 21st century. Also, Lovecraft's early 20th century perspective yielded references in his works to objects and ideas that may be unfamiliar to modern readers. Some of Lovecraft's writings, however, are annotated with [[footnote]]s or [[endnote]]s. In addition to the Penguin editions mentioned above and ''The Annotated Supernatural Horror in Literature'', Joshi has produced ''The Annotated H. P. Lovecraft'' as well as ''More Annotated H. P. Lovecraft'', both of which are footnoted extensively.
Lastly, ''The Philosophy of H. P. Lovecraft'' presents an excellent and extensive study of Lovecraft's use of language, which further reveals the depth of his writings.
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
*[http://www.hplovecraft.com/ The H. P. Lovecraft Archive]
*[http://www.hplfilmfestival.com The HP Lovecraft Film Festival] - Annual film festival held in Portland Oregon
*[http://www.lurkerfilms.com Lurker Films] - Distributor of Lovecraft related films on DVD
*[http://lovecraft.cjb.net "The Ultimate Cthulhu Mythos Book List"] - Listing of all mythos novels, anthologies, collections, comic books, and more.
*[http://www.templeofdagon.com/ H. P. Lovecraft and Cthulhu Mythos Information and Forum]
*[http://www.netherreal.de/library/lexicon/ The Cthulhu Lexicon]
*[http://www.netherreal.de/library/timeline/ When the Stars are Right... (Cthulhu Mythos chronology)]
*[http://www.themodernword.com/scriptorium/lovecraft.html Essay on Lovecraft by S. T. Joshi]
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/extracts/story/0,6761,1498708,00.html Extract from Michel Houellebecq's ''HP Lovecraft: Against the World, Against Life'']
*[http://www.dagonbytes.com/thelibrary/lovecraft/ A number of stories by H.P. Lovecraft]
*[http://www.noveltynet.org/content/books/lovecraft/index.php The Complete (?) Works of H.P. Lovecraft in PDF format]
*[http://www.cthulhulives.org The HP Lovecraft Historical Society]
*[http://terror.org.pl/~darkeye/bookz/hor_lovecraft.html Library of Bookz - Biblioteka - Horror - H.P. Lovecraft - (Spiral of Life)]
*[http://www.rinf.com/e-books/HP-Lovecraft.html H.P. Lovecraft Ebooks]
*[http://www.lovecraftcountry.com Lovecraft Country]
*[http://www.hermeticproductions.com/eldweb/dvd.html The Eldritch Influence]
* {{isfdb name|id=H._P._Lovecraft|name=H. P. Lovecraft}}
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Human-computer interaction</title>
<id>13516</id>
<revision>
<id>41020038</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T15:04:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DabMachine</username>
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</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>disambiguation from [[Chi]] to [[Chi (letter)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Human-computer interaction''' ('''HCI''') or, alternatively, '''computer-human interaction''' (symbolized as '''Χ χ [[Chi (letter)|Chi]]''', the 22nd letter of the Greek alphabet) is the study of interaction between people ([[user (computing)|user]]s) and [[computer]]s. It is an interdisciplinary subject, relating [[computer science]] with many [[List of human-computer interaction topics|other fields]] of study and research. Interaction between users and computers occurs at the [[user interface]] (or simply ''[[User interface|interface]]''), which includes both [[software]] and [[computer hardware|hardware]], for example, general purpose computer [[peripherals]] and large-scale mechanical systems such as aircraft and power plants.
==Aspects and goals==
===Interdisciplinary aspects===
Combined with computer science and information technology are fields including:
*[[Aesthetics]]
*[[Anthropology]]
*[[Artificial intelligence]]
*[[Cognitive science]]
*[[Computer vision]]
*[[Design]]
*[[Ergonomics]]
*[[Human factors]]
*[[Library and information science]]
*[[Philosophy]]
*[[Phenomenology]]
*[[Psychology]]
*[[Social psychology]]
*[[Sociology]]
*[[Speech-language pathology]]
===Goals===
A basic goal of HCI is to improve the interaction between users and computers by making computers more [[user-friendliness|user-friendly]] and receptive to the user's needs. Specifically, HCI is concerned with
* methodologies and processes for designing interfaces (i.e., given a task and a class of users, design the best possible interface within given constraints, optimizing for a desired property such as learnability or efficiency of use)
* methods for implementing interfaces (e.g. software toolkits and [[library (computer science)|libraries]]; efficient [[algorithm]]s)
* techniques for evaluating and comparing interfaces
* developing new interfaces and interaction techniques
* developing descriptive and predictive models and theories of interaction
A long term goal of HCI is to design systems that minimize the barrier between the human's cognitive model of what they want to accomplish and the computer's understanding of the user's task (see [[CSCW]]).
Professional practitioners in HCI are usually designers concerned with the practical application of design methodologies to real-world problems. Their work often revolves around designing [[graphical user interface]]s and [[web design|web interfaces]].
Researchers in HCI are interested in developing new design methodologies, experimenting with new hardware devices, prototyping new software systems, exploring new paradigms for interaction, and developing models and theories of interaction.
==Terminology==
* '''HCI''' vs '''CHI'''. The acronym CHI (pronounced ''kai''), for '''c'''omputer-'''h'''uman '''i'''nteraction, has been used to refer to this field, perhaps more frequently in the past than now. However, researchers and practitioners now refer to their field of study as HCI (pronounced as an [[acronym and initialism|initialism]]), which perhaps rose in popularity partly because of the notion that the human, and the human's needs and time, should be considered first, and are more important than the machine's. This notion became increasingly relevant towards the end of the 20th century as computers became increasingly inexpensive (as did CPU time), small, and powerful. Since the turn of the millennium, the field of [[human-centered computing]] has emerged as an even more pronounced focus on understanding human beings as actors within socio-technical systems.
* '''[[Usability]]''' vs '''Usefulness'''. Design methodologies in HCI aim to create [[user interface]]s that are usable, i.e. that can be operated with ease and efficiency. However, an even more basic requirement is that the [[user interface]] be ''useful'', i.e. that it allow the user to complete relevant tasks.
* '''[[intuition|Intuitive]]''' and '''Natural'''. Software products are often touted by m |
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