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to the [[New York Mets]] in the [[1986 World Series]].
The Red Sox held a parade (or as Boston mayor [[Thomas Menino]] put it, a "rolling rally") on Saturday, [[October 30]], [[2004]]. A crowd of more than three million members of [[Red Sox Nation]] filled the streets of Boston to cheer as the team rode on the city's famous [[DUKW|Duck Boats]].
===2005===
After winning its first World Series in 86 years, Red Sox management was left with the challenge of dealing with a number of high profile [[free agent]]s. [[Pedro Martínez]], [[Derek Lowe]], and [[Orlando Cabrera]] were replaced with [[David Wells]], a former Yankee, [[Matt Clement]], and [[Edgar Rentería]] respectively. The club re-signed its catcher, [[Jason Varitek]], and named him team captain.
Pitchers [[Curt Schilling]], [[Keith Foulke]], and [[Wade Miller]] spent large parts of the season on the [[disabled list]], and were unable to return in good form. For much of the season Boston held first place in the [[American League East|AL East]] but down the stretch the team struggled, squandering its lead over the Yankees and allowing the [[Cleveland Indians]] to close the gap in the Wild Card race.
The division crown would be decided on the last weekend of the season, with the Yankees coming to Fenway Park with a one game lead in the standings. Although the Red Sox won two of the three games to finish the season with an identical 95-67 record as the Yankees, a one-game playoff was not needed since both teams had already qualified for the playoffs. The division title was decided on a head-to-head tiebreaker which the Yankees won 10–9, earning them the AL East championships while the Sox earned the AL Wild Card.
The Red Sox faced the AL Central champion [[Chicago White Sox]], who had not won a playoff series since [[1917 in baseball|1917]], in the [[2005 American League Division Series|ALDS]]. The White Sox won Game One in a 14–2 rout. In the second game, the Red Sox led 4–0, but lost the game 5–4 after a brutal fifth inning which featured a crucial error by [[second baseman]] [[Tony Graffanino]]. Game Three in Boston ended 5–3 in favor of Chicago, thus completing the sweep. Chicago would go on to win the [[2005 World Series|World Series]], their first championship since 1917.
On October 31, 2005, [[general manager]] [[Theo Epstein]] resigned on the last day of his contract, reportedly turning down a three-year, $4.5 million contract extension.
On [[Thanksgiving]] evening, the Red Sox officially announced the acquisition of a potential ace in right-hander [[pitcher]] [[Josh Beckett]] from the [[Florida Marlins]]. Boston also added [[Gold Glove Award]] winning [[third baseman]] [[Mike Lowell]] and right-handed [[relief pitcher|reliever]] [[Guillermo Mota]] in the deal while sending [[minor league baseball|minor league]] prospects [[shortstop]] [[Hanley Ramírez]] and right-handed pitchers [[Aníbal Sánchez]], [[Jesús Delgado]] and [[Harvey García]] to the Marlins. On December 7, the Sox traded backup [[catcher]] [[Doug Mirabelli]] to the [[San Diego Padres]] for [[second baseman]] [[Mark Loretta]]. On December 8, the Sox traded [[Edgar Renteria]] to the [[Atlanta Braves]] for third base prospect [[Andy Marte]]. On December 20, [[Tony Graffanino]] accepted the Red Sox arbitration offer, but [[Johnny Damon]] declined, giving himself until January 8 to re-sign with the Red Sox. This deadline became moot, as just days after Damon signed a four-year, $52 million deal with the [[New York Yankees]]. The Red Sox lost [[Bill Mueller]] in free agency to the Dodgers, and [[Kevin Millar]] was not offered arbitration and signed with the [[Baltimore Orioles]].
==2006==
On [[January 19]], [[2006]], the Red Sox announced that [[Bronson Arroyo]] had accepted a three-year contract. The Red Sox also announced that [[Theo Epstein]] would be rejoining the Red Sox in a "full-time baseball operations capacity." On January 24, 2006, it was announced that Epstein would again assume the title of General Manager. The next day, Mota, Marte, catching prospect [[Kelly Shoppach]] and a player to be named later were traded to the [[Cleveland Indians]] for [[center fielder]] [[Coco Crisp]], relief pitcher [[David Riske]], and backup catcher [[Josh Bard]]. [[Venezuela]]n shortstop [[Alex González]] signed a one-year contract to replace [[Renteria]]. The Red Sox enter the 2006 season with a revamped roster, carrying only three positional starters from their 2004 championship squad.
==Postseason series==
<table cellspacing="3" cellpadding="5">
<tr><td>'''[[1903 World Series]]'''</td><td>[[Pittsburgh Pirates]]</td><td>
''Won 5-3''</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor=#eeeeee><td>'''[[1904 World Series]]'''</td><td>Not Played</td><td>
''N/A''</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[1912 World Series]]'''</td><td>[[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]]</td><td>
''Won 4-3''</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor=#eeeeee><td>'''[[1915 World Series]]'''</td><td>[[Philadelphia Phillies]]</td><td>
''Won 4-1''</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[1916 World Series]]'''</td><td>[[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Robins]]</td><td>
''Won 4-1''</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor=#eeeeee><td>'''[[1918 World Series]]'''</td><td>[[Chicago Cubs]]</td><td>
''Won 4-2''</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[1946 World Series]]'''</td><td>[[St. Louis Cardinals]]</td><td>
''Lost 4-3''</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor=#eeeeee><td>'''[[1967 World Series]]'''</td><td>[[St. Louis Cardinals]]</td><td>
''Lost 4-3''</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[1975 American League Championship Series]]'''</td><td>[[Oakland Athletics]]</td><td>
''Won 3-0''</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor=#eeeeee><td>'''[[1975 World Series]]'''</td><td>[[Cincinnati Reds]]</td><td>
''Lost 4-3''</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[1986 American League Championship Series]]'''</td><td>[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|California Angels]]</td><td>
''Won 4-3''</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor=#eeeeee><td>'''[[1986 World Series]]'''</td><td>[[New York Mets]]</td><td>
''Lost 4-3''</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[1988 American League Championship Series]]'''</td><td>[[Oakland Athletics]]</td><td>
''Lost 4-0''</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor=#eeeeee><td>'''[[1990 American League Championship Series]]'''</td><td>
[[Oakland Athletics]]</td><td>''Lost 4-0''</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[1995 American League Division Series]]'''</td><td>[[Cleveland Indians]]</td><td>
''Lost 3-0''</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor=#eeeeee><td>'''[[1998 American League Division Series]]'''</td><td>
[[Cleveland Indians]]</td><td>''Lost 3-1''</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[1999 American League Division Series]]'''</td><td>[[Cleveland Indians]]</td><td>
''Won 3-2''</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor=#eeeeee><td>'''[[1999 American League Championship Series]]'''</td><td>
[[New York Yankees]]</td><td>''Lost 4-1''</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[2003 American League Division Series]]'''</td><td>[[Oakland Athletics]]</td><td>
''Won 3-2''</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor=#eeeeee><td>'''[[2003 American League Championship Series]]'''</td><td>
[[New York Yankees]]</td><td>''Lost 4-3''</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[2004 American League Division Series]]'''</td><td>[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim Angels]]</td><td>
''Won 3-0''</td></tr>
<tr bgcolor=#eeeeee><td>'''[[2004 American League Championship Series]]'''</td><td>
[[New York Yankees]]</td><td>''Won 4-3''</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[2004 World Series]]'''</td><td>
[[St. Louis Cardinals]]</td><td>''Won 4-0''</td></tr>
<tr><td>'''[[2005 American League Division Series]]'''</td><td>
[[Chicago White Sox]]</td><td>''Lost 3-0''</td></tr>
</table>
==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' 1899, as the [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] franchise in the minor Western League. Moved to Boston when that league became the major American League in 1901.
:'''Team Name:''' Boston Red Sox (''see [[Boston Red Sox#Nicknames before "Red Sox"|Nicknames before "Red Sox"]] below'')
:'''Name in Spanish:''' Los Medias Rojas
:'''Current ownership:''' [[John Henry (baseball)|John Henry]] and [[Tom Werner]] and Larry Lucchino, who paid $660 million and assumed $400 million in debt, in February 2002. The purchase includes Fenway Park and 82 percent of [[New England Sports Network]]. The purchase price set a record for a major league baseball franchise.
:'''Current payroll:''' For 2005, payroll was about $123.5 million, over $80 million less than that of the [[New York Yankees]]. For 2004, payroll was about $127 million, $57 million shy of the [[New York Yankees]]. In both of these years, the Red Sox had the second-highest total payroll in MLB.[http://asp.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/salaries/default.aspx] (NOTE: The numbers cited are actually the payroll of the team at the start of the each seaons. Payrolls can change due to mid-season personel changes, including trades, promotion of minor league players, waiver, etc.)
:'''Home ballpark:''' [[Fenw
|
er III Aleksandrowicz]]
[[pt:Alexandre III da Rússia]]
[[ru:Александр III]]
[[sr:Александар III Александрович]]
[[sv:Alexander III av Ryssland]]
[[uk:Олександр ІІІ (російський імператор)]]
[[zh:亚历山大三世 (俄国)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander I of Scotland</title>
<id>1593</id>
<revision>
<id>39039788</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-10T07:55:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Mais oui!</username>
<id>394460</id>
</contributor>
<comment>stub</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander I (Alasdair mac Maíl Choluim)''' (c. [[1078]] &ndash; [[April 23]] [[1124]]), called "The Fierce", king of [[Scotland]], was the fourth son of [[Malcolm III of Scotland|Malcolm Canmore]] by his wife (St) [[Saint Margaret of Scotland | Margaret]], grand-niece of [[Edward the Confessor]]. He was named in honor of [[Pope Alexander II]].
On the death of his brother [[Edgar I of Scotland|Edgar]] in [[1107]] he succeeded to the Scottish crown; but, in accordance with Edgar's instructions, he inherited only a part of its possessions. By a partition, the motive of which is not quite certain, the districts south of the Forth and Clyde were erected into an [[earldom]] for Alexander's younger brother, David.
Alexander, dissatisfied, sought to obtain the whole, but without success. A curious combination of the fierce warrior and the pious churchman, he manifested the one aspect of his character in his ruthless suppression of an insurrection on behalf of the descendants of [[Lulach I of Scotland|Lulach]] in his northern dominion (thus gaining for himself the title of "the Fierce"), the other in his munificent foundation of bishoprics and abbeys. Among the latter were those of [[Scone, Perthshire|Scone]] and [[Inchcolm]].
In 1107, he married Sybilla, an illegitimate daughter of [[Henry I of England]]. The exact date and the location of the marriage are not recorded. Sybilla died in unrecorded circumstances on the Island of the Woman (''Eilean nam Ban'') on Loch Tay in July, [[1122]]. The marriage produced no children.
Alexander's strong championing of the independence of the Scottish church involved him in struggles with both of the English metropolitan sees. He died on April 23, 25 or 27, 1124 at his court at Stirling; his brother, [[David I of Scotland | David I]] succeeded him. The historian John of Fordun said of him: ''"[Alexander] was humble and courteous to the clergy, but, to the rest of his subjects, terrible beyond measure."''
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
title=[[King of Scots]] |
before=[[Edgar of Scotland|Edgar]] |
after=[[David I of Scotland|David I]] |
years=1107&ndash;1124
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1078 births]]
[[Category:1124 deaths]]
[[Category:Scottish monarchs]]
[[Category:House of Dunkeld]]
[[Category:Medieval_Gaels]]
{{Scotland-bio-stub}}
{{UK-royal-stub}}
[[de:Alexander I. (Schottland)]]
[[fr:Alexandre Ier d'Écosse]]
[[ja:アレグザンダー1世 (スコットランド王)]]
[[simple:Alexander I of Scotland]]
[[sv:Alexander I av Skottland]]
[[uk:Александр І (король Шотландії)]]
[[zh:亚历山大一世 (苏格兰)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Alexander II of Scotland</title>
<id>1594</id>
<revision>
<id>40996053</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T10:24:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chochopk</username>
<id>170745</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>adding years to the succession box</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander II''' ([[August 24]], [[1198]] &ndash; [[July 6]], [[1249]]), king of [[Scotland]], son of [[William I of Scotland|William I]], the Lion, and of [[Ermengarde of Beaumont]], was born at [[Haddington, East Lothian|Haddington]], [[East Lothian]], in [[1198]], and succeeded to the kingdom on the death of his father on [[4 December ]][[1214]].
The year after his accession the clans MacWilliam and MacHeth, inveterate enemies of the Scottish crown, broke into revolt; but loyalist forces speedily quelled the insurrection. In the same year Alexander joined the English barons in their struggle against [[John I of England]], and led an army into the [[Kingdom of England]] in support of their cause; but after John's death, on the conclusion of peace between his youthful son [[Henry III of England]] and the French prince [[Louis VIII of France]], the Scottish king joined in the pacification. Diplomacy further strengthened the reconciliation by the marriage of Alexander to Henry's sister [[Joan of England]] on [[June 18]] or [[June 25]], [[1221]].
The next year marked the subjection of the hitherto semi-independent district of [[Argyll]]. Royal forces crushed a revolt in [[Galloway]] in [[1235]] without difficulty; nor did an invasion attempted soon afterwards by its exiled leaders meet with success. Soon afterwards a claim for homage from Henry of [[England]] drew forth from Alexander a counter-claim to the northern English counties. The two kingdoms, however, settled this dispute by a compromise in [[1237]].
Joanna died in March, [[1238]] in Essex, and in the following year, [[1239]], Alexander remarried. His second wife was Mary of Coucy (Marie de Coucy). The marriage took place on [[May 15]] [[1239]], and produced one son, the future [[Alexander III of Scotland | Alexander III]], born in [[1241]].
A threat of invasion by Henry in [[1243]] for a time interrupted the friendly relations between the two countries; but the prompt action of Alexander in anticipating his attack, and the disinclination of the English barons for war, compelled him to make peace next year at [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]]. Alexander now turned his attention to securing the [[Western Isles]], which still owed a nominal allegiance to [[Norway]]. He successively attempted negotiations and purchase, but without success. Alexander next attempted to dissuade Ewen, the son of Duncan, Lord of Argyll, to sever his allegiance to [[Haakon IV of Norway]]. Ewen rejected these attempts, and Alexander sailed forth to compel him.
But on the way he suffered a fever at the Isle of [[Kerrera]] in the [[Inner Hebrides]], and died there in [[1249]]. He was buried at [[Melrose Abbey]], [[Roxburghshire]].
His son [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]] succeeded him as King of Scots.
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
before=[[William I of Scotland|William I]] |
title=[[King of Scots]] |
years=1214&ndash;1249|
after=[[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]]
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1198 births]]
[[Category:1249 deaths]]
[[Category:Natives of East Lothian]]
[[Category:Scottish monarchs]]
[[Category:House of Dunkeld]]
[[Category:House of Anjou]]
[[Category:Medieval_Gaels]]
[[de:Alexander II. (Schottland)]]
[[fr:Alexandre II d'Écosse]]
[[ja:アレグザンダー2世 (スコットランド王)]]
[[pl:Aleksander II (król Szkocji)]]
[[sv:Alexander II av Skottland]]
[[uk:Александр ІІ (король Шотландії)]]
[[zh:亚历山大二世 (苏格兰)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aleksandar Obrenović</title>
<id>1595</id>
<revision>
<id>37449312</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-31T02:04:45Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Carlossuarez46</username>
<id>23407</id>
</contributor>
<comment>+cat: assassinated kings</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:KraljAlexObrenovic.jpg|thumb|right|King Aleksandar Obrenović]]
'''Aleksandar Obrenović''' or Александар Обреновић ([[August 14]], [[1876]] - [[June 11]], [[1903]]), was king of [[Serbia]] from [[1889]] to [[1903]].
In [[1889]] his father, [[Milan Obrenovic IV|King Milan]], abdicated and proclaimed Aleksandar king of Serbia under a regency until he should attain his majority at eighteen years of age.
In [[1893]], King Aleksandar, being then in his seventeenth year, made his notable first ''[[coup d'état]]'', proclaimed himself of full age, dismissed the [[regency|regents]] and their government, and took the royal authority into his own hands. His action was popular, and was rendered still more so by his appointment of a radical ministry.
In May [[1894]] King Aleksandar, by another ''[[coup d'état]]'', abolished the liberal constitution of [[1889]] and restored the conservative one of [[1869]]. His attitude during the Turco-Greek war of [[1897]] was one of strict neutrality. In [[1898]] he appointed his father commander-in-chief of the Serbian army, and from that time, or rather from his return to Serbia in 1894 until [[1900]], [[Milan Obrenovic IV|ex-king Milan]] was regarded as the ''de facto'' ruler of the country.
During the summer of [[1900]], [[Milan Obrenovic IV|Milan]] was away from [[Serbia]] on holiday in [[Karlovy Vary|Carlsbad]] and making arrangements to secure the hand of a [[Germany|German]] princess for his son, and while the premier, Dr. Vladan Dyorević, was visiting the [[Paris]] [[World Exhibition|Universal Exhibition]], King Aleksandar suddenly announced to the people of Serbia his engagement to the widow Madame [[Draga Mašin]], formerly a lady-in-waiting to [[Natalija Obrenovic|Queen Natalie]]. The projected union initially aroused great opposition. [[Milan Obrenovic IV|Ex-King Milan]] resigned his post, as did the government; and King Aleksandar had great difficulty in forming a new cabinet. Opposition to the union subsided somewhat on the publication of [[Tsar Nicholas]]'s congratulations to the king on his engagement and of his acceptance to act as the principal witness at the wedding. The marriage was duly celebrated in August [[1900]]. Even so, the unpopularity of the union weakened the King's position in the eyes of the army and the country at large.
King Aleksandar tried to reconcile political parties by unveiling a [[classical liberalism|liberal]] [[constitution]] of his own initiative, introducing for the first time in the constitutional history of Serbia the system of two chambers (''[[Assembly|skupshtina]]'' and
|
[http://www.languedoc-france.info/1201_beliefs.htm Cathar Interpretation of Christianity], a gnostic view of Christian teachings.
[[Category:Christianity|*]]
[[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]]
{{Link FA|fi}}
{{Link FA|ja}}
{{Link FA|vi}}
[[af:Christendom]]
[[ar:مسيحية]]
[[an:Cristianismo]]
[[bg:Християнство]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ki-tok-kàu]]
[[be:Хрысьціянства]]
[[bs:Kršćanstvo]]
[[br:Kristeniezh]]
[[ca:Cristianisme]]
[[cs:Křesťanství]]
[[cy:Cristnogaeth]]
[[da:Kristendom]]
[[de:Christentum]]
[[et:Kristlus]]
[[el:Χριστιανισμός]]
[[es:Cristianismo]]
[[eo:Kristanismo]]
[[eu:Kristautasun]]
[[fo:Kristindómur]]
[[fr:Christianisme]]
[[fur:Cristianesim]]
[[ga:Críostaíocht]]
[[gl:Cristianismo]]
[[ko:기독교]]
[[hi:ईसाई धर्म]]
[[hr:Kršćanstvo]]
[[ht:Krisyanism]]
[[io:Kristanismo]]
[[id:Kristen]]
[[ia:Christianismo]]
[[is:Kristni]]
[[it:Cristianesimo]]
[[he:נצרות]]
[[jv:Kristen]]
[[ka:ქრისტიანობა]]
[[kw:Kristoneth]]
[[sw:Ukristo]]
[[la:Religio Christiana]]
[[lv:Kristietība]]
[[lt:Krikščionybė]]
[[lb:Chrëschtentum]]
[[li:Christendom]]
[[ln:Boklísto]]
[[jbo:xi'ojda]]
[[hu:Kereszténység]]
[[mk:Христијанство]]
[[mt:Kristjaneżmu]]
[[mi:Whakapono Karaitiana]]
[[ms:Kristian]]
[[nl:Christendom]]
[[nds:Christendom]]
[[ja:キリスト教]]
[[no:Kristendom]]
[[nn:Kristendommen]]
[[os:Чырыстон дин]]
[[ps:عيسويت]]
[[pl:Chrześcijaństwo]]
[[pt:Cristianismo]]
[[ro:Creştinism]]
[[ru:Христианство]]
[[sco:Christianity]]
[[scn:Cristianèsimu]]
[[simple:Christianity]]
[[sk:Kresťanstvo]]
[[sl:Krščanstvo]]
[[sr:Хришћанство]]
[[fi:Kristinusko]]
[[sv:Kristendom]]
[[tl:Kristyanismo]]
[[tt:Xristianlıq]]
[[th:คริสต์ศาสนา]]
[[vi:Kitô giáo]]
[[tpi:Kristen]]
[[tr:Hristiyan]]
[[uk:Християнство]]
[[wa:Crustinnisse]]
[[zh:基督教]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Classic books</title>
<id>5212</id>
<revision>
<id>15903437</id>
<timestamp>2002-05-20T21:54:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Maveric149</username>
<id>62</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#redirect [[classic book]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[classic book]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Computing</title>
<id>5213</id>
<revision>
<id>41834169</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T01:17:28Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vis123</username>
<id>1014652</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Managed service provider MSP */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">: ''For the formal concept of computation, see [[computation]].''
Originally, the word '''''computing''''' was synonymous with counting and calculating, and a science that deals with the original sense of computing mathematical [[calculation]]s. "Computing" has come to mean the '''operation''' and usage of '''computing''' [[machine]]s, the [[electronics|electrical]] [[process]]es carried out within the computing [[computer|hardware]] itself, and the theoretical concepts governing them ([[computer science]]).
The following definition of computing is given in the [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] report [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=63238.63239 Computing As a Discipline]:
<blockquote>The discipline of computing is the systematic study of algorithmic processes that describe and transform information: their theory, analysis, design, efficiency, implementation, and application. The fundamental question underlying all the computing is 'What can be (efficiently) automated?'</blockquote>
==Science and theory==
* [[Computer science]]
* [[Theory of computation]]
* [[:Category:Computational models|Computational models]]
* [[DBLP]], as of [[October 2005]], now lists over 675 000 bibliographic entries on computer science and several thousand links to the home pages of [[computer scientist]]s
* [[Scientific computing]]
==Hardware==
See [[information processor]] for a high-level block diagram.
* [[Computer hardware]]
* [[Hardware design|Computer Hardware Design]]
* [[Computer network]]
* [[Computer system]]
* [[History of computing hardware]]
===Instruction-level taxonomies===
After the commoditization of [[random-access memory|memory]], attention turned to optimizing CPU performance at the instruction level. Various methods of speeding up the fetch-execute cycle include:
* designing [[instruction set architectures]] with simpler, faster instructions: [[RISC]] as opposed to [[CISC]]
* [[Superscalar]] instruction execution
* [[Very long instruction word|VLIW]] architectures, which make parallelism explicit
==[[Computer software|Software]]==
* [[Software engineering]]
* [[Computer programming]]
* [[Software patent]]
==[[History of computing]]==
*[[History of computing hardware]] from the [[tally stick]] to the [[quantum computer]]
*[[Punch Card]]
*[[Unit record equipment]]
*[[IBM 700/7000 series]]
*[[IBM 1400 series]]
*[[System/360]]
*[[Early IBM disk storage]]
==Business computing==
* [[Accounting software]]
* [[Computer-aided design]]
* [[Computer-aided manufacturing]]
* [[Computer-assisted dispatch]]
* [[Customer relationship management]]
* [[Data warehouse]]
* [[Decision support system]]
* [[Electronic data processing]]
* [[Enterprise resource planning]]
* [[Geographic information system]]
* [[Management information system]]
* [[Material requirements planning]]
* [[Strategic enterprise management]]
* [[Supply chain management]]
* [[Product Lifecycle Management]]
* [[Utility Computing]]
==Managed Service Provider, MSP==
* Virtual IT Solution
==Human factors==
* [[Accessible computing]]
* [[Human-computer interaction]]
==[[Computer security]]==
* [[Cryptology]] - [[cryptography]] - [[information theory]]
* [[Software cracking|Cracking]] - [[demon dialing]] - [[hacker|Hacking]] - [[war dialing]] - [[war driving]]
* [[Social engineering (computer security)|Social engineering]] - [[Dumpster diving]]
* [[Physical security]] - [[Black bag job]]
* [[Computer insecurity]]
* [[Computer surveillance]]
* [[defensive programming]]
* [[malware]]
* [[security engineering]]
==[[Data]]==
===Numeric data===
* [[integral data type]]s - bit, byte, etc.
* [[real data type]]s:
** [[Floating point]] ([[Single precision]], [[Double precision]], etc.)
** [[fixed-point arithmetic|Fixed point]]
** [[Rational number]]
* [[Decimal]]
** [[Binary-coded decimal]] (BCD)
** [[Excess-3]] BCD (XS-3)
** [[bi-quinary coded decimal|Biquinary-coded decimal]]
* representation: [[Binary numeral system|Binary]] - [[Octal]] - [[Decimal]] - [[Hexadecimal]] (hex)
*[[Computer mathematics]] - [[Computer numbering formats]] -
===Character data===
* storage: [[Character (computing)|Character]] - [[string (computer science)|String]] - [[Text]] - [[Plain text]]
** representation: [[ASCII]] - [[Unicode]] - [[Multibyte]] - [[EBCDIC]] ([[Widecharacter]], [[Multicharacter]]) - [[Fieldata]] - [[Baudot]]
===Other data topics===
*[[Data compression]]
*[[Digital signal processing]]
*[[Image processing]]
*[[Indexed]]
*[[Data management]]
==[[Mechatronics]]==
*[[Punch card]]
*[[Key punch]]
*[[Unit record equipment]]
==Classes of computers==
* [[Analog computer]]
* [[Calculator]]
* [[Desktop computer]]
* [[Desknote]]
* [[Digital computer]]
* [[Embedded computer]]
* [[Home computer]]
* [[Laptop]]
* [[Mainframe]]
* [[Minicomputer]]
* [[Microcomputer]]
* [[Personal computer]]
* [[Personal digital assistant]] (aka PDA, or Handheld computer)
* [[Server]]
* [[Supercomputer]]
* [[Tablet PC]]
* [[Video game console]]
* [[Workstation]]
==Companies - current==
* [[Apple Computer]]
* [[Avaya]]
* [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]]
* [[Fujitsu]]
* [[Gateway Computers]]
* [[Groupe Bull]]
* [[Hewlett-Packard]]
* [[Hitachi, Ltd.]]
* [[International Business Machines|IBM]]
* [[Microsoft]]
* [[NEC Corporation]]
* [[NetCB Pty(Ltd)|NetCB]]
* [[Novell, Inc.|Novell]]
* [[Red Hat]]
* [[Silicon Graphics]]
* [[Sun Microsystems]]
* [[Unisys]]
==Companies - historic==
* [[Acorn Computers Ltd|Acorn]], bought by [[Olivetti]]
* [[Bendix Corporation]]
* [[Burroughs]], merged with [[UNIVAC]] to become [[Unisys]]
* [[Compaq]], bought by [[Hewlett-Packard]]
* [[Control Data]]
* [[Cray]]
* [[Data General]]
* [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]], bought by [[Compaq]], in turn bought by [[Hewlett-Packard]]
* [[Digital Research]] - a software company for the early microprocessor-based computers
* [[English Electric]]
* [[Ferranti]]
* [[General Electric]], computer division bought by [[Honeywell]], then [[Groupe Bull|Bull]]
* [[Honeywell]], computer division bought by [[Groupe Bull|Bull]] and
* [[International Computers Ltd|ICL]]
* [[Leo Computers|Leo]]
* [[Lisp Machines, Inc.]]
* [[Marconi Company|Marconi]]
* [[Nixdorf]], bought by [[Siemens AG|Siemens]]
* [[Olivetti]]
* [[Osborne Computer Corporation|Osborne]]
* [[Packard Bell]]
* [[Raytheon]]
* [[Royal McBee]]
* [[RCA]]
* [[Scientific Data Systems]], sold to [[Xerox]]
* [[Siemens AG|Siemens]]
* [[Sinclair Research Ltd|Sinclair Research]], created the [[ZX Spectrum]], [[Sinclair ZX80|ZX80]] and [[Sinclair ZX81|ZX81]]
* [[Symbolics]]
* [[UNIVAC]], merged with [[Burroughs]] to become [[Unisys]]
* [[Varian]]
* [[Wang]]
==Professional organizations==
* [[Association for Computing Machinery]] (ACM)
* [[British Computer Society]] (BCS)
* [[Association for Survey Computing]] (ASC)
* [[IEEE|Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE), in particular the [[IEEE Computer Society]]
* [[Institution of Electrical Engineers]]
* [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC)
==Standards organizations and consortia== (see also [[standardization]])
* [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC)
* [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO)
* [[IEEE|Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE)
* [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF)
* [[World Wide Web Consortium]] (W3C)
==Miscellaneous==
* [[List of computer term etymologies]]
* [[Load (computing)]]
* [[Indian Language Computing]]
[[Category:Computing|*Computing]]
[[bn:&#2455;&#2
|
imated and [[truth]] can be demonstrated through usefulness, allowing the distinction from fiction.
Fiction has often been the target of [[censorship]] or [[boycott]]s, escalating into [[book burning]]s or [[banned books|bans]]. Extremist regimes like the [[Taliban]] have been even more prohibitive, restricting all reading to religious texts. There is an ongoing debate regarding sexual content in fiction and whether or not juveniles can be safely exposed to it; opponents of fiction with sexual content typically label it [[pornography]].
The [[Internet]] has had a massive impact on the distribution of fiction, calling into question the feasibility of [[copyright]] as a means to ensure [[royalties]] are payed to copyright holders. Also [[digital libraries]] such as [[Project_Gutenberg]] have come into being which make [[public domain]] texts more readily available. The combination of inexpensive home computers, the Internet and the creativity of its users has also led to new forms of fiction, such as interactive [[computer game]]s or computer-generated comics. Countless forums for [[fan fiction]] can be found online, where loyal followers of specific [[fictional realm]]s create and distribute derivative stories. Through open writing systems like [[wiki]]s, collaboratively written fiction is also becoming possible (see the [http://meta.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikifiction Wikifiction] initiative).
Fiction is a fundamental part of human [[culture]], and the ability to create fiction and other artistic works is frequently cited as one of the defining characteristics of [[humanity]].
==Categories of fiction==
{{main|literary genre}}
==Elements of fiction==
{{main|narratology}}
The fiction writer might use the following to create artistic effects in his or her [[story]]:
*'''[[antagonist]]''': the character that stands in opposition to the protagonist
*'''[[fictional character|character]]''': a participant in the story, usually a person
*'''[[Conflict (narrative)|conflict]]''': a character or problem with which the protagonist must contend
*'''[[climax (narrative)|climax]]''': the story's highest point of tension or drama
*'''[[Dialogue (fiction)|dialogue]]''': the speech of characters as opposed to the narrator
*'''[[plot]]''': a related series of events revealed in [[narrative]]
*'''[[point of view (literature)|point of view]]''': the perspective of the narrator; usually refers to the voice, first or third person.
*'''[[protagonist]]''': the central character of a story
*'''[[Falling action|resolution]]''': the plot component in which the result of the conflict is revealed
*'''[[scene (fiction)|scene]]''': a piece of the story showing the action of one event
*'''[[setting (fiction)|setting]]''': the locale and time of a story that creates mood and atmosphere
*'''[[Dramatic structure|structure]]''': the organization of story elements
*'''[[subplot]]''': a plot that is part of or subordinate to another plot
*'''[[theme (literary)|theme]]''': a conceptual distillation of the story; what the story is about
*'''[[suspension of disbelief]]''': the reader's temporary acceptance of story elements as believable, usually necessary for enjoyment
==See also==
*[[Archive of fictional things]]
*[[Fiction writing]]
==External links==
* [http://www.awardannals.com/genre/fiction/ Most Honored Fiction] at the Book Award Annals
* [http://www.ohiostatepress.org/index.htm?books/book%20pages/Zunshine%20Why.html Why We Read Fiction]
[[Category:Fiction|*]]
[[Category:Narratology|*]]
[[da:Fiktion]]
[[de:Belletristik]]
[[et:Ilukirjandus]]
[[es:Ficción]]
[[eo:Fikcio]]
[[fr:Fiction]]
[[gl:Ficción]]
[[he:בדיון]]
[[nl:Fictie]]
[[ja:フィクション]]
[[pt:Ficção]]
[[sq:Fiktiv]]
[[sv:Fiktion]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fiscal year</title>
<id>10818</id>
<revision>
<id>39440014</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T03:34:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.116.30.38</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Why does the fiscal year often not match the calendar year? */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">A '''fiscal year''' or '''financial year''' is a 12-[[month]] period used for calculating annual ("yearly") [[financial statement|financial reports]] in [[corporation|businesses]] and other organizations. In many jurisdictions, regulatory [[law]]s regarding [[accounting]] require such reports once per twelve months, but do not require that the twelve months constitute a [[calendar year]] (i.e. January to December).
However, a new company or business has to decide at the beginning on which month its fiscal year will start, and then (generally) stay with it. In the United States, the business' tax year is the same as its fiscal year, and must file its tax return by the 15th day of the third month following the fiscal year end (most often March 15).
==Why does the fiscal year often not match the calendar year?==
Often the fiscal or tax year is specifically established not to match the calendar year so that accounting year-end work does not align with key [[holiday]] periods. In western traditions, the end of December (being also the end of the calendar year) is a time of celebration that includes such holidays as Hanukkah and Christmas and is sometimes referred to as the "holiday season". Generally, the fiscal year tends to end at a time that purposely does not coincide with key holiday periods but rather at a time when businesses are in full operation.
A popular use of a non-calendar year as the fiscal year involves retailers. Under the accounting principle of "matching" income and related expenses should be aligned as closely as possible within the same fiscal year. As many unwanted or defective Christmas items are returned in January, a fiscal year based on the calendar year would see sales in one year and the associated returns in the following year. Therefore, retailers commonly use a month other than December to end their fiscal year (January is a popular choice, since by month's end most returns have already taken place).
==Operation in various countries==
Such fiscal years are typically numbered using a calendar year and quarter thereof. A fiscal year [[quarter]] is 3 months (1/4 of a year) long. For example, the [[United States Government]] fiscal year for 2006 ("FY06," sometimes written "FY05-06") is as follows:
*1st Quarter: [[October 1]], [[2005]] - [[December 31]], [[2005]]
*2nd Quarter: [[January 1]], [[2006]] - [[March 31]], [[2006]]
*3rd Quarter: [[April 1]], [[2006]] - [[June 30]], [[2006]]
*4th Quarter: [[July 1]], [[2006]] - [[September 30]], [[2006]]
So the U.S. Government's fiscal year begins on October 1 of the previous calendar year and ends on September 30 of the year with which it is numbered. However, as stated above, the tax year for a business is governed by the fiscal year it chooses.
The [[Australian]] government's fiscal year begins on July 1 and concludes on June 30 of the following year. In [[Canada]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[India]] and [[Hong Kong]], the government's financial year runs from [[April 1]] to [[March 31]], and [[United Kingdom corporation tax|corporation tax]] is charged by reference to that period. However, in the UK, the personal '''tax year''' (which governs liability to [[income tax]] and [[capital gains tax]]) runs from [[April 6]] to [[April 5]]. This reflects the old [[ecclesiastical calendar]], with [[New Year]] falling on [[March 25]] (''[[Lady Day]]''), the difference between [[April 6]] and [[March 25]] being accounted for by the eleven days "missed out" when [[Great Britain]] converted from the [[Julian Calendar]] to the [[Gregorian Calendar]] in [[1752]] (the British tax authorities were unwilling to lose 11 days of tax revenue, so the 1752/3 tax year was extended by 11 days).
Companies that are units within a "group" of businesses must all use nearly the same fiscal year (differences of up to three months are permitted in most jurisdictions, such as the U.S. and [[Japan]]), with consolidating entries to adjust for transactions between units with different fiscal years, so the same resources will not be counted more than once or not at all.
==References==
*StreetAuthority.com's [http://www.streetauthority.com/terms/f/fiscalyear.asp Financial Glossary]
[[de:Wirtschaftsjahr]]
[[eo:Financa jaro]]
[[sv:Räkenskapsår]]
[[Category:Accounting]]
[[Category:Taxation]]
[[Category:Calendars]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Federal Reserve</title>
<id>10819</id>
<revision>
<id>41855690</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T04:18:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>84.56.226.231</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Criticism */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Federal Reserve.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Federal Reserve System is headquartered in the [[Eccles Building]] on [[Constitution Avenue (DC)|Constitution Avenue]] in [[Washington, DC]].]]
The '''Federal Reserve System''' (also the '''Federal Reserve'''; informally '''The Fed''') is the [[central bank|central banking system]] of the [[United States]].
The Federal Reserve System is composed of a central Board of Governors in [[Washington, D.C.]], twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks located in major cities throughout the nation, numerous member banks and other entities (see below). [[Ben Bernanke]] serves as the [[Chairman of the Federal Reserve|Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve]].
The Federal Reserve System was created in 1913 by the [[Federal Reserve Act]]. It includes a system of eight to twelve regional reserve banks, owned by its commercial member banks and supervised by the Federal Reserve Board. The board and its chairman are appointed by the [[President of the United States|president]] and approved by the Senate.
==Background==
{{main|History of Central Banking in the United States}}
The first '''institution''
|
negger had discussed with friends, potential donors, advisors and political allies a possible run for high political office; on [[April 10]], [[2003]], for example, he met with Republican political operative [[Karl Rove]] to discuss a future campaign.
In the months leading to the [[2003 California recall]], Schwarzenegger was widely rumored to be considering a run at becoming [[Governor of California]]. In the July 2003 issue of ''[[Esquire Magazine]]'', he said, "Yes, I would love to be governor of California ... If the state needs me, and if there's no one I think is better, then I will run." When a petition to recall [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] governor [[Gray Davis]] qualified for the ballot on [[July 24]], Schwarzenegger left many wondering whether he would jump into the contest. Schwarzenegger was just wrapping up a promotional tour for ''Terminator 3'' and said he would announce his decision on whether to run on [[August 6]] on ''[[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno]]''.
[[Image:Arnold Schwarzenegger inauguration-crowd750.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Crowd watching Schwarzenegger inauguration]]
In the days and even hours leading up to the show's taping, political experts and insiders concluded that Schwarzenegger was leaning against running in California's [[October 7]] recall election. Even his closest advisors said he was probably not going to run. Rumors leading up to the announcement said that his wife, [[Maria Shriver]], a Kennedy family Democrat, was against his running, and he wanted her approval in order to run. When announcing his candidacy on [[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno|the Tonight Show]], he joked, "It's the most difficult [decision] I've made in my entire life, except the one I made in 1978 when I decided to get a bikini wax". Ultimately, Shriver said she would support Schwarzenegger no matter what he chose, so he decided to run. Schwarzenegger told Leno, "The politicians are fiddling, fumbling and failing. The man that is failing the people more than anyone is [[Gray Davis]]. He is failing them terribly, and this is why he needs to be recalled and this is why I am going to run for governor of the state of California."
As a candidate in the recall election, Schwarzenegger had the most name recognition in a crowded field of candidates, but he had never held public office and his political views were unknown to most Californians. His candidacy was immediate national and international news, with media outlets dubbing him the "Governator" (referring to ''[[The Terminator]]'' movies, see above) and "The Running Man" (the name of another of his movies), and calling the recall election "Total Recall" (ditto) and "Terminator 4: Rise of the Candidate" (referring to his movie ''[[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines]]''). Schwarzenegger was quick to make use of his well-known one-liners, promising to "pump up [[Sacramento, California]]" (the state capital) and tell [[Gray Davis]] ''hasta la vista''. At the end of his first press conference, he told the audience "I'll be back." Schwarzenegger looked to follow in the footsteps of former California governor and one-time movie star [[Ronald Reagan]].
However, due to his status as a [[naturalize]]d citizen, he would not be eligible to seek the [[President of the United States|Presidency]] unless the [[Constitution]] were to be amended (as proposed in 2000 by [[United States House of Representatives|Congressman]] [[Barney Frank]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]-[[Massachusetts|MA]]), and in July 2003 (the [[Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment]]) by [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Orrin Hatch]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]-[[Utah|UT]])). Among his campaign team were Democrat actor [[Rob Lowe]], Democrat sounding billionaire [[Warren Buffett]], and moderate [[George Shultz]] (former Nixon and Reagan aide).
[[Image:Arnold Schwarzenegger sexual harassment protestors750.jpg|thumb|300px|Sexual harassment protesters]]
During the campaign, allegations of sexual and personal misconduct were raised against Schwarzenegger (see [[Gropegate]]). Within the last five days before the election, news reports appeared in the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' recounting allegations of sexual misconduct from several individual women, sixteen of whom eventually came forward with their personal stories. Chronologically, they ranged from Elaine Stockton, who claimed that Schwarzenegger groped her breast at a [[Gold's Gym]] in 1975 (she was 19 at the time), to a 51 year old woman who said that he pinned her to his chest and spanked her shortly after she met him in connection with production of his film, ''[[The Sixth Day]]'', in 2000. Schwarzenegger admitted that he has "behaved badly sometimes" and apologized, but also stated that "a lot of (what) you see in the stories is not true". This came after a magazine interview from the same era (1975) surfaced in which Schwarzenegger discussed attending sexual orgies and indulging in drugs like [[marijuana]] and [[cocaine]] (see
[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/news/archive/2003/10/03/state1434EDT0082.DTL]], [[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/arnoldinter1.html]], [[http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/front/la-me-women2oct02,1,4493659,print.story]).
Allegations printed on the front page of ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]'', based on selective quotation, which Schwarzenegger claimed not to recall, were also made that he at one time admired [[Adolf Hitler]] and had praised him as a great propagandist. However the full text of the statement from which the quotation was taken significantly reduces the credibility of the allegations. Although Schwarzenegger's father was in fact a member of the [[Nazi]] party, Schwarzenegger has been a strong supporter of various Jewish groups, and has denounced the principles of the fascist German regime, saying "I have always despised everything that Hitler stands for".
March 1992 [[Spy Magazine]] article mentions a story confirmed by "a businessman and longtime friend of Schwarzenegger's" -- that in the '70s Arnold "enjoyed playing and giving away records of Hitler's speeches" (see [http://www.s-t.com/daily/12-96/12-25-96/c06ae100.htm]]). Schwarzenegger supported the campaign of his friend, [[Kurt Waldheim]], former [[UN]] chief and a former Austrian politician who was accused of [[war crimes]] during World War II in [[Yugoslavia]], which resulted in both Waldheim, and his wife, Elisabeth, both of whom belonged to the Nazi Party, being excluded from entering the [[United States]]. Schwarzenegger's name remained on Waldheim's campaign posters, even after allegations of Waldheim's war crimes were brought to light. Waldheim was also invited to Arnold's wedding with [[Maria Shriver]], but declined (see [[http://arnoldexposed.com/arnold.htm#nazi]).
These allegations were brought up mainly in the context of his campaign, but they continue to be occasionally used by some critics. [[Garry Trudeau]], the [[cartoonist]] behind the [[comic strip]] [[Doonesbury]], combined the allegations by nicknaming Schwarzenegger "Herr Gröpenführer" and depicting Schwarzenegger as a huge, groping hand in his artwork.
A slightly smaller scandal arose when campaign ads were shown to have citizens of California out of focus, but products from campaign contributors clear. This got little press but still angered many.
On [[October 7]], [[2003]], the [[2003 California recall]] resulted in Governor [[Gray Davis]] being recalled with 55.4% of the ''Yes'' vote. Schwarzenegger was elected Governor of California under the second question on the ballot with 48.6% of the vote, defeating Democrat [[Cruz Bustamante]], fellow Republican [[Tom McClintock]] and others. In total, Arnold won the election by about 1.3 million votes.
He was sworn into office on [[November 17]], [[2003]]. Schwarzenegger's inauguration was opened by [[Vanessa Lynn Williams]], his co-star from ''[[Eraser (movie)|Eraser]]'', singing the [[The Star-Spangled Banner|National Anthem]]. Hollywood attendees included [[Danny DeVito]], [[Rhea Perlman]], [[Dennis Miller]] and [[Rob Lowe]] (Only Miller is a Republican). The Schwarzenegger children joined others in reciting the [[Pledge of Allegiance]], then [[Maria Shriver]] spoke and held the Bible while Schwarzenegger was sworn into the office of Governor. He spoke briefly: "Today is a new day in California. I did not seek this office to do things the way they've always been done. What I care about is restoring your confidence in your government... This election was not about replacing one man. It was not replacing one party. It was about changing the entire political climate of our state."
===Governorship===
[[Image:BushCAGovs.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Arnold Schwarzenegger, [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]], and [[Gray Davis]] speak to firefighters on [[November 4]], [[2003]].]]
[[Image:Arnold and Edmund 1.jpg|thumb|300px|Arnold Schwarzenegger and [[Bavaria]]'s minister president [[Edmund Stoiber]].]]
In his first few hours in office Schwarzenegger fulfilled his campaign promise to repeal an unpopular 200% increase in vehicle license fees undertaken to fund the state's budget. The increase was a restoration to 1998 levels. On his first full day in office, Schwarzenegger proposed a three-point plan to address the budget woes. First, Schwarzenegger proposed floating $15,000,000,000 (USD) in [[bond]]s. Second, he urged voters to pass a [[constitutional amendment]] to limit state spending. Third, he sought an overhaul of [[workers' compensation]]. Schwarzenegger also called the state legislature into a special session and said that spending cuts would also be necessary. He initiated the cuts by agreeing to serve as governor with no salary, a savings of $175,000 (USD) per year.
To fulf
|
ut it gave Wray her first lead role. He also was romantically interested in the lovely Wray, and arranged a rendezvous in Hollywood, but she changed her mind and never showed.
She is best remembered for her role as [[Ann Darrow]], the blonde seductress of a gigantic, prehistoric gorilla in the classic [[horror film|horror]]/adventure film ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' ([[1933 in film|1933]]). She dyed her dark hair blonde for the role. There have been claims the screams emanated from actress [[Julie Haydon]], and dubbed to Wray, but that has been disputed.
Wray also appeared in over a hundred other films, mostly in the [[1930s]], including ''[[The Four Feathers]]'' ([[1929 in film|1929]]), [[Doctor X]] ([[1932 in film|1932]]), ''[[The Most Dangerous Game]]'' ([[1932|1932 in film]]), ''[[The Vampire Bat]]'' ([[1933|1933 in film]]), and ''[[Mystery of the Wax Museum]]'' (1933). She also appeared in ''[[Viva Villa]]'' (1934) with [[Wallace Beery]], ''The Texan'', ''The Conquering Horde'', and ''One Sunday Afternoon''. Later in her career, Wray appeared in ''Small Town Girl'', ''Tammy and the Bachelor'', and ''Summer Love''.
== Personal Life ==
Wray was married 3 times.
*John Monk Saunders
*[[Robert Riskin]]
*Dr. Sanford Rothenberg
*She is the mother of Susan Saunders, Victoria Riskin and Robert Riskin Jr.
Her autobiography, ''[[On the Other Hand]]'' (ISBN 0312022654), was published in [[1988]].
For her contribution to the motion picture industry, Fay Wray has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6349 Hollywood Blvd. She received a posthumous star on [[Canada's Walk of Fame]] in [[Toronto]] on [[June 5]], [[2005 in film|2005]].
A small park near Lee's Creek on Main Street in Cardston, Alberta, is named Fay Wray Park in her honor. The small sign at the edge of the park on Main Street has a silouette of King Kong on it.
Wray died at her apartment in [[Manhattan]], [[New York]] at the age of 96 of natural causes on [[August 8]], [[2004 in film|2004]], and was interred at the [[Hollywood Forever Cemetery]] in [[Hollywood, California]].
==Trivia==
* [[Peter Jackson]] had approached her about doing a cameo in his 2005 remake of '''[[King Kong (2005 film)|King Kong]]''', but she passed away before she could do so.
* She is referred to in the '''King Kong''' remake: [[Carl Denham]] ([[Jack Black (actor)|Jack Black]]) needs to find an actress quickly, and suggests 'Fay' as a possibility. However, he is told that she is making a film with "Cooper" for [[RKO]]. [[Merian C. Cooper]] was the director of the original film, produced for RKO.
==Filmography==
*''[[Gasoline Love]]'' (1923) (short subject)
*''[[Thundering Landlords]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[No Father to Guide Him]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[The Coast Patrol]]'' (1925)
*''[[Sure-Mike]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[What Price Goofy]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Isn't Life Terrible?]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Chasing the Chaser]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Madame Sans Jane]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Unfriendly Enemies]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Your Own Back Yard]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Moonlight and Noses]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Should Sailors Marry?]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[WAMPAS Baby Stars of 1926]]'' (1926) (short subject)
*''[[One Wild Time]]'' (1926) (short subject)
*''[[Don Key (A Son of a Burro]]'' (1926) (short subject)
*''[[The Man in the Saddle]]'' (1926)
*''[[Don't Shoot]]'' (1926) (short subject)
*''[[The Wild Horse Stampede]]'' (1926)
*''[[The Saddle Tramp]]'' (1926) (short subject)
*''[[The Show Cowpuncher]]'' (1926) (short subject)
*''[[Lazy Lightning]]'' (1926)
*''[[Loco Luck]]'' (1927)
*''[[A One Man Game]]'' (1927)
*''[[Spurs and Saddles]]'' (1927)
*''[[A Trip Through the Paramount Studio]]'' (1927) (short subject)
*''[[The Honeymoon]]'' (1928) (unreleased)
*''[[The Legion of the Condemned]]'' (1928)
*''[[Street of Sin]]'' (1928)
*''[[The First Kiss]]'' (1928)
*''[[The Wedding March]]'' (1928)
*''[[Thunderbolt]]'' (1929)
*''[[The Four Feathers]]'' (1929)
*''[[Pointed Heels]]'' (1929)
*''[[Behind the Make-Up]]'' (1930)
*''[[Paramount on Parade]]'' (1930)
*''[[The Texan]]'' (1930)
*''[[The Border Legion]]'' (1930)
*''[[The Sea God]]'' (1930)
*''[[Captain Thunder]]'' (1930)
*''[[The Conquering Horde]]'' (1931)
*''[[Three Rogues]]'' (1931)
*''[[The Slippery Pearls]]'' (1931) (short subject)
*''[[Dirigible (movie)|Dirigible]]'' (1931)
*''[[The Finger Points]]'' (1931)
*''[[The Lawyer's Secret]]'' (1931)
*''[[The Unholy Garden]]'' (1931)
*''[[Hollywood on Parade]]'' (1932) (short subject)
*''[[Stowaway]]'' (1932)
*''[[Doctor X]]'' (1932)
*''[[The Most Dangerous Game]]'' (1932)
*''[[The Vampire Bat]]'' (1932)
*''[[Mystery of the Wax Museum]]'' (1933)
*''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' (1933)
*''[[Below the Sea]]'' (1933)
*''[[Ann Carver's Profession]]'' (1933)
*''[[The Woman I Stole]]'' (1933)
*''[[Shanghai Madness]]'' (1933)
*''[[The Big Brain]]'' (1933)
*''[[One Sunday Afternoon]]'' (1933)
*''[[The Bowery (1933 film)|The Bowery]]'' (1933)
*''[[Master of Men]]'' (1933)
*''[[The Clairvoyant]]'' (1934)
*''[[Madame Spy]]'' (1934)
*''[[The Countess of Monte Cristo]]'' (1934)
*''[[Once to Every Woman]]'' (1934)
*''[[Viva Villa!]]'' (1934)
*''[[The Affairs of Cellini]]'' (1934)
*''[[Black Moon]]'' (1934)
*''[[The Richest Girl in the World]]'' (1934)
*''[[Cheating Cheaters]]'' (1934)
*''[[Woman in the Dark]]'' (1934)
*''[[Come Out of the Pantry]]'' (1935)
*''[[Mills of the Gods]]'' (1935)
*''[[Bulldog Jack]]'' (1935)
*''[[White Lies]]'' (1935)
*''[[When Knight Were Bold]]'' (1936)
*''[[Roaming Lady]]'' (1936)
*''[[They Met in a Taxi]]'' (1936)
*''[[It Happened in Hollywood]]'' (1937)
*''[[Murder in Greenwich Village]]'' (1937)
*''[[The Jury's Secret]]'' (1938)
*''[[Smashing the Spy Ring]]'' (1939)
*''[[Navy Secrets]]'' (1939)
*''[[Wildcat Bus]]'' (1940)
*''[[Melody for Three]]'' (1941)
*''[[Adam Had Four Sons]]'' (1941)
*''[[Not a Ladies' Man]]'' (1942)
*''[[Treasure of the Golden Condor]]'' (1953)
*''[[Small Town Girl]]'' (1953)
*''[[Hell on Frisco Bay]]'' (1955)
*''[[The Cobweb]]'' (1955)
*''[[Queen Bee]]'' (1955)
*''[[Rock, Pretty Baby]]'' (1956)
*''[[Crime of Passion]]'' (1957)
*''[[Tammy and the Bachelor]]'' (1957)
*''[[Summer Love]]'' (1958)
*''[[Dragstrip Riot]]'' (1958)
*''[[Off the Menu: The Last Days of Chasen's]]'' (1997) (documentary)
*''[[Broadway: The Golden Age, by the Legends Who Were There]]'' (2003) (documentary)
==See also==
*[[Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood|Other Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood]]
==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=00942039|name=Fay Wray}}
* [http://www.moviemaidens.com/profile.asp?i=1013 Fay Wray at MovieMaidens.com]
* [http://www.cbc.ca/story/arts/national/2004/08/09/Arts/faywray080409.html CBC.ca News: Fay Wray dies at 96]
* [http://www.things-and-other-stuff.com/movies/profiles/fay-wray-1.htm A more complete biography]
* [http://www.cultsirens.com/wray/wray.htm Cult Sirens: Fay Wray]
[[Category:1907 births|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:2004 deaths|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:American silent film actors|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:American film actors|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:Canada's Walk of Fame|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 90s|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:People from Alberta|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:Canadian Americans|Wray, F]]
[[de:Fay Wray]]
[[eo:Fay WRAY]]
[[fr:Fay Wray]]
[[fi:Fay Wray]]
[[pl:Fay Wray]]
[[ru:Рэй, Фэй]]
[[sv:Fay Wray]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Forgetting curve</title>
<id>10967</id>
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<id>28516314</id>
<timestamp>2005-11-16T17:06:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Joy Stovall</username>
<id>69412</id>
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<comment>rmv "interestingly"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''forgetting curve''' illustrates the decline of [[memory retention]] in time. A related concept is the '''strength of memory''' that refers to the durability that [[memory]] traces in the [[brain]]. The stronger the memory, the longer we can remember it. A typical [[graph of a function|graph]] of the forgetting [[curve]] shows that humans tend to halve their memory of newly learned knowledge in a matter of days or weeks unless they consciously review the learned material.
.
We can roughly describe forgetting with
:<math>R = e^{-t/S}</math>
where <math>R</math> is [[memory retention]], <math>S</math> is relative strength of memory and <math>t</math> is [[time]] (see [[exponential decay]]).
The speed of forgetting depends on a number of factors such as the difficulty of the learned material (e.g. how meaningful it is), its representation (see: [[mnemonic]]), and physiological factors such as [[stress (psychology)|stress]] and [[sleep]]. The [[basal forgetting rate]] differs little between individuals. The difference in performance (e.g. at school) can be explained by mnemonic representation skills. This means that some people are able to "imagine" memories in the right way while others are not.
Basic training in mnemonic techniques can help overcome those differences in part. The best methods for increasing the strength of memory are:
# better memory representation (e.g. with [[mnemonic techniques]])
# repetition based on [[active recall]] (esp. [[spaced repetition]])
Each repetition in learning increases the optimum interval before the next repetition is needed (for near-perfect [[retention]], initially repetitions may need to be made within days, but later then can be made after years)
The first significant study in this area was carried out by [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] and published in 1885 as ''Über das Gedächtnis'' (later translated into English as ''Memory. A Contribution to Experimental Psychology''). Ebbinghaus studied the memorisation of nonsense syllables, such as &quo
|
>
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<username>RedWolf</username>
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<minor />
<comment>fix dr</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of environmental organizations]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Eric Raymond</title>
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<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eric S. Raymond]]
</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>English language/British English</title>
<id>9463</id>
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<id>15907353</id>
<timestamp>2005-05-25T15:09:38Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Timwi</username>
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<minor />
<comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[English English]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Non-standard adjectives in the English language</title>
<id>9464</id>
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<timestamp>2004-10-22T18:32:18Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dcljr</username>
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<comment>better redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of non-standard English adjectives]]</text>
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<page>
<title>English language/American English</title>
<id>9465</id>
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<timestamp>2004-09-14T14:20:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jdforrester</username>
<id>8776</id>
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<comment>Fix redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[American English]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Longest word in English</title>
<id>9467</id>
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<id>42070285</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T16:44:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Phil Boswell</username>
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<minor />
<comment>/* Other long words */ sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There are seemingly endless debates over which is the '''longest word in [[English language|English]]''', demonstrating that the idea of what constitutes a [[word (linguistics)|word]] is not as straightforward as it seems. Hyphenated or space-delimited [[compound (linguistics)|compound]]s and proper nouns are linguistically considered words, but as they can grow with few limits, they are not counted here.
=="Official" longest word==
The ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'', in its [[1992]] and subsequent editions, declared the "longest real word" in the English language to be '''[[floccinaucinihilipilification]]''' at 29 letters. Defined as ''the act of estimating (something) as worthless'', its usage has been recorded as far back as [[1741]]. In recent times its usage has been recorded in the proceedings of the [[United States]] [[United States Senate|Senate]] by Senator [[Jesse Helms]], and at the [[White House]] by [[Bill Clinton]]'s press secretary [[Mike McCurry]], albeit sarcastically. It is the longest non-technical word in the first edition of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''. The acceptability of the 33-letter adverbial form '''floccinaucinihilipilificastically''' is subject to controversy. </br>
== Popular usage ==
'''[[Antidisestablishmentarianism]]''' (a [[19th century]] movement in [[England]] opposed to the [[separation of church and state]]) at 28 letters is often popularly accepted as English's longest word, and is probably the best-known "longest word." Other versions such as ''Antidisestablishmentarianistically'' and ''Pseudoantidisestablishmentarianism'' are demonstrably longer, though, showing that "popular acceptance" is not a guarantee of accuracy. (''See also the "Constructions" section below.'')
The word '''[[pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis]]''', also spelled pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis, is defined as "a [[lung disease]] caused by the inhalation of very fine [[silica]] or quartz dust." At 45 letters (a [[P45|p45]] word for [[logology|logologists]]), it is certainly the longest word ever to appear in a non-technical dictionary of English, the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]. However, there are strong indications that the word was coined by puzzler [[Everett Smith]] in [[1935]] as a hypothetical long word that could result from the protraction of medical terms. The actual name of the disease is ''[[pneumoconiosis]]'', which is 14 letters long.
== Words that do exist but are often considered non-words ==
[[James Joyce]], known for his distinctive style, made up nine 100- and one 101-letter long words in his novel ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'', the most famous of which is '''Bababadalgharaghtakamminarronnkonnbronntonnerronntuonnthunntrovarrhounawnskawntoohoohoordenenthurnuk'''. Appearing on the first page, it allegedly is the symbolic thunderclap representing the fall of [[Adam and Eve]]. As this word appears nowhere else except in reference to this passage, it is generally not accepted as a "real" word. [[Sylvia Plath]] made mention to that word in her semi-[[autobiographical]] novel "[[The Bell Jar]]" as Esther Greenwood, the protagonist, was reading [[Finnegans Wake]].
The well-known song title from the movie ''[[Mary Poppins (film)|Mary Poppins]]'', "'''[[Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious]]'''", with 34 letters, does appear in several dictionaries, but only as a [[proper noun]], and defined in reference to the song title. Hence it may well be dismissed as not a "real" word, particularly since the song assigns no meaning to it other than to say it's impressive.
== Other long words ==
The longest word cited by the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'', which allegedly represents the name for human [[mitochondrial DNA]], is 207,000+ letters long. Some types of DNA could have as many as 1,000,000,000 letters if fully written out.
The longest hypothetically legal [[Scrabble]] word (hypothetical because it exceeds 15 letters, the width of a Scrabble board) in [[North America]]n play is [[EDTA|ethylenediaminetetraacetate]]s (28 letters). It is the plural of a word found in [[Merriam-Webster]]'s [[Collegiate]] [[Dictionary]], 10th edition, which was the dictionary of reference in North American [[Scrabble]] play for base words of at least 10 letters, and their inflections of at least 10 letters, until [[June 16]], [[2003]].
The longest word which appears in [[William Shakespeare]]'s works is the 27-letter '''[[honorificabilitudinitatibus]]''', appearing in ''[[Love's Labour's Lost]]''. This is arguably an English word (rather than [[Latin]]), but only because he used it.
The '''[[humuhumu-nukunuku-a-pua‘a]]''', or reef triggerfish, is [[Hawaii]]'s unofficial state fish. At 21 letters (22 counting the [[okina|ʻokina]]) it is one of the best known very long one-word names for an animal. It is often asserted that "the name is longer than the fish."
The character [[Big Bird]] of ''[[Sesame Street]]'' sings the [[Latin alphabet]], thinking it is a word. He reads '''Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz''' aloud as /{{IPA|æbkəd&#603;fgi&#676;&#603;kl&#809;mn&#809;&#596;pkw&#605;&#720;&#712;stu&#720;vw&#618;ks&#618;z}}/ and breaks into song ([[ABC-DEF-GHI]]).
In the [[1970s]], there were advertisements for '''Lip&shy;smackin&shy;thirst&shy;quenchin&shy;acetastin&shy;motivatin&shy;good&shy;buzzin&shy;cool&shy;talkin&shy;high&shy;walkin&shy;fast&shy;livin&shy;ever&shy;givin&shy;cool&shy;fizzin''' [[Pepsi]], coining a 100-letter term.
Later, the 71-letter '''[[Twoallbeefpattiesspecialsaucelettucecheesepicklesonionsonasesameseedbun|Two&shy;all&shy;beef&shy;patties&shy;special&shy;sauce&shy;lettuce&shy;cheese&shy;pickles&shy;onions&shy;on&shy;a&shy;sesame&shy;seed&shy;bun]]''' was used in a [[McDonald's Corporation|McDonald's Restaurant]] [[advertisement]] to describe the [[Big Mac]].
The longest word whose letters are in alphabetical order is the eight-letter ''[[Aegilops]]'', a grass genus. The seven-letter ''addeems'' (from the archaic verb ''addeem'', meaning to award), ''alloquy'' (an archaic or literary word for an address), ''beefily'' (in a beefy manner), ''billowy'' (like a wave or surge), ''[[dikkops]]'' (a South African bird) and ''gimmors'' (plural of ''gimmor'', an old-fashioned word for a mechanical contrivance) are also close.
=== Words with certain characteristics of notable length ===
The longest word in the English language containing only one [[vowel]] is '''strengths''', while '''scraunched''' is the longest monosyllabic word in current usage. '''Twyndyllyngs''' is the longest word without any of the common vowel letters a, e, i, o, or u (although y is certainly a vowel in that and many other words). '''Euouae''', at six letters long, is the longest English word consisting only of vowels, and the word with the most consecutive vowels. It is a [[medieval]] musical term. However, ''u'' was often used interchangeably with ''v'', and the variant "evovae" is occasionally used.
The longest words with no repeated letters are '''dermatoglyphics''', '''misconjugatedly''' and '''uncopyrightable''' [http://rinkworks.com/words/oddities.shtml].
The longest medical term typable with only the left hand (using conventional hand placement on a [[QWERTY]] keyboard) is '''aftercataracts''', and the longest "common" word is '''[[Flight attendan
|
ings because the stages had none. Welles' crew used black cloth draped above the set to produce the illusion of a regular room with a ceiling, while the boom mikes were hidden above the cloth.
[[Image:Ruth citizen kaneDame.jpg|thumb|right|240px|[[Ruth Warrick]] as Emily Monroe Norton Kane in a publicity still from ''Citizen Kane''.]]
One of the story-telling techniques introduced in this film was using a series of [[jump cut]]s shot on the same set while the characters changed costume and make-up between cuts so that the scene following the cut would look as if it took place at a time long after the previous cut. In this way, Welles chronicled the breakdown of Kane's first [[marriage]], which took years of story time, in a matter of minutes. Prior to this technique, filmmakers often had to use a long period of screen time to explain the character's changed circumstances. For example, in [[Erich von Stroheim]]'s masterpiece ''[[Greed (film)|Greed]]'', the breakdown of the marriage of the main characters takes almost an hour of screen time, even in the most abbreviated cut.
Welles also pioneered several visual effects in order to cheaply shoot things like crowd scenes and large interior spaces. For example, the scene where the camera in the opera house rises dramatically to the rafters to show the workman showing a lack of appreciation for the second Mrs. Kane's performance was shot by panning a camera upwards over the performance scene, matching it with a painting showing the upper regions of the house, and then matching it again with the scene of the workmen.
During the filming ([[June 29]]&ndash;[[October 23]], [[1940]]), Welles prevented studio executives of [[RKO Pictures|RKO]] from visiting the set. He understood their desire to control projects and he knew they were expecting him to do an exciting film that would correspond to his ''[[The War of the Worlds (radio)|The War of the Worlds]]'' radio broadcast. Welles' RKO contract had given him complete control over the production of the film when he signed on with the studio, something that he never again was allowed to exercise when making motion pictures.
== Conflict with William Randolph Hearst ==
Much of Kane's life is seen by critics as a fictional [[parody]] of (or attack on) media baron [[William Randolph Hearst]]. The most notable reference to Hearst comes early in the film, as Kane (played by Welles) provides a quote that mirrors Hearst's own comment on the [[Spanish American War]]: "You provide the pictures, I'll provide the war." (An often-debated Hollywood legend says that the reference to "Rosebud" was also an attack on Hearst: allegedly, it was a nickname used by Hearst to refer to the clitoris of his mistress, [[Marion Davies]], or to Marion Davies herself; Marion's mother was named Rose). According to Louis Pizzitola, author of ''[http://www.hearstoverhollywood.com Hearst Over Hollywood]'', "rosebud" was a nickname that a friend of Hearst's, Orrin Peck, gave to Hearst's mother, Phoebe Hearst. It was said that Phoebe was as close, or even closer, to Orrin than she was to her own son, lending a bitter-sweet element to the word's use in a film about a boy being separated from his mother's love.
On hearing about the film, Hearst offered RKO Pictures $800,000 to destroy all prints of the film and burn the negative. Although it's often said that Hearst was upset because the film was about him, one alternative theory is that Hearst was more upset about the portrayal of Davies (as talentless singer Susan Alexander) than himself in the film. Davies was a competent light comedic actress who was talked by Hearst into starring in pompous costume dramas many thought were out of her depth. [[Roger Ebert]], in his full-length commentary of "Citizen Kane," suggested that the Alexander character had very little to do with Davies, but, rather, that it was based on [[Ganna Walska]], mistress and later wife of Chicago heir [[Harold McCormick]]. McCormick spent thousands of dollars on voice lessons for her and even arranged for Walska to take the lead in a production of ''[[Zaza]]'' at the Chicago Opera in 1920. Unlike Alexander, Walska got into an argument with director Pietro Cimini during dress rehearsal and stormed out of the production before she appeared. Like Alexander, contemporaries said she had a terrible voice, pleasing only to McCormick.
Several candidates for the basis of the Kane personality have been suggested, the most likely being that of [[Jules Brulatour]], millionaire head of distribution for [[Eastman Kodak]] and co-founder of [[Universal Pictures]]. Brulatour's second and third wives, [[Dorothy Gibson]] and [[Hope Hampton]], both fleeing stars of the silent screen who later had marginal careers in opera, are also believed to have provided inspiration for the Susan Alexander character.
When RKO refused Hearst's offer to suppress the film, Hearst was so angry that he banned every newspaper and station in his media conglomerate from reviewing or even mentioning the movie. Although these efforts damaged the film's success, they ultimately failed considering that almost every reference of Hearst's life and career made today typically includes a reference to the film's parallel to it. The irony of Hearst's efforts is that the film is now inexorably connected to him. This connection was reinforced by the publication in [[1961]] of W. A. Swanberg's extensive [[biography]] titled ''Citizen Hearst''.
Welles, however, saw the difference between the men. In 1968, he told [[Peter Bogdanovich]], "You know, the real story of Hearst is quite different from Kane's. And Hearst himself -- as a man, I mean -- was very different."
==Awards and recognition==
The 1941 [[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay]] was shared by Welles and [[Herman J. Mankiewicz]] as the only Oscar awarded for the film. It was nominated, however, for another eight awards{{ref|oscars}}:
*[[Academy Award for Best Picture]] - Orson Welles, producer
*Best Actor in a Leading Role - Orson Welles
*[[Academy Award for Best Art Direction]]-Interior Decoration, Black-and-White - [[Perry Ferguson]], [[A. Roland Fields]], [[Van Nest Polglase]], and [[Darrell Silvera]]
*Best Cinematography, Black-and-White - [[Gregg Toland]]
*Best Director - Orson Welles
*Best Film Editing - [[Robert Wise]]
*Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic Picture - [[Bernard Herrmann]]
*Best Sound, Recording - [[John Aalberg]]
Boos were heard almost every time ''Citizen Kane'' was referred to during the Oscars ceremony that year. Most of Hollywood did not want the film to see the light of day considering the threats that William Hearst had made if it did.
''Citizen Kane'' was little seen and virtually forgotten until its release in [[Europe]] in [[1946]], where it garnered considerable acclaim, particularly from [[French cinema|French]] [[film critics]] such as [[Andre Bazin]]. In the United States, it was neglected and forgotten until its revival in the late [[1950s]], and its critical fortunes have skyrocketed since. Critics world wide began listing it among [[Films that have been considered the greatest ever|the best films ever made]]. For Welles, however, this was too late. Hearst had been successful in [[blacklist]]ing Welles in Hollywood so that no studio would agree to work with him.
The [[American Film Institute]] put the film at the top of its "[[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies|100 Greatest Movies]]" list; it has been selected for preservation in the United States [[National Film Registry]]; and it is consistently in the top 30 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. Beginning in [[1962]], and every ten years since, it has been voted the best film ever made by the ''[[Sight and Sound]]'' critics' poll. The quote, "Rosebud," was listed as no.&nbsp;17 on the American Film Institute's [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes]].
==Prints==
Welles's original master film negative of ''Citizen Kane'' was destroyed in a fire in the [[1970s]]. Until [[1991]], all existing theatrical prints of the film were made from copies of the original. When the film was purchased by Ted Turner's [[Turner Entertainment]] (which bought the rights to the [[MGM]] and RKO film libraries), [[film preservation|film restoration]] techniques were used to produce a pristine print for a 50th Anniversary theatrical revival reissue in 1991 (released by [[Paramount Pictures]]). The [[2003]] [[United Kingdom|British]] [[DVD]] edition is taken from an interpositive held by the [[British Film Institute]]. The current U.S. DVD version (released by Warner Home Video) is taken from another digital restoration, supervised by Turner.
In [[2003]], Orson Welles' daughter Beatrice sued Turner Entertainment and RKO Pictures, claiming that the Welles estate is the legal owner of the film. Her attorney said that Orson Welles had left RKO with an exit deal terminating his contracts with the studio, meaning that Welles still had an interest in the film and his previous contract giving the studio the ownership of the film was null and void. Beatrice Welles also claimed that, if the courts did not uphold her claim of ownership, RKO nevertheless owes the estate 20% of the profits, from a previous contract which has not been lived up to.
In the [[1980s]], the film became the catalyst in the fight against the trend of [[film colorization]]. When Turner Entertainment announced plans to colorize the film, both public outcry and a previous clause written by Orson Welles himself led to these plans being cancelled. Reportedly, Welles roared, "Tell Turner to keep his goddamned Crayolas away from my film!" when he found out about the colorization plans. Turner later claimed that this was a joke and that he never had any intention of colorizing the film.
==''The Battle over Citizen Kane''==
In [[1995]], [[Michael Epstein]] and [[Thomas Lennon]]'s acclaimed [[documen
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eography by country|Isle of Man]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Demographics of the Isle of Man</title>
<id>14765</id>
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<username>Mykdavies</username>
<id>9579</id>
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<minor />
<comment>/* External links */ Corrected links</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">''This article describes the '''[[Demographics]] of the [[Isle of Man]]'''''
----
*'''[[Population]]:''' 75,049 (July 2005 est.)
*'''Age structure:'''
**''0-14 years:'' 18% (male 6,520; female 6,277)
**''15-64 years:'' 65% (male 23,904; female 23,674)
**''65 years and over:'' 17% (male 5,078; female 7,664) (2000 est.)
*'''[[Population growth rate]]:''' 0.52% (2005 est.)
Population Density: 131people/km (2005 est.)
*'''[[Birth rate]]:''' 11.69 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
*'''[[Death rate]]:''' 11.98 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
*'''Net migration rate:''' 5.47 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
*'''Sex ratio:'''
**''at birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female
**''under 15 years:'' 1.04 male(s)/female
**''15-64 years:'' 1.01 male(s)/female
**''65 years and over:'' 0.66 male(s)/female
**''total population:'' 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
*'''[[Infant mortality rate]]:''' 5.93 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
*'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
**''total population:'' 78.34 years
**''male:'' 74.98 years
**''female:'' 81.87 years (2000 est.)
*'''Total [[fertility rate]]:''' 1.65 children born/woman (2000 est.)
*'''Nationality:'''
**''noun:'' Manxman (men), Manxwoman (women)
**''adjective:'' Manx
*'''[[Ethnic group]]s:''' [[Manx]] ([[Norseman|Norse]]-[[Celt]]ic descent), [[Briton]]
*'''[[Religion]]s:''' [[Atheism]], [[Agnosticism]], [[Anglican]], [[Roman Catholic]], [[Methodist]], [[Baptist]], [[Presbyterian]], [[Religious Society of Friends]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. There is no offical religion and very few practice any religion at all.
*'''[[Language]]s:''' [[Manx Gaelic]], [[English language|English]]
==External links==
*[http://www.gov.im/treasury/economic/census/2001/welcome.xml 2001 Manx Census, overview and details]
[[Category:Isle of Man]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Man]]</text>
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<title>Politics of the Isle of Man</title>
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<comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Isle of Man}}
'''Politics of the [[Isle of Man]]''' , an island in the [[Irish Sea]], takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] British [[Crown dependency]], whereby the [[Chief Minister of the Isle of Man|Chief Minister]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in in the bicameral [[Tynwald]]. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. The [[Isle of Man]], is not part of the [[United Kingdom]] or the [[European Union]]. The United Kingdom takes care of its external and defence affairs.
The island has no representation at either the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|UK]] or [[European Parliament|EU]] [[parliament]]s. The island is governed by the [[Tynwald]], said to be the world's oldest parliament (This claim is disputed by others).
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[Lord of Mann]]
|[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]
|
|[[6 February]] [[1952]]
|-
|Lieutenant Governor
|[[Paul Haddacks]]
|
|[[17 October]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[Chief Minister of the Isle of Man|Chief Minister]]
|[[Donald Gelling]]
|
|[[14 December]] [[2004]]
|}
The monarch (Lord) is hereditary. The lieutenant governor is appointed by the monarch for a five-year term. The Chief Minister is elected by the [[Tynwald]]. On [[19 October]] [[2005]] Tynwald accepted a proposal to change the title of the [[Lieutenant Governor]] to "[[Crown Commissioner]]" or "[[Barrantagh y Chrooin"]]" in Manx.
It now has to go to the Queen for her approval but the United Kingdom [[Department for Constitutional Affairs]] indicated early in 2005 that this was likely to be given.
==Legislative branch==
Man elects on national level a [[legislature]]. The '''[[Tynwald|High Court of Tynwald]]''' or ''Ard-whaiyl Tinvaal'' consists out of two [[bicameralism|chambers]]. The '''[[House of Keys]]''' or ''Chiare-as-Feed'' has 24 members, elected for a five year term in multi- and single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]]. The '''[[Legislative Council (Isle of Man)|Legislative Council]]''' or ''Choonceil Slattyssagh'' has 11 members, the President of Tynwald, two ex officio members and eight other members who are elected from the House of Keys for a five year term.
==Judicial branch==
The Isle of Man has a High Court of Justice. The justices are appointed by the [[Lord Chancellor]] of [[England]] on the nomination of the lieutenant governor.
==Work permits and visas==
All non-Manx citizens, including UK citizens, require a work permit from the Manx government to take up employment on the island. Manx people, as British Citizens, may travel and work freely in the United Kingdom. Manx people are issued with UK passports, but with an additional endorsement that declares their nationality. Manxmen (citizens of Man) are also citizens of the European Union, however [http://www.feegan.com/manx/protocol3.htm protocol three] of the [http://www.bmdf.co.uk/ukaccessiontreaty.pdf treaty of accession of the United Kingdom] stipulates that Manx people "shall not benefit from provisions relating to the free movement of persons and services". This means that a special endorsement is placed in their passports preventing them from freely living or working in other EU states.
Travel to the Isle of Man is regulated by the local government laws. Visitors from countries who require a UK visa may also require a special Man visa, obtainable from a British Embassy. An Isle of Man visa also serves as a UK transit visa and a holder of a UK visa is usually permitted to visit Man. The island is considered part of the ''[[de facto]]'' [[Common Travel Area]] (including UK and Ireland) and all passenger air and sea traffic originates in either the UK or Ireland. Despite the special visa rules, there are currently no Immigration Controls exercised at the ports.
==External links==
*[http://www.gov.im Isle of Man Government]
*[http://www.tynwald.org.im Tynwald - The Parliament of the Isle of Man]
[[Category:Politics of the Isle of Man]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of the Isle of Man</title>
<id>14767</id>
<revision>
<id>36828561</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-26T19:28:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TheObtuseAngleOfDoom</username>
<id>73429</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Disambiguation from [[Distribution]] to [[distribution (business)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">Offshore [[banking]], [[manufacturing]], and [[tourism]] are key sectors of the '''[[economics|economy]] of the [[Isle of Man]]'''. The government's policy of offering incentives to high-technology companies and financial institutions to locate on the island has paid off in expanding [[employment]] opportunities in high-income industries. As a result, [[agriculture]] and [[fishing]], once the mainstays of the economy, have declined in their shares of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Banking and other services now contribute the great bulk of GDP. [[Trade]] is mostly with the [[United Kingdom]]. The Isle of Man has access to [[European Union]] markets.
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $2.113 billion (2003 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
NA%
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $28,500 (2003 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
1%
<br>''industry:''
13%
<br>''services:''
86% (2000 est.)
'''Population below [[poverty]] line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%:''
NA%
'''[[Inflation]] rate (consumer prices):'''
3.6% (2003 est.)
'''[[Labour (economics)|Labor]] force:'''
39,690(2001)
'''Labour force - by occupation:'''
[[agriculture]], [[forestry]] and [[fishing]] 3%, [[manufacturing]] 11%, [[construction]] 10%, [[transport]] and [[communication]] 8%, wholesale and retail [[distribution (business)|distribution]] 11%, professional and [[science|scientific]] services 18%, public [[administration]] 6%, [[banking]] and [[finance]] 18%, [[tourism]] 2%, [[entertainment]] and [[catering]] 3%, miscellaneous services 10%
'''[[Unemployment]] rate:'''
0.6% (2004 est.)
'''[[Budget]]:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$485 million
<br>''expenditures:''
$463 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY00/01 est.)
'''Industries:'''
financial services, light manufacturing, tourism
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
3.2% (1996/97)
'''[[Electricity]] - production:'''
329 GWh (1999)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''[[fossil fuel]]:''
100%
<br>''[[hydroelectric power|hydro]]:''
0%
<br>''[[nuclear power|nuclear]]:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0% (1999)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
287 GWh ([[1999]])
'''Electricity - exports:'''
NA kWh
'''Electricity - imports:'''
NA kWh
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[cereal]]s, [[vegetable]]s, [[cattle]], [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[pig]]s, [[poultry]]
'''Exports:'''
$NA
'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[tweed]]s, [[herring]],
|
punished alike by the Lord; for "all the nations are uncircumcised, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart."
==Recent views==
===Historical view===
Recent historians maintain that the "limited" form of circumcision, with only the removal of the tip of the prepuce, was actually practiced up to the time of the Syrian-Greek occupation, when the procedure was extended to make it impossible for men to "undo" their circumcision. There is no basis for this view in classical [[Rabbinical literature|rabbinic sources]], which state that the "extended" form of circumcision was introduced at Mount Sinai.
===The anti-circumcision movement===
The anti-circumcision movement has not made significant inroads into any of the Jewish denominations. However, a small number of contemporary Jews choose to not circumcise their sons. They are assisted by a small number of [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]] rabbis, and have developed a welcoming ceremony that they call the ''Brit Shalom'' ("Covenant [of] Peace") for such children.
This ceremony is not officially approved of by the Reform or Reconstructionist rabbinical organizations. Rabbis in these movements strongly recommend circumcision for all male infants, and for all men who converted into Judaism. In contrast with [[Orthodox Judaism]] and [[Conservative Judaism]], these former liberal denominations generally have made this a strong "recommendation" as opposed to an "obligation" (or "requirement"). Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have often accepted medical circumcisions performed by doctors as sufficient to fulfill the commandment of ''brit milah''. However, in recent years these movements have began stressing the religious and ritual nature of circumcision and have begun training their own experts (''[[mohel|mohalim]]'') in this ritual.
In [[Israel]] there are several secular groups that advocate against or supply information that is critical of circumcision.
==See also==
*[[Circumcision in the Bible]]
*[[Zeved habat]] (welcoming ceremony for girls)
*[[Redemption of First-born]] (''Pidyon ha-ben'')
==External links==
===Sources that favor the brit milah===
*[http://judaism.about.com/library/3_lifecycles/bris/blbrit.htm Jewish Ritual Circumcision] (About.com)
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/circumcision.html Circumcision] (Jewish Virtual Library)
*[http://aish.com/literacy/lifecycle/bris_milah_beautiful_or_barbaric$.asp Bris milah - Beautiful or barbaric?] (Aish.com)
* [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=144122 Brit Milah - Ritual Circumcision in Judaism] (Chabad.org)
* [http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19861990/reisner_conversion.pdf Review of rabbinic sources and responsa on converting minors to Judaism by Rabbi Avram Reisner]
*[http://www.act-now.org/ Advocating Circumcision Today] - A pro-circumcision site containing details about the ceremony of Brit Milah and its history.
*[http://www.circlist.com/rites/bris.html Circlist.org]- A pro-circumcision site with a cultural examination of a bris.
===Sources against or warning about the brit milah===
*[http://www.jewishcircumcision.org Jewish Circumcision.org] - An anti-circumcision site that advocates for Jews to abandon the Brit Milah.
*[http://www.noharmm.org/pollack.htm Noharmm.org] - An anti-circumcision article from a "Jewish feminist" perspective.
*[http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/newscontent.php3?artid=11539 City Risking Babies' Lives…] - Controversy over ''metzitza be'peh''.
*[http://www.af-mila.org.il/ Af-Mila] - An Israeli anti-circumcision organization.
*[http://www.jewsagainstcircumcision.com/ Jews Against Circumcision] - A group of Jews that advocates for Brit Shalom.
{{JewishLifeCycle}}
[[Category:Jewish law and rituals]]
[[Category:Hebrew words]]
[[Category:Circumcision]]
[[de:Brit Mila]]
[[es:Brit Milá]]
[[it:Brit milah]]
[[he:ברית מילה]]
[[nl:Briet mila]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Business ethics</title>
<id>4770</id>
<revision>
<id>42014094</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:38:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.152.167.236</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ethics of production */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Business ethics''' is a form of [[applied ethics]] that examines ethical rules and principles within a commercial context; the various moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business setting; and any special duties or obligations that apply to persons who are engaged in commerce.”
Generally speaking, business ethics is a normative discipline, whereby particular ethical standards are assumed and then applied. It makes specific judgements about what is right or wrong, which is to say, it makes claims about what ''ought'' to be done or what ''ought not'' to be done. While there are some exceptions, business ethicists are usually less concerned with the foundations of ethics ([[metaethics]]), or with justifying the most basic ethical principles, and are more concerned with practical problems and applications, and any specific duties that might apply to business relationships.
==Overview of issues in business ethics==
===General business ethics===
* This part of business ethics overlaps with the [[philosophy of business]], one of the aims of which is to determine the fundamental purposes of a company. If a company's main purpose is to maximize the returns to its shareholders, then it could be seen as unethical for a company to consider the interests and rights of anyone else.{{ref|Friedman}}
* [[Corporate social responsibility]] or CSR: an umbrella term under which the ethical rights and duties existing between companies and society is debated.
* Issues regarding the moral rights and duties between a company and its shareholders: [[fiduciary]] responsibility, [[stakeholder concept]] v. [[shareholder concept]].
* Ethical issues concerning relations between different companies: e.g. [[takeover|hostile take-overs]], [[industrial espionage]].
* Leadership issues: [[corporate governance]].
* [[Campaign finance reform|Political contributions]] made by corporations.
* Law reform, such as the ethical debate over introducing a crime of [[corporate manslaughter]].
* The misuse of corporate ethics policies as marketing instruments.{{ref|Enron}}
See also: [[corporate abuse]], [[corporate crime]].
===Professional ethics===
Professional ethics covers the myriad of practical ethical problems and phenomena which arise out of specific functional areas of companies or in relation to recognized business professions.
====Ethics of finance and accounting====
* [[Creative accounting]], [[earnings management]], [[misleading financial analysis]].
* [[Insider trading]], [[securities fraud]], [[bucket shop]], [[forex scams]]: concerns (criminal) manipulation of the financial markets.
* [[Executive compensation]]: concerns excessive payments made to corporate CEO's.
* [[Bribe]]ry, [[kickback]]s, [[facilitation payment]]s: while these may be in the (short-term) interests of the company and its shareholders, these practices may be anti-competitive or offend against the values of society.
Cases: [[accountancy scandals]], [[Enron]], [[WorldCom]]
====Ethics of human resource management====
The ethics of [[HRM]] ([[human resource management]]) covers those ethical issues arising around the employer-employee relationship, such as the rights and duties owed between employer and employee.
* [[Discrimination]] issues include discrimination on the bases of age ([[ageism]]), gender, race, religion, [[disabilities]], weight and attractiveness. See also: [[affirmative action]], [[sexual harassment]].
* Issues surrounding the representation of employees and the democratisation of the workplace: [[union busting]], [[strike breaking]].
* Issues affecting the [[privacy]] of the employee: [[workplace surveillance]], [[drug testing]]. See also: [[privacy]].
* Issues affecting the privacy of the ''employer'': [[whistle-blowing]].
* Issues relating to the fairness of the employment contract and the balance of power between employer and employee: [[slavery]]{{ref|hare}}, [[indentured servitude]], [[employment law]].
* [[Occupational safety and health]].
====Ethics of sales and marketing====
{{Product advertising}}
Marketing which goes beyond the mere provision of information about (and access to) a product may seek to manipulate our values and behaviour. To some extent society regards this as acceptable, but where is the ethical line to be drawn?
* Pricing: [[price fixing]], [[price discrimination]], [[price skimming]].
* Anti-competitive practices: these include but go beyond pricing tactics to cover issues such as manipulation of loyalty and supply chains. See: [[anti-competitive behaviour]], [[antitrust law]].
* Specific marketing strategies: [[greenwash]], [[bait and switch]], [[shill]], [[viral marketing]], [[spam]], [[pyramid scheme]], [[planned obsolescence (business)|planned obsolescence]].
* Content of advertisements: [[attack ad]]s, [[subliminal message]]s, [[sex in advertising]].
* Children and marketing: [[marketing in schools]].
* [[Black market]]s, [[grey market]]s.
See also: [[criticism of marketing]], [[memespace]], [[disinformation]], [[advertising]] techniques.
Cases: [[Benetton]].
====Ethics of production====
This area of business ethics deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not cause harm. Some of the more acute dilemmas in this area arise out of the fact that there is usually a degree of danger in any product or production process and it is difficult to define a degree of permissibility, or the degree of permissibility may depend on the changing state of preventative technologies or changing social perceptions of acceptable risk.
* Defective, addictive and inherently dangerous product
|
] and the logician [[William Ernest Johnson]], both British;
:* The Polish school of logic and foundational mathematics, including [[Alfred Tarski]];
:* [[Arthur Prior]], whose ''Formal Logic'' and chapter in Moore and Robin (1964) praised and studied Peirce's logical work.
===Relationships, relations, relatives===
The reader of Peirce needs to be aware of the distinction between ''relations'' and ''relatives''. Succinctly put, relations are objects and relatives are signs. The term "relative" is short for "relative term", and a relative term is a type of sign that forms the main study of the ''logic of relatives''. A relation, on the other hand, is a type of formal object that is treated in the mathematical ''theory of relations''. There is of course an intimate relationship between the two studies, but like most intimate relationships it has its fair share of intricacies.
The following collection of definitions is practically indispensable.
:* A ''relative'', then, may be defined as the equivalent of a word or phrase which, either as it is (when I term it a ''complete'' relative), or else when the verb "is" is attached to it (and if it wants such attachment, I term it a ''nominal'' relative), becomes a sentence with some number of proper names left blank.
:* A ''relationship'', or ''[[fundamentum relationis]]'', is a fact relative to a number of objects, considered apart from those objects, as if, after the statement of the fact, the designations of those objects had been erased.
:* A ''relation'' is a relationship considered as something that may be said to be true of one of the objects, the others being separated from the relationship yet kept in view. Thus, for each relationship there are as many relations as there are blanks. For example, corresponding to the relationship which consists in one thing loving another there are two relations, that of loving and that of being loved by. There is a nominal relative for each of these relations, as "lover of ——" and "loved by ——".
:* These nominal relatives belonging to one relationship, are in their relation to one another termed ''correlatives''. In the case of a dyad, the two correlatives, and the corresponding relations are said, each to be the ''converse'' of the other.
:* The objects whose designations fill the blanks of a complete relative are called the ''correlates''.
:* The correlate to which a nominal relative is attributed is called the ''relate''.
:* In the statement of a relationship, the designations of the correlates ought to be considered as so many ''logical subjects'' and the relative itself as the ''[[predicate]]''. The entire set of logical subjects may also be considered as a ''collective subject'', of which the statement of the relationship is ''predicate''.
: (Peirce, CP 3.466-467, "The Logic of Relatives", ''Monist'', 7, 161-217 (1897), CP 3.456-552).
To understand these definitions, as everywhere in Peirce's work, one needs to keep a close watch on the things that are meant as objects of discussion and thought and the things that are meant as signs and thoughts in which discussion and thought take place. Doing this is trickier than it seems at first, since many standard approaches to defining abstract, formal, or ''[[hypostatic abstraction|hypostatic]]'' objects approach their objects by way of formal operations on the corresponding signs.
====Relatives====
{{main|Logic of relatives}}
====Relations====
{{main|Theory of relations}}
A concept of relation that suffices to begin the study of Peirce's logic, mathematics, and semiotics, making use of analogous concepts of relation that have served well enough in other areas of experience to make further experience possible, can be set out as follows.
* Defined in extension, a ''k-adic relation'' L is a set of k-tuples.
* A ''k-tuple'' '''x''' is a sequence of k elements, x<sub>1</sub>, …, x<sub>k</sub>, called the ''components'' of the k-tuple. The components of the k-tuple '''x''' can be indicated by writing either one of the following two forms, the latter form of syntax being the one that Peirce most often used:
: '''x''' = (x<sub>1</sub>, …, x<sub>k</sub>)
: '''x''' = x<sub>1</sub> ''':''' … ''':''' x<sub>k</sub>
It is critically important to understand that a relation in extension is a ''[[set]]'', in other words, an aggregate entity or a collection of things. More to the point, a k-tuple is not a relation, it is only an ''[[element (mathematics)|element]]'' of a relation, what Peirce quite naturally called an ''elementary relation'' or sometimes an ''individual relation''.
In his time, Peirce found himself forced by the task of understanding the intertwined natures of science and signs to develop the logic of relations from the fairly primitive state in which he found it to a condition of readiness more qualified for the job. There was nothing very cut and dried about trying to do this from scratch, as will be evident in the appropriate Sections below when we sample the fits and starts forward, the culs-de-sac, and the many paths that had to be backtracked in order to arrive at an adequate theory of relations. For the purpose at hand, however, we can rely on the fact that few readers these days will have escaped some encounter with [[relational database]]s, and so we can draw on these resources of experience to speed the exposition of relations in general.
Table 1 shows how the k-tuples of a k-adic relation might be conceived in tabular form, with the k-uple '''x'''<sub>i</sub> = <x<sub>i1</sub>, …, x<sub>ik</sub>> = x<sub>i1</sub> ''':''' … ''':''' x<sub>ik</sub> supplying the entries for the i<sup>th</sup> row of the Table.
{| align="center" border="1" cellpadding="8" cellspacing="0" style="background:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold; text-align:center; width:90%"
|+ '''Table 1. Relational Database'''
|- style="background:#efefef"
! style="width:15%" | Domain 1
! style="width:15%" | Domain 2
! style="width:15%" | ...
! style="width:15%" | Domain j
! style="width:15%" | ...
! style="width:15%" | Domain k
|-
| x<sub>11</sub>
| x<sub>12</sub>
| ...
| x<sub>1j</sub>
| ...
| x<sub>1k</sub>
|-
| x<sub>21</sub>
| x<sub>22</sub>
| ...
| x<sub>2j</sub>
| ...
| x<sub>2k</sub>
|-
| ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ...
|-
| x<sub>i1</sub>
| x<sub>i2</sub>
| ...
| x<sub>ij</sub>
| ...
| x<sub>ik</sub>
|-
| ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ...
|-
| x<sub>m1</sub>
| x<sub>m2</sub>
| ...
| x<sub>mj</sub>
| ...
| x<sub>mk</sub>
|}
For ease of exposition, Table 1 shows the generic form of a ''[[discrete]]'' k-adic relation, one that contains a ''[[countable]]'' number of k-tuples, indeed, it shows a ''[[finite]]'' k-adic relation, one that contains a finite number of k-tuples. Generalizations to relations with an [[infinite]] or even a [[continuous]] [[cardinality]] in respect of their numbers of elementary relations are possible. Indeed, it is possible to conceive of relations with infinite, continuous, or even no fixed numbers of components in their elementary relations, but finite k-adic relations are illustration enough for our immediate aims.
====Dyadic relations====
{{main|Binary relation}}
====Triadic relations====
{{main|Triadic relation}}
: This completes the classification of dual relatives founded on the difference of the fundamental forms A ''':''' A and A ''':''' B. Similar considerations applied to triple relatives would give rise to a highly complicated development, inasmuch as here we have no less than five fundamental forms of individuals, namely: <br>
{| align="center" style="width:80%"
| (A ''':''' A) ''':''' A
| (A ''':''' A) ''':''' B
| (A ''':''' B) ''':''' A
| (B ''':''' A) ''':''' A
| (A ''':''' B) ''':''' C.
|}
: (Peirce, CP 3.229, "On the Algebra of Logic", ''American Journal of Mathematics'', 3, 15-57 (1880), CP 3.154-251).
===Theory of categories===
<blockquote>
Now the discovery of ideas as general as these is chiefly the willingness to make a brash or speculative abstraction, in this case supported by the pleasure of purloining words from the philosophers: "[[Category]]" from [[Aristotle]] and [[Kant]], "[[Functor]]" from [[Carnap]] (''Logische Syntax der Sprache''), and "[[natural transformation]]" from then current informal parlance. ([[Saunders Mac Lane]], ''Categories for the Working Mathematician'', 29-30).
</blockquote>
Mac Lane did not mention Peirce among the objects of his sincerest flattery, but he might as well have, for his mention of Aristotle and Kant well enough credits his deep indebtedness to the pursers of them all. As [[Richard Feynman]] was fond of observing, 'the same questions have the same answers', and the problem that a system of categories is aimed to 'beautify' is the same sort of beast whether it's Aristotle, Kant, Peirce, Carnap, or [[Eilenberg]] and Mac Lane that bends the bow. What is that problem? To answer that, let's begin again at the source:
<blockquote>
Things are equivocally named, when they have the name only in common, the definition (or statement of essence) corresponding with the name being different. For instance, while a man and a portrait can properly both be called 'animals' (ζωον), these are equivocally named. For they have the name only in common, the definitions (or statements of essence) corresponding with the name being different. For if you are asked to define what the bein
|
in the [[1960s]].
==Country Music Developments==
The two strands of country music have continued to develop since 1990s. The Jimmie Rodgers influence can be seen in a pronounced "working man" image promoted by singers like [[Brooks & Dunn]] and [[Garth Brooks]]. On the Carter Family side, singers like [[Iris Dement]] and [[Nanci Griffith]] have written on more traditional "folk" themes, albeit with a contemporary point of view.
In the [[1990s]] a new form of country music emerged, called by some [[alternative country]], [[neotraditional country|neotraditional]], or "insurgent country". Performed by generally younger musicians and inspired by traditional country performers and the country reactionaries, it shunned the Nashville-dominated sound of mainstream country and borrowed more from [[punk music|punk]] and [[rock and roll|rock]] groups than the watered-down, pop-oriented sound of Nashville.
There are at least three U. S. cable networks devoted to the genre: [[Country Music Television|CMT]] (owned by [[Viacom]]), [[VH-1 Country]] (also owned by [[Viacom]]), and [[Great American Country|GAC]] (owned by [[E. W. Scripps Company|The E. W. Scripps Company]]).
==Samples==
*[[Media:Prisoner'sSong.ogg|Download recording]] - "[[Prisoner’s Song]]" country music from the Library of Congress' [http://www.loc.gov/folklife/Gordon/sideAband8.html Gordon Collection]; performed by Ernest Hilton with banjo accompaniment in [[Biltmore, North Carolina]] on November 20, 1925
*[[Media:Cold,ColdHeart.ogg|Download sample]] of [[Hank Williams]]' "[[Cold, Cold Heart]]", one of the best-known Williams songs, covered by numerous other stars, and an excellent representation of the [[1950s]] Nashville music.
==Further reading==
* ''In The Country of Country: A Journey to the Roots of American Music'',<br /> Nicholas Dawidoff, Vintage Books, 1998, ISBN 0-375-70082-x
* ''Are You Ready for the Country: Elvis, Dylan, Parsons and the Roots of Country Rock'',<br />Peter Dogget, Penguin Books, 2001, ISBN 0-140-26108-7
* ''Dreaming Out Loud: Garth Brooks, Wynonna Judd, Wade Hayes and the changing face of Nashville'',<br />Bruce Feiler, Avon Books, 1998, ISBN 0-380-97578-5
* ''Roadkill on the Three-Chord Highway'',<br />Colin Escott, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0-415-93783-3
* ''Guitars & Cadillacs'',<br />Sabine Keevil, Thinking Dog Publishing, 2002, ISBN 0-968-99730-9
* ''Country Music USA'',<br />Bill C. Malone, University of Texas Press, 1985, ISBN 0-292-71096-8, 2nd Rev ed, 2002, ISBN 0-292-75262-8
* ''Don't Get Above Your Raisin': Country Music and the Southern Working Class (Music in American Life)'',<br />Bill C. Malone, University of Illinois Press, 2002, ISBN 0-252-02678-0
===Early innovators===
*[[Vernon Dalhart]] recorded hundreds of songs until 1931.
*[[Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)|Jimmie Rodgers]], first country superstar, the "Father of Country Music",
*[[The Carter Family]], rural country-folk, known for hits like "Wildwood Flower"
*[[Roy Acuff]] Grand Ole Opry star for 50 years, "King of Country Music"
*[[Ernest Tubb]] Beloved Texas troubadour who helped scores become stars
*[[Hank Snow]] Canadian-born Grand Ole Opry star famous for his traveling songs.
*[[Hank Williams Sr]], [[honky-tonk]] pioneer, singer, and songwriter, known for hits like "I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry" and "Your Cheatin' Heart"
*[[Bill Monroe]], father of [[bluegrass music]]
*[[Grand Ole Opry]], one of the oldest radio programs
*[[Louvin Brothers]], inspired the Everly Brothers
*[[Little Jimmy Dickens]] 4-foot 11 inch star of the Grand Ole Opry.
*[[Wilf Carter]], the "yodeling" cowboy, aka [[Montana Slim]].
*[[Webb Pierce]], classic honky-tonker who dominated '50s country music
*[[Kitty Wells]], country's first female superstar, called the [["Queen of Country Music"]]
===The Golden Age===
<div style="float:left; width:50%;">
*[[Bill Anderson]], singer who is still a major songwriter of new hits
*[[Liz Anderson]], as famous for her songwriting as her singing
*[[Lynn Anderson]], a California blonde who became a top country star
*[[Eddy Arnold]], the all-time hit leader by [[Joel Whitburn]]'s point system
*[[The Browns]], brother-sister trio who hit No. 1
*[[Johnny Cash]], a major influence on country music who died in 2003
*[[Patsy Cline]], immensely popular balladeer who died in 1963
*[[Skeeter Davis]], major female vocalist for decades
*[[Jimmy Dean]], singer and TV personality, former owner of Jimmy Dean Sausage Company
*[[Roy Drusky]], smooth-singing Opry star for 40 years
*[[Jimmy Martin]], The King of bluegrass
*[[Lefty Frizzell]], perhaps the greatest of the honky-tonkers
*[[Don Gibson]], wrote and recorded many standards
*[[Merle Haggard]], popularized the [[Bakersfield sound]]
*[[Tom T. Hall]], "The Storyteller", wrote most of his many hits
*[[Johnny Horton]], made the story-song very popular about 1960
*[[Jan Howard]], pop-flavored female vocalist who sang pure country
*[[Stonewall Jackson (musician)|Stonewall Jackson]], honky-tonk icon
*[[Sonny James]], had a record 16 consecutive No. 1 hits
*[[Wanda Jackson]], honky-tonk female vocalist equally at home in [[rock and roll]]
*[[Waylon Jennings]], one of the leaders of the "outlaw" country sound
*[[George Jones]], widely considered "the greatest living country singer", #1 in charted hits
*[[Kris Kristofferson]], [[songwriter]] and one of the leaders of the "outlaw" country sound
*[[Loretta Lynn]], arguably country music's biggest star in the 1960s and 1970s
*[[Roger Miller]], a Grammy record breaker
*[[Ronnie Milsap]], country's first blind superstar
</div><div style="float:right; width:50%;">
*[[Willie Nelson]], [[songwriter]] and one of the leaders of the [[outlaw country]] sound
*[[Norma Jean (singer)|Norma Jean]], gifted "hard country" vocalist
*[[Buck Owens]], pioneer innovator of the [[Bakersfield sound]]
*[[Dolly Parton]], began her career singing duets with Porter Wagoner
*[[Ray Price (musician)|Ray Price]], went from hard country to Las Vegas slick
*[[Charley Pride]], the first (and only) black country music star
*[[Susan Raye]], Buck Owens' protégée who became a solo star
*[[Jim Reeves]], crossover artist, invented [[Nashville Sound]] with [[Chet Atkins]]
*[[Charlie Rich]], '50s rock star who enjoyed greatest success in '70s country
*[[Marty Robbins]], another performer of story-songs who did well in the pop field
*[[Jeannie C. Riley]], sexy girl in a miniskirt who socked it to the pop charts
*[[Kenny Rogers]], unique-voiced storyteller who also recorded love ballads and more rock material. He defined what was known as [[country crossover]] and became one of the biggest artists in country and any music genre.
*[[Jeannie Seely]], known as "Miss Country Soul"
*[[Connie Smith]], known for her "big" voice
*[[Billie Jo Spears]], a hard-country vocalist with international popularity
*[[Ray Stevens]], comedy crossover artist, Branson businessman
*[[Conway Twitty]], [[honky-tonk]] traditionalist
*[[Don Walser]], yodeling Texas legend
*[[Porter Wagoner]], pioneer on country television
*[[Dottie West]], country glamour girl who had her biggest success 20 years into her career
*[[Wilburn Brothers]], popular male duet for decades
*[[Ginny Wright]]
*[[Tammy Wynette]], three-time CMA top female vocalist
*[[Faron Young]], a country chart topper for three decades
</div><br clear="all">
===[[Country rock]]===
*[[The Allman Brothers Band]], bluegrass-influenced [[jam band]]
*[[The Band]]
*[[Blackfoot (band)|Blackfoot]]
*[[The Byrds]], pioneers in the field
*[[Eagles]], a very popular country rock band
*[[The Everly Brothers]], predated others in this category but important figures in the transition from [[rockabilly]] to [[country rock]]
*[[Flying Burrito Brothers]]
*[[Kinky Friedman]]
*[[Gram Parsons]], critical favorite of the country rock movement
*[[Grateful Dead]], extremely long-lived bluegrass and [[psychedelic music|psychedelic]] band
*[[Poco]]
*[[Pure Prairie League]]
*[[John Rich]]
*[[Kid Rock]], only part of his music is Country Rock; most notably, the music on the album [[Kid Rock]]
*[[Lynyrd Skynyrd]], for many, the archetypal country rock band
===Contemporary Country Stars 1980-2006===
<div style="float:left;width:50%;">
*[[Alabama (band)|Alabama]]
*[[Baillie & the Boys]]
*[[Dierks Bentley]]
*[[Big and Rich]]
*[[Clint Black]]
*[[Suzy Bogguss]]
*[[Paul Brandt]]
*[[Brooks & Dunn]]
*[[Garth Brooks]]
*[[Jann Browne]]
*[[Chris Cagle]]
*[[George Canyon]]
*[[Mary Chapin Carpenter]]
*[[Carlene Carter]]
*[[Johnny Cash]]
*[[Rosanne Cash]]
*[[Jeremy Castle]]
*[[Kasey Chambers]]
*[[Kenny Chesney]]
*[[Terri Clark]]
*[[Cowboy Troy]]
*[[Rodney Crowell]]
*[[Linda Davis]]
*[[The Dixie Chicks]]
*[[Holly Dunn]]
*[[Sara Evans]]
*[[Steve Fox (musician)|Steve Fox]]
*[[Janie Fricke]]
*[[Crystal Gayle]]
*[[Vince Gill]]
*[[Nanci Griffith]]
*[[Emmylou Harris]]
*[[Ty Herndon]]
*[[Highway 101 (band)|Highway 101]]
*[[Faith Hill]]
*[[Steve Holy]]
*[[Alan Jackson]]
*[[Wynonna Judd]]
*[[The Judds]]
*[[Toby Keith]]
*[[Sammy Kershaw]]
*[[Alison Krauss]]
*[[Danni Leigh]]
*[[Aaron Lines]]
*[[Lonestar]]
*[[Patty Loveless]]
*[[Lyle Lovett]]
</div><div style="float:right;width:50%;">
*[[Barbara Mandrell]]
*[[Kathy Mattea]]
*[[Martina McBride]]
*[[Lila McCann]]
*[[Jason McCoy]]
*[[Neal McCoy]]
*[[Mindy McCready]]
*[[Reba McEntire]]
*[[Tim McGraw]]
*[[Jo Dee Messina]]
*[[Montgomery Gentry]]
*[[Craig Morgan]]
*[[Lorrie Morgan]]
*[[Anne Murray]]
*[[Heather Myles]]
*[[NEON BLUE]]
*[[K.T. Oslin]]
*[[Brad Paisley]]
*[[Dolly Parton]]
*[[Rascal Flatts]]
*[[Collin Raye]]
*[[Johnny Reid]]
*[[LeAnn Rimes]]
*[[Songs from the Crystal Cave|Steven Seagal]]
*[[Ricky Skaggs]]
*
|
its most northerly position, the extreme range from north to south, i.e. the angle between the March and September positions, being 40".
This motion is evidently not due to parallax, for, in this case, the maximum range should be between the June and December positions; neither was it due to observational errors. Bradley and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in the hope of fixing the solution. One hypothesis was: while &gamma; Draconis was stationary, the plumb-line, from which the angular measurements were made, varied; this would follow if the axis of the Earth varied.
===Aberration vs nutation===
The oscillation of the Earth's axis may arise in two distinct ways; distinguished as ''[[nutation]] of the axis'' and ''[[variation]] of latitude''. Nutation, the only form of oscillation imagined by Bradley, postulates that while the Earth's axis is fixed with respect to the Earth (i.e. the north and south poles occupy permanent geographical positions), yet the axis is not directed towards a fixed point in the heavens; variation of latitude, however, is associated with the shifting of the axis within the Earth, i.e. the geographical position of the north pole varies.
Nutation of the axis would determine a similar apparent motion for all stars: thus, all stars having the same polar distance as &gamma; Draconis should exhibit the same apparent motion after or before this star by a constant interval. Many stars satisfy the condition of equality of polar distance with that of &gamma; Draconis, but few were bright enough to be observed in Molyneux's telescope.
One such star, however, with a [[right ascension]] nearly equal to that of &gamma; Draconis, but in the opposite sense, was selected and kept under observation. This star was seen to possess an apparent motion similar to that which would be a consequence of the nutation of the Earth's axis; but since its declination varied only one half as much as in the case of &gamma; Draconis, it was obvious that nutation did not supply the requisite solution. Whether the motion was due to an irregular distribution of the [[Earth's atmosphere]], thus involving abnormal variations in the refractive index, was also investigated; here, again, negative results were obtained.
Bradley had already perceived, in the case of the two stars previously scrutinized, that the apparent difference of declination from the maximum positions was nearly proportional to the Sun's distance from the [[equinox|equinoctial]] points; and he realized the necessity for more observations before any generalization could be attempted. For this purpose he repaired to the Rectory, Wanstead, then the residence of Mrs. Pound, the widow of his uncle James Pound, with whom he had made many observations of the heavenly bodies.
Here he had set up, on [[August 19]], [[1727]], a more convenient telescope than that at Kew, its range extending over 6 1/4 degrees on each side of the zenith, thus covering a far larger area of the [[sky]]. Two hundred stars in the British Catalogue of Flamsteed traversed its field of view; and, of these, about fifty were kept under close observation. His conclusions may be thus summarized:
#only stars near the [[solstice|solstitial]] colure had their maximum north and south positions when the Sun was near the equinoxes,
#each star was at its maximum position when it passed the zenith at six o'clock morning and evening (this he afterwards showed to be inaccurate, and found the greatest change in [[declination]] to be proportional to the latitude of the star),
#the apparent motions of all stars at about the same time was in the same direction.
===Development of the theory of aberration===
A re-examination of his previously considered hypotheses as to the cause of these phenomena was fruitless; the true theory was ultimately discovered by pure accident, comparable in simplicity and importance with the association of a falling apple with the discovery of the principle of universal gravitation. Sailing on the river [[Thames]], Bradley repeatedly observed the shifting of a vane on the mast as the boat altered its course and, having been assured that the motion of the vane meant that the boat, and not the wind, had altered its direction, he realized that the position taken up by the vane was determined by both the motion of the boat ''and'' the direction of the wind.
The application of this observation to the phenomenon which had so long perplexed him was not difficult, and, in 1727, he published his theory of the aberration of light &mdash;a corner-stone of the edifice of astronomical science. Let S (fig. 2) be a star and the observer be carried along the line AB; let SB be perpendicular to AB. If the observer be stationary at B, the star will appear in the direction BS; if, however, he traverses the distance BA in the same time as light passes from the star to his eye, the star will appear in the direction AS. Since, however, the observer is not conscious of his own translatory motion with the Earth in its orbit, the star appears to have a displacement which is at all times parallel to the motion of the observer.
== References ==
*A detailed account of Bradley's work is given in S. Rigaud, ''Memoirs of Bradley'' ([[1832]]), and in Charles Hutton, ''Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary'' ([[1795]]).
*A particularly clear and lucid account is given in H. H. Turner, ''Astronomical Discovery'' ([[1904]]).
*"Aberration", ''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac'' (1992), 127-135, 700.
== See also ==
* [[Aberration in optical systems|Aberration]]
* [[James Bradley|Bradley, James]]
* [[Augustin-Jean Fresnel|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]]
* [[List of astronomical topics]]
* [[George Gabriel Stokes|Stokes, George Gabriel]]
* [[Proper motion]]
* [[Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics]]
{{1911}}
[[Category:Electromagnetic radiation]]
[[Category:Astrometry]]
[[de:Aberration (Astronomie)]]
[[es:Aberración de la luz]]
[[fr:Aberration de la lumière]]
[[ko:광행차]]
[[hr:Aberacija svjetlosti]]
[[ja:光行差]]
[[pl:Aberracja światła]]
[[ru:Аберрация света]]
[[sk:Aberácia (astronómia)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aberration in optical systems</title>
<id>2704</id>
<revision>
<id>41956930</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T21:48:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>194.255.89.142</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Removed danish interwiki -- da article's interwiki now points to anoter article</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
'''Aberration in optical systems''' ([[Lens (optics)|lenses]], [[Prism (optics)|prisms]], [[mirror]]s or series of them intended to produce a sharp image) generally leads to blurring of the image. It occurs when light from one point of an object after transmission through the system arrives in different points. Instrument-makers need to correct optical systems to compensate for aberration. The articles [[Reflection (physics)|reflection]], [[refraction]] and [[caustic]] discuss the general features of reflected and refracted rays.
Aberrations fall into two classes:
*''[[chromatic aberration]]s'' (Gr. ''croma'', colour), where a system disperses the various [[wavelength]]s of (e.g.) white light
**See also [[chromatic aberration]]
*''[[monochromatic]] aberrations'' (Gr. ''monos'', one) produced without dispersion. These include the aberrations at reflecting surfaces of any coloured light, and at refracting surfaces of monochromatic light of single wavelength. These include the following.
**[[Defocus aberration|Defocus]]
**[[Tilt aberration|Tilt]]
**[[Spherical aberration|Spherical]]
**[[Coma (optics)|Coma]]
**[[Astigmatism]]
**[[Petzval field curvature]]
**[[Distortion]]
***[[Barrel distortion]]
***[[Pincushion distortion]]
**[[Piston aberration|Piston]]
==Monochromatic aberration==
The elementary theory of optical systems leads to the theorem: Rays of light proceeding from any ''object point'' unite in an ''image point''; and therefore an ''object space'' is reproduced in an ''image space.'' The introduction of simple auxiliary terms, due to [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|C. F. Gauss]] (''Dioptrische Untersuchungen'', Göttingen, [[1841]]), named the [[focal length]]s and [[focal plane]]s, permits the determination of the image of any object for any system (see [[Lens (optics)|lens]]). The Gaussian theory, however, is only true so long as the angles made by all rays with the optical axis (the symmetrical axis of the system) are infinitely small, i.e. with infinitesimal objects, images and lenses; in practice these conditions are not realized, and the images projected by uncorrected systems are, in general, ill defined and often completely blurred, if the aperture or field of view exceeds certain limits.
The investigations of [[James Clerk Maxwell]] (''Phil.Mag.,'' [[1856]]; ''Quart. Journ. Math.,'' [[1858]], and [[Ernst Abbe]]<sup>1</sup>) showed that the properties of these reproductions, i.e. the relative position and magnitude of the images, are not special properties of optical systems, but necessary consequences of the supposition (in Abbe) of the reproduction of all points of a space in image points (Maxwell assumes a less general hypothesis), and are independent of the manner in which the reproduction is effected. These authors proved, however, that no optical system can justify these suppositions, since they are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflexion and refraction. Consequently the Gaussian theory only supplies a convenient method of approximating to reality; and no constructor would attempt to realize this unattainable ideal. All that at present can be attempted is, to reproduce a single plane in another plane; but even this has not been altogether satisfactorily accomplished, aberrations always occur, and it is improbable that these will ever be entirely corrected.
This, and related ge
|
[[metaphysics]], creating a richer, more ''realistic'' fantasy world. Like many role-playing games from the nineties, Earthdawn focuses much of its detail on its [[Fantasy world|setting]], a region called [[Barsaive]].
==Setting==
In Barsaive, magic, like many things in nature, goes through cycles. As the magic level rises, it allows alien creatures called Horrors to cross from their distant, otherworldly [[dimension]] into our own. The Horrors come in an almost infinite variety -- from simple eating machines that devour all they encounter, to incredibly intelligent and cunning foes that feed off the negative emotions they inspire in their prey.
In the distant past of Earthdawn's setting, an [[elf]] scholar discovered that the time of the Horrors was approaching, and founded the [[Eternal Library]] in order to discover a way to defeat them — or at the very least, survive them. The community that grew up around the library developed wards and protections against the Horrors, which they traded to other lands and eventually became the powerful [[Theran Empire]].
The peoples of the world built [[kaers]], underground towns and cities, which they sealed with the Theran wards to wait out the time of the Horrors, which was called the [[Scourge]]. After four hundred years of hiding, the Scourge ended, and the people emerged to a world changed by the Horrors. The player characters explore this new world, discovering lost secrets of the past, and fighting Horrors that remain.
The primary setting of Earthdawn is Barsaive, a former province of the Theran Empire. Barsaive is a region of city-states, independent from the Therans since the [[dwarf|dwarven]] [[Kingdom of Throal]] led a rebellion against their former overlords.
The Theran presence in Barsaive has been limited to a small part of south-western Barsaive, based around the magical fortress of Sky Point and the city of Vivane.
===Races===
The setting of Earthdawn features several fantasy races for characters and NPCs:
# Dwarf - Dwarves in Earthdawn are similar in appearance to the classic [[Dungeons & Dragons|D&D]] or [[Tolkien]] dwarves. They are the predominant race in Barsaive, and the Dwarvish language is considered the common language. Their culture, especially of the dominant [[Throal]] Kingdom, can be considered more of a [[Rennaisance]]-level culture then in most other fantasy settings.
# [[Elf]] - Elves in Earthdawn fit the common fantasy role-playing convention; they are tall, lithe, pointy-eared humanoids who prefer living in nature. Elves in Earthdawn naturally live a very long time; some are thought to be immortal. Such immortal Elves feature in many cross-pollinated storylines with [[Shadowrun]]. A subspecies of Earthdawn Elves are called the [[Blood Elves]].
# [[Human]] - Humans in Earthdawn are physically similar to humans in our own real world. They are granted a special Versatility Talent to make them more mechanically appealing. Humans in Earthdawn are considered to be somewhat warlike in general outlook.
# [[Obsidiman]] - Obsidimen are a race of large, rock-based humanoids. They stand over 7 feet tall and weigh over 900 pounds. Their primary connection is to their Liferock, which is a large formation of stone within four hours of their place of birth. Obsidimen are loyal to the community around their Liferock, and eventually return to it. Obsidimen can live around 500 years away from their Liferock, and their ultimate lifespan is unknown, as they generally return to it and remain there.
# [[Orc|Ork]] - The Ork race in Earthdawn is similar to other depictions of orks in fantasy role-playing. They are tribal, nomadic and often barbaric humanoids, with green, tan, beige or ebony skin. They are relatively short-lived. Before the Scourge almost all orcs were enslaved by other races.
# [[Troll]] - The Troll race in Earthdawn is also similar to other fantasy role-playing depictions of trolls. They are very tall humanoids, with a hardened skin and horns. Socially, they form clans to which they are fiercely loyal. Troll clans often raid one another, and a significant subset of the troll race are Sky Raiders, which command many of the airships of Barsaive.
# [[T'skrang]] - The T'skrang are lizard-like amphibian humanoids with long tales and a flair for dramatics. Many of them exhibit the behaviors and characteristics which are stereotypical to a "swashbuckler". T'skrang are often sailors, and many t'skrang families run ships up and down the rivers of Barsaive.
# [[Windling]] - The Windlings are small, winged humanoids, similar to many depictions of [[fae]] creatures, which means they resemble small elves with insect-like wings. They have the ablity to see into the astral plane, and are considerably luckier than the other races. They have wings similar to a dragonfly's and are one to two feet in height.
===Political entities===
:Barsavie:
*[[Throal Kingdom]]/[[Throal]] (dwarves, monarchy)
*[[Iopos]] (city state, magocracy)
*[[Blood Wood]] (Elves, monarchy)
*[[Kratas]] (city of thieves)
*[[Urupa]] (city-state, important port)
*[[Jerris]] (city-state)
*trollish clans of ntains
*[[Vivaine]] (city-stte, under occupated by Thera)
:Outside Barsavie:
*[[Theran Empire]]/[[Thera]]
==System==
[[Image:Earthdawn companion ldged-201.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The ''Earthdawn Companion 2<small>nd</small> Edition'' cover shows Throal, the capitol of Barsaive]]
===Magic in Earthdawn===
Earthdawn's magic system is both its most innovative and most derivative aspect. It is highly varied, but the essential idea is that every player character (called [[Adepts]]) has some access to magic, used to perform abilities attained through their Disciplines.
One of the most innovative ideas in Earthdawn is how magical items work.
At first, most magical items work exactly like a mundane item of the same type. As a character searches for information about the item's history, performs certain tasks relating to that history, and spends legend points (the Earthdawn equivalent of [[experience points]]) to activate the item, he unlocks some of the magic in the item. As the character learns more about the item and its history, he can unlock more and more power within the item.
Each magical item, therefore, is unique by virtue of its history and the scope of its powers. For example, one magical broadsword may have only 4 magical ranks and only increases the damage of the blade. On the other hand the legendary sword Purifier, has 10 magical ranks and grants its wielder numerous powers.
Despite the similarities to the new 3<small>rd</small> edition of [[Dungeons & Dragons]], Earthdawn's ideas and particularly its integration of the setting's magical philosophy into the game's rule system are distinctive and enjoyable.
==History==
[[Image:earthdawngmc.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Earthdawn Gamemaster's Compendium (RedBrick Limited)]]
[[FASA]] closed down production of Earthdawn in January 1999. In late 1999, FASA granted [[Living Room Games]] a licensing agreement to produce new material for the game. There have been several books released since then, including ''Earthdawn 2<small>nd</small> Edition'' and the ''2<small>nd</small> Edition Companion'' (Jan 2002).
[[Image:EDplayerscomp.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Earthdawn Player's Compendium (RedBrick Limited)]]
The ''2<small>nd</small> Edition'' does not alter the setting, though it does update the timeline to include events that took place in Barsaive. There are a few changes to the rules in the ''2<small>nd</small> Edition''; some classes have slightly different or altered abilities from the original. Generally speaking, it allows for rounded-out characters and balance of play.
In 2003, a second license was granted to [[RedBrick Limited]], who also develop their own line based on FASA and release the original FASA books in PDF form. The Earthdawn '''Player's''' and '''Gamemaster's Compendia''' are basically an alternate second edition, but without a version designation (since the material is compatible anyway). Each book has over 500 pages, and summarizes everything FASA did — not only the game-mechanics, but also the setting, narrations and stories. For example, each Discipline has its own chapter, describing it from the point of view of different adepts. Likewise, Barsaive gets a complete treatment, and the chapters contain a lot of log entries and stories in addition to the setting descriptions; the same applies also to Horrors and Dragons. While [[RedBrick Limited]] tried to remain faithful to FASA's vision and also tried to keep the visual style, they revised almost everything, and introduced some new material to fill the gaps.
==External links==
*[http://www.earthdawn-classic.com RedBrick Limited Earthdawn Homepage]
*[http://www.redbrick.co.nz RedBrick Limited Company Homepage]
*[http://www.lrgames.com Living Room Games]
[[Category:Earthdawn]]
[[de:Earthdawn]]
[[pl:Earthdawn]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Electronic Data Interchange</title>
<id>9790</id>
<revision>
<id>41070716</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T21:38:53Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Anca</username>
<id>39293</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Software->Formatting</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Electronic Data Interchange''' ('''EDI''') is the computer-to-computer exchange of structured information, by agreed message standards, from one computer application to another by electronic means and with a minimum of human intervention. In common usage, EDI is understood to mean specific interchange methods agreed upon by national or international [[standards body|standards bodies]] for the transfer of business transaction data, with one typical application being the automated purchase of goods and services.
Despite being relatively unheralded, in this era of technologies such as
|
iversity]] (DCU) is the most recent university created in Dublin and specialises in business, engineering, and science courses, particularly with relevance to industry. The [[Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland]] (RCSI) is an independent medical school located on St. Stephen's Green in the city centre. The [[National University of Ireland, Maynooth]], another constituent university of the NUI, is located about 25 km from Dublin.
[[Dublin Institute of Technology]] (DIT) is a modern technical college and is the country's largest non-university third level institution; it specialises in technical subjects but also offers many arts and humanities courses. It is soon to move to a new campus at [[Grangegorman]]. There are also smaller Institutes of Technology at Blanchardstown and Tallaght. The [[National College of Art and Design]] (NCAD) and [[Dun Laoghaire Institute of Art, Design and Technology]] (DLIADT) support training and research in art, design and media technology.
There are also various other smaller specialised colleges, including private ones, in the city. One example is [[The Gaiety School of Acting]] which hosts a two year intensive degree in acting.
===Exhibitions===
* [[1853]] - [[Great Industrial Exhibition (1853)]]
* [[1865]] - [[International Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures (1865)]]
* [[1874]] - [[International Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures (1874)]]
===Northside vs Southside===
[[Image:LiffeyDublin.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The [[River Liffey]] divides the city]]
Traditionally, a north versus south division has existed in Dublin with the dividing line provided by the [[River Liffey]]. The [[Northside (Dublin)|''Northside'']] is generally seen as working-class, while the [[Southside (Dublin)|''Southside'']] is seen as middle and upper middle class. This is also reflected by [[Dublin postal districts]], with odd numbers being used for districts on the Northside, e.g: [[Phibsboro]] is in D7, and even numbers for ones on the Southside, e.g: Sandymount is in D4.
This division dates back centuries, certainly to the point when the [[Earl of Kildare]] built his residence on the then less regarded Southside. When asked why he was building on the South Side, he replied "Where I go, fashion follows me", and indeed he was promptly followed by most other [[Peerage of Ireland|Irish peers]].
[[Image:Aras Front.JPG|left|200px|thumb|[[Áras an Uachtaráin]]<br><small>The official residence of the [[President of Ireland]]</small>]]
The Northside/Southside divide is punctuated by examples of Dublin "sub-culture" stereotypes, with upper-middle class constituents seen as tending towards an accent and demeanour synonymous with (but not exclusive to) the D4 postcode on the Southside (''see [[Dublin 4]], [[Ross O'Carroll-Kelly]]''), and working-class Dubliners seen as tending towards accents and demeanour associated with (but not exclusive to) Northside and inner-city Dublin neighbourhoods. (''see [[Scanger]]'')
This simplification of economic and social communities in Dublin ("southside rich, liberal and snobby"/"northside poor, industrial and common") does not survive more than a few real-world examples however. For example, the President of Ireland's residence, [[Áras an Uachtaráin]], is on the Northside, although its postal district is D8, a Southside number. Three of Dublin's wealthiest suburbs, [[Howth]], [[Malahide]], and [[Castleknock]] are to be found on the Northside. The Southside similarly has many working-class suburbs, like [[Tallaght|Tallaght]], [[Palmerstown]], [[Crumlin, Dublin|Crumlin]], and [[Ballyfermot]].
The economic divide in Dublin is more east-west than north-south (the east side of the city generally being wealthier than the west side), however many natives to Dublin prefer to use the physical barrier of the River Liffey to divide the city up into different socio-economic groupings. In fact, a greater division in social terms is evident between the coastal suburbs in the east of the city, both north and south, and the newer developments further to the west, though this too is only a rough guide.
In [[2006]], the ''[[The Economist|Economist]]'' Intelligence Unit ranked Dublin as the 16th most expensive city in the world.
===Sport===
[[Image:From the hill.jpg|320px|thumb|[[Croke Park]]<br><small>Dublin's major sports stadium</small>]]
Dublin contains the headquarters of almost all of Ireland's sporting organisations. [[Croke Park]], an 82,500-capacity stadium near Drumcondra and [[Phibsboro]], is the base of the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] and hosts [[Gaelic Football]] and [[Hurling]] games during the summer months and on [[Saint Patrick|St. Patrick]]'s Day. The [[Dublin GAA|Dublin]] branch of the Gaelic Athletic Association play their league games at [[Parnell Park]].
[[Lansdowne Road]] is a 48,000 capacity stadium owned by the [[Irish Rugby Football Union]] and is also the venue for home games of the [[Republic of Ireland national football team|Republic's national football (soccer) team]].
[[Dalymount Park]], in [[Phibsboro]] and the traditional Home of Irish Soccer, is now used only for home games of local club [[Bohemian FC]]. Rivals [[Shelbourne FC]] play at nearby [[Tolka Park]], while [[St Patrick's Athletic]] play in [[Richmond Park]] in [[Inchicore]] on the south west edge of the city. [[Shamrock Rovers]] are originally from [[Milltown]] but have spent the last two decades in search of a home, and hope to complete a new stadium in [[Tallaght]] by [[2006]]. The other senior soccer clubs are [[University College Dublin F.C.]], based in [[Belfield]], and [[Dublin City F.C.]] (formerly Home Farm F.C.).
[[The National Aquatic Centre]], located in Blanchardstown, is the first building to open in the Sports Campus Ireland. There are several race courses in the Dublin area including Shelbourne Park ([[Greyhound racing]]) and Leopardstown ([[Horse racing]]). There are also [[Basketball]], [[Gaelic Handball|Handball]], [[Field hockey|Hockey]] and [[Athletics]] stadia within the city - most notably [[Morton Stadium]] in [[Santry]], which held the athletics events of the [[2003]] [[Special Olympics]].
==Infrastructure==
===Communications===
[[Radio Telifís Éireann]] (RTÉ) is Ireland's national state broadcaster, and has its main offices and studios in Donnybrook, Dublin. [[Fair City]] is the broadcasters' capital based soap, located in the fictional suburb of ''Carraigstown''. [[TV3 (Ireland)|TV3]] the state's only private [[television]] broadcaster is also based in Dublin, though much of its programming is imported from the [[British Television|UK]] and the [[American television|U.S.]]. It generally aims to attract a young audience. The main infrastructure and offices of [[postal service|An Post]] and the former state telephone company [[Eircom]], as well as [[Vodafone]] and [[O2 plc|O2]] are located in the capital. The capital is also the headquarters of important national newspapers such as [[The Irish Times]] and [[Irish Independent]], and commercial radio stations such as [[Today FM]].
:See also ''[[List_of_newspapers_in_Ireland#Dublin|List of newspapers in Ireland - Dublin]]''
===Transport===
[[Image:PIA01804_SpaceRadarImage_Dublin-NASA.jpg|thumb|right|360px|Space Radar Image of Dublin with the Wicklow Mountains to the bottom left. [http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA01804]]]
Dublin is the centre of the transport system in Ireland (see [[Transport in Ireland]]). [[Dublin Port]] is the country's most important [[sea port]]. [[Dublin Airport]] is the most important airport in the republic and the bulk of passenger traffic travels through the airport. [[Heuston Station]] and [[Connolly Station]] are the city's major [[railway station]]s, Heuston connects with the towns and cities in the south and west of the Republic while Connolly serves the [[Sligo]], [[Wexford]] and Dublin-[[Belfast]] routes.
====Road network====
Dublin is also the main hub of the country's road network. The [[M50 motorway (Ireland)|M50 motorway]], a semi-[[ring road]] runs around the south, west and north of the city, connecting the most important national primary routes in the State that fan out from the capital to the regions. A toll of &euro;1.80 applies on what is called the [[West-Link]], two adjacent concrete bridges that tower high above the River Liffey near the village of [[Lucan, Dublin|Lucan]]. Construction of the M50 took almost 20 years, with the final section opening in June [[2005]]. A court case regarding the destruction of medieval ruins at Carrickmines Castle delayed the final completion of the route. The M50 currently has two traffic lanes going either direction but plans are afoot to increase that to three. The National Roads Authority also intends to increase capacity at many of the motorway's busiest junctions by building triple-grade interchanges instead.
[[Image:Liffeyeast.jpg|thumb|250px|Dublin's [[Ha'penny Bridge]]<br> <small>Beyond it, the dome of the [[18th century]] [[The Custom House|Custom House]] and [[Liberty Hall]]</small>]]
To complete the ring road, an eastern bypass is also proposed for the city of Dublin. The first half of this project is currently under construction, the [[Dublin Port Tunnel]]. It is scheduled to open in early 2006 and will mainly cater for heavy vehicles. When finished, Dublin City Council hopes to ban all unnecessary trucks and lorries from the city quays. The second half of the project would involve another tunnelling project, linking Dublin Port to the road network on the southside of the city. Plans for this have never been formalised.
The capital is also surrounded by what have been termed by Dublin City Council as an inner and outer orbital route. The inner orbital route runs roughly around the heart of the Georgian city from [[St. Stephen's Green]] to Mountjoy Square and from the King's Inns to [[St. Patrick's Cathedral, D
|
es are global, and no namespace mechanism was provided to group clusters or allow them to be created "locally" inside other clusters. This problem is not unique to CLU, but it is surprising that so many languages have lacked this feature — given the centralness in ALGOL of giving scope to variables, it seems that giving scope to cluster/object names would be an obvious extension.
CLU does not perform implicit type conversions. In a cluster, the explicit type conversions 'up' and 'down' change between the abstract type and the representation. There is a universal type 'any', and a procedure force[] to check that an object is a certain type. Objects may be mutable or immutable, the latter being "base types" such as integers.
==Other features==
Another key feature of the CLU type system are ''iterators'', which return objects from a collection one after the other. Iterators were "black boxes" that offered an identical [[application programming interface|API]] no matter what data they were being used with. Thus the iterator for a collection of <code>complex_number</code>s would be identical to that for an array of <code>integer</code>s. Iterators are now a common feature of most modern languages. ''(See [[Generator (computer science)|Generator]])''
CLU also includes [[exception handling]], based on various attempts in other languages; exceptions are raised using <code>signal</code> and handled with <code>except</code>. Oddly, given the focus on type design, CLU does not offer [[enumeration|enumerated types]], nor any obvious way to create them.
A final distinctive feature in CLU is multiple assignment, where more than one variable can appear on the left hand side of an [[Assignment (computer science)|assignment operator]]. For instance, writing <code>x,y=y,x</code> would exchange values of <code>x</code> and <code>y</code>. In the same way, functions could return several values, like <code>x,y,z=f(t)</code>.
All objects in a CLU program live in the heap, and memory management is automatic.
==Influence on other programming languages==
<!-- this should probably be incorporated into the main article instead of having bullet points -->
* [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]] borrowed several concepts from CLU (for example, the ''yield'' statement)
* CLU, along with [[Ada (programming language)|Ada]] were major inspirations for C++ templates;
* CLU's exception handling mechanisms also influenced newer languages like Java and C++.
* All objects in a CLU program live in the heap, and memory management is automatic. Directly influenced Java.
* [[Python]] and [[C Sharp|C#]] include [[generator (computer science)|generator]]s, which first appeared in CLU as ''iterators''
[http://cgibin.erols.com/ziring/cgi-bin/cep/cep.pl?_key=CLU]
{{sect-stub}}
==External links==
*[http://www.pmg.lcs.mit.edu/CLU.html CLU Home Page]
*[http://www.lcs.mit.edu/publications/pubs/pdf/MIT-LCS-TR-561.pdf A History of CLU] (pdf)
*[http://www.din.or.jp/~ushijima/clu2c.html clu2c]: a program to compile CLU code to [[C programming language|C]]
*[http://cgibin.erols.com/ziring/cgi-bin/cep/cep.pl?_key=CLU Dictionary of Programming Languages]
[[Category:Historical programming languages]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)</title>
<id>7577</id>
<revision>
<id>42088487</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:23:31Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Roberts83</username>
<id>377159</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Corrected uskorenye link</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Russia in USSR}}
== The rise of Gorbachev==
Although reform in the [[Soviet Union]] stalled between [[1969]]&ndash;[[1982]], a generational shift gave new momentum for reform. Changing relations with the [[United States]] might also have been an impetus for reform. While it was [[Jimmy Carter]] who had officially ended the policy of [[Détente]] following [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|Soviet intervention in Afghanistan]], East-West tensions during the first term of U.S. [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] ([[1981]]&ndash;[[1985]]) increased to levels not seen since the [[1962]] [[Cuban missile crisis]].
After years of stagnation, the "new thinking" of younger Communist apparatchiks began to emerge. Following the death of the elderly [[Konstantin Chernenko]], the Politburo elected [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] to the position of [[General Secretary]] of the Soviet Union in [[March]] [[1985]], marking the rise of a new generation of leadership. Under Gorbachev, relatively young, reform-oriented technocrats, who had begun their careers in the heyday of "de-Stalinization" under [[Nikita Khrushchev]] (1953-1964), rapidly consolidated power within the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|CPSU]], providing new momentum for political and economic liberalization, and the impetus for cultivating warmer relations and trade with the West.
[[Image:Perestroika.jpg|left|thumb|250px|''Perestroika'' poster featuring Gorbachev]]
By the time Gorbachev ushered in the process that would lead to the dismantling of the Soviet administrative command economy through his programs of ''[[glasnost]]'' (political openness), ''[[perestroika]]'' (economic restructuring), and ''[[uskoreniye]]'' (speed-up of economic development), the Soviet economy suffered from both hidden [[inflation]] and pervasive supply shortages aggravated by an increasingly open [[black market]] that undermined the official economy. Additionally, the costs of superpower status&ndash;the military, [[KGB]], subsidies to client states&ndash;were out of proportion to the Soviet economy. The new wave of industrialization based upon information technology had left the Soviet Union desperate for Western technology and credits in order to counter its increasing backwardness.
=== Reforms ===
The first reform under Gorbachev was the 1985 alcohol reform, which was designed to fight wide-spread [[alcoholism]] in the [[Soviet Union]]. Prices on [[vodka]], [[wine]] and [[beer]] were lifted, and their sales were restricted. People who were caught drunk at work or in public were prosecuted. Drinking on long-distance trains and in public places was banned. Economically it was a serious blow to the state budget (a loss of approximately 100 billion rubles according to [[Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev|Alexander Yakovlev]]) after alcohol production migrated to [[black market]] economy.
The [[Wikisource:Law on Cooperatives|Law on Cooperatives]] enacted in May 1988 was perhaps the most radical of the economic reforms during the early part of the Gorbachev era. For the first time since [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s [[New Economic Policy]], the law permitted private ownership of businesses in the services, manufacturing, and foreign-trade sectors.Under this provision, cooperative restaurants, shops, and manufacturers became part of the Soviet scene.
''Glasnost'' gave a greater freedom of speech. The press became far less controlled, and thousands of political prisoners and many dissidents were released. While Gorbachev's primary goal in undertaking ''glasnost'' was to pressure conservatives who opposed his policies of economic restructuring, he also hoped that the Soviet people would support his reform initiatives.
In January 1987, Gorbachev called for democratization: the infusion of democratic elements such as multi-candidate elections into the Soviet political process. In June 1988, at the CPSU's Nineteenth Party Conference, Gorbachev launched radical reforms meant to reduce party control of the government apparatus. In December 1988, the Supreme Soviet approved the establishment of a [[Congress of People's Deputies]], which constitutional amendments had established as the Soviet Union's new legislative body. Elections to the congress were held throughout the USSR in March and April 1989. On [[March 15]], [[1990]], Gorbachev was elected as the first executive [[President of the Soviet Union]].
=== Unintended consequences ===
Gorbachev's efforts to streamline the Communist system offered promise, but were ultimately doomed to failure. By the late 1980s, it was evident that Gorbachev's policies of openness and democratization were going far beyond what had been originally intended. ''Perestroika'' and ''glasnost'' began exposing how a once revolutionary Communist Party had become moribund at the very centre of the system.
Relaxation of [[censorship]] under ''glasnost'' resulted in the Communist Party losing its absolute grip on the [[media]]. Before long, and much to the embarrassment of the authorities, the media began to expose severe social and economic problems the Soviet government had long denied existed and actively concealed. Problems such as poor housing, [[alcoholism]], [[drug abuse]], [[pollution]], outdated [[Stalinist]]-era factories, and petty to large-scale corruption, all of which the official media had ignored, received increased attention. Media reports also exposed crimes committed by [[Stalin]] and the Soviet regime, such as [[Gulag]]s and the [[Great Purges]] ignored by the official media. Moreover, the ongoing [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan|war in Afghanistan]], and the mishandling of the [[1986]] [[Chernobyl accident]] further damaged the credibility of the Soviet government at a time when dissatisfaction was increasing.
In all, the very positive view of Soviet life which had long been presented to the public by the official media was being rapidly dismantled, and the negative aspects of life in the Soviet Union were brought into the spotlight. This undermined the faith of the public in the Soviet system and eroded the Communist Party's social power base, threatening the identity and integrity of the Soviet Union itself.
Fraying
|
Enlil did not, however, entirely lose his right to have any considerable political importance, while in addition the doctrine of a triad of gods symbolizing the three divisions&mdash;heavens, earth and water&mdash;assured to Enlil, to whom the earth was assigned as his province, his place in the religious system.
It was no doubt in part Enlil's position as the second figure of the triad that enabled him to survive the political eclipse of Nippur and made his sanctuary a place of pilgrimage to which Assyrian kings down to the days of [[Assur-bani-pal]] paid their homage equally with Babylonian rulers.
The Sumerian ideogram for Enlil or Ellil was formerly incorrectly read as ''Bel'' by scholars, but in fact Enlil was not especially given the title ''Bel'' 'Lord' more than many other gods. The Babylonian god [[Marduk]] is mostly the god persistently called Bel in late Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions and it is Marduk that mostly appears in Greek and Latin texts as Belos or Belus. References in older literature to Enlil as the old Bel and Marduk as the young Bel derive from this error in reading.
''Portions of this entry are from the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] article '''Bel'''.''
==External links==
* ETCSL "Enlil and Ninlil" and "Enlil and Sud": [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcslmac.cgi?text=c.1.2*# Unicode] and [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcslmac.cgi?text=c.1.2*&charenc=j# ASCII].
* [http://www.gatewaystobabylon.com/myths/texts/enlil/enlilninlil.htm Gateway to Babylon: "Enlil and Ninlil", trans. Thorkild Jacobsen].
* ETCSL "Enlil in the Ekur": [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcslmac.cgi?text=c.4.05*# Unicode] and [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcslmac.cgi?text=c.4.05*&charenc=j# ASCII].
* [http://college.hmco.com/history/west/mosaic/chapter1/source118.html Houghton-Mifflin: A Hymn to the Sky-God Enlil].
* "The Song of the Hoe" in ETCSL&mdash;Songs, elegies and related compositions: [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcslmac.cgi?text=c.5.5*# Unicode] and [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcslmac.cgi?text=c.5.5*&charenc=j# ASCII].
[[Category:Akkadian gods]]
[[Category:Sumerian mythology]]
[[Category:Sky and weather gods]]
[[bg:Енлил]]
[[ca:Enlil]]
[[cs:Enlil]]
[[da:Enlil]]
[[de:Enlil]]
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[[he:אנליל]]
[[ja:エンリル]]
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[[tr:Enlil]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ecology</title>
<id>9630</id>
<revision>
<id>42027052</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:20:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Alan Liefting</username>
<id>36352</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>rm inapprop environmental science template</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the journal see [[Ecology (journal)]].}}
{{dablink|The word "ecology" is often used in common parlance as a synonym for the [[natural environment]] or [[environmentalism]].}}
[[Image:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|thumb|right|250px|'''Ecology''' is essentially the study of the workings of the planet [[Earth]].]]
'''Ecology''', or '''ecological science''', is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of [[life|living organisms]] and how these properties are affected by [[interaction]]s between the organisms and their [[environment]]. The environment of an organism includes both the physical properties, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors like [[climate]] and [[geology]], as well as the other organisms that share its [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]]. The term ''oekologie'' was coined in [[1866]] by the German biologist [[Ernst Haeckel]]; the word is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''oikos'' ("household") and ''logos'' ("study")&ndash;therefore, "ecology" means the "study of the household of nature".
== Scope ==
Ecology is usually considered a branch of [[biology]], the general science that studies living [[organism]]s. Organisms can be studied at many different levels, from [[proteins]] and [[nucleic acid]]s (in [[biochemistry]] and [[molecular biology]]), to [[cell (biology)|cells]] (in [[cellular biology]]), to individuals (in [[botany]], [[zoology]], and other similar disciplines), and finally at the level of [[population]]s, communities, and [[ecosystem]]s, to the [[biosphere]] as a whole; these latter strata are the primary subjects of ecological inquiries. Ecology is a [[Interdisciplinary|multi-disciplinary]] science. Because of its focus on the higher levels of the organization of life on earth and on the interrelations between organisms and their [[environment]], ecology draws heavily on many other branches of science, especially [[geology]] and [[geography]], [[meteorology]], [[pedology (soil study)|pedology]], [[chemistry]], and [[physics]]. Thus, ecology is said to be a [[holistic science]], one that over-arches older disciplines such as biology which in this view become sub-disciplines contributing to ecological knowledge.
Agriculture, fisheries, forestry, medicine and urban development are among human activities that would fall within Krebbs' (1972: 4) explanation of his definition of ecology: "where organisms are found, how many occur there, and why".
As a scientific discipline, ecology does not dictate what is "right" or "wrong". However, ecological knowledge such as the quantification of [[biodiversity]] and [[population dynamics]] have provided a scientific basis for expressing the goals of [[environmentalism]] and evaluating its goals and policies. Additionally, a [[holism|holistic view]] of nature is stressed in both ecology and environmentalism.
Consider the ways an ecologist might approach studying the life of honeybees:
* the behavioral relationship between individuals of a [[species]] is behavorial ecology &mdash; for example, the study of the [[queen bee]], and how she relates to the worker [[bee]]s and the [[drone (bee)|drones]].
* The organized activity of a species is community ecology; for example, the activity of bees assures the [[pollination]] of [[flowering plant]]s. Bee hives additionally produce [[honey]] which is consumed by still other species, such as [[bear]]s.
* The relationship between the environment and a species is environmental ecology &mdash; for example, the consequences of environmental change on bee activity. Bees may die out due to environmental changes (see [[pollinator decline]]). The environment simultaneously affects and is a consequence of this activity and is thus intertwined with the survival of the species.
=== Disciplines of ecology ===
: ''Main article: [[Ecology (disciplines)|Disciplines of ecology]]''
Ecology is a broad discipline comprised of many sub-disciplines. A common, broad classification, moving from lowest to highest complexity, where complexity is defined as the number of entities and processes in the system under study, is:
* [[Physiological Ecology]] (or '''ecophysiology'''), and [[Behavioral ecology]], both of which focus on adaptations of the individual to its environment.
* [[Population ecology]] (or '''autecology'''), which studies the dynamics of populations of a single species.
* [[Community ecology]] (or '''synecology''') which studies the interactions between species within an ecological community;
* [[Ecosystem ecology]], which studies the flows of energy and matter through the biotic and abiotic components of [[ecosystem]]s;
Ecology can also be sub-divided on the basis of target groups, e.g.:
* [[Animal ecology]], [[plant ecology]], [[insect ecology]];
Ecology can also be sub-divided from the perspective of the studied [[biomes]], e.g.:
* [[Arctic ecology]] (or [[polar ecology]]), [[tropical ecology]], [[desert ecology]]
== History of ecology ==
: ''Main article: [[History of ecology]]
== Fundamental principles of ecology ==
===Biosphere and biodiversity===
''Main articles:'' [[Biosphere]], [[Biodiversity]], [[Unified neutral theory of biodiversity]]
For modern ecologists, ecology can be studied at several levels: [[population]] level (individuals of the same species), [[biocoenosis]] level (or community of species), [[ecosystem]] level, and [[biosphere]] level.
The outer layer of the planet Earth can be divided into several compartments: the [[hydrosphere]] (or sphere of water), the [[lithosphere]] (or sphere of soils and rocks), and the [[earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] (or sphere of the air). The [[biosphere]] (or sphere of life), sometimes described as "the fourth envelope", is all living matter on the planet or that portion of the planet occupied by life. It reaches well into the other three spheres, although there are no permanent inhabitants of the atmosphere. Relative to the volume of the Earth, the biosphere is only the very thin surface layer which extends from 11,000 meters below sea level to 15,000 meters above.
It is thought that life first developed in the hydrosphere, at shallow depths, in the [[photic zone]]. Multicellular organisms then appeared and colonized [[benthos|benthic zones]]. Terrestrial life developed later, after the [[ozone layer]] protecting living beings from [[Ultraviolet|UV]] rays formed. Diversification of terrestrial species is thought to be increased by the continents [[continental drift|drifting apart]], or alternately, colliding. Biodiversity is expressed at the ecological level (ecosystem), population level (intraspecific diversity), species level (specific diversity), and genetic level. Recently technology has allowed the discovery of the deep ocean vent communities. This remarkable ecological system is not dependent on sunlight but bacteria, utilising the chemistry of the hot volcanic vents, are at the base of its food chain.
The biosphere co
|
o show is [[Fabio (DJ)|Fabio]] and [[Grooverider]] on [[BBC Radio One]]. The BBC's "urban" station [[BBC 1Xtra|1Xtra]] also features the genre heavily, with DJs [[L Double]] and [[Bailey (DJ)|Bailey]] and Flight. The genre has long been supported by [[pirate radio]] stations, particularly in London; these days, they are joined by a large, and ever-expanding number, of [[internet radio]] stations available globally. In the [[United States|US]], [[XM Satellite Radio]] dedicates two hours a day to its drum and bass show, "Pressure", on channel 80 - [[The Move (XM)]].
Drum and bass has a strong online presence with many dedicated portals, forums and communities. Some of the largest of these are linked below.
==Books==
* ''All Crews: Journeys Through Jungle / Drum and Bass Culture'' by [[Brian Belle-Fortune]] (ISBN 0954889703)
* ''The Rough Guide to Drum 'n' Bass'' by Peter Shapiro and Alexix Maryon (ISBN 1858284333)
* ''State of bass, jungle: the story so far'' by Martin James, boxtree (ISBN 0752223232)
==See also==
* [[List of jungle and drum n bass artists]]
* [[List of jungle and drum n bass record labels]]
* [[Dubplate]]
* [[Junglist]]
==External links==
{{commons|Category:Drum and bass}}
* [[rolldabeats]] ([http://www.rolldabeats.com/ rolldabeats.com]) - comprehensive discography database
* [http://www.breakbeat.co.uk Drum & Bass Arena] - a DnB portal/forum.
* [http://www.dogsonacid.com Dogs On Acid] - The world's largest drum and bass / jungle message board with news, interviews and dubplates.
* [http://www.henus.co.uk Henus] - a DnB portal/forum dedicated to production.
{{Drum and bass-footer}}
[[Category:Drum and bass]]
[[Category:Electronic music genres]]
[[ca:Drum and bass]]
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[[ru:Драм-энд-бэйс]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Donald E Knuth</title>
<id>8094</id>
<revision>
<id>15906116</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Donald Knuth]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Donald Knuth</title>
<id>8095</id>
<revision>
<id>40538118</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T07:28:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Superm401</username>
<id>35752</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Personal */ put ref in more logical spot</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:KnuthAtOpenContentAlliance.jpg|thumb|Donald Knuth at a reception for the [[Open Content Alliance]].]]
'''Donald Ervin Knuth''' (born [[January 10]], [[1938]]) is a renowned [[computer science|computer scientist]] and [[Emeritus_Professor#Other_positions:|professor emeritus]] at [[Stanford University]].
Knuth (pronounced "Ka-NOOTH")<ref name="FAQ">[http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/faq.html "Frequently Asked Questions" at Stanford site]</ref> is best known as the author of the multi-volume ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', one of the most highly respected references in the computer science field. He practically created the field of rigorous [[analysis of algorithms]], and made many seminal contributions to several branches of [[theoretical computer science]]. He is the creator of the [[TeX|T<sub><big>E</big></sub>X]] typesetting system and of the [[Metafont|METAFONT]] font design system, and pioneered the concept of [[literate programming]].
He also has a [[Chinese name]] 高德纳 ([[pinyin]]: G&#257;o Dénà), given in 1977 by Frances Yao.<ref name="FAQ" />
==Education and academic work==
Born in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], he received his [[bachelor's degree]] and [[master's degree]] in [[mathematics]] (simultaneously, his B.S. work being regarded as deserving a masters degree) in [[1960]] at the [[Case Western Reserve University|Case Institute of Technology]] (now the [[Case School of Engineering]], a part of [[Case Western Reserve University]]). In [[1963]], he earned a Ph.D. in mathematics from the [[California Institute of Technology]], where he became a professor and began work on ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', originally planned as a seven-volume series. In [[1968]], he published the first volume. That same year, he joined the faculty of [[Stanford University]].
In [[1971]], Knuth was the recipient of the first [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] [[Grace Murray Hopper Award]]. He has received various other awards including the [[Turing Award]], the [[National Medal of Science]], the [[John von Neumann Medal]] and the [[Kyoto Prize]]. After producing the third volume of his series in [[1976]], he expressed such frustration with the antiquated state of publishing tools that he took time out to work on phototypesetting and created the [[TeX|T<sub><big>E</big></sub>X]] and [[METAFONT]] tools.
In recognition of Knuth's contributions to the field of [[computer science]], in [[1990]] he was awarded the singular academic title of ''Professor of the Art of Computer Programming'', which has since been revised to ''Professor Emeritus of the Art of Computer Programming''.
In [[1992]] he became an associate of the [[French Academy of Sciences]]. Also that year, he retired from regular research and teaching at [[Stanford University]] in order to finish ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]''. In [[2003]] he was elected as a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]]. As of [[2004]], the first three volumes of his series have been re-issued, and Knuth is currently working on volume four, excerpts of which are released periodically on his website. Meanwhile, Knuth gives informal lectures a few times a year at [[Stanford University]], which he calls Computer Musings. He is also a visiting professor at the [[Oxford University Computing Laboratory]] in the [[United Kingdom]].
==Trivia==
Knuth is a [[famous programmer]] known for his [[geek]] humor:
[[Image:knuth-check2.png|thumb|right|One of Donald Knuth's reward checks]]
*He pays a [[knuth reward check|finder's fee of $2.56]] for any typos/mistakes discovered in his books, because ''"256 pennies is one hexadecimal dollar".'' (His bounty for errata in ''3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated,'' is, however, $3.16). According to an article in [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s ''Technology Review'', these reward checks are "among computerdom's most prized trophies".<ref>[http://www.technologyreview.com/articles/99/09/ditlea0999.asp "Rewriting the Bible in 0's and 1's"] in the [[Technology Review]] of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]</ref>
*Version numbers of his [[TeX|T<sub><big>E</big></sub>X]] software approach the [[transcendental number]] [[pi|&pi;]], that is versions increment in the style 3, 3.1, 3.14 and so on. Version numbers of [[Metafont]] approach the number [[E (mathematical constant)|''e'']] similarly.
*He once warned users of his software, ''"Beware of bugs in the above code; I have only proved it correct, not tried it."''<ref name="FAQ" />
*All appendixes in the [[Computers and Typesetting]] series have titles that begin with the letter identifying the appendix.
* TAOCP v3 (1973) has the index entry "Royalties, use of, 405". Page 405 has no explicit mention of royalties, but does contain a diagram of an "organ-pipe arrangement" in Figure 2. Apparently the purchase of the pipe organ in his home (see '''Personal''' below) was financed by royalties from TAOCP.<ref>[http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/organ.html "Pipe Organ" at Stanford site]</ref>
* From the Preface of ''Concrete Mathematics'': When DEK taught [[Concrete Mathematics]] at Stanford for the first time, he explained the somewhat strange title by saying that it was his attempt to teach a math course that was hard instead of soft. He announced that, contrary to the expectations of some of his colleagues, he was ''not'' going to teach the [[Theory of Aggregates]], nor [[Stone's Embedding Theorem]], nor even the [[Stone-Čech compactification]]. (Several students from the [[civil engineering]] department got up and quietly left the room.)
In addition to his writings on computer science, Knuth is also the author of ''3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated'' ([[1991]]), ISBN 0895792524, in which he attempts to examine the Bible by a process of [[stratified sampling|stratified random sampling]], namely an analysis of chapter 3, verse 16 of each book. Each verse is accompanied by a rendering in calligraphic art, contributed by a group of calligraphers under the leadership of [[Hermann Zapf]].
Knuth published his first "scientific" article in a school magazine in [[1957]] under the title "[[Potrzebie]] System of Weights and Measures." In it, he defined the [[fundamental unit]] of [[length]] as the thickness of [[MAD Magazine|''MAD'' magazine]] #26, and named the fundamental unit of [[force]] "whatmeworry". ''MAD'' magazine bought the article and published it in the June 1957 issue.
Knuth's first "mathematical" article was a short paper submitted to a "science
talent search" contest for high-school seniors in [[1955]], and published in [[1960]],
in which he discussed number systems where the radix was negative. He
further generalized this to number systems where the radix was a complex number.
In particular, he defined the [[quater-imaginary base|quater-imaginary number system]], which uses the imaginary
|
r reading==
{{wikisourcecat|Iran-Iraq War}}
* [http://www.ogrish.com/archives/footage_from_iraniraq_war_Oct_06_2005.html Video footage from the war]
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/history/war/wmd/chemical-weapons/nerve-agents/ Iraqi nerve agents]
*Paul Reynolds. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3324053.stm How Saddam could embarrass the West], ''BBC'', [[December 16]] [[2003]]. (regarding foreign powers which armed Iraq)
*[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/iraniraq.htm Global map of countries who took sides in the Iran-Iraq war]
*Kendal Nezan. [http://mondediplo.com/1998/03/04iraqkn When our 'friend' Saddam was gassing people], [[Le Monde Diplomatique]], March 1998.
*[[Robert Fisk]]. [http://www.zmag.org/hussein.htm Poison gas from Germany], [[The Independent]], [[December 30]] [[2000]].
*Lev Lafayette. [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/51/040.html Who armed Saddam?], ''World History Archives'', [[July 26]] [[2002]].
*Norm Dixon. [http://www.greenleft.org.au/back/2002/506/506p12.htm How the U.S. armed Saddam with Chemical Weapons], ''Green Left Weekly'', [[August 28]] [[2002]].
*Neil Mackay, F. Arbuthnot. [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0908-08.htm How did Saddam get his Chemical Weapons?], [[Sunday Herald]], [[September 8]] [[2002]].
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_cr/s092002.html U.S. helped Saddam acquire Biological Weapons], ''Congressional Record'', [[September 20]] [[2002]].
*[[Eric Margolis]]. [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/bush/margolis.htm British helped Saddam develop biological weapons], [[The American Conservative]], [[October 7]] [[2002]].
*[[Robert Fisk]]. [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=15&ItemID=2442 America wants us to forget about the sources of Saddam's WMD], [[The Independent]], [[October 8]] [[2002]].
*Robert Fisk. [http://www.robert-fisk.com/articles154.htm Did Saddam's army test poison gas on missing 5000?], [[The Independent]], [[December 13]] [[2002]].
*Elaine Sciolino. [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0213-05.htm Iraq WMD condemned, but West once looked the other way], [[New York Times]], [[February 13]] [[2003]].
*Paul Bond. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2003/mar2003/chem-m13.shtml British built Chemical Weapons plant in Iraq], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 13]] [[2003]].
*Tom Drury. [http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:h2KzqQZl1ToJ:www.sptimes.com/2003/03/16/news_pf/Perspective/How_Iraq_built_its_we.shtml+St.+Petersburg+Times+tom+drury+16+2003&hl=en&lr=&strip=1 How Iraq built its weapons programs: with help from the West], [[St. Petersburg Times]], March 16, 2003.
*[http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/iraq/cw/az120103.html Iraqi scientist reports on German, other help for Iraq Chemical Weapons program], ''Al-Zaman'', [[December 1]] [[2003]].
*Elaine Sciolino. [http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article1420.htm Saddam's gas victims blame the West], ''New York Times'', [[February 14]] [[2003]].
*Eddie Davers. [http://members.optushome.com.au/spainter/Murdoch.html Australia's support for Saddam in the 1980s], ''Overland'', Autumn 2003.
*Alan Maass. [http://www.socialistworker.org/2004-1/480/480_05_SaddamHussein.shtml When the U.S. supported Saddam: The crimes of a U.S. ally], ''Socialist Worker'', January 2, 2004.
*Joseph Kay, A. Lefebvre. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/mar2004/iraq-m19.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: Washington-Saddam connection], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 19]] [[2004]].
*Alex Lefebvre. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/mar2004/iraq-m24.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: Reagan administration deepens ties with Saddam], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 24]] [[2004]].
*Alex Lefebvre. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/mar2004/iraq-m26.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: U.S. financial assistance for Saddam in the 1980s], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 26]] [[2004]].
*Joseph Kay. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/mar2004/irq8-m29.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: The end of the Iran-Iraq war], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 29]] [[2004]].
*Joseph Kay, A. Lefebvre. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/apr2004/irq9-a02.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: American policy after the Iran-Iraq war], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[April 2]] [[2004]].
*[[Robert Fisk]]. [http://www.robert-fisk.com/articles394.htm When I reported Saddam's use of mustard gas, British government told me to stop criticizing our ally, Saddam], [[The Independent]], [[April 10]] [[2004]].
*Norm Dixon. [http://counterpunch.org/dixon06172004.html How Reagan armed Saddam with Chemical Weapons], ''CounterPunch'', [[June 17]] [[2004]].
*Jacob Hornberger. [http://www.fff.org/comment/com0406g.asp Reagan’s WMD connection to Saddam], ''Future of Freedom Foundation'', [[June 18]] [[2004]].
*Aaron Glantz. [http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/tribunals/iraq/2004/0618west.htm The West should go on trial with Saddam], [[Inter Press Service]], [[June 18]] [[2004]].
*[http://www.payvand.com/news/04/jun/1199.html 100,000 Iranians are victims of chemical weapons, supplied by the West], [[IRNA]], June 30, 2004.
*[[Eric Margolis]]. [http://www.bigeye.com/fc122004.htm Put Saddam's backers on trial], ''Foreign Correspondent'', [[December 20]] [[2004]].
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4360137.stm Dutchman charged for selling chemicals to Saddam], [[BBC]], March 18, 2005.
*[http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:pLDvnuglYNwJ:www.irna.ir/en/news/view/menu-236/0512019282195123.htm+December+01+2005+Vienna+Dec+1+IRNA+testify&hl=en&lr=&strip=1 Iranian survivors of nerve gas attack testify in Chemical Frans' trial], [[IRNA]], December 1, 2005.
*[http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:UaBS4eRo6wgJ:www.iranmania.com/News/ArticleView/Default.asp%3FNewsCode%3D38327%26NewsKind%3DCurrent%2520Affairs+LONDON+December+3+IranMania&hl=en&lr=&strip=1 Dutchman know the chemicals were for nerve agents], [[Agence France-Presse]], December 3, 2005.
*[http://www.trial-ch.org/trialwatch/profiles/en/legalprocedures/p286.html Trial Watch: Frans Van Anraat]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4358741.stm Chemical Frans: Saddam's Dutch link], [[BBC]], December 23, 2005.
*Jeff Moore. [http://www.bnfp.org/neighborhood/jmoore.htm Saddam: Made in the USA], ''Bainbridge Neighbors for Peace''.
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82 Shaking hands with Saddam: U.S. supports for Iraq in the 1980s], ''U.S. National Security Archive''.
*[http://www.sc-ems.com/ems/NuclearBiologicalChemical/MedicalAspectsofNBC/chapters/chapter_7.htm A report on Iranian victims of Iraqi blister agents], ''Medical Management of Chemical Casualties''
====Iranian sources====
* John King. [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/arming_iraq.php Arming Iraq: A Chronology of U.S. Involvement], ''Iran Chamber Society'', March 2003.
* [http://www.jao.ir/ Iran Veterans Affairs Organization]
* [http://www.iranian.com/Revolution/war.html Memoirs, photos, and essays about the war], ''Iranian.com''.
* [http://www.janbazanesfahan.ir/ Isfahan's War Veterans Foundation]
* [[Islamic Republic News Agency]], [http://www.irna.com/occasion/defence/ ''Sacred Defense Epic'']
* [http://www.avini.com/ Martyr Avini's website]. A prominent photographer of the war.
[[Category:Wars of Iran]]
[[Category:Wars of Iraq]]
{{Link FA|is}}
{{Link FA|no}}
[[ar:حرب الخليج الأولى]]
[[de:Erster Golfkrieg]]
[[es:Guerra Irán-Iraq]]
[[fr:Guerre Iran-Iraq]]
[[hr:Iračko-iranski rat]]
[[is:Stríð Íraks og Írans]]
[[it:Guerra Iran-Iraq]]
[[he:מלחמת איראן-עיראק]]
[[nl:Iran-Irak-oorlog]]
[[ja:イラン・イラク戦争]]
[[no:Iran–Irak-krigen]]
[[pl:Wojna iracko-irańska]]
[[pt:Guerra Irã-Iraque]]
[[ru:Ирано-иракская война]]
[[sk:Iránsko-iracká vojna]]
[[sv:Iran-Irak-kriget]]
[[zh:两伊战争]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Isambard Kingdom Brunel</title>
<id>14890</id>
<revision>
<id>42056391</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T14:28:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Syrthiss</username>
<id>334792</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* The Great Western Railway */ +fix broken wiki</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:IKBrunelChains.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Brunel before the launching of the ''[[SS Great Eastern|Great Eastern]]''.]]
'''Isambard Kingdom Brunel''' ([[April 9]], [[1806]] &ndash; [[September 15]], [[1859]]), [[Royal Society|FRS]] was a [[British]] [[engineer]]. Voted the second greatest Briton of all time in a [[2002]] [[BBC]] poll (after [[Winston Churchill]]),<ref>BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/2509465.stm Churchill voted greatest Briton] Retrieved Feb. 11, 2006.</ref> he is best known for the creation of the [[Great Western Railway]], a series of famous [[steamship]]s, and numerous important [[bridge]]s. Though his projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. During his short career, Brunel achieved many engineering "firsts", including the building of the first [[tunnel]] under a [[navigable river]] and development of the first [[propeller]]-driven steamship, which was at the time also the largest ship ever built.<ref>Humphreys, Rob. ''The Rough Guide To London'', Rough Guides, 2003. ISBN 1843530937</ref>.
Brunel was a heavy [[cigar]] smoker and suffered several years of ill health with [[kidney]] problems, before succumbing to a [[stroke]] at the age of fifty-three.<ref>Smith, John. ''Troubled It Projects: Prevention and Turnaround'', IEE, 2001. ISBN 0852961049</ref>
A major programme of events celebrating the life and work of Brunel is planned for the bicentenary of his birth under the name ''Brunel 200''.<ref>Brunel 200 [http://www.brunel200.com Brunel 200 website] Retrieved Feb. 21, 2006.</ref> Brunel is also to be featured on the reverse side of t
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land, has gained headlines because of its political activities. A higher percentage of [[polynesia|Polynesian]] immigrants are regular churchgoers than other Aucklanders, although church attendance drops off in second- or third-generation Polynesian Aucklanders. Other immigrant cultures have added to the religious diversity of the city, bringing traditions such as [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Islam]]. There is also a small, long-established [[Judaism|Jewish]] community. There is an even smaller [[Rationalist]] group. Western Central Auckland, particularly [[Mount Roskill]], has been labelled the 'Bible Belt'.
===Social perceptions===
Aucklanders are viewed with varying degrees of dislike by some New Zealanders living outside Auckland. One perception of Aucklanders is that they are rich latte-sipping [[yuppie|yuppies]], with trendy but impractical political views. Some claim jokingly that Aucklanders think that "New Zealand stops at the [[Bombay Hills, New Zealand|Bombay Hills]]", the Bombay Hills forming the Auckland region's southern boundary. Some people living south of the hills agree with the statement, but regard "true" New Zealand as lying south, not north, of the hills. The word [[Jafa]] was coined as an [[insult]]ing [[nickname]] for Aucklanders, but Aucklanders have robbed the word of its sting by enthusiastically embracing it.
''See the [[Jafa]] article for more on outsiders' attitudes.''
There are stereotypes about residents in some parts of Auckland. These stereotypes can be a badge of honour, or an insult, depending on how they are used, and by whom.
* [[Westies (people)#Auckland|Westies]] - people living in the western suburbs of Auckland, particularly those of [[Waitakere City]], from [[Henderson, New Zealand|Henderson]] to the [[Waitakere Ranges]]. As a derogatory term, "westie" is similar to [[bogan]], [[trailer trash]] or [[chav]].
* [[South Auckland]]ers - people who live at the southern end of the city; the term is predominantly used to refer to a low socio-economic group with a high unemployment rate and a large population of [[Pacific Island]]ers, although there are quite a few affluent areas in South Auckland.
* [[East Auckland]]ers - residents in the eastern suburbs of the [[Auckland isthmus]], including a large Asian (Chinese) population in [[Howick]] and surrounding areas.
*Shoreboy/girl - someone from the [[North Shore, New Zealand|North Shore]]. Generally perceived as 'spoilt rich kids' since the area is quite affluent. The term is somewhat analogous to the stereotype of the [[Valley girl]] in [[Los Angeles]], though not as extreme.
*[[Parnell]] Girl - the [[old money]] equivalent of the more [[nouveau riche]] Shore Girl. Characterised by a blonde bob and expensive fashions, and parents who live in affluent inner city suburbs such as [[Parnell]] or [[Remuera]]. The stereotype is along the lines of the [[Sloane Ranger]] in [[London]], though, again, less extreme.
== Lifestyle ==
Attractive aspects of Auckland life are its mild climate, plentiful employment and educational opportunities, and numerous leisure facilities. For quality of life, Auckland currently ranks eighth equal behind [[Zurich]] and [[Geneva]] in a survey of the world's top 55 cities. (Link: [http://www.citymayors.com/features/quality_survey.html Mercer Consulting quality of life survey])
===Leisure===
[[Image:Auckland-CityOfSails.jpg|250px|right|thumb|City Of Sails]]
Auckland is popularly known as the "City of Sails" because the harbour is often dotted with hundreds of yachts. [[Viaduct Basin]] hosted two [[America's Cup]] challenges, and its cafes, restaurants, and clubs add to Auckland's vibrant nightlife. High Street, [[Queen Street, Auckland|Queen Street]], Ponsonby Road, and [[Karangahape Road]] are also very popular with urban socialites. [[Newmarket, New Zealand|Newmarket]] and Parnell are upmarket shopping centres. [[Otara]]'s and [[Avondale]]'s famous fleamarkets and Victoria Park Market are a colourful alternative shopping experience.
Waitemata Harbour has popular beaches at [[Mission Bay, New Zealand|Mission Bay]], [[Devonport, New Zealand|Devonport]], [[Takapuna]], Long Bay and Maraetai, and the west coast has popular surf spots at [[Piha]] and [[Muriwai]]. Many Auckland beaches are patrolled by [[Surf Lifesaving]] clubs which are part of the [[Surf Lifesaving Northern Region]].
Pleasant ferry trips go to Devonport, [[Waiheke Island]] and Rangitoto Island. Pleasant picnic spots are at [[Auckland Domain]], [[Albert Park, Auckland|Albert Park]], [[One Tree Hill, New Zealand|One Tree Hill Domain]] and [[Western Springs]]. Auckland has its fair share of rugby and cricket grounds (notably [[Eden Park]]), and venues for motorsports, tennis, badminton, swimming, soccer, rugby league, and many other sports.
Every year in March, an 8.4-km (5.2-mile) [[road running|fun-run]] known as "Round the Bays" starts in the city and goes along the waterfront to the suburb of [[St Heliers, New Zealand|St Heliers]]. It attracts many tens of thousands of people and has been an annual event since [[Timeline of New Zealand history#1970s|1972]].
The Auckland Town Hall and Aotea Centre host conferences and cultural events such as theatre, [[kapa haka]], and opera. Many national treasures are displayed at the [[Auckland Art Gallery]], such as the work of [[Colin McCahon]]. Other significant cultural artefacts reside at the [[Auckland War Memorial Museum]], the [[New Zealand National Maritime Museum|National Maritime Museum]], and the [[Museum of Transport and Technology]] (MOTAT). Exotic creatures can be observed at the [[Auckland Zoo]] and [[Kelly Tarlton's Underwater World]]. Movies and rock concerts (notably, the "[[Big Day Out]]") are also well patronised.
===Work===
[[Image:nz-auckland1.JPG|250px|right|thumb|Auckland [[CBD]] from [[Sky Tower]].]]
Every business day, many professional workers commute from all points of the city to downtown Auckland. Most major international corporations have an Auckland office. The most expensive office space is around lower Queen Street and the Viaduct Basin. A large proportion of the technical and trades workforce is based in the industrial zones of [[South Auckland]].
===Housing===
The most common residence of Aucklanders is a bungalow on a "[[Quarter Acre|quarter acre]]" (1,000 m&sup2;), with the resulting large urban sprawl and reliance on motor vehicles. The regional council is trying to curb this trend, with housing density strategies such as more townhouses and apartments, and prohibiting subdivision of properties on the city fringes.
== Transport ==
[[Image:DowntownAucklandNight.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Downtown Auckland at night.]]
=== Road and rail ===
Auckland has a significant traffic congestion problem. An extensive [[motorway]] network, planned decades ago during the height of the road building era, remains incomplete as of 2006. It is unlikely that this original plan will ever be built in its entirety because it is not economically viable anymore, however a number of crucial gaps do exist in the current network. Since 2001, several motorway construction projects began in and around the Central Motorway Junction ("Spaghetti Junction"), while new routes are underway in the southwest of the city and along the upper harbour. Transport funding favours roads over public transport in Auckland, and indeed in New Zealand, and the planned motorway network is large for a city of Auckland's size.
[[Image:CMJ.jpg|350px|thumb|The completed central motorway junction]]
Most of Central Motorway Junction is completed, with the whole junction being completed by the end of 2006. [http://www.aucklandmotorways.co.nz]
The [[Britomart Transport Centre]] which opened in July 2003 is a central interconnection point for buses, trains and ferries. During its planning period it provoked much controversy spanning multiple mayoral terms.
During the 2001-2004 term the mayors of Auckland City and Manukau, [[John Banks (New Zealand)|John Banks]] and Sir Barry Curtis respectively, strongly advocated a proposal for an [[Eastern Transport Corridor]], essentially a new motorway. Vociferous campaigners both supported and opposed the NZ$4 billion proposal throughout the term. John Banks subsequently lost the 2004 local body election, chiefly due to public opposition to the proposed motorway. The newly-elected Auckland City Council has a clear centre-left majority, and new Deputy Mayor Bruce Hucker announced in early November 2004 a major change in direction for Auckland City.
Bus services provide the bulk of public transport, with commuter trains offering a limited service. However, recent investment in train services resulted in increased patronage of these services. The investment has focused on upgrading and refurbishing the current rolling stock and railway stations. Investment in new rail infrastructure remains limited, but there are signs this is changing. A recent project to double-track the western rail line, completed at a cost of NZD$23.2 million, has increased the frequency of train services on this line. Plans for [[light rail]], mooted over the years, seem unlikely to proceed. The local government elections in September 2004 centred largely around candidates' policies on public transport, with the incumbent Auckland City mayor John Banks promoting the "Eastern Corridor" motorway plan, and his main rivals (former Auckland City mayor [[Christine Fletcher]] and [[businessman]] [[Dick Hubbard]] &ndash; the eventual winner) supporting public transport alternatives like light rail and improving existing bus and rail services.
Auckland City Council has prepared plans for an underground railway connecting the Britomart Transport Centre to the western railway line. However due to the significant costs associated with a project of this size, and the prevailing attitudes towards public transpo
|
d on occasion between single sweeps of a radarscope (or in periods of less than forty seconds); other disappearances have occurred over shallow waters of depths less than ten feet, yet without trace or silhouette to mark their positions, while others have vanished after transmitting messages discernable as cryptic, at best.
Another area that is classified by many as having the same paranormal effects is the [[Devil's Sea]], located near [[Japan]].
[[Image:The_Bermuda_Triangle.JPG|thumb|245px|right|Map of the popularly-held dimensions of the Bermuda Triangle; recent claims by researchers alude to a more "trapezium" shape, extending back into the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and down into the [[Caribbean Sea]].]]
==History of the Bermuda Triangle==
[[Image:Charles Berlitz - The Bermuda Triangle - 1977 Panther paperback book cover.jpg|thumb|right|The cover of the 1977 Panther paperback edition of Berlitz's ''The Bermuda Triangle'']]
===First citations===
The first mention of any disappearances in the area was made in [[1950]] by E.V.W. Jones as a sidebar on the [[Associated Press]] wire service regarding recent ship losses in the area. Jones' article notes the "mysterious disappearances" of ships, airplanes and small boats in the region and ascribes it the name "The Devil's Triangle". It was mentioned again in [[1952]] in a [[Fate Magazine|''Fate'']] magazine article by George X. Sand, who outlined several "strange marine disappearances". The term "Bermuda Triangle" was popularized by Vincent Gaddis in a [[1964]] ''Argosy'' feature.
===Popularized by Berlitz===
The area achieved its fame largely through the efforts of [[Charles Berlitz]] in his [[1974]] book ''The Bermuda Triangle'' (right) and its subsequent [[film adaptation]]. The book consists of a series of recountings of mysterious disappearances of ships and aircraft, in particular the December [[1945]] loss of five [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] [[TBM Avenger|Avenger]] torpedo bombers known as [[Flight 19]].
The book was a [[bestseller]] and included the various suggestions that had been made to account for the disappearances. Among these were high accident rates due to high traffic volumes; natural storms; "temporal holes"; the lost empire of [[Atlantis]]; transportation by [[extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrial]] technology; and other natural or [[supernatural]] causes.
==Scientific explanations==
===Skeptical responses===
The marine insurer [[Lloyd's of London]] has determined the "triangle" to be no more dangerous than any other piece of the ocean, and does not charge unusual rates of insurance for passage through the area. Coast Guard records confirm this to be true.
Skeptics comment that the disappearance of a train between two stops would be more convincing evidence of paranormal activity, and the fact that such things do not occur suggests that paranormal explanations are not needed for the disappearance of ships and airplanes in the far less predictable open ocean.
===Kusche's research===
Intrigued by the number of students coming to him looking for information about the Bermuda Triangle, [[Larry Kusche|Lawrence Kusche]], a reference librarian with [[Arizona State University]] at the time of the [[#Flight 19|Flight 19]] incident, began an exhaustive follow-up investigation of the original reports. His findings were eventually published in [[1975]] as ''The Bermuda Triangle Mystery: Solved''.
Kusche's research revealed a number of inaccuracies and inconsistencies between Berlitz's accounts and statements from eyewitnesses, participants and others involved in the initial incidents. He noted cases where pertinent information went unreported, such as the disappearance of round-the-world yachtsman [[Donald Crowhurst]] which Berlitz had presented as a mystery, despite clear evidence that Crowhurst had fabricated the accounts of his voyage and had probably committed [[suicide]]. Another example was the [[ore]]-carrier Berlitz recounted as lost without trace three days out of an ''Atlantic'' port when it had been lost three days out of a port with the same name in the ''Pacific'' Ocean. Kusche also argued that a large percentage of the incidents attributed to the Bermuda Triangle's mysterious influence actually occurred well outside it.
Kusche came to several conclusions:
* The proportion of those ships and airplanes reported missing to those travelling through the Bermuda Triangle area was not significantly greater than any other ocean area.
* In an area frequented by tropical storms, the total disappearance of some ships was neither unlikely nor mysterious.
* The number of disappearances had been exaggerated by sloppy research. A boat listed as missing would be reported, but not necessarily its eventual, if belated, return to port.
* The circumstances of confirmed disappearances were frequently misreported in Berlitz's accounts. The numbers of ships disappearing in supposedly calm weather, for instance, did not tally with weather reports published at the time.
===Methane hydrates===
{{main|Methane clathrate}}
An explanation for some of the disappearances focuses on the presence of vast fields of [[methane]] hydrates on the [[continental shelves]]. A [http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/hydrates/usgspubs.html paper] was published in 1981 by the [[United States Geological Survey]] about the appearance of hydrates in the [[Blake Ridge]] area, off the southeastern [[United States]] coast. Periodic methane [[eruption]]s may produce [[regions]] of frothy water that are no longer capable of providing adequate [[buoyancy]] for ships. If this were the case, such an area forming around a ship could cause it to sink very rapidly and without warning. Laboratory experiments have proven that bubbles can, indeed, sink a scale model ship by decreasing the density of the water. This effect, however, may not scale up to actual size of the ships due to the physics involved.
Some writers have suggested that methane hydrate is suddenly released in the form of giant gas bubbles, with diameters comparable to that of the ships purportedly sunk by them (see [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/10/22/1066631498889.html?from=storyrhs Bermuda Triangle mystery solved? It's a load of gas]), though physical feasibility of this has been challenged, as even if release of large bubbles was possible, they would collapse and break up into smaller ones as they would be rising up towards the surface. However this could still reduce buoyancy to a dangerously low level, possibly sinking the ships.
Hypothetically, methane gas might also be involved in airplane crashes, as it is not as dense as air and thus would not generate as much [[lift]] required to keep the airplane flying. Furthermore, methane may interfere with functions of an [[altimeter]] in an airplane, which determines the altitude by measuring the density of the surrounding air: since methane is less dense, the altimeter would indicate that the airplane is climbing, which may cause the pilot to fly the airplane lower, crashing it. Another possibility is that methane in the engines disrupts the mixture of fuel and air, possibly stopping [[combustion]] and stalling the engines. All of these effects of methane have been shown experimentally.
===Tidal waves===
{{main|Freak wave}}
Research has shown that '''tidal''', '''freak''', or '''rogue waves''' can reach up to up to 30 m (100 feet) in height and are capable of sinking large ships within moments. Although these are very rare, in some areas ocean currents mean they happen more often than the normal. Such waves have now been hypothesized as a cause for many unexplained shipping losses over the years.
==Famous incidents==
===Flight 19===
{{main|Flight 19}}
One of the best known Bermuda Triangle incidents concerns the loss of [[Flight 19]], a squadron of five U.S. Navy TBM Avenger torpedo bombers on a training flight out of [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida]], on [[December 5]], [[1945]]. According to Berlitz, the flight consisted of expert [[US Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] aviators who, after reporting a number of odd visual effects, simply disappeared, an account which isn't entirely true. Furthermore, Berlitz claims that because the [[TBM Avenger]] bombers were built to float for long periods, they should have been found the next day considering what were reported as calm seas and a clear sky. However, not only were they never found, a Navy search and rescue seaplane that went after them was also lost. Adding to the intrigue is that the Navy's report of the accident was ascribed to "causes or reasons unknown".
While the basic facts of Berlitz's version of the story are essentially accurate, some important details are missing. The image of a squadron of seasoned combat aviators disappearing on a sunny afternoon is inaccurate. Rather, it was a squadron of lost, inexperienced flight trainees forced to ditch their out-of-fuel airplanes into unknown stormy waters in the dark of night. As for the Navy's report, it is claimed that the original report blamed the accident on the commander's confusion (Lt. Taylor abandoned his airplanes twice in the Pacific after getting lost returning to his carrier), but the wording was changed in deference to the wishes of his family.
===''Star Tiger''===
If the disappearance of Flight 19 had been isolated as an incident, it would remain a great mystery of aviation. However, aircraft disappearances continued to occur and be reported both to and by authorities, some near the same location, and/or with equally extended and confusing radio traffic, indicating that Taylor's flight may have been only one example among many disappearances including that of a four-engined [[Tudor IV]] airliner named ''[[Star Tiger]]'', in the predawn hours of [[January 31]] [[1948]].
Piloted by Captain [[B. W. McMillan]], the airliner, which carried twenty-nine passengers and c
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lands in what is now Indonesia, [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]] had already seen over a millennia of civilization and two major empires.
===Kingdom of Mataram===
''For full coverage, see [[Kingdom of Mataram]]''
'''Mataram''' was an [[Indianized kingdom]] based in Central Java (the area surrounding modern-day [[Yogjakarta]]) between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. The centre of the kingdom was moved from Central Java to East Java by [[Mpu Sindok]]. The move may have been caused by an eruption of the volcano [[Mount Merapi, Central Java|Mount Merapi]], or a power struggle.
The first king of Mataram was [[Sanjaya]], who drove the [[Sailendra]]s from Java and left inscriptions in stone. The monumental [[Hindu]] temple of [[Prambanan]] in the vicinity of [[Yogyakarta]] was built by [[Daksa]]. [[Dharmawangsa]] ordered the translation of the [[Mahabharata]] into [[Old Javanese]] in [[996]].
The kingdom collapsed into chaos at the end of Dharmawangsa's reign under military pressure from [[Srivijaya]]. [[Airlangga]], a son of [[Udayana]] of [[Bali]] and a relative of Dharmawangsa re-established the kingdom (including Bali) under the name of [[Kahuripan]].
===Srivijaya Empire===
''For full coverage see [[Srivijaya]]
Srivijaya (-''sri'' meaning glitters or radiant, -''jaya'' meaning success or excellence) was an ancient [[Malay states|Malay]] kingdom on the island of [[Sumatra]] which influenced much of the [[Malay Archipelago]]. Records of its beginning are scarce, and estimates are from the [[200s]] C.E. to the [[500s]] C.E. It ceased to exist around the year [[1400]].
Around [[500]] the roots of Srivijaya developed around present-day Palembang, and around the year [[600]] Chinese records mention two kingdoms on Sumatra based at [[Jambi]] and [[Palembang]], as well as three kingdoms on Java.
Srivijaya was centered in the coastal trading center of present day Palembang. The empire was a [[thalassocracy]] and did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of [[Southeast Asia]]. Srivijaya was organised in three main zones — the estuarine capital region centred on Palembang, the [[Musi River, Indonesia|Musi River]] basin which served as hinterland, and rival esturarine zones capable of formng rival power centres. The capital zone was administered directly by the ruler. The hinterland zone remained under its own local [[datu]]s or [[chief]]s who were organized into a network of [[allegiance]] to the maharaja. Force was the dominant element in the empire's relations with rival river systems such as the [[Batang Hari]] river basin centred on Jambi. The ruling [[lineage]] intermarried with and allied with the [[Sailendra]]s of Central Java.
Although historical records and archaeological evidence are scarce, it appears that by the seventh century, Srivijaya established suzerainty over large areas of [[Sumatra]], western [[Java (island)|Java]], and much of the [[Malay Peninsula]]. Dominating the [[Strait of Malacca|Malacca]] and [[Sunda Strait|Sunda]] [[straits]], Srivijaya controlled both the [[Spice Route]] traffic and local trade, charging a toll on passing ships, and remained a formidable sea power until the thirteenth century. This spread the [[Malay people|Malay]] culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western [[Borneo]].
A stronghold of [[Vajrayana]] [[Buddhism]], Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia. These included the Chinese monk [[Yijing]], who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra on his way to study at Nalanda in India in 671 and 695, and the eleventh-century Buddhist scholar [[Atisha]], who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana Buddhism in [[Tibet]]. Travellers to these islands mentioned that [[gold]] coinage was in use on the coasts, but not inland.
In [[1068]], [[Rajendra Chola|Virarajendra]], the [[Chola]] king of [[Tamil Nadu]], conquered [[Kedah]] from [[Srivijaya]]. The Cholas continued a series of raids and conquests throughout what is now [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]] for the next 20 years. Although the Chola invasion was ultimately unsuccessful, it gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long distance trade.
Srivijaya influence waned by the 11th century. The island was in frequent conflict with the [[Java (island)|Javanese]] kingdoms, first [[Singhasari]] and then [[Majapahit]]. [[Islam]] eventually made its way to the [[Aceh]] region of Sumatra, spreading its influence through contacts with [[Arab]]s and [[India|Indian]] traders. By the late 13th century, the kingdom of [[Pasai]] (in northern Sumatra) converted to Islam. At the same time Srivijaya was briefly a [[tributary]] of the [[Khmer empire]] and later the [[Sukhothai kingdom]]. The last inscription dates to 1374, in a crown prince, Ananggavarman, is mentioned.
By [[1414]] [[Parameswara]], the last prince of Srivijaya converted to [[Islam]], and founded the [[Sultanate of Malacca]] on the [[Malay peninsula]].
===Singhasari and the Majapahit Empire===
''For full coverage, see [[Singhasari]] and [[Majapahit Empire]]''
Two empires would originate in Eastern Java, and would drive Srivijaya and assume its territory: the Singhasari and the Majapahit. Singhasari was a [[monarchy|kingdom]] located in east [[Java (island)|Java]] between [[1222]] and [[1292]]. The Majapahit Empire would emerge later, and ruled much of the southern [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Borneo]], [[Sumatra]], and [[Bali]] from about [[1293]] to around [[1500]].
The founder of the Majapahit Empire, [[Kertarajasa]], was the son-in-law of the ruler of the [[Singhasari]] kingdom, also based in Java. After Singhasari drove Srivijaya out of Java altogether in 1290, the rising power of Singhasari came to the attention of [[Kublai Khan]] in [[China]] and he sent emissaries demanding tribute. [[Kertanagara]], ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, refused to pay tribute and the Khan sent a punitive expedition which arrived off the coast of Java in [[1293]].
By that time, a rebel from [[Kediri]], [[Jayakatwang]], had killed Kertanagara. The Majapahit founder allied himself with the [[Mongols]] against Jayakatwang and, once the Singhasari kingdom was destroyed, turned and forced his Mongol allies to withdraw in confusion.
[[Gajah Mada]], an ambitious Majapahit prime minister and regent from [[1331]] to [[1364]], extended the empire's rule to the surrounding islands. A few years after Gajah Madah's death, the Majapahit navy captured Palembang, putting an end to the Srivijayan kingdom.
Although the Majapahit rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighboring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that passed through the archipelago. About the time Majapahit was founded, [[Muslim]] traders and [[proselytize]]rs began entering the area.
After peaking the [[14th century|1300s]], Majapahit power began to decline with a war over succession that started in [[1401]] and went on for four years. Majapahit found itself unable to control the rising power of the [[Sultanate of Malacca]]. Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from [[1478]] to [[1520]]. A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royalty moved east to the island of [[Bali]] at the end of Majapahit's existence.
[[Islam]] arrived in Indonesia sometime during the [[12th century]] and, through assimilation, supplanted Hinduism by the end of the [[16th century]] in Java and Sumatra. Only [[Bali]] retained a Hindu majority. In the eastern archipelago, both [[Christianity|Christian]] and Islamic missionaries were active in the 16th and 17th centuries, and, currently, there are large communities of both religions on these islands. The spread of Islam was driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago; in general, traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were the first to adopt the new religion. Dominant kingdoms included [[Mataram]] in [[Central Java]], and the sultanates of [[Ternate]] and [[Tidore]] in the [[Maluku Islands]] to the east.
===Sultanate of Mataram===
''For full coverage of this topic, see [[Sultanate of Mataram]]''
According to Javanese records, Kyai [[Gedhe Pamanahan of Mataram|Gedhe Pamanahan]] became the ruler of the Mataram area some time within the in the [[1570s]] with the support of the kingdom of [[Pajang]] to the east, near the current site of [[Surakarta]] (Solo). Pamanahan was often referred to as Kyai Gedhe Mataram after his ascension.
Pamanahan's son, Panembahan [[Senapati Ingalaga of Mataram|Senapati Ingalaga]], replaced his father on the throne around [[1584]]. Under Senapati the kingdom grew substantially through regular military campaigns against Mataram's neighbors. Shortly after his accession, for example, he conquered his father's patrons in Pajang.
The reign of Panembahan [[Seda ing Krapyak of Mataram|Seda ing Krapyak]] (''circa'' [[1601]]-[[1613]]), the son of Senapati, was dominated by further warfare, especially against powerful [[Surabaya]], already a major center in East Java. The first contact between Mataram and the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) occurred under Krapyak. Dutch activities at the time were limited to trading from limited coastal settlements, so their interactions with the inland Mataram kingdom were limited, although they did form an alliance against Surabaya in [[1613]]. Krapyak died that year.
Krapyak was succeeded by his son, who is known simply as [[Sultan Agung of Mataram| Sultan Agung]] ("Great [[Sultan]]") in Javanese records. Agung was responsible for the great expansion and lasting historical legacy of Mataram due to the extensive military conquests of his long reign from [[1613]] to [[1646]].
After years of war Agung finally conquered Surabaya. The city was taken not through outright military invasion, b
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a dissolution is automatic upon the expiry of this period. Parliament is almost never permitted to sit for the maximum possible term, with dissolutions customarily being requested earlier.
Whatever the reason—the expiry of Parliament's five year term, the choice of the Prime Minister, or a Government defeat in the House of Commons—a dissolution is followed by general elections. If the Prime Minister's party retains its majority in the House of Commons, then the Prime Minister may remain in power. On the other hand, if his or her party has lost its majority, the Prime Minister is compelled to resign, allowing the Sovereign to appoint a new Prime Minister. One may note that a Prime Minister may resign even if he or she is not defeated at the polls (for example, for personal health reasons); in such a case, the premiership goes to the new leader of the outgoing Prime Minister's party.
In modern times, the House of Commons rather than the Lords is the source of most government ministers. By [[constitution of the United Kingdom|constitutional convention]], all ministers must be members of the House of Commons or House of Lords. A handful have been appointed who are outside Parliament but in most cases they subsequently entered Parliament either by means of a by-election or receiving a peerage. Since 1902, all Prime Ministers have been members of the Commons (the sole exception, the [[Alec Douglas-Home|Earl of Home]] disclaimed his peerage days after becoming Prime Minister and was elected to the House of Commons as Sir Alec Douglas Home).
No major [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|cabinet]] position (except [[Lord Chancellor]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]]) has been filled by a Lord since 1982 when [[Lord Carrington]] resigned as Foreign Secretary, though some of the middle rank Cabinet posts such as Defence Secretary and International Development Secretary have been filled by peers. The elected status of members of the Commons, as opposed to the unelected nature of members of the Lords, is seen to lend more legitimacy to ministers from the Commons. The Prime Minister chooses the Ministers, and may decide to remove them at any time; the formal appointment or dismissal, however, is made by the Sovereign.
The House of Commons scrutinises the Government through "[[Question Time]]," a period during which Members have the opportunity to ask questions of the Prime Minister and of other Cabinet Ministers. Prime Minister's Question Time occurs once each week, normally for a half-hour each Wednesday. Questions must relate to the responding Minister's official Government activities, not to his or her activities as a party leader or as a private Member of Parliament. Customarily, members of the Government party and members of the Opposition alternate when asking questions. In addition to questions asked orally during Question Time, Members of Parliament may also make inquiries in writing.
In practice, the House of Commons' scrutiny of the Government is very weak. Since the First-Past-the-Post electoral system is employed in elections, the governing party tends to enjoy a large majority in the Commons; there is often limited need to compromise with other parties. Modern British political parties are so tightly organised that they leave relatively little room for free action by their MPs. Thus, during the twentieth century, the Government has lost confidence issues only thrice—twice in 1924, and once in 1979. However, the threat of rebellions by backbench MPs often forces Governments to make concessions to their cause (see [[top-up fees]], [[foundation hospitals]]). Occasionally the Government is completely defeated by backbench rebellions ([[Terrorism Bill 2005]])
The House of Commons technically retains the power to impeach Ministers of the Crown (or any other subject, even if not a public officer) for their crimes. Impeachments are tried by the House of Lords, where a simple majority is necessary to convict. The power of impeachment, however, has fallen into disuse; the House of Commons exercises its checks on the Government through other means such as No Confidence Motions. The last impeachment was that of [[Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville]] in 1806.
==Latest election==
{{United Kingdom parliamentary election, 2005}}
==Current composition==
{{main articles|[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005]] and [[Party standings in the British House of Commons]]}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" align="center" valign="top" | '''Affiliation'''
| valign="top" | '''Members'''<br>
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Labour}}|&nbsp;
| [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]
| 353
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Conservative}}|&nbsp;
| [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]
| 196
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Liberal Democrat}}|&nbsp;
| [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]
| 63
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Democratic Unionist}}|&nbsp;
| [[Democratic Unionist Party]]
| 9
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Scottish National}}|&nbsp;
| [[Scottish National Party]]
| 6
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Sinn Fein}}|&nbsp;
| [[Sinn Féin]]
| 5<sup>†</sup>
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Plaid Cymru}}|&nbsp;
| [[Plaid Cymru]]
| 3
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/SDLP}}|&nbsp;
| [[Social Democratic and Labour Party]]
| 3
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Ulster Unionist}}|&nbsp;
| [[Ulster Unionist Party]]
| 1
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Respect}}|&nbsp;
| [[RESPECT The Unity Coalition]]
| 1
|-
| bgcolor="#999999" | &nbsp;
| Independent<br>
| 2
|-
| bgcolor="black" | &nbsp;
| Speaker and Deputies<br>
| 4
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" | &nbsp;'''Total'''<br>
| '''646'''
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" | &nbsp;'''Government Majority'''<br>
| '''64'''
|}
† Sinn Féin does not take its seats in Parliament because of (a) their refusal to take the oath (which involves acknowledging The Queen), (b) the fact it is a 'partitionist' body which legislates for only part of the island of Ireland, and (c) the bar placed on their sitting by electoral mandate (ie. they were elected on a pledge not to take their seats).
==The chamber in film and television==
In 1986, the British television production company [[Granada Television]] created a full-sized replica of the House of Commons debating chamber at its studios in [[Manchester]], for use in its adaptation of the [[Jeffrey Archer, Baron Archer of Weston-super-Mare|Jeffrey Archer]] novel ''[[First Among Equals]]''. The set was highly convincing, and was retained after the production – since then, it has been used in nearly every British [[film]] and [[television]] production which has featured scenes set in the chamber. From 1988 until 1999 it was also one of the prominent attractions on the [[Granada Studios Tour]], where visitors could watch actors performing mock political debates on the set.
In 2002 the set was purchased by the scriptwriter [[Paul Abbott]] so that it could be used in his [[BBC]] drama serial ''[[State of Play]]''. Abbott, himself a former Granada Television staff writer, bought it personally as the set would otherwise have been destroyed and he feared it would take too long to get the necessary money from the BBC. He currently keeps it in storage in [[Oxford]].{{ref|ref01}}
==See also==
* [[Adjournment debate]]
* [[Early day motion]]
* [[Father of the House]]
* [[Introduction (British House of Commons)|Introduction ceremony]]
* [[Speaker Denison's rule]]
* [[UK topics]]
==References==
*Farnborough, T. E. May, 1st Baron. (1896). ''Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third'', 11th ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
*[[Kenneth Mackenzie|Mackenzie, K.R.]], "The English Parliament", (1950) Pelican Books.
*"Parliament" (1911). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
*Pollard, Albert F. (1926). ''The Evolution of Parliament'', 2nd ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
*Porritt, Edward, and Annie G. Porritt. (1903). ''The Unreformed House of Commons: Parliamentary Representation before 1832.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*Raphael, D. D., Donald Limon, and W. R. McKay. (2004). ''Erskine May: Parliamentary Practice'', 23rd ed. London: Butterworths Tolley.
{{note|ref01}} Abbott, Paul. [[Audio commentary (DVD)|Audio commentary]] on the [[DVD]] release of ''[[State of Play]]''. [[BBC Worldwide]]. BBCDVD 1493.
==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/a-z_of_parliament/ The British Broadcasting Corporation. (2005). "A–Z of Parliament."]
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/commons/ ''The Guardian.'' (2005). "Special Report: House of Commons."]
*[http://www.parliament.uk/ The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Official website.]
*[http://www.parliamentlive.tv/ The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Parliament Live TV.]
[[Category:Parliament of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:National lower houses|United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Westminster System]]
[[Category:Government of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]]
[[de:House_of_Commons_%28Gro%C3%9Fbritannien%29]]
[[es:Cámara de los Comunes del Reino Unido]]
[[fr:Chambre des communes britannique]]
[[ja:庶民院]]
[[nl:Lagerhuis]]
[[pl:Izba Gmin]]
[[ru:Палата общин]]
[[vi:Hạ Nghị viện Vương quốc Anh]]
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<page>
<title>Hearts (game)</title>
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<contributor>
<username>Rufusgriffin</username>
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<comment>/* Split Pass */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Hearts''' is a [[trick-taking game
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to Italy (prompted by his mother's illness and death) he joined the staff of a socialist newspaper, ''[[Avanti!]]'' ("Forward!"), in the city of [[Trento]], ethnically Italian but then under the control of the [[Austria-Hungary]], in [[1908]]. At this time he wrote a novel, subsequently translated into English as ''The Cardinal's Mistress''. Mussolini had a brother, Arnaldo, who would later become the [[editor]] of ''[[Il Popolo d'Italia]]'', the official newspaper of Benito Mussolini's Fascist Party
==Birth of Fascism==
The word "[[Fascio]]" had existed in Italian politics for some time. A section of revolutionary [[syndicalism|syndicalists]] broke with the Socialists over the issue of Italy's entry into the [[World War I|First World War]]. The ambitious Mussolini quickly sided with them in 1914, when the war broke out. These syndicalists formed a group called Fasci d'azione rivoluzionaria internazionalista in October 1914. [[Massimo Rocca]] and [[Tulio Masotti]] asked Mussolini to settle the contradiction of his support for interventionism and still being the editor of ''[[Avanti! (Italian newspaper)|Avanti!]]'' and an official party functionary in the Socialist Party. (1) Two weeks later, he joined the [[Milan]] ''fascio''. In November, 1914, supported by his then mistress [[Margherita Sarfatti]], he founded a new newspaper, ''Il Popolo d'Italia,'' (''The Italian People'') and the pro-war group Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria. Mussolini was attracted to [[fasces]], the ancient Roman symbol of the life-and-death power of the state, bundles of the [[lictor]]s' rods of chastisement which, when bound together, were stronger than when they were apart &mdash; presaging the renewed Roman ''imperium'' Mussolini promised to bring about. Mussolini claimed that it would help strengthen a relatively new nation (which had been united only in the 1860s in the ''[[History of Italy|Risorgimento]]''), although some would say that he wished for a collapse of society that would bring him to power. Italy was a member of the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]], thereby allied with Imperial Germany and the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]. It did not join the war in 1914 but did in 1915 &mdash; as Mussolini wished &mdash; on the side of Britain and France
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:mussolini.jpg|thumb|left|Benito Mussolini]] -->
Called up for military service, Mussolini was wounded in grenade practice in 1917 and returned to edit his paper. Fascism became an organized [[political movement]] following a meeting in [[Milan]] on [[March 23]], [[1919]] (Mussolini founded the ''Fasci di Combattimento'' on [[February 23]], however). After failing in the 1919 elections, Mussolini at last entered parliament in 1921. The Fascisti formed armed squads of war veterans called [[Blackshirts|''squadristi'']] to terrorize [[anarchists]], socialists and [[communists]]. The government rarely interfered. In return for the support of a group of industrialists and agrarians, Mussolini gave his approval (often active) to strikebreaking, and he abandoned revolutionary agitation. When the liberal governments of Giovanni Giolitti, Ivanoe Bonomi, and Luigi Facta failed to stop the spread of anarchy, and after Fascists had organised the demonstrative and threatening ''Marcia su Roma'' ("[[March on Rome]]") ([[October 28]]th 1922), Mussolini was invited by [[Vittorio Emanuele III]] to form a new government. At the age of 39, he became the youngest Premier in the history of [[Italy]] on [[October 31]].
Although a common misconception, Mussolini did not become prime minister because of the March on Rome. King, [[Victor Emmanuel III]], knew that if he did not choose a government under either the Fascist or Socialist party, Italy would soon be involved in a civil war. Accordingly, he asked Mussolini to become Prime Minister, obviating the need for the March on Rome. However, because fascists were already arriving from all around Italy, he decided to continue. In effect, the threatened seizure of power became nothing more than a victory parade.
Mussolini's Fascist state, established nearly a decade before [[Adolf Hitler]]'s rise to power, would provide a model for Hitler's later economic and political policies. Both a movement and a historical phenomenon, Italian Fascism was, in many respects, an adverse reaction to both the perceived failure of [[laissez-faire]] economics and fear of international [[Bolshevism]] (a short-lived Soviet influence was established in Bavaria just about this time), although trends in [[intellectual history]], such as the breakdown of [[positivism]] and the general fatalism of postwar Europe were also factors. Fascism was a product of a general feeling of anxiety and fear among the middle-class of postwar Italy, arising out of a convergence of interrelated economic, political, and cultural pressures. Italy had no long-term tradition of parliamentary compromise, and public discourse took on an inflammatory tone on all sides.
Under the banner of this authoritarian and nationalist ideology, Mussolini was able to exploit fears in an era in which postwar depression, the rise of a more militant left, and a feeling of national shame and humiliation stemming from its 'mutilated victory' at the hands of the [[World War I]] peace treaties seemed to converge. Italian influence in the Aegean and abroad seemed impotent and disregarded by the greater [[power (international)|power]]s, and Italy lacked colonies. Such unfulfilled nationalistic aspirations tainted the reputation of liberalism and constitutionalism among many sectors of the Italian population. In addition, such democratic institutions had never grown to become firmly rooted in the young nation-state. And as the same postwar depression heightened the allure of [[Marxism]] among an urban proletariat even more disenfranchised than their continental counterparts, fear regarding the growing strength of [[trade union]]ism, [[communism]], and [[socialism]] proliferated among the elite and the middle class.
Fascism emerged as a "third way" &mdash; as Italy's last hope to avoid imminent collapse of Italian liberalism, which was perceived as weak, or communist revolution. While failing to outline a coherent program, it evolved into new political and economic system that combined [[corporatism]], [[nationalism]], and anti-communism in a state designed to bind all classes together under a capitalist system. It was a new capitalist system in which the state seized control of the organization of vital industries. The appeal of this movement, the promise of a more orderly capitalism during an era of interwar depression, however, was not isolated to Italy, or even the rest of Europe.
==Fascist dictatorship==
At first Mussolini was supported by the Liberals in parliament. With their help, he introduced strict censorship and altered the methods of election so that in 1925&ndash;1926 he was able to assume dictatorial powers and dissolve all other political parties.
Skillfully using his secret but absolute control over the press, he gradually built up the legend of ''[[Il Duce]]'', the title he bestowed upon himself: a man who never slept, was always right, and could solve all the problems of politics and economics. He introduced the Press Laws in 1925 which stated that all journalists must be registered Fascists. However, not all newspapers were taken into public ownership and ''[[Corriere della Sera]]'' sold on average 10 times as many copies as the leading Fascist newspaper 'Il Popolo D'Italia'.
Nevertheless, Italy was soon a [[police state]]. The assassination of the prominent [[Socialist]] [[Giacomo Matteotti]] in 1924, began a prolonged political crisis in Italy, which did not end until the beginning of 1925 when Mussolini asserted his personal authority over both country and party to establish a personal dictatorship. Mussolini's skill in propaganda was such that he had surprisingly little opposition to suppress. Nonetheless he was "slightly wounded in the nose" when he was shot on [[8 April]] 1926 by [[Violet Gibson]], an [[Irish people|Irish woman]] and sister of [[Baron Ashbourne]]. He also survived a [http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/mussolini-assassination-attempt-1926/index.php failed assassination attempt in Rome] by [[anarchist]] Gino Lucetti, and a planned attempt by American anarchist [http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/murder-michael-schirru Michael Schirru] ended with his capture and execution.
At various times after 1922, Mussolini personally took over the ministries of the interior, of foreign affairs, of the colonies, of the corporations, of the army and the other armed services, and of public works. Sometimes he held as many as seven departments simultaneously, as well as the premiership. He was also head of the all-powerful Fascist party (formed in 1921) and the armed local Fascist militia, the [[Blackshirts|MVSN]], or "Blackshirts", that terrorized incipient resistances in the cities and provinces. He would later form an institutionalised militia that carried official state support, the [[OVRA]]. In this way he succeeded in keeping power in his own hands and preventing the emergence of any rival. But it was at the price of creating a regime that was overcentralized, inefficient, and corrupt.
[[Image:mussospeak.jpg|frame|right|Mussolini was a passionate public speaker]]
Most of his time was spent on propaganda, whether at home or abroad, and here his training as a journalist was invaluable. Press, radio, education, films &mdash; all were carefully supervised to manufacture the illusion that fascism was ''the doctrine'' of the 20th century, replacing liberalism and democracy. The principles of this doctrine were laid down in the article on fascism, written by [[Giovanni Gentile]] and signed by Mussolini that appeared in 1932 in the ''[[Enciclopedia
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d to the pressures of constant attention after being out of the public eye for most of his life. Rome waited in horror, praying that their beloved Emperor would recover. He became better, but his reign took a sharp turn. The death of Gemellus and of Silanus, Caligula's father-in-law, took place right after Caligula recovered.
The question of whether or not Caligula was insane remains unanswered. [[Philo]], author of ''Legatio ad Caium'' ("embassy to Caius") and leader of a delegation sent to Caligula to seek relief from persecution by Alexandrian [[Greece|Greeks]], claimed that the emperor was no more than a vicious jokester. Based on the contemporary reports of his behavior, modern psychology would likely diagnose Caligula as [[delusional disorder|delusional]], and possibly suffering from [[antisocial personality disorder]] as a result of his traumatic upbringing.
However, given Caligula's unpopularity as emperor, it is difficult to separate fact from fiction. There are many famous stories attesting to his bizarre behavior as emperor: that he tried to make his beloved stallion, [[Incitatus]], a consul, though this could have been a political statement indicating that he felt his horse was as well qualified for the position as any of the incumbents. Other stories claim that there existed [[incest]]uous relationship between Caligula and his sisters (particularly [[Drusilla]]), a brothel he set up at the palace featuring the wives of prominent senators, his abandonment of a campaign in [[Britain]] that instead resulted in his soldiers collecting [[seashell]]s as "spoils of the sea" in his battle with the sea god [[Neptune (god)|Neptune]], wanting to erect a statue of himself in [[Jerusalem]] (his good friend [[Herod Agrippa]] stopped it), his amusement with shutting down the granaries and starving the citizens, his hobby of watching executions as he ate, and labeling himself a "god". According to [[Suetonius]] he "often sent for men whom he had secretly killed, as though they were still alive, and remark off-handedly a few days later that they must have committed suicide." Regardless of the validity of any of these anecdotes, historians tend to agree on one fact: he was extremely unqualified and unprepared to be Emperor.
==Alternate Views==
The lack of a full accounting of Caligula's reign, and the hyperbolic nature of the records that do remain, creates several problems for historical analysis. It must be noted that, except for Philo's "Embassy to Caius" and mention by Josephus' "Antiquities of the Jews", Chapters 6 through 8," all historical writings regarding Caligula are authored by Romans of Senatorial rank; a class of individuals whose power had been severely checked by the growth of the Principate. Additionally, in Roman politics sexual perversity was often presented hand in hand with poor government; Suetonius accuses Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, and Nero all of sexually perverse behaviour, and also heavily criticizes many of the administrative aspects of these Emperor's rules. Therefore, much of what is recorded about Caligula, especially that coming from Suetonius, must be taken "with a grain of salt".
It is known that in [[39]] there was a political break between Caligula and the Senate, and it is from this point forward that Caligula's reign takes on a decidedly despotic tone. The purges of Tiberius had removed from the Senate some of the staunchest supporters of the Julian line, of which Caligula was a prominent member. Caligula was thus presented with a Senate that, at best, offered half-hearted support. Additionally, the absence of Tiberius for much of his reign meant that the Senate, previously docile after almost 50 years under Augustus, had been forced to take up much of the administrative apparatus of the Empire once again. Caligula was thus faced with an uncooperative Senate that was once again beginning to rule the Empire as it had before Caesar and Augustus.
The position of the Princeps was an elaborate facade that required the most powerful man in Rome to act as if he were nothing more than a concerned citizen and magistrate under the Senate's supervision. Caligula, faced with an uncooperative Senate, seems to have quickly tired of this facade and decided to act indiscriminantly with the powers given to him as Princeps. The vast financial reserves that Tiberius had left behind were quickly spent and the imperial treasury emptied by the end of Caligula's brief reign. Caligula's reign saw the expansion of the imperial court and imperial palace into the Forum itself. Imperial duties and responsibilities that Tiberius had returned to the Senate were reclaimed as rights of the Princeps, and the powers of the Senate were further restricted. Perhaps modeling his rule after the Hellenistic monarchs, Caligula sought to make himself the center of all religious activity, as has been noted above.
In essence, Caligula sought to take the Principate to its next logical step: a divine monarchy. However, the complexities of Roman society and Roman politics demanded that the facade of the "first-citizen" be continued. Suetonius compares Caligula to Julius Caesar; in the mind of the Roman Senate, the delicately balanced Principate had become little more than the tyranny it had rid itself of a century before. Thus, much of the sensational accusations leveled at Caligula could be viewed as politically motivated attacks against his character and his memory. It must be kept in mind that the records that we have today of Caligula were all written by his political opponents, and those most damaged by his attempt to enforce his absolute authority.
==Legacy==
Regardless of whether Caligula is viewed as an insane monarch or simply a misguided politician, the conclusion remains the same. Whatever damage [[Tiberius]]’s later years had done to the carefully crafted political edifice created by [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]], Caligula multiplied it a hundred-fold. When he came to power in 37, Caligula had no administrative experience beyond his honorary quaestorship, and had spent an unhappy early life far from the public eye. He appears, once in power, to have realized the boundless scope of his authority and acted accordingly. For the elite, this situation proved intolerable and ensured the blackening of Caligula's name in the historical record they would dictate. The sensational and hostile nature of that record, however, should in no way trivialize Caligula's importance. His reign highlighted an inherent weakness in Augustus’s [[Principate]], now openly revealed for what it was -- a raw [[monarchy]] in which only the self-discipline of the incumbent acted as a restraint on his behavior rather than the "first among equals" Augustus had intended. That the only means of retiring the wayward Princeps was murder marked another important revelation: Roman emperors could not relinquish their powers without simultaneously relinquishing their lives. Caligula would be the first of many emperors to be executed in the years to come.
==Bibliography==
* ''Caligula: the corruption of power'' by Anthony A. Barrett (Batsford 1989) ISBN 0713454873
*[[Ludwig Quidde]]'s essay ''Caligula. Eine Studie über römischen Caesarenwahnsinn'' (''Caligula: A Study of Imperial Insanity'') ([[1894]]), in which Caligula is likened to the [[Germany|German]] [[Emperor]] [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]].
* '''''Caligula''''' is the title of a play by [[Albert Camus]], which was the basis for a 1996 Hungarian movie and the 2001 made for TV version.
* '''''[[Caligula (film)]]''''' is also a controversial [[1979]] [[film|movie]] starring [[Malcolm McDowell]], [[Teresa Ann Savoy]], [[Helen Mirren]], and [[Peter O'Toole]].
* Actor Jay Robinson played Caligula in ''[[The Robe]]'' [[1953]] and its sequel ''[[Demetrius and the Gladiators]]'' [[1954]]. ''See'' [[Caligula (film)]]
* [[John Hurt]] played Caligula in the TV adaptation of [[Robert Graves]]'s book ''[[I, Claudius]]''.
* Grant, Michael, ''The Twelve Caesars''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1975
* Hurley, Donna W., ''An Historical and Historiographical Commentary on Suetonius' "Life of C. Caligula"''. Atlanta, Geogia: Scholars Press. 1993.
===Primary Sources===
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html Life of Caligula] (Suetonius; English translation and Latin original)
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/59*.html Cassius Dio, Book&nbsp;59] (English translation)
===Secondary Material===
*[http://www.roman-emperors.org/gaius.htm Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mcaligula.html Straight Dope article]
*[http://www.romansonline.com/Persns.asp?IntID=3&Ename=Caligula Caligula]
*[http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/caligula.html A chronological account of his reign]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/7094/cal4.html A critical account of a number of his reported activities]
*[http://www.caligulathemovie.com/family1.html His genealogical tree]
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s/216.120.137.17|216.120.137.17]] ([[User talk:216.120.137.17|talk]]) to last version by Jolomo</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Key-Francis-Scott-LOC.jpg|thumb|Francis Scott Key]]
'''Francis Scott Key''' ([[August 1]], [[1779]]&ndash;[[January 11]], [[1843]]) was an [[United States|American]] lawyer and amateur poet who wrote the United States national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner". He is buried in [[Frederick, Maryland]] and is an alumnus of [[St. John's College, U. S.|St. John's College, Annapolis]].
During the [[War of 1812]], Key, accompanied by the American Prisoner Exchange Agent Col. John Stuart Skinner, dined with VAdm. Cochrane, RAdm. Sir George Cockburn and Major General Robert Ross, aboard the HMS Tonnant where they negotiated the release of a prisoner, Dr. William Beanes (A resident of Upper Marlboro, Maryland captured by the British after he placed rowdy stragglers under citizen's arrest). After the release of Dr. Beanes, Skinner, Key and Beanes were allowed to return to their own sloop, but were not allowed to return to Baltimore because they had become familiar with the strength and position of the British units and of the British intention to attack Baltimore. As a result of this, Key witnessed the bombarding of Ft. McHenry during the [[Battle of Baltimore]] and was inspired to write a poem entitled "The Defense of Ft. McHenry", later named "The [[Star Spangled Banner]]". Under this name, the song was adopted as the American national anthem, first by an Executive Order from President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, and then by an Act of Congress in [[1931]].
In 1835 Key prosecuted [[Richard Lawrence]] for his unsuccessful attempt to assassinate [[President of the United States]] [[Andrew Jackson]].
Key was a distant cousin of [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]. His direct descendants include the 1960s style icon [[Pauline de Rothschild]], geneticist [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]], and guitarist [[Dana Key]].
[[Image:ft_mchenry_cannon.750.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Fort McHenry looking towards the position of the British ships (with the [[Francis Scott Key Bridge (Baltimore)|Francis Scott Key Bridge]] in the distance on the upper left)]]
The [[Francis Scott Key Bridge (Washington)|Francis Scott Key Bridge]] between the [[Rosslyn, Virginia|Rosslyn]] section of [[Arlington County, Virginia]], and [[Georgetown, Washington, D.C.|Georgetown]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] , and the [[Francis Scott Key Bridge (Baltimore)|Francis Scott Key Bridge]], part of the [[Interstate 695 (Maryland)|Baltimore Beltway]] crossing the outer harbor of [[Baltimore, Maryland]], are named in his honor. Baltimore's Francis Scott Key Bridge is located at the approximate point where the British anchored to shell [[Fort McHenry]].
==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Star-spangled banner.ogg|title=The Star-Spangled Banner (1942)|description=[[Fred Waring]] and His Pennsylvanians sing The Star-Spangled Banner in 1942|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=MargaretWoodrowWilson-TheStarSpangledBanner.ogg|title=The Star-Spangled Banner (1915)|description=A 1915 recording of the Star-Spangled Banner as sung by Margaret Woodrow "Woody" Wilson, daughter of [[Woodrow Wilson]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
==External links==
*[http://www.usflag.org/history/francisscottkey.html Short biography]
<!--[[Image:francis_scott_key.jpg]]-->
[[Category:1779 births|Key, Francis Scott]]
[[Category:1843 deaths|Key, Francis Scott]]
[[Category:American lawyers|Key, Francis Scott]]
[[Category:American poets|Key, Francis Scott]]
[[Category:District attorneys|Key, Francis Scott]]
[[Category:Lawyers|Key, Francis Scott]]
[[Category:People from Baltimore|Key, Francis Scott]]
[[da:Francis Scott Key]]
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[[no:Francis Scott Key]]
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[[sv:Francis Scott Key]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>FSU</title>
<id>10938</id>
<revision>
<id>41661537</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T22:22:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>12.181.161.33</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''FSU''' may refer to:
* the Former [[Soviet Union]], that is, the nations of [[Russia]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Belarus]], [[Ukraine]], [[Moldova]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], and [[Tajikistan]]. These countries (except Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) now form the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS).
*F___ State University:
** [[Florida State University]]
** [[Fresno State University]]
** [[Fayetteville State University]]
** [[Ferris State University]]
** [[Frostburg State University]]
*[[Friedrich Schiller University of Jena]]
* [[Frei-Sozial Union]], a German party
* the [[Finance Sector Union]], a [[trade union]] in [[Australia]]
* the phrase Fuck Shit Up
* [[Figure Skating Universe]], a figure skating message board
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:FSU]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Formal language</title>
<id>10939</id>
<revision>
<id>41708174</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T05:10:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PlatypeanArchcow</username>
<id>233390</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], [[logic]], and [[computer science]], a '''formal language''' is a [[set]] of finite-length words (i.e. [[character string]]s) drawn from some finite [[alphabet]], and the scientific theory that deals with these entities is known as ''formal language theory''. Note that we can talk about ''formal language'' in many contexts (scientific, legal, linguistic and so on), meaning a mode of expression more careful and accurate, or more mannered than everyday speech. The sense of formal language dealt with in this article is the precise sense studied in formal language theory.
An alphabet might be <math>\left \{ a , b \right \}</math>, and a string over that alphabet might be <math>ababba</math>.
A typical language over that alphabet, containing that string, would be the set of all strings which contain the same number of symbols <math>a</math> and <math>b</math>.
The '''empty word''' (that is, length-zero string) is allowed and is often denoted by <math>e</math>, <math>\epsilon</math> or <math>\Lambda</math>. While the alphabet is a finite set and every string has finite length, a language may very well have infinitely many member strings (because the length of words in it may be unbounded).
Some examples of formal languages:
* the set of all words over <math>{a, b}</math>
* the set <math>\left \{ a^{n}\right\}</math>, n is a [[prime number]] and <math>a^{n}</math> means <math>a</math> repeated <math>n</math> times
* the set of syntactically correct programs in a given programming language; or
* the set of inputs upon which a certain [[Turing machine]] halts.
A formal language can be specified in a great variety of ways, such as:
* Strings produced by some [[formal grammar]] (see [[Chomsky hierarchy]]);
* Strings produced by a [[regular expression]];
* Strings accepted by some [[automaton]], such as a [[Turing machine]] or [[Finite state machine|finite state automaton]];
* From a set of related YES/NO questions those ones for which the answer is YES &mdash; see [[decision problem]].
Several operations can be used to produce new languages from given ones. Suppose <math>L_{1}</math> and <math>L_{2}</math> are languages over some common alphabet.
* The ''concatenation'' <math>L_{1}L_{2}</math> consists of all strings of the form <math>vw</math> where <math>v</math> is a string from <math>L_{1}</math> and <math>w</math> is a string from <math>L_{2}</math>.
* The ''intersection'' <math>L_1 \cap L_2</math> of <math>L_{1}</math> and <math>L_{2}</math> consists of all strings which are contained in <math>L_1</math> and also in <math>L_{2}</math>.
* The ''union'' <math>L_1 \cup L_2</math> of <math>L_{1}</math> and <math>L_{2}</math> consists of all strings which are contained in <math>L_{1}</math> or in <math>L_{2}</math>.
* The ''complement'' of the language <math>L_{1}</math> consists of all strings over the alphabet which are not contained in <math>L_{1}</math>.
* The ''right quotient'' <math>L_{1}/L_{2}</math> of <math>L_{1}</math> by <math>L_{2}</math> consists of all strings <math>v</math> for which there exists a string <math>w</math> in <math>L_{2}</math> such that <math>vw</math> is in <math>L_{1}</math>.
* The ''[[Kleene star]]'' <math>L_{1}^{*}</math> consists of all strings which can be written in the form <math>w_{1}w_{2}...w_{n}</math> with strings <math>w_{i}</math> in <math>L_{1}</math> and <math>n \ge 0</math>. Note that this includes the empty string <math>\epsilon</math> because <math>n = 0</math> is allowed.
* The ''reverse'' <math>L_{1}^{R}</math> contains the reversed versions of all the strings in <math>L_{1}</math>.
* The ''shuffle'' of <math>L_{1}</math> and <math>L_{2}</math> consists of all strings which can be written in the form <math>v_{1}w_{1}v_{2}w_{2}...v_{n}w_{n}</math> where <math>n \ge 1</math> and <math>v_{1},...,v_{n}</math>
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the city of [[Eilat]], severing Jerusalem's connection with the Red Sea. Saladin, who was set up as Vizier of Egypt, was declared Sultan in [[1171]] with the death of the last of the Fatimid dynasty. Saladin's rise to Sultan was an unexpected reprieve for Jerusalem, as Nur ad-Din was now preoccupied with reining in his powerful vassal. Nevertheless, in 1171 Amalric visited Constantinople himself and envoys were sent to the kings of Europe for a second time, but again they were uninterested. Over the next few years the kingdom was threatened by not only Saladin and Nur ad-Din, but also the [[Hashshashin]]; in one episode, the Knights Templar murdered some Hashshashin envoys, leading to further disputes between Amalric and the Templars.
== Death ==
Nur ad-Din died in 1174, upon which Amalric immediately besieged Banias. On the way back after giving up the siege he fell ill from [[dysentery]], which was ameliorated by doctors but turned into a [[fever]] in Jerusalem. William of Tyre explains that "after suffering intolerably from the fever for several days, he ordered physicians of the Greek, Syrian, and other nations noted for skill in diseases to be called and insisted that they give him some purgative remedy." Neither they nor Latin doctors could help, and he died on July 11, 1174.
Maria Comnena had borne Amalric two daughters: [[Isabella of Jerusalem|Isabella]], who would eventually marry four husbands in turn and succeed as queen, was born in [[1172]]; and a stillborn child some time later. On his deathbed Amalric bequeathed [[Nablus]] to Maria and Isabella, both of whom would retire there. The leprous child Baldwin IV succeeded his father and brought his mother Agnes of Courtenay (now married to her fourth husband) back to court.
==Physical characteristics==
William was a good friend of Amalric and described him in great detail. "He had a slight impediment in his speech, not serious enough to be considered as a defect but sufficient to render him incapable of ready eloquence. He was far better in counsel than in fluent or ornate speech." Like his brother Baldwin III, he was more of an academic than a warrior, who studied law and languages in his leisure time: "He was well skilled in the customary law by which the kingdom was governed – in fact, he was second to no one in this respect." He was probably responsible for an assize making all rear-vassals directly subject to the king and eligible to appear at the Haute Cour. Amalric had an enormous curiosity, and William was reportedly astonished to find Amalric questioning, during an illness, the [[Resurrection of the dead|resurrection]] of the body. He especially enjoyed reading and being read too, spending long hours listening to William read early drafts of his history. He did not enjoy games or spectacles, although he liked to hunt. He was trusting of his officials, perhaps too trusting, and it seems that there were many among the population who despised him, although he refused to take any action against those who insulted him publicly.
He was tall and fairly handsome; "he had sparkling eyes of medium size; his nose, like that of his brother, was becomingly aquiline; his hair was blond and grew back somewhat from his forehead. A comely and very full beard covered his cheeks and chin. He had a way of laughing immoderately so that his entire body shook." He did not overeat or drink to excess, but his corpulence grew in his later years, decreasing his interest in military operations; according to William, he "was excessively fat, with breasts like those of a woman hanging down to his waist."
Amalric was pious and attended mass every day, although he also "is said to have absconded himself without restraint to the sins of the flesh and to have seduced married women…" Despite his piety he taxed the clergy, which they naturally opposed.
As William says, "he was a man of wisdom and discretion, fully competent to hold the reins of government in the kingdom." He is considered the last of the "early" [[kings of Jerusalem]], after whom there was no king able to save Jerusalem from its eventual collapse. Within a few years, Emperor Manuel died as well, and Saladin remained the only strong leader in the east.
== Sources ==
*Bernard Hamilton, "Women in the Crusader States: The Queens of Jerusalem", in Medieval Women, edited by Derek Baker. Ecclesiatical History Society, 1978
*[[Steven Runciman]], ''A History of the Crusades, vol. II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem''. [[Cambridge University Press]], 1952
*[[William of Tyre]], ''A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea'', trans. E.A. Babcock and A.C. Krey. [[Columbia University Press]], 1943
*{{1911}}
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{{succession box | title=[[King of Jerusalem]] | before=[[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]] | after=[[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin IV]] | years=1162&ndash;1174}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1136 births|Amalric I of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:1174 deaths|Amalric I of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Kings of Jerusalem]]
[[de:Amalrich I. (Jerusalem)]]
[[es:Amalarico I de Jerusalén]]
[[fr:Amaury Ier de Jérusalem]]
[[he:אמלריך הראשון מלך ירושלים]]
[[pl:Amalryk I]]
[[zh:阿马尔里克]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Amalric II of Jerusalem</title>
<id>1872</id>
<revision>
<id>41825248</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:06:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Silverwhistle</username>
<id>320505</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>typo correction</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalric II''' ([[1145]] &ndash; [[April 1]], [[1205]]), [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]] [[1197]]&ndash;[[1205]], was an older brother of [[Guy of Lusignan]].
The [[Lusignan]] family was noted for its many Crusaders. Amalric and Guy were sons of [[Hugh VIII of Lusignan]], who had himself campaigned in the Holy Land in the [[1160s]]. After being expelled from [[Poitou]] by their overlord, [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lion-hearted]], for the murder of [[Patrick of Salisbury]], 1st [[Earl of Salisbury]], Amalric arrived in Palestine c. [[1174]], Guy possibly later. Amalric married Eschiva, daughter of [[Baldwin of Ibelin]]. He then took service with [[Agnes of Courtenay]], wife of [[Reginald of Sidon]] and mother of [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]]. The pro-Ibelin ''Chronicle of [[Ernoul]]'' later claimed that he was her lover, but it is likely that she and Baldwin IV were attempting to separate him from the political influence of his wife's family. He was appointed [[Officers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem|constable of Jerusalem]] in [[1179]]. [[Guy of Lusignan|Guy]] married the king's widowed older sister, [[Sibylla of Jerusalem]] in [[1180]], and so gained a claim to the kingdom of Jerusalem.
Amalric was among those captured with his brother after the disastrous [[Battle of Hattin]] in [[1187]]. In [[1194]], on the death of Guy, he became [[Kingdom of Cyprus|King of Cyprus]] as Amalric I. By his first wife, Eschiva of Ibelin, he was the father of [[Hugh I of Cyprus]]. After Eschiva's death in [[1197]] he married [[Isabella of Jerusalem|Isabella]], the daughter of [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]] by his second marriage, and became [[kings of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]] in right of his wife in January, [[1198]].
In 1198 he was able to procure a five years' truce with the [[Muslim]]s, owing to the struggle between [[Saladin]]'s brothers and his sons for the inheritance of his territories. The truce was disturbed by raids on both sides, but in [[1204]] it was renewed for six years.
Amalric died of dysentery (allegedly brought on by "a surfeit of white mullet") in 1205, just after his son Amalric and just before his wife. The kingdom of Cyprus passed to [[Hugh I of Cyprus|Hugh]], his son by Eschiva, while the [[kingdom of Jerusalem]] passed to [[Maria of Montferrat|Maria]], the daughter of Isabella by her previous marriage with [[Conrad of Montferrat]].
==Wives and Children==
His first wife was Eschiva of Ibelin, married in [[1174]]. They had six children:
# Bourgogne (c. [[1178]] &ndash; c. [[1210]]), married [[Raymond VI of Toulouse]] [[1193]], div. [[1194]], married Walter of Montbéliard [[1197]]
# Guy, died young
# John, died young
# [[Hugh I of Cyprus]] (c. [[1194]]&ndash;[[1218]])
# Helvis (c. [[1190]] &ndash; c. [[1217]]), married c. 1205 Eudes of Dampiere, Lord of Chargey-le-Grey, div. [[1210]], married September 1210 [[Raymond-Roupen of Antioch]]
# Alix, died young
His second wife was Isabella of Jerusalem, married January, 1198 in [[Akko|Acre]]. They had three children:
# [[Sibylla of Lusignan]] ([[1198]]-[[1230]]), married King [[Leo II of Armenia]]
# [[Melisende of Lusignan]] ([[1200]] &ndash; aft. [[1249]]), married [[January 1]], [[1218]] [[Bohemund IV of Antioch]]
# Amalric ([[1201]]&ndash;[[February 2]], [[1205]], Acre)
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Kingdom of Cyprus|King of Cyprus]] | before=[[Guy of Lusignan|Guy]] | after=[[Hugh I of Cyprus|Hugh I]] | years=1194&ndash;1205}}
{{succession box | title=[[King of Jerusalem]] | before=[[Isabella of Jerusalem|Isabella]] and [[Henry II of Champagne|Henry II]] | after=[[Maria of Montferrat|Maria]] | years=1197&ndash;1205<br />(with '''[[Isabella of Jerusalem|Isabella]]''')}}
{{end box}}
==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:1145 births|{{{key}}}]]
[[Category:1205 deaths|{{{key}}}]]
[[Category:Kings of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Kings of Cyprus]]
[[Category:Kings consort]]
[[de:Amalrich I. (Zypern)]]
[[fr:Amaury II de Lusignan]]
[[pl:Amalryk II]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Anthemius of Tralles</title>
<id>1873</id>
<revision>
<id>41523035</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T22:53:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>TigerShark</username>
<id>161478</id>
</contributor>
|
ars|fourth brightest star]] in the night sky, with an [[apparent visual magnitude]] of &minus;0.01. It is famous in the Southern Hemisphere as the outermost &ldquo;pointer&rdquo; to the [[Crux|Southern Cross]], but it is too far south to be visible in most of the northern hemisphere. To the naked eye, the two brightest components of the system are too close for the eye to be able to resolve them as separate stars, so it is perceived as a single source of light with a total visual magnitude of about &minus;0.27, which is brighter than [[Arcturus]].
It is the closest [[star]] system beyond our own [[solar system]], at 4.2–4.4 [[light-year]]s. That makes it a logical choice as "first port of call" for [[science fiction]] speculation about space travel. In fact many [[novels]], [[video game]]s, and the like focus on man's eventual exploration of the system, and even colonisation of speculative [[planet]]s within the system.
==Names==
It bears the proper name '''Rigil Kentaurus''' (often shortened to '''Rigil Kent'''), derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] phrase ''Al Rijl al Kentaurus'', meaning "foot of the centaur," but is nonetheless usually referred to by its [[Bayer designation]] ''Alpha Centauri''. Another alternative name is '''Toliman'''. It is also sometimes known as '''Bungula''', possibly from the [[Latin]] word ''ungula'' meaning "hoof". It and [[Beta Centauri]] (which is close to Alpha Centauri in [[angular]] distance as seen from the Earth, but is actually many light-years away) are the "Pointers" to the [[Crux|Southern Cross]]. Alpha and Beta Centauri are the second closest pair of first magnitude stars as seen from the Earth, and due to the effects of [[proper motion]], they will become the closest pair in around 2166, overtaking [[Acrux]] and [[Becrux]].
''Alpha Centauri A'' is also known as [[Henry Draper Catalogue|HD]] 128620, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 5459, [[Cape Photographic Durchmusterung|CP-60°5483]], [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 3309.00A, and [[Luyten Half-Second Catalogue|LHS]] 50.
''Alpha Centauri B'' is also known as HD 128621, HR 5460, GCTP 3309.00B, and LHS 51.
==System components==
[[Image:Alpha Centauri relative sizes.png|thumb|left|300px|Size and color of the Sun compared to the stars in the Alpha Centauri system]]
Alpha Centauri is a triple star system. It consists of two main stars, ''Alpha Centauri A'' and ''Alpha Centauri B'' (which form a [[binary star]] together) at a distance of 4.36 [[light-year|ly]], and a dimmer [[red dwarf]] named [[Proxima Centauri]] at a distance of 4.22 ly. Both of the two main stars are rather similar to the [[Sun]]. The larger member of the binary star, ''Alpha Centauri A'', is the most similar to the [[Sun]], but a little larger and brighter. Like the Sun, its [[Stellar classification|spectral type]] is G2 V, and, like the sun, shines in a yellowish-white light. The smaller of the two, ''Alpha Centauri B'', is dimmer, with a spectral type of K1 V, somewhat smaller and dimmer than the sun, but astronomically similar enough, shining with more of an orangish-yellow-white light. The two orbit one another elliptically ([[Eccentricity (orbit) |e]]=0.52), approaching as close as 11.2 [[astronomical unit]]s (2&times;10<sup>&minus;4</sup> ly) and receding to 35.6 AU (6&times;10<sup>&minus;4</sup> ly), with a period of just under 80 years. Hence the sum of the two masses is <math>23.4^3/80^2=2.0</math> times that of the Sun (see [[Two-body problem#Gravity|formula]]).
These two stars are about 5 to 6 billion years old.
The red dwarf Proxima Centauri is about 13,000 astronomical units away from Alpha Centauri (1 ly = 63,241 AU, hence this is 0.21 ly, about 1/20 of the distance between Alpha Centauri and the Sun, it is 0.14 ly closer to us) and may be in orbit about it, with a period on the order of 500,000 years or more. For this reason, Proxima is sometimes referred to as ''Alpha Centauri C''. However, it is not clear if it really is in orbit, although the association is unlikely to be entirely accidental as it shares approximately the same motion through space as the larger star system.
Seen from Earth, Proxima is separated by 2 degrees from Alpha Centauri A and B (about 4 times the angular diameter of the full Moon), and the latter are at an angular distance of up to 40" from each other.
[[Image:AlphaCentauri_AB_Trajectory.gif|thumb|left|300px|Apparent and real trajectory of B component relative to A component]]
The closest neighbours to the Alpha Centauri system are the Sun and [[Barnard's star]] (1.98 [[parsec|pc]] or 6.47 ly), which is also the next nearest star from Earth, at a distance of 5.96 ly.
==Possibility of planet formation==
Computer models of planetary formation suggest that [[terrestrial planet]]s would be able to form close to both Alpha Centauri A and B, but that [[gas giant]] planets similar to our [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] would not be able to form because of the binary stars' gravitational effects. Given the similarities in star type, age and stability of the orbits it has been suggested that this solar system may hold one of the best possibilities for [[extraterrestrial life]]. However, some astronomers have speculated that any terrestrial planets in the Alpha Centauri system may be dry because it is believed that Jupiter and Saturn were crucial at directing [[comet]]s into the inner solar system and providing the inner planets with a source of [[water]]. This would not be a problem, however, if Alpha Centauri B happened to play a similar role for Alpha Centauri A that the gas giants do for the [[Sun]], and vice versa. Both stars are of the right [[spectral type]] to harbor life on a potential planet (most astronomers believe that stars of spectral types from about F5 to K5 are hot enough, but long-lived and stable enough, to support potential Earthlike worlds).
A planet around Alpha Centauri A would be about 1.25 [[astronomical unit|AU]]'s away from the star if it were to have Earthlike temperatures, or about halfway between the distances of [[Earth]]'s orbit and [[Mars]]' orbit in our own [[solar system]]. For dimmer, cooler Alpha Centauri B, the distance would be about 0.7 [[AU]]'s, or about the distance of [[Venus]] from the [[Sun]].
==Sky appearance from Alpha Centauri==
Viewed from near Alpha Centauri, the sky (other than the Alpha Centauri stars) would appear very much as it does to observers on Earth, with most of the constellations such as [[Ursa Major]] and [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] being almost unchanged. However, Centaurus would be missing its brightest star and our [[Sun]] would appear as a 0.5-magnitude star in [[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]]. Roughly speaking, the \/\/ of Cassiopeia would become a /\/\/, with the Sun at the leftmost end, closest to [[Epsilon Cassiopeiae|&epsilon; Cassiopeiae]]. The position can easily be plotted as [[right ascension|RA]] 02h39m35s, [[declination|dec]] +60°50', or [[antipodal point|antipodal]] to Alpha Centauri's position as seen from Earth.
Nearby very bright stars such as [[Sirius]] and [[Procyon]] would appear to be in very different positions, as would [[Altair]] to a lesser extent. Sirius would become part of the constellation of Orion, appearing 2 degrees to the west of [[Betelgeuse]], slightly dimmer than from here (-1.2). The stars [[Fomalhaut]] and [[Vega]], although further away, would appear somewhat displaced as well. Proxima Centauri would be an inconspicuous 4.5 magnitude star, which considering it would only be a quarter of a [[light-year]] away shows just how dim Proxima really is.
<!--- To compute the following figures, use masses 1.1 and 0.92 Suns, luminosities 1.57 and 0.51 Suns (Sun visual magnitude -26.73), and an orbit of 11.2 to 35.6 AUs; min luminosity adds the planet's orbital radius to the max A-B distance (conjunction), max luminosity subtracts the planet's orbital radius from the min A-B distance (opposition) --->A hypothetical planet around either &alpha; Centauri A or B would see the other star as a very bright secondary. For example, an Earth-like planet at 1.25 [[Astronomical Unit]]s from &alpha; Cen A (with a revolution period of 1.34 [[year|a]]) would get Sun-like illumination from its primary, and &alpha; Cen B would appear 5.7 to 8.6 magnitudes dimmer (&minus;21.0 to &minus;18.2), 190 to 2700 times dimmer than &alpha; Cen A but still 29 to 9 times brighter than the full Moon. Conversely, an Earth-like planet at 0.71 AUs from &alpha; Cen B (with a revolution period of 0.63 [[year|a]]) would get Sun-like illumination from its primary, and α Cen A would appear 4.6 to 7.3 magnitudes dimmer (&minus;22.1 to &minus;19.4), 70 to 840 times dimmer than &alpha; Cen B but still 45 to 15 times brighter than the full Moon. In both cases the secondary sun would, in the course of the planet's year, appear to circle the sky. It would start off right beside the primary and end up, half a period later, opposite it in the sky (a "midnight sun"). After another half period, it would complete the cycle. For a hypothetical Earthlike planet around either star, the secondary sun would not be bright enough to adversely affect climate or plant photosynthesis (being as far away as [[Saturn]] is from our [[Sun]]), but would mean that for about half the year, the night sky, instead of a pitch black would appear a dark blue, and one could walk around rather easily without artificial light.
==Apparent movement==
In about 4000 years, the [[proper motion]] of Alpha Centauri will mean that from the point of view of Earth it will appear close enough to [[Beta Centauri]] to form an optical [[double star]]. Beta Centauri is in reality far more distant than Alpha Centauri.
[[Image:Motion-of-Alpha-Cen.jpg|thumb|170px|Apparent motio
|
d
* See also Salmond on "Citizenship and Allegiance," in the ''Law Quarterly Review'' (July 1901, January 1902).
----
'''Allegiance''' is also a [[computer game]] by [[Microsoft Research]].
''See:'' [[Allegiance (computer game)]]
'''Allegiance''' is also an episode of [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]].
''See:'' [[Allegiance (TNG episode)]]
[[de:Loyalität]]
[[es:lealtad]]
[[Category:Nationalism]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Absolute majority</title>
<id>882</id>
<revision>
<id>24233840</id>
<timestamp>2005-09-28T14:12:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KnightRider</username>
<id>430793</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>warnfile Adding: es</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Absolute majority''' is a [[supermajority|supermajoritarian]] [[voting]] requirement which is stricter than a [[simple majority]]. It means that more than half of ''all'' the members of a group, including those absent and those present but not voting, must [[vote]] in favour of a proposition in order for that proposition to be passed.
As an example, let's say that a member of a club of 100 members proposes a new [[bylaw]]. According to the club's practice, for the bylaw to pass, it requires an absolute majority. The results of the vote are 40 yes votes and 30 no votes. The rest of the voters either abstained or did not vote. Even though this arrangement is a [[simple majority]], since an absolute majority for the club is 51 members, the proposed bylaw fails.
Absolute majority voting is most often used to pass changes to constitutions or to [[bylaw]]s in order to ensure that there is affirmative support for a proposal. Most voting decisions require a [[simple majority]] or even just a [[plurality]].
==Examples of absolute majority voting==
From 2005, an absolute majority of the electorate in addition to a three-fourths vote of the [[legislature]] is necessary to pass amendments to the [[Constitution of the Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] as well as to ratify a [[referendum]]. The requirement of an absolute majority rather than a simple majority effectively gives both major political blocs the power to veto a referendum or constitutional amendment.
In the [[politics of the European Union]], any decision taken using the [[codecision procedure]] requires an absolute majority in [[European Parliament]] in order to amend a text in its second reading. (At first reading, only a [[simple majority]] is required.)
==See also==
* [[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
[[Category:Elections]]
[[Category:Voting theory]]
[[es:Mayoría absoluta]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Afrika Islam</title>
<id>883</id>
<revision>
<id>40280861</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-19T13:49:59Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Urthogie</username>
<id>106482</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>minor</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Afrika Islam''', born '''Charles Glenn''', and known also as the '''Son of [[Afrika Bambaataa|Bambaataa]],''' is a [[hip hop production|hip-hop producer]]. He left [[New York]] for [[Los Angeles]] and went on to co-produce most of [[Ice T]]'s early albums, namely ''[[Rhyme Pays]]'' and ''Power''; the latter is deemed to be Ice's finest effort by some aficionados. In the late [[1990s]], Afrika Islam joined German [[techno music|techno]] icon [[Westbam]] to form [[Mr. X and Mr. Y]], a techno duo that made commercial techno with [[Electro (music)|Electro]] influences. "Back to Berlin" quotes from the Old School rap classic "New York New York" by [[Grandmaster Flash]].
[[Category:Hip hop producers|Islam, Afrika]]
[[als:Afrika Islam]]
[[de:Afrika Islam]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Adventure International</title>
<id>884</id>
<revision>
<id>38699696</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-08T01:24:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Deadcujo</username>
<id>708381</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Hyphenation and capitalisation of "Spider-Man".</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Adventure International''' was a [[Computer and video games|video game]] publishing company that existed from 1978 until 1985, started by Scott and Alexis Adams. Their games were notable for being the first implementation of the adventure genre to run on a microcomputer system. The adventure game concept originally came from [[Colossal Cave Adventure]] which ran strictly on large mainframe systems at the time.
After the success of their first game "Adventureland", games followed rapidly, with Adventure International (or "AI") releasing about two games a year. Initially the games were drawn from the founders imagination, with themes ranging from [[fantasy]] to [[Horror fiction|horror]] and sometimes [[science fiction]]. Some of the later games were written by Scott Adams and other collaborators. Adventure Internationals' games became known for quality, with a reputation only exceeded in the field at the time by [[Infocom]].
Fourteen games later, Adventure International began to release games drawn from film and fiction. The extremely rare Buckaroo Banzai game, developed with Phillip Case, was based on the film [[The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai Across the Eighth Dimension]] ([[1984]]). Other games came from a more well known source: [[Marvel Comics]]. Adventure International released three games based on the Marvel characters: "The Incredible Hulk", "Spider-Man" and "Torch and the Thing".
By the end of [[1982]], game tastes were changing. The traditional text-based [[adventure game]] market had moved to graphical based adventures. Games like [[The Hobbit (video game)|The Hobbit]] had increased expectations of such games, and although Adventure International games included graphics of a sort, they were significantly inferior to contemporary offerings at the time and the company was rapidly losing [[market share]].
Adventure International went [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]] in [[1985]]. The [[copyright]]s for its games reverted to the bank and eventually back to Scott Adams who released them as [[shareware]]. At its peak in late 1983 to early 1984 Adventure International employed approximately 50 individuals, and published titles from over 300 independent programmer/authors.
In [[Europe]] the "Adventure International" name was a trading name of [[AdventureSoft]] and other games were released under the name that were not from Adventure International in the [[United States|USA]].
Alexis Adams has remained in the online world and runs the online sex site FatFantasy.net[http://www.fatfantasy.net] .
Scott Adams can be reached through his homepage at www.msadams.com[http://www.msadams.com]
==The Games==
Scott Adams's original twelve adventure games were
* ''Adventureland'',
* ''Pirate Adventure'' (also called ''Pirate's Cove''),
* ''Secret Mission'' (originally called ''Mission Impossible''),
* ''Voodoo Castle'',
* ''The Count'',
* ''Strange Odyssey'',
* ''Mystery Fun House'',
* ''Pyramid of Doom'',
* ''Ghost Town'',
* ''Savage Island'' parts I &amp; II, and
* ''The Golden Voyage''.
==External links==
* [http://www.freearcade.com/Zplet.jav/Scottadams.html Play Scott Adams games in your web browser]
* [http://www.if-legends.org/~adventure/Adventure_International/Classic.html IF Legends, detailed guide to Scott Adams Classic Adventures]
* [http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Developers_and_Publishers/A/Adventure_International/ Category at Open Directory]
[[Category:Defunct computer and video game companies]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Altenberg</title>
<id>885</id>
<revision>
<id>33133851</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-29T16:24:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Keithlaw</username>
<id>171631</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+dab tag</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Altenberg''' may refer to:
* [[Peter Altenberg]], an Austrian writer and poet
* [[Vieille Montagne]] (German name "Altenberg"), a former zinc mine in Kelmis
* [[Altenberg, Germany]], a city in [[Saxony]], Germany
* [[Altenberg, Austria]], a municipality in Austria near Vienna, on site the family mansion of [[Konrad Lorenz]]
[[de:Altenberg]]
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Arthur C. Clarke</title>
<id>886</id>
<revision>
<id>41754796</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:37:32Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Syrthiss</username>
<id>334792</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/167.206.233.170|167.206.233.170]] ([[User talk:167.206.233.170|talk]]) to last version by Jason One</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arthur C. Clarke.jpg|thumb|200px|Arthur C. Clarke]]
'''Sir Arthur Charles Clarke''' (born [[December 16]] [[1917]]) is the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[author]] and [[inventor]], most famous for his [[science-fiction]] novel ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', and for collaborating with director [[Stanley Kubrick]] on the film of the same name. Clarke is considered one of the Big Three of science fiction, along with [[Robert A. Heinlein]] and [[Isaac Asimov]]; he is the only one still alive.
==''2001: A Space Odyssey''== was written concurrently with the [[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|film version]] by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. It was loosely inspired by Clarke's short story "[[The Sentinel (short story)|The Sentinel]]", but became its own novel while he was collaborating on a screenplay with Kubrick. Kubrick approached Clarke about writing a novel for the express purpose of making "the proverbial good scien
|
://biology.queensu.ca/~burgt/pdf/Burg&Croxall2004.pdf]</ref> and for the most part 21 species is the number accepted by the [[IUCN]] and many others (though by no means not all—two authors have called for the number of species to be returned to 14<ref>Penhallurick, J. and Wink, M. (2004). "Analysis of the taxonomy and nomenclature of the Procellariformes based on complete nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene." ''Emu'' '''104''': 125-147.</ref>}).
The molecular study of the [[evolution]] of the bird families by [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy|Sibley and Ahlquist]] has put the [[Adaptive radiation|radiation]] of the [[Procellariiformes]] in the [[Oligocene]] period (35&ndash;30 million years ago), though the group has an older history, with a [[fossil]] attributed to the order, a seabird known as ''Tytthostonyx'', being found in late [[Cretaceous]] rocks (70 mya). The molecular evidence suggests that the storm-petrels were the first to diverge from the ancestral stock, and the albatrosses next, with the procellarids and diving petrels. The earliest fossil albatross was found in [[South Carolina]] in rocks dating from the Upper Oligocene, though it is uncertain which [[genus]] it should be attributed to. The four genera are believed to have split more recently; a fossil albatross attributed to the North Pacific albatrosses, ''Phoebastria californica'' was found in mid [[Miocene]] rocks in [[California]], showing the split between the great albatrosses and the North Pacific albatrosses occurred by 15 mya. Similar fossil finds in the southern hemisphere put the split between the sooties and mollymawks at 10 mya<ref name = "Brooke">Brooke, M. (2004). ''Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World'': Procellariidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK ISBN 0-19-850125-0</ref>.
The fossil record of the albatrosses in the northern hemisphere is more complete than that of the southern, and many fossil forms of albatross have been found in the North [[Atlantic]], which today has no albatrosses. The remains of a colony of [[Short-tailed Albatross]]es have been uncovered on the island of [[Bermuda]], and the majority of fossil albatrosses from the North Atlantic have been of the genus ''Phoebastria'' (the North Pacific albatrosses), one, ''Phoebastria anglica'', has been found in deposits in both [[North Carolina]] and [[England]].
===Morphology and flight===
[[Image:Black footed albatross.jpg|thumb|250px|Unlike most Procellariiformes, albatrosses, like this Black-footed Albatross, can walk well on land.]]
The albatrosses are a group of large to very large [[bird]]s, amongst the largest of the seabirds, with very long narrow wings, which are aerodynamically highly efficient. The [[beak|bill]] is large, strong and sharp-edged, the upper mandible terminating in a large hook. This bill is composed of several horny plates, and along the sides are the two 'tubes', long nostrils that give the [[order (biology)|order]] its name. The tubes of all albatrosses are along the sides of the bill, unlike the rest of the [[Procellariiformes]] were the tubes run along the top of the bill. These tubes allow the albatrosses to have an acute sense of smell, an unusual ability for birds. Like other Procellariiformes they use this olfactory ability while foraging in order to locate potential food sources<ref>Lequette, B., Verheyden, C., Jowentin, P. (1989) "Olfaction in Subantarctic seabirds: Its phylogenetic and ecological significance" ''The Condor'' '''91''': 732-135. [http://scholar.google.com/url?sa=U&q=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Condor/files/issues/v091n03/p0732-p0735.pdf]</ref>. The feet have no hind toe, and the three anterior toes are completely webbed. The legs are strong for Procellariiformes, in fact uniquely amongst the order in that they and the [[giant petrel]]s are able to walk well on land.
The adult [[plumage]] of most of the albatrosses is usually some variation of dark upper-wing and back, white undersides, often compared to that of a [[gull]]. At one extreme the [[Wandering Albatross]] is almost completely white except for the ends of the wings, at the other the [[Amsterdam Albatross]] has an almost juvenile like breeding plumage with a great deal of brown, particularly a strong brown band around the chest. Several species of [[mollymawk]]s and [[North Pacific albatross]]es have face and head markings like eye patches or are grey or yellow instead of white. Three albatross species, the [[Black-footed Albatross]] and the two [[Sooty albatross]]es vary completely from the usual patterns and are almost entirely black (or dark grey in the case of the [[Sooty Albatross]]). Albatrosses take several years to get their full adult breeding plumage.
The wingspans of the largest great albatrosses (genus ''Diomedea'') are the largest of any bird, exceeding 340 cm, although the other species' wingspans are considerably smaller. The wings are cambered, with thickened streamlined leading edges. Albatrosses travel huge distances with two techniques used by many long-winged seabirds, [[dynamic soaring]] and slope soaring. Dynamic soaring enables them to minimise the effort needed by gliding across wave fronts gaining [[energy]] from the vertical [[wind gradient]]. Slope soaring is more straightforward, the albatross turns to the wind, gaining height, from where it can then glide back down to the sea. Albatross have high glide ratios, around 22:23, meaning that for every metre they drop they can travel forwards 22 metres. They are aided in soaring by a shoulder-lock, a sheet of [[tendon]] that locks the wing when fully extended, allowing the wing to be kept up and out without any muscle expenditure, a morphological adaptation they share with the giant petrels<ref>Pennycuick, C. J. (1982). "The flight of petrels and albatrosses (Procellariiformes), observed in South Georgia and its vicinity". ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B'' '''300''': 75–106.</ref>.
[[Image:Albatross_shape.png|thumb|left|200px|Slope soaring and dynamic soaring allow albatrosses to travel great distances with little exertion.]]
Albatrosses combine these soaring techniques with the use of predictable [[weather]] systems; albatrosses in the southern hemisphere flying north from their colonies will take a clockwise route and those flying south will fly anticlockwise<ref name ="tick">Tickell, W.L.N. (2000). ''Albatrosses''. Sussex:Pica Press, ISBN 1-873403-94-1</ref>. Albatrosses are so well adapted to this lifestyle that their [[heart rate]]s while flying are close to their basal heart rate when resting. This efficiency is such that the most energetically demanding aspect of a foraging trip is not the distance covered, but the landings, takeoffs and hunting they undertake having found a food source<ref>Weimerskirch H, Guionnet T, Martin J, Shaffer SA, Costa DP. (2000) "Fast and fuel efficient? Optimal use of wind by flying albatrosses." ''Proc Biol Sci'' '''267''': (1455) 1869-74. </ref>. This efficient long distance travelling underlies the albatross's success as a long distance forager, covering great distances and expending little energy looking for patchily distributed food sources.
===Distribution and range at sea===
All albatrosses range in the southern hemisphere except for the four North Pacific albatrosses, of which three occur exclusively in the North Pacific, from Hawaii to Japan, California and Alaska; and one, the [[Waved Albatross]], breeds on the [[equator]] in the [[Galapagos Islands]] and feeds off the coast of [[South America]]. The need for wind in order to glide is the reason albatrosses are for the most part confined to higher latitudes, since they are unsuited to sustained flapping flight, and are usually incapable of crossing the [[doldrums]]. The exception to this rule is the Waved Albatross, which breeds and feeds in the equatorial waters around the Galapagos Islands, it is able to live there because of the cool waters of the [[Humboldt Current]].
It is not known for certain why the albatrosses became [[extinct]] in the North [[Atlantic]], although rising sea levels due to an [[interglacial]] warming period are thought to have submerged the Short-tailed Albatross colony found in Bermuda<ref>Olson, S.L., Hearty, P.J. (2003) "Probable extirpation of a breeding colony of Short-tailed Albatross (''Phoebastria albatrus'') on Bermuda by Pleistocene sea-level rise." ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Science'' '''100''': (22) 12825-12829.</ref>. Some southern species that have occasionally turned up as [[vagrancy (biology)|vagrants]] in the North Atlantic have essentially become exiled and can remain there for decades. One of these exiles, a [[Black-browed Albatross]], returned to [[gannet]] colonies in [[Scotland]] for many years in a lonely attempt to breed<ref name = "Brit">Cocker, M., & Mabey, R., (2005) ''Birds Britannica'' London:Chatto & Windus, ISBN 0-701-16907-9</ref>.
The use of [[satellite tracking]] is teaching scientists a great deal about the way albatrosses forgae across the ocean in order to find food. They undertake no annual [[bird migration|migration]], but disperse widely after breeding, in the case of southern hemisphere species often undertaking circumpolar trips<ref>Croxall, J. P., Silk, J.R.D., Phillips, R.A., Afanasyev, V., Briggs, D.R., (2005) "Global Circumnaviagtions: Tracking year-round ranges of nonbreeding Albatrosses" ''Science'' '''307''': 249-250.</ref>. There is also evidence that there is separation the ranges of different species at sea. Comparing the foraging [[niche]]s of two related species that breed on [[Campbell Island]], the [[Campbell Albatross]] and the [[Grey-headed Albatross]], the Campbell Albatross primarily fed over th
|
Bob (Blackadder character)|Bob]], before revealing her true gender and becoming romantically involved with Flashheart, in both the second and fourth series.
The [[Howard Goodall]] [[theme tune]] has the same [[melody]] throughout, but is played in roughly the style of the period in which it is set (mostly with [[trumpet]]s in ''The Black Adder''; with a combination of [[flute]], [[string quartet]] and [[electric guitar]] in ''Blackadder II''; on [[harpsichord]] for ''Blackadder the Third''; by a [[military band]] in ''Blackadder Goes Forth''; sung by [[Carol (music)|carol singers]] in ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''; and by an [[orchestra]] in ''Blackadder: The Cavalier Years'' and ''Blackadder: Back & Forth''.
===Popularity and effects on popular culture===
After the first series &mdash; which had enjoyed a considerable budget for a sitcom, and had been shot largely on location &mdash; the BBC decided not to take up the option of a follow-up. However, in 1984 [[Michael Grade]] took over as the controller of [[BBC One]] and, after talks with the ''Blackadder'' team, finally agreed that a second series could be made as long as the cost was dramatically cut. ''Blackadder II'' was therefore to be a studio-only production, with Ben Elton joining the writing team. Besides adding more jokes, Elton suggested a major change in character emphasis: Baldrick would become the stupid sidekick, while Edmund Blackadder evolved into the fast-talking intellectual. This led to the now familiar set-up that was maintained over all the following series.
While each episode was plot-driven, they were still formulaic to a degree. For example, whenever Blackadder found himself in a difficult situation (as was the case most of the time), Baldrick would invariably suggest a solution, starting with the words, "I have a cunning plan". This became the character's [[catch phrase]] and, while his ideas were usually totally unhelpful, he would sometimes come up with a scheme that went towards saving the day.
Also, ''Blackadder'' popularised the use of exaggerated simile and similar devices for comic effect in Britain. Examples include:
* "Madder than Mad Jack McMad, winner of last year's Mr. Madman competition."
* "I've got a plan so cunning, you could stick a tail on it and call it a weasel." or "As cunning as a fox who's just been appointed Professor of Cunning at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]]."
* "I'm as happy as a Frenchman who's just invented a pair of self-removing trousers."
* "I'm as weary as a dog with no legs that's just climbed [[Ben Nevis]]."
* "We're in the stickiest situation since Sticky the stick insect got stuck on a sticky bun."
* "Smarter than a brain pie."
* "Thicker than a whale omelette."
* [''on the theatre''] "A bunch of stupid actors running around with their chests thrust out so far you'd think their nipples were attached to a pair of charging elephants."
* "Baldrick, eternal torment in the company of Beelzebub and all his hellish companions will be a picnic compared to five minutes with me... and this pencil."
* "You, are as thick as clotted cream which has been left to stand until it has enough clots to ruin an electronic de-clotting machine."
It also turned the implied wit of wordplay on its head for humorous effect:
* "Blackadder... You twist and turn like a twisty, turny thing."
* "The grave opens up before me like a big hole in the ground."
* "Disease and deprivation stalk our land, like two giant stalking things."
* "We're as similar as two completely dissimilar things in a pod."
* "Better a ''lapdog'' to a ''slip of a girl'' than a ... git!"
* "I'd rather be a ''quack'' than a ''duckie'' &mdash; good day." (Note : this implies the following &mdash; quack as in fake doctor, and duckie as in homosexual. See the episode for a better understanding)
==The series and specials==
{{seealso|List of Blackadder episodes}}
===Chronological order===
*''[[#Series 1: The Black Adder|The Black Adder]]''
*''[[#Series 2: Blackadder II|Blackadder II]]''
*''[[#"Blackadder: The Cavalier Years"|Blackadder: The Cavalier Years]]''
*''[[#"Blackadder and the King's Birthday"|Blackadder and the King's Birthday]]''
*''[[#Series 3: Blackadder the Third|Blackadder the Third]]''
*''[[#"Blackadder's Christmas Carol"|Blackadder's Christmas Carol]]''
*''[[#Series 4: Blackadder Goes Forth|Blackadder Goes Forth]]''
*''[[#.22Blackadder: Back .26 Forth.22|Blackadder: Back & Forth]]''
*''[[#.22Blackadder: The Army Years.22|Blackadder: The Army Years]]''
{{spoiler}}
===Series 1: ''The Black Adder''===
:See also: [[List of Blackadder episodes#Series 1: The Black Adder (1983)|List of episodes in ''The Black Adder'']]
Set in the [[Middle Ages]], this series is written as a [[secret history]]. It opens with the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] (1485) being won by [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] (played by [[Peter Cook]] as being a rather nice man who doted on his nephews, contrary to the traditional view of him as a hunchbacked, infanticidal monster), instead of [[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor]] who won in reality. After his victory, Richard III is then accidentally killed by [[Prince Edmund (Blackadder)|Lord Edmund Plantagenet]] (Richard tries to borrow Blackadder's horse, but Edmund thinks he is stealing it and cuts his head off). The late King's nephew, [[King Richard IV of England|Richard, Duke of York]] (played by [[Brian Blessed]]) who is Lord Edmund Plantagenet's (The Black Adder) father, is then crowned as Richard IV. Lord Edmund never took part in the battle (he arrived late and went the wrong way, but claimed to have killed four hundred and fifty peasants and several nobles, one of whom had actually been killed by his brother in the battle). This logical but very silly historical premise, combined with interwoven bits of Shakespeare, lends real intellectual delight and challenge to the humor.
Richard, Duke of York (one of the '[[Princes in the Tower]]') was in reality only 12 years old (and perhaps two years dead) when the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] took place in 1485, and so far too young to have had two grown up sons. This and other historical discrepancies don't detract from the comedy, though.
The series follows the fictitious reign of Richard IV (1485&ndash;98). Richard and his Queen [[Gertrude of Flanders]], the [[Witch]] [[Queen consort|Queen]] have two sons:
* [[Harry, Prince of Wales (Blackadder)|Harry, Prince of Wales]], Captain of the Guard, Grand Warden of the Northern and Eastern Marches, Chief [[Lunatic]] of the [[Duke of Gloucester|Duchy of Gloucester]], [[Viceroy]] of [[Wales]], [[Sheriff of Nottingham]], [[Marquess]] of the [[Midlands]], [[Lord]] Hoe-Maker Extraordinary, Harbinger of the Doomed [[Rat]] (1460–98)
* [[Prince Edmund (Blackadder)|Prince Edmund]], "the [[Black]] [[Adder]]", [[Duke of Edinburgh]], Lord Warden of the Royal Privies, the Laird of [[Roxburgh]], [[Selkirk]], and [[Peebles]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (1461&ndash;98)
It is later revealed in the episode "Born to be King" that after Harry's birth and before Edmund's, Queen Gertrude had an affair with Donald McAngus, Third [[Duke of Argyll]]. There is a possibility that Edmund was this affair's result. If so, then Edmund is Harry's half-brother and also has another half-brother:
*[[Dougal McAngus]], Fourth [[Duke of Argyll]], Supreme Commander of the King's Army (c. 1462&ndash;87).
By the end of the series, events converge with our timeline, when King Richard IV and his entire family are poisoned, allowing Henry Tudor to take the throne as [[Henry VII of England|King Henry VII]]. He then proceeds to rewrite history, presenting Richard III as a monster, and eliminating Richard IV's reign from the history books.
In this series, the character of the Black Adder is somewhat different from later incarnations, being largely unintelligent and snivelling. The title of Laird of Roxburgh, Selkirk and Peebles may have been inspired by the then leader of the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], [[David Steel]], who was [[Member of Parliament|MP]] for [[Roxburghshire (UK Parliament constituency)|that constituency]] when the series was written.
The character does evolve through the series, however, and he begins showing signs of what his descendants will be like by the final episode, where he begins insulting everyone around him and making his own plans. This evolution follows naturally from the character's situation. "The Black Adder" is the title that Edmund adopts during the first episode (after first considering "The Black Vegetable"). Presumably one of his descendants adopted it as a surname prior to ''Blackadder II'', where the title character becomes "Edmund Blackadder". Edmund's father the king can never remember his name at all (usually he forgets that he even has a second son), calling him "Edwin", "Edward", "Enid", "Osmond" or "Edna". In the last moment before Edmund's death in the final episode, his father finally addresses him correctly and Edmund thanks him tearfully, asking to be remembered as Edmund the Black Adder. His father, mishearing him, says "Oh, I'm sorry, Edgar. Let the name Edgar, The Black Dagger, live forever!"
It is therefore interesting to note that the unaired pilot episode, covering the basic plot of "Born to be King", has some differences to the first series. Baldrick was played by [[Philip Fox (actor)|Philip Fox]], who was replaced by Tony Robinson. The King is played by [[John Savident]] (famous for playing [[Fred Elliot]] in the TV [[soap opera|soap]] ''[[Coronation Street]]''), while [[Lord Percy Perc
|
more road wheels and some type of sprung suspension to smooth the ride across rough terrain. Bogie suspensions keep much of their components on the outside of the vehicle, saving internal space. They are vulnerable to [[antitank]] fire, but can often repaired or replaced in the field.
See [[Suspension (vehicle)#Armoured fighting vehicle suspension |Suspension (vehicle)]].
{{rail-stub}}
[[Category:Rail technologies]]
[[Category:Locomotive parts]]
[[de:Drehgestell]]
[[es:Bogi]]
[[fa:هزارچرخ]]
[[fr:Bogie]]
[[io:Bogio]]
[[ja:鉄道車両の台車]]
[[nl:Draaistel]]
[[nn:Boggi]]
[[pl:wózek]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>British Steel</title>
<id>4641</id>
<revision>
<id>41053194</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-24T19:25:01Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Catapult</username>
<id>792235</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 18|CFD]]: renaming category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[image:British Steel.png|thumb|150px|British Steel company logo (1966-)]]
{{about|the company|the Judas Priest album|[[British Steel (album)]]}}
'''British Steel''' was a large British [[steel]] producer, consisting of the assets of former private companies which had been [[nationalization|nationalised]], largely under the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] government of [[Harold Wilson]] ([[1964]]-[[1970]]).
In 1971 they sponsored Sir [[Chay Blyth]] in his record-making non-stop [[circumnavigation]] against the winds and currents, known as 'The Impossible Voyage'. In 1992 they sponsored the [[Global Challenge|British Steel Challenge]], the first of a series of 'wrong way' races for amateur crews.
It was [[privatization|privatised]] in [[1988]] under the [[Conservative Party|Conservative]] government of [[Margaret Thatcher]]. It merged with the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] steel producer ''Koninklijke Hoogovens'' to form ''[[Corus Group]]'' on [[6 October]] [[1999]]. [http://www.corusgroup.com]
{{industry-company-stub}}
[[Category:Defunct companies of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Steel companies]]
[[Category:Companies formerly listed on the London Stock Exchange]]
[[es:British Steel]]
[[fi:British Steel]]
[[sv:British Steel]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>BT Group plc</title>
<id>4642</id>
<revision>
<id>41755462</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T14:43:50Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>193.113.57.165</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>Changed 'BT Openreach' to 'Openreach' - it's proper name</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
company_name = BT Group plc |
company_logo = [[Image:BT_Logo.jpg|centre||160px]] |
company_type = [[Public company|Public]] ([[London Stock Exchange|LSE]]: [http://www.londonstockexchange.com/en-gb/pricesnews/prices/system/detailedprices.htm?sym=GB0030913577GBGBXSET13091357BT.A BT], [[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/listed/bt.html BT]) |
company_slogan = n/a. |
foundation = [[1 July]] [[1981]] (as British Telecommunications) |
location = [[London]], [[United Kingdom]] |
key_people = Sir Peter Bonfield (Former Chief Executive)<br>Sir Christopher Bland (Current Executive Chairman)<br>Ben Verwaayen (current Chief Executive since 2002)|
industry = [[Telecommunications]] |
products = Retail and Wholesale local, national and international telecommunications products and services,<br>Broadband and internet products and services,<br>IT and Network Solutions,<br>Mobile service as a [[MOLO (telecommunications)|Molo]] |
revenue = [[Image:Green up.png]]£ 18.6 billion [[Pound sterling|GBP]] ([[2005]]) |
num_employees = 99,600 (2005) |
homepage = http://www.btplc.com}}
'''BT Group plc''' (formerly known as '''British Telecommunications plc''') which trades as '''BT''' (and previously as '''British Telecom''') is the [[privatisation|privatised]] former [[United Kingdom|UK]] state [[telecommunications]] operator. It is still the dominant fixed line telecommunications provider in the United Kingdom.
==Businesses==
BT owns and runs the [[telephone exchange]]s, trunk network and [[local loop]] connections for the vast majority of British fixed-line telephones. Currently BT is responsible for approximately 25 million telephone lines in the UK. BT is still the only UK telecoms operator to have a ''Universal Service Obligation'' (USO) which means it must provide a fixed telephone line to any address in the UK (with the exception of the [[Kingston upon Hull]] area). It is also obliged to provide public call boxes.
It is officially designated the dominant operator in British telecommunications market. BT's businesses are operated under special government regulation by the British telecoms regulator [[Ofcom]] (formerly [[Oftel]]).
BT Group has been organised into four business divisions:
*''BT Global Services'': Business services and solutions (formerly ''BT Ignite'' and ''[[Syntegra|BT Syntegra]]'')
*''BT Retail'': Retail telecoms to consumers
*''BT Wholesale'': Wholesale telecoms core trunk network
*''BT Exact / One IT'': Research and Development, and consultancy
*''Openreach'': fenced-off wholesale division, tasked with ensuring that all rival operators have equality of access to BT's own local network.
== History of BT ==
[[Image:GPO badge.png|thumb|right|150px|Prior to the formation of British Telecom, telecommunications were handled by the General Post Office]]
[[Image:BT (old T).png|thumb|right|150px|British Telecom "T" symbol, 1980–1991]]
[[Image:BT (old) logo.png|thumb|right|150px|British Telecom logotype, 1980–1991]]
[[Image:BTLogo91.png|thumb|right|150px|BT "piper" logo, 1991–2003]]
[http://www.groupbt.com/Thegroup/BTsHistory/History.htm Official BT history page]
A number of privately owned [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] companies operated in Britain from [[1846]] onwards. Among them were
* The [[Electric Telegraph Company]],
* [[British and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company]],
* [[British Telegraph Company]],
* [[London District Telegraph Company]],
* and the [[United Kingdom Telegraph Company]]
The [[Telegraph Act of 1868]] passed the control of all these to the newly formed GPO ([[General Post Office]])'s "Postal Telegraphs Department"
With the invention of the [[telephone]] by [[Alexander Graham Bell]] in [[1876]] the GPO began to provide telephone services from some of its telegraph exchanges. However in [[1882]] the [[Postmaster-General]], Henry Fawcett started to issue licences to operate a telephone service to private businesses and the telephone system grew under the GPO in some areas and private ownership in others. The GPO's main competitor the [[National Telephone Company]] emerged in this market by absorbing other private telephone companies, prior to its absorption into the GPO in [[1912]].
The trunk network was unified under GPO control in [[1896]] and the local distribution network in [[1912]]. A few municipally owned services remained outside of GPO control. These were [[Kingston upon Hull]], [[Portsmouth]] and [[Guernsey]]. Hull still retains an independent operator, [[Kingston Communications]], though it is no longer municipally controlled.
In [[1969]] the GPO, a government department, became [[The Post Office]], a nationalised industry separate from government. Post Office Telecommunications was one of the divisions.
===Formation of British Telecom===
On [[1st July]], [[1981]] Post Office Telecommunications was renamed '''British Telecom''' and became a state-owned corporation independent of the Post Office. In [[1982]] BT's monopoly on telecommunications was broken, with the grant of a licence to [[Cable and Wireless | Mercury Communications]].
===Privatisation===
The privatisation took place in [[1984]], with the sale of 51% of the shares in the company (incorporated in 1984 as ''British Telecommunications plc'') to the public in November.
The company changed its trading name to 'BT' in [[March 31]], [[1991]]. The remaining state holdings in the company were sold in [[1991]] and [[1993]].
In the 1990s, BT entered the Irish [[telecommunications]] market through a joint venture with the [[Electricity Supply Board]], the Irish state owned power provider. This venture, entitled '''Ocean''', found its main success through the launch of Ireland's first subscription-free dial-up ISP, oceanfree.net. As a telecoms company it found much less success, mainly targeting corporate customers. BT acquired 100% of this venture in 1999.
In [[2000]], BT acquired [[BT Ireland | Esat Telecom Group plc]], and all its subsidiary companies, and [[Ireland On Line]]. It also purchased [[Telenor | Telenor's]] minority shareholding in [[O2 Ireland | Esat Digifone]]. The Esat Telecom Group was split in two: the landline and internet operations were combined with Ocean and became part of BT Ignite. Esat Group was renamed Esat BT in July 2002, and eventually [[BT Ireland]] in April 2005. Esat Digifone became part of BT Wireless. EsatBT installed the first [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]] lines in Ireland, and operate one exchange, in [[Limerick]].
===BT’s Global alliances===
In June [[1994]] BT and [[MCI]] launched [[Concert Communications Services]] which was a $1 billion joint venture between the two companies. Its aim was to build a network which would provide easy global connectivity to multinational corporations.
This alliance progressed further on [[3 November]] [[1996]] when the two companies announcement that they had entered into a full merger agreement to create a global telecommunications company to be called Concert plc, which would be incorporated in the UK with headquarters in both London and Washington DC. This would have given BT an entry into the US market and MCI a global reach. The merger proposition gained approval from the
|
k/pistols/interviews/sp_john03.html]. Early [[Monster Magnet]] albums have a distinct Hawkwind feel, and they covered Brainstorm on their 3rd album, "[[Superjudge]]".
Hawkwind founder member [[Nik Turner]] formed the relatively successful Punk oriented ''[[Inner City Unit]]'' with former ''[[Steve Took]]'s Horns'' members [[Judge Trev Thoms]] and [[Dino Ferari]]. In 2001, he launched a [[tribute band]] called XHawkwind.com, playing old '70s Hawkwind favorites, and featuring (unusually for a tribute band) ex-Hawkwind members. Dave Brock launched a court case over the band's name, which was successful in 2002. Nik Turner's band continues to perform, but is now SpaceRitual.net.
Two recent biographies of Hawkwind have been issued to supplement Kris Tait's outstanding "This is Hawkwind: Do not Panic". These are Ian Abrahams' "Sonic Assassins" (Published by SAF publishing; [[ISBN]]: 0946719691) and Carol Clerk's "Saga of Hawkwind" (Publisher: Music Sales Limited [[ISBN]]: 1844491013)
==Discography==
Hawkwind's discography is baffling and large; this list just represents "core" albums. There are, in addition, compilations of previously recorded material and live recordings, which are not issued under the control of the band, and which frequently change their name, so one may find exactly the same material under several different names. Titles from 1970 to 1974 are readily available on CD, and these CDs frequently include other rarities from this era, but albums from 1975 to 1979 were either never issued on CD or were only available in limited editions, making access to these recordings difficult and expensive. Most of the better tracks from 1975-1979 appear on disk 2 of the 3-disk compilation 'EpochEclipse'.
The [[Hawkwind/Space Ritual|Space Ritual]] concept album and [[Warrior on the Edge of Time]] in particular are representative of Hawkwind's style at the peak of their success. Their [[1980s]] work is well represented by [[Levitation (album)|Levitation]] and [[Hawkwind/Chronicle of the Black Sword|Chronicle of the Black Sword]].
The [[1990s]] saw the band moving towards a [[world music]] approach.
For an extensive critical discography see this [http://www.starfarer.net/hwalbums.html Guide To Hawkwind Albums].
* [[1970]] [[Hawkwind (album)|Hawkwind]]
* [[1971]] [[In Search of Space]]
* [[1972]] [[Doremi Fasol Latido]]
* [[1973]] [[Space Ritual]] (N.B. 'Space Ritual Volume 2' is actually alternate recordings of the same material)
* [[1974]] [[Hall of the Mountain Grill]] (named after their favourite "[[greasy spoon]]" in [[Ladbroke Grove]])
* [[1975]] [[Warrior on the Edge of Time]]
* [[1976]] [[Astounding Sounds, Amazing Music]]
* [[1976]] [[Roadhawks]] (a compilation)
* [[1977]] [[Quark, Strangeness and Charm]]
* [[1978]] [[25 Years On]] (as Hawklords; some people consider this album to be called Hawklords)
* [[1979]] [[PXR5]]
* [[1980]] [[Live Seventy-Nine]]
* [[1980]] [[Levitation (album)|Levitation]]
* [[1981]] [[Sonic Attack (album)|Sonic Attack]]
* [[1982]] [[Church of Hawkwind]]
* [[1982]] [[Choose Your Masques]]
* [[1983]] [[Zones (album)|Zones]]
* [[1984]] [[Stonehenge / Do Not Panic]]
* [[1985]] [[Chronicle of the Black Sword (album)|Chronicle of the Black Sword]]
* [[1986]] [[Live Chronicles]]
* [[1987]] [[Out and Intake]]
* [[1988]] [[The Xenon Codex]]
* [[1990]] [[Space Bandits]]
* [[1991]] [[Palace Springs (album)|Palace Springs]]
* [[1992]] [[Electric Tepee]]
* [[1993]] [[It is the Business of the Future to be Dangerous]]
* [[1994]] [[The Business Trip]]
* [[1995]] [[Alien 4 (album)|Alien 4]]
* [[1996]] [[Love in Space]]
* [[1997]] [[The 1999 Party]]
* [[1997]] [[Distant Horizons]]
* [[1999]] [[In Your Area]]
* [[2000]] [[Spacebrock]] (Dave Brock Solo)
* [[2001]] [[Yule Ritual]]
* [[2002]] [[Live at Canterbury Fayre]]
* [[2005]] [[Take Me to Your Leader]]
Under the alias-name Psychedelic Warriors:
* [[1995]] [[White Zone]]
==External links==
* [http://www.hawkwind.com Official Band Website]
* [http://www.aural-innovations.com/issues/issue13/hawk09.html Scot Heller's Review of the Hawkestra Concert]
* [http://www.starfarer.net/index.html Starfarer's Hawkwind Page] - An irreverent fan site devoted to Hawkwind, inventors of Space Rock
* [http://www.nikturner.com Nik Turner's Official Site]
* [http://www.motherofallbands.net Ron Tree's current project site]
* [http://www.lyricsdir.com/hawkwind-lyrics.html Hawkwind Lyrics]
[[Category:Art rock musical groups]]
[[Category:English musical groups]]
[[Category:Progressive rock groups]]
[[Category:Hawkwind|*]]
[[Category:Music from London]]
[[de:Hawkwind]]
[[fr:Hawkwind]]
[[nl:Hawkwind]]
[[pl:Hawkwind]]
[[ru:Hawkwind]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Horse</title>
<id>13645</id>
<revision>
<id>42157129</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T04:55:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Chris the speller</username>
<id>525927</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>/* Found in the United States */ sp</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Domestic Horse
| status = {{StatusDomesticated}}
| image = Holsteiner Apfelschimmel-2005.jpg
| image_width = 225px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Perissodactyla]]
| familia = [[Equidae]]
| genus = ''[[Equus (genus)|Equus]]''
| species = '''''E. caballus'''''
| binomial = ''Equus caballus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
}}
The '''horse''' (''Equus caballus'' or ''Equus ferus caballus'') is a sizeable [[ungulate]] [[mammal]], one of ten modern species of the genus ''[[Equus (genus)|Equus]]''. Horses have long been one of the most economically important [[domesticated]] animals, and have played an important role in the [[transport]] of people and cargo for thousands of years. Most notably, horses can be [[equestrianism|ridden]] by a person perched on a [[saddle]] attached to the animal, and are also widely [[horse tack|harnessed]] to pull objects like [[wheel]]ed [[vehicle]]s or [[plow]]s. In some human cultures, horses are also widely used as a source of [[Horse meat|food]]. Though isolated domestication may have occurred as early as [[5th millennium BC|4500 BC]], clear evidence of widespread use by humans dates to no earlier than [[2000 BC]], as evidenced by the [[Sintashta]] [[chariot burial]]s, thus firmly establishing the '''[[domestication of the horse]]'''. There are many types of horses. Some are very well known for certain things. Thoroughbreds are known for being race horses while no one above fifty pounds can ride a miniature horse.
Until the middle of the [[20th century]], armies used horses extensively in [[war horse|warfare]]; soldiers still refer to the groups of machines that have replaced horses on the battlefield as "[[cavalry]]" units, and sometimes preserve traditional horse-oriented names for military units ([[Lord Strathcona's Horse]]).
==Domestication of the horse and surviving wild species==
The earliest evidence for the [[domestication of the horse]] comes from [[Central Asia]] and dates to approximately [[40th century BCE|4,000 BCE]]. Competing theories exist as to the time and place of initial domestication. Wild species continued to survive into historic times. For example, the Forest Horse (''Equus ferus silvaticus'', also called the Diluvial Horse) is thought to have evolved into ''Equus ferus germanicus'', and may have contributed to the development of the heavy horses of northern [[Europe]], such as [[Ardennais]].
The [[tarpan]], ''Equus ferus ferus'', became extinct in 1880. Its genetic line is lost, but its [[phenotype]] has been recreated by a "[[breeding back]]" process, in which living domesticated horses with primitive features were repeatedly interbred. Thanks to the efforts of the brothers Lutz Heck (director of the [[Berlin]] [[zoo]]) and Heinz Heck (director of Tierpark Munich Hellabrunn), the resulting ''Wild Polish Horse'' or ''[[Konik]]'' more closely resembles the tarpan than any other living horse.
[[Image:Horse profile.jpg|thumb|250px|Horse's profile, [[Australia]]]]
[[Przewalski's Horse]] (''Equus ferus przewalskii''), a rare Asian species, is the only true wild horse alive today. [[Mongolia]]ns know it as the ''taki'', while the Kirghiz people call it a ''kirtag''. Small wild breeding populations of this animal exist in Mongolia. [http://www.treemail.nl/takh/]
===Wild vs. feral horses===
''Wild'' animals, whose ancestors have never undergone domestication, are distinct from ''[[feral]]'' animals, who had domesticated ancestors but now live in the wild. Several populations of feral horses exist, including those in the West of the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] (often called "[[Mustang (horse)|mustangs]]") and in parts of [[Australia]] ("[[brumby|brumbies]]") and [[New Zealand]] ("[[Kaimanawa horse]]s"). Isolated feral populations are often named for their geographic location; in Namiba feral animals known as Namib Desert Horses live in the desert, while the Sable Island Horses are resident on [[Sable Island]], Canada. Feral horses may provide useful insights into the behavior of ancestral wild horses.
The [[Icelandic horse]] ([[pony]]-sized but called a horse) provides an opportunity to compare contemporary and historical breed appearances and behaviour. Introduced by the [[Vikings]] into [[Iceland]], Icelandic horses did not subsequently undergo the intensive [[selective breeding]] that took place in the rest of Europe from the [[Middle Ages]] onwards, and consequently bear a closer resemblance to pre-Medieval breeds. The Icelandic horse has a four-beat [[horse gaits|gait]] called the "[[tölt]]", which equates to the rack exhibited by several American gaited breeds.
==Other modern equids==
Other members
|
dassano, C. F., et al. (2005). Gender differences in bipolar disorder: Retrospective data from the first 500 STEP-BD participants. Bipolar Disorders, 7(5), 465-470.
#{{Note| NIMH Roundtable}} [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/scientificmeetings/pediatric.cfm NIMH Roundtable on Pediatric Bipolar]
#{{Note| Genetic Liklihood}} [http://www.psycheducation.org/depression/risk.htm Genetic Liklihood]
#{{Note|kindling}} [http://www.bpinfo.net/kindling_theory.htm Link and reference involving kindling theory]
#{{Note|Comorbidities}}Krishnan, K.R.R. (2005). Psychiatric and Medical Comorbidities of Bipolar Disorder. Psychosomatic Medicine, 67(1), 1-8.
#{{Note|Pettigrew}}''[http://www.uq.edu.au/nuq/jack/procroysoc.html] A Sticky Interhemispheric Switch In Bipolar Disorder?]'' by John Pettigrew, Steven Miller.
#{{Note|Hakk_2003}} Hakkarainen R, et al. (2003). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12795811&dopt=Abstract Seasonal changes, sleep length and circadian preference among twins with bipolar disorder.] ''BMC Psychiatry'' '''3''' (1), 6.
#{{Note|Shap_2004}} Shapira A, et al. (2004). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14996147 Admission rates of bipolar depressed patients increase during spring/summer and correlate with maximal environmental temperature.] ''Bipolar Disorder'' '''Feb;6''' (1), 90&ndash;3.
#{{Note|New Hope}}Fawcett, J., Golden, B., & Rosenfeld, N. (2000). New Hope for People with Bipolar Disorder. Roseville, CA: Prima Health.
#{{Note|bald_2003}} Baldessarini RJ, et al. (2003). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12720484&dopt=Abstract Lithium treatment and suicide risk in major affective disorders: update and new findings.] ''J Clin Psychiatry'' '''64''' (Suppl 5), 44&ndash;52.
#{{Note|Lamot_1}} [http://www.pslgroup.com/dg/eb8ea.htm 1] and [http://www.psycheducation.org/depression/meds/lamotrigine.htm 2] Links and references showing the promise of lamotrigine (Lamictal) in the treatment of bipolar depression.
#{{Note|epa}} Osher Y, Bersudsky Y, Belmaker RH. Omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid in bipolar depression: report of a small open-label study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(6):726&ndash;9. PMID 15960565
#{{Note|Stoll_1999}} Stoll AL, Severus WE, Freeman MP et al. (1999), [http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/56/5/407 Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.] ''Arch Gen Psychiatry'' 56(5):407-412.
#{{Note|kess_prev}} Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):593&ndash;602. PMID 15939837
#{{Note|Barr_2003}} Barrett TB, Hauger RL, Kennedy JL, Sadovnick AD, Remick RA, Keck PE, McElroy SL, Alexander M, Shaw SH, Kelsoe JR. [http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/mp/journal/v8/n5/abs/4001268a.html&dynoptions=doi1056040331 Evidence that a single nucleotide polymorphism in the promoter of the G protein receptor kinase 3 gene is associated with bipolar disorder.] ''Mol Psychiatry.'' 2003 May;8(5):546&ndash;57.
==Further reading==
Classic works on this subject include
* ''Manic-depressive insanity and paranoia'' by [[Emil Kraepelin]]., 1921. ISBN 0405074417 (English translation of the original German from the earlier Eighth Edition of Kraepelin's textbook - now outdated, but a work of major historical importance).
* ''Manic-Depressive Illness'' by Frederick K. Goodwin and Kay Redfield Jamison. ISBN 0195039343 (The standard, very lengthy, medical reference on bipolar disorder.)
* ''Touched With Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament'' by Kay Redfield Jamison (The Free Press: Macmillian, Inc., New York, 1993) 1996 reprint: ISBN 068483183X
* ''An Unquiet Mind: A Memoir of Moods and Madness'' by Kay Redfield Jamison (Knopf, New York, 1995) (An excellent autobiographical work about what it's like to have bipolar disorder, by the woman who is also one of the medical world's experts on it.) ISBN 0330346512
* ''Mind Over Mood: Cognitive Treatment Therapy Manual for Clients'' by Christine Padesky, Dennis Greenberger. ISBN 0898621283
* ''Bipolar Disorder: A Guide for Patients and Families'' by Francis Mondimore M.D., 1999. ISBN 0801861179 (A detailed in-depth book covering all aspects of bipolar disorder: history, causes, treatments, etc.)
* ''The Bipolar Disorder Survival Guide: What You and Your Family Need to Know'' by David J. Miklowitz Ph.D., 2002. ISBN 1572305258 (An excellent practical guide on managing bipolar disorder)
==See also==
* [[List of people believed to have been affected by bipolar disorder]]
* [[List of songs about bipolar disorder]]
* [[Bipolar spectrum]]
* [[Bipolar disorder support groups]]
==External links==
There are numerous online resources on the topic of bipolar disorder; including research organisations, healthcare professionals, support groups and discussion forums. See the following:
* {{dmoz|Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Mood/Bipolar_Disorder|Bipolar Disorder}}.
<!---->
[[Category:Disability]]
[[Category:Mood disorders]]
[[ar:تعكر المزاج الثنائي القطب]]
[[cs:Maniodepresivní psychóza]]
[[da:Maniodepressiv sindslidelse]]
[[de:Bipolare Störung]]
[[es:Desorden bipolar]]
[[fr:Trouble bipolaire]]
[[gl:Trastorno bipolar]]
[[ko:조울증]]
[[it:Psicosi maniaco-depressiva]]
[[he:הפרעה דו-קוטבית]]
[[lt:Maniakinė depresija]]
[[nl:Bipolaire stoornis]]
[[ja:双極性障害]]
[[pl:Choroba afektywna dwubiegunowa]]
[[pt:Distúrbio bipolar]]
[[ru:Биполярное аффективное расстройство]]
[[fi:Kaksisuuntainen mielialahäiriö]]
[[sv:Bipolärt syndrom]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blue Screen of Death</title>
<id>4532</id>
<revision>
<id>42141599</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T02:24:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Redquark</username>
<id>104872</id>
</contributor>
<comment>clean up</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of BSoD please see [[BSoD (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Blue Screen Phone.jpg|thumb|250px|A public [[payphone]] that has failed and is displaying the Blue Screen of Death.]]
The '''Blue Screen of Death (BSoD)''' is the screen displayed by [[Microsoft]]'s [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] [[operating system]] when it cannot (or is in danger of being unable to) recover from a system error. There are two Windows error screens that are both referred to as the blue screen of death, with one being significantly more serious than the other.
The blue screen of death in one form or another has been present in all Windows operating systems since [[History of Microsoft Windows|Windows version 3.1]]. It is related to the [[black screen of death]] in [[OS/2]]. In early builds of [[Windows Vista]] it was complemented with the red screen of death, used for [[boot loader]] errors.
==Types of blue screens==
===Windows NT/2000/XP===
[[Image:Windows_XP_BSOD.png|thumb|right|Windows XP]]
[[Image:Windows 2000 BSoD.png|thumb|right|Windows 2000 (can be configured to display debug info like the example below)]]
[[Image:Windows NT 3.5 BSoD.png|thumb|right|Windows NT 3.5]]
In [[Windows NT]], [[Windows 2000]], and [[Windows XP]], a blue screen of death occurs when the [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]], or a driver running in [[kernel mode]], encounters an error from which it cannot recover. This is usually caused by a driver that throws an unhandled [[exception handling|exception]] or performs an illegal operation. The only safe action the operating system can take in this situation is to restart the computer. As a result, user data may be lost, because users are not given an opportunity to save data that has not yet been saved to disk. Note that by default, 2000 and XP restarts immediately instead of displaying the error.
Blue screens are known as "Stop errors" in the Windows Resource Kit documentation. They are referred to as "[[bug check]]s" in the Windows SDK, DDK, and WDK documentation..
The "Stop" message contains the error code and its symbolic name (e.g. 0x0000001E, KMODE_EXCEPTION_NOT_HANDLED) along with four error-dependent values in parentheses. Depending on the error code, it may display the address where the problem occurred, along with the driver which is loaded at that address. Under Windows NT and 2000, the second and third sections of the screen contain information on all loaded drivers and a stack dump, respectively. The driver information is in three columns; the first lists the base address of the driver, the second lists the driver's creation date (as a [[Unix timestamp]]), and the third lists the name of the driver. <small>(Microsoft et al, 1996)</small>
By default, Windows will create a [[memory dump]] file when a blue screen error occurs. Depending on the OS version, there may be several formats this can be saved in, ranging from a 64K "minidump" to a "complete dump" which is effectively a copy of the entire contents of physical RAM. The resulting memory dump file may be debugged later, using a kernel [[debugger]]. A debugger is necessary to obtain a [[stack (computing)|stack]] trace, and may be required to ascertain the true cause of the problem; as the information onscreen is limited and thus possibly misleading, it may hide the true source of the error.
Windows can also be configured to send live debugging information to a kernel debugger running on a separate computer. (Windows XP also allows for local kernel debugging.) If a blue screen error is encountered while a live kernel debugger is attached to the system, Windows will halt execution and cause the debugger to "break in", rather than displaying the BSoD. The debugger can then be used to examine the cont
|
quot;unevenness", in the probability distribution of the pockets for a single event), then
:<math> H = (1 - n) - \sum_{x=1}^n p_x \log p_x \,\!</math>
and the term (1 &minus; ''n'') can be dropped since it is a constant, independent of the ''p<sub>x</sub>'' distribution. The result is
:<math> H = - \sum_{x=1}^n p_x \log p_x \,\!</math>.
Thus, the Shannon entropy is a consequence of the equation
:<math> H = \log \Omega \ </math>
which relates to Boltzmann's definition,
:<math> \mathcal{S} = K \ln \Omega </math>,
of thermodynamic entropy.
==Properties of Shannon's information entropy==
We write ''H''(''X'') as ''H<sub>n</sub>''(''p<sub>1</sub>'',...,''p<sub>n</sub>''). The Shannon entropy satisfies the following properties:
* For any ''n'', ''H<sub>n</sub>''(''p<sub>1</sub>'',...,''p<sub>n</sub>'') is a continuous and symmetric function on variables ''p<sub>1</sub>'', ''p<sub>2</sub>'',...,''p<sub>n</sub>''.
* Event of probability zero does not contribute to the entropy, i.e. for any ''n'',
:<math>H_{n+1}(p_1,\ldots,p_n,0) = H_n(p_1,\ldots,p_n)</math>.
* Entropy is maximized when the probability distribution is uniform. For all ''n'',
:<math>H_n(p_1,\ldots,p_n) \leq H_n\Big(\frac{1}{n},\ldots,\frac{1}{n} \Big)</math>.
Following from the Jensen inequality,
:<math>H(X) = E\Big[\log_b \Big( \frac{1}{p(X)}\Big) \Big] \leq \log_b \Big( E\Big[ \frac{1}{p(X)} \Big] \Big) = \log_b(n)</math>.
* If <math>p_{ij}, 1\leq i \leq m, 1\leq j \leq n</math> are non-negative real numbers summing up to one, and <math>q_i = \sum_{j=1}^n p_{ij}</math>, then
:<math>H_{mn}(p_{11},\ldots, p_{mn}) = H_m(q_1,\ldots,q_m) + \sum_{i=1}^m q_i H_n\Big(\frac{p_{i1}}{q_i},\ldots, \frac{p_{in}}{q_i} \Big)</math>.
If we partition the ''mn'' outcomes of the random experiment into ''m'' groups with each group containing ''n'' elements, we can do the experiment in two steps: first, determine the group to which the actual outcome belongs to; then, find the outcome in that group. The probability that you will observe group ''i'' is ''q<sub>i</sub>''. The conditional probability distribution function for group ''i'' is ''p<sub>i1</sub>''/''q<sub>i</sub>'',...,''p<sub>in</sub>''/''q<sub>i</sub>''). The entropy
:<math>H_n\Big(\frac{p_{i1}}{q_i},\ldots, \frac{p_{in}}{q_i} \Big)</math>
is the entropy of the probability distribution conditioned on group ''i''. This property means that the total information is the sum of the information gained in the first step, ''H<sub>m</sub>''(''q<sub>1</sub>'',..., ''q<sub>n</sub>''), and a weighted sum of the entropies conditioned on each group.
Khinchin in 1957 showed that the only function satisfying the above assumptions is of the form
:<math>H_n(p_1,\ldots,p_n) = -k \sum_{i=1}^n p_i \log p_i</math>,
where ''k'' is a positive constant representing the desired unit of measurement.
==Deriving continuous entropy from discrete entropy: the Boltzmann entropy==
The Shannon entropy is restricted to finite sets. It seems that the formula
:<math>h[f] = -\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x) \log f(x) dx</math>, (*)
where ''f'' denotes a [[probability density function]] on the real line, is analogous to the Shannon entropy and could thus be viewed as an extension of the Shannon entropy to the domain of real numbers. Formula (*) is usually referred to as the '''Boltzmann entropy''', '''continuous entropy''', or [[differential entropy]]. Although the analogy between both functions is suggestive, the following question must be set: is the Boltzmann entropy a valid extension of the Shannon entropy? To answer this question, we must establish a connection between the two functions:
We wish to obtain a generally finite measure as the [[bin size]] goes to zero. In the discrete case, the bin size is the (implicit) width of each of the ''n'' (finite or infinite) bins whose probabilities are denoted by ''p<sub>n</sub>''. As we generalize to the continuous domain, we must make this width explicit.
To do this, start with a continuous function ''f'' discretized as shown in the figure.
<!-- Figure: Discretizing the function $ f$ into bins of width $ \Delta$
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{function-with-bins.eps} -->
As the figure indicates, by the mean-value theorem there exists a value ''x<sub>i</sub>'' in each bin such that
:<math>f(x_i) \Delta = \int_{i\Delta}^{(i+1)\Delta} f(x) dx</math>
and thus the integral of the function ''f'' can be approximated (in the Riemannian sense) by
:<math>\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x) dx = \lim_{\Delta \to 0} \sum_{i = -\infty}^{\infty} f(x_i) \Delta</math>
where this limit and ''bin size goes to zero'' are equivalent.
We will denote
:<math>H^{\Delta} :=- \sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} \Delta f(x_i) \log \Delta f(x_i)</math>
and expanding the logarithm, we have
:<math>H^{\Delta} = - \sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} \Delta f(x_i) \log \Delta f(x_i)</math>
:<math> = - \sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} \Delta f(x_i) \log f(x_i) -\sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} f(x_i) \Delta \log \Delta</math>
As <math>\Delta \to 0</math>, we have
:<math>\sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} f(x_i) \Delta \to \int f(x) dx = 1</math>
and so
:<math>\sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} \Delta f(x_i) \log f(x_i) \to \int f(x) \log f(x) dx</math>.
But note that <math>\log \Delta \to -\infty</math> as <math>\Delta \to 0</math>, therefore we need a special definition of the differential or continuous entropy:
:<math>h[f] = \lim_{\Delta \to 0} \left[H^{\Delta} + \log \Delta\right] = -\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x) \log f(x) dx</math>,
which is, as said before, referred to as the '''Boltzmann entropy'''. This means that the Boltzmann entropy ''is not'' a limit of the Shannon entropy for <math>n \to 0</math> and, consequently is not a measure of uncertainty and information.
{{planetmath|id=968|title=Shannon's entropy}}
== See also ==
* [[Entropy encoding]]
* [[Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy]] in [[dynamical system]]s
* [[Theil index]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.lecb.ncifcrf.gov/~toms/information.is.not.uncertainty.html Information is not entropy, information is not uncertainty !] - a discussion of the use of the terms "information" and "entropy".
* [http://www.ccrnp.ncifcrf.gov/~toms/bionet.info-theory.faq.html#Information.Equal.Entropy I'm Confused: How Could Information Equal Entropy?] - a similar discussion on the bionet.info-theory FAQ.
* [http://random.hd.org/ Java "entropy pool" for cryptographically-secure unguessable random numbers]
* [http://www.rheingold.com/texts/tft/6.html Description of information entropy from "Tools for Thought" by Howard Rheingold]
[[Category:Entropy]]
[[Category:Information theory]]
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Randomness]]
[[de:Entropie (Informationstheorie)]]
[[es:Entropía (información)]]
[[fr:Entropie de Shannon]]
[[it:Entropia (teoria dell'informazione)]]
[[hu:Shannon-entrópiafüggvény]]
[[nl:Entropie (informatietheorie)]]
[[pl:Entropia (teoria informacji)]]
[[ru:Информационная энтропия]]
[[th:เอนโทรปีของข้อมูล]]
[[zh:熵 (信息论)]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ithaca College</title>
<id>15446</id>
<revision>
<id>41987877</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T01:42:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>206.14.33.243</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* 92 WICB */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University
|image =
|name = Ithaca College
|motto = ''Commitment to Excelence''
|established = [[1892]]
|type = [[Private school|Private]] with 5 schools
|president = Peggy R. Williams
|city = [[Ithaca, New York|Ithaca]]
|state = [[New York|NY]]
|country = [[United States|USA]]
|undergrad = 6,098
|postgrad = 314
|staff = 656
|campus = [[Urban area]], 757 [[acre]]s (3.0 [[kilometre|km]]&sup2;)
|mascot = None. Teams referred to as the "Bombers"
|free_label = Athletics
|free = 23 Varsity Teams
|website = http://www.ithaca.edu/
}}
[[Image:Hp 2 small.jpg|thumb|250px|Ithaca College Campus]]
'''Ithaca College''' is a private [[liberal arts college]] located on the South Hill of [[Ithaca, New York]]. Ithaca was founded by William Egbert in [[1892]] as a conservatory of music. Today, the college offers a diverse curriculum with over 100 degree programs in business, communications, health sciences and human performance, humanities and sciences, music, and interdisciplinary studies.
==Modern era==
Ithaca College's modern era began when the school moved from downtown Ithaca to Ithaca's South Hill, south of [[Cayuga Lake]], beginning in [[1960]].
Ithaca College is best known for its programs in music, communications, physical therapy, psychology, theatre, and physical education.
The School of Music, now housed in the James J. Whalen Center for Music (which was erected around the original Ford Hall in 1998), gives over 300 concerts a year, most of which are free and open to the public. The school offers degrees in music performance, education, recording and jazz studies; as well as a unique 4-1/2 year program in which students graduate with 2 bachelor's degrees, one in performance and one in education.
==Media and Publications==
===''The Ithacan''===
''The Ithacan'' is Ithaca College's official newspaper and the voice of the campus community. It is entirely student run, under the supervision of adviser Michael Serino. It is availab
|
mdash; let alone as a [[nation state]]. The Finns perceived the defence against the Soviet Union as literally a fight of life or death &mdash; and during the Winter War, this perception was also shared by the spectator nations in the West. The [[Continuation War]], however, was a Finnish invasion of the [[Soviet Union]], designed to recover lost territory and incorporate Russian [[Karelia]] into Finland, thus forming a [[Greater Finland]].
During and immediately after the wars, approximately 80,000 [[Finnish war-children|children were evacuated]] abroad. 5% went to [[Norway]], 10% to [[Denmark]], and the rest to Sweden. Most of them were sent back in 1948, but 15-20% remained abroad. In retrospect, the separation from their parents, siblings and language, and then later again a repeat of the separation, this time from their foster homes, has proved to be an often forgotten tragedy.
For information about [[Jew]]s in Finland during [[World War II|WWII]], see [http://www.uta.fi/~tuulikki.vuonokari/fin-1.html this link].
==Post-war era==
Finland retained a democratic constitution and free economic structure during the [[Cold War]] era. Treaties signed in [[1947]] and [[1948]] with the [[Soviet Union]] included obligations and restraints on Finland, as well as territorial concessions. Both treaties have been abrogated by Finland since the [[1991]] dissolution of the Soviet Union, while leaving the borders untouched. Even though being a neighbour to the mighty Soviet Union sometimes resulted in overmuch caution concerning [[Foreign relations of Finland|foreign politics]] ("[[Finlandization]]"), Finland developed closer cooperation with the other [[Nordic country|Nordic countries]] and declared her [[neutralist|neutrality]] in regard to superpower politics.
:''See also [[Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance]]''
In [[1952]], Finland and the countries of the [[Nordic Council]] entered into a passport union, allowing their citizens to cross borders without passports and soon also to apply for jobs and claim social security benefits in the other countries. Many from Finland used this opportunity to get better paid jobs in Sweden in the 1950s and 1960s, dominating Sweden's first wave of post-war labor immigration. Although Finnish wages or standard of living could not compete with wealthy Sweden until the 1980s, the Finnish economy rose remarkably well from the ashes of World War II, resulting in the buildup of another Nordic-style welfare state.
Despite the passport union with Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Iceland Finland could not join the [[Nordic Council]] until 1955 because of Soviet fears that Finland might become too closely related to the West. Back then the Soviet Union saw the [[Nordic Council]] as part of [[NATO]] with Denmark and Norway being members of it.
During the same year Finland could join the [[United Nations]], though it had already been associated with a lot of the UN's suborganisations. The first Finnish ambassador to the UN was G.A. Gripenberg (1956-1959), followed by Ralph Enckell (1959-1965), Max Jakobson (1965-1972), Aarno Karhilo (1972-1977), Ilkka Pastinen (1977-1983), Keijo Korhonen (1983-1988), Klaus Törnudd (1988-1991), Wilhelm Breitenstein (1991-1998) and Marjatta Rasi (since 1998). Max Jakobson even was a candidate for [[Secretary-General]] of the UN in 1972.
In another remarkable event of 1955, the Soviet Union decided to return the [[Porkkala]] peninsula to Finland, which had been rented to the Soviet Union in 1948 for 50 years as a military base and was somewhat endangering the sovereignty and neutrality of Finland.
Finland became an associate member of the [[European Free Trade Association]] in [[1961]] and a full member in [[1986]]. A trade agreement with the [[EEC]] was complemented by another with the [[Eastern Bloc|Soviet Bloc]]. The first Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), that started developments leading to [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], was held in Finland [[1972]]-[[1973]]. In Finland, CSCE was widely considered as a possible means of reducing the tensions of the Cold War, and a personal triumph for President [[Urho Kekkonen|Kekkonen]].
The post-war period was a time of rapid economic growth and increasing social and political stability for Finland. The five decades after the [[Second World War]] saw Finland turn from a war-ravaged agrarian society into one of the most technologically advanced countries in the world, with a sophisticated [[market economy]] and high standard of living.
==Recent history==
At the beginning of the 1990s the Finnish economy fell into severe [[depression (economics)|depression]]. The depression was caused by an overheated economy after [[liberalization]] in the 1980s, the disappearance of a major trade partner almost overnight when the [[Soviet Union]] dissolved and bad economic policy combined with an economic downturn in Western trade partners. The most severe consequence of depression was mass [[unemployment]] (17%). In the latter half of the 1990s the economy recovered strongly, led by the success of [[Nokia]] in the telecommunications market. However, unemployment has not yet recovered to its pre-depression level.
On [[January 1]], [[1995]], Finland joined the [[European Union]] along with [[Austria]] and [[Sweden]]. Before the parliamentary decision to join the EU, a [[referendum|consultative referendum]] was held on [[April 16]], [[1994]]. 56.9% of the votes were in favour of joining. Leading [[Finland]] into the EU is held as the main achievement of the [[Keskusta|Agrarian]]-[[Kokoomus|Conservative]] government of [[Esko Aho]] then in power.
==See also==
*[[History of Sweden]]
*[[History of Russia]]
*[[history of Europe]]
*[[History of the European Union]]
*[[History of present-day nations and states]]
*[[List of Finnish wars]]
*[[List of Finnish treaties]]
==External links==
*[http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource:Historiallisia_dokumentteja Finnish historical documents at WikiSource] (In Finnish)
*[http://www.histdoc.net/history/history.html History of Finland: A selection of events and documents] by Pauli Kruhse
*[http://www.sls.fi/fmu/indexeng.htm Diplomatarium Fennicum] &mdash; Publishing of medieval documents (the National Archives of Finland)
*[http://prokarelia.net/contract/?x=itsenaisyys ProKarelias collection of international treaties concerning independent Finland] (In Finnish)
*[http://home.student.uu.se/o/orma1967/Kartor/Finland/finland.htm Historical Atlas of Finland]
[[Category:History of Finland]]
[[Category:History of Europe|Finland]]
[[Category:Sweden-Finland]]
{{Link FA|cs}}
[[cs:Dějiny Finska]]
[[de:Geschichte Finnlands]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Finlande]]
[[ko:핀란드의 역사]]
[[it:Storia della Finlandia]]
[[lt:Suomijos istorija]]
[[ja:フィンランドの歴史]]
[[no:Finlands historie]]
[[pt:História da Finlândia]]
[[ro:Istoria Finlandei]]
[[sq:Historia e Finlandës]]
[[sk:Dejiny Fínska]]
[[fi:Suomen historia]]
[[sv:Finlands historia]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Holy Spirit</title>
<id>14379</id>
<revision>
<id>42130811</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:48:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>KHM03</username>
<id>189278</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* External links */ rm spam</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{unsourced}}
{{christianity}}
In various religions, most notably [[Trinitarianism|Trinitarian]] [[Christianity]], the '''Holy Spirit''' (also called the '''Holy Ghost'''; in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] רוח הקודש ''Ruah haqodesh'') is the third Person of the [[Holy Trinity]]. As such, the various Christian perspectives view him as God himself, a form of God, or a [[manifestation]] of God. The word "Spirit" commonly translates the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[New Testament]] word [[pneuma]] (Greek: ''πνεύμα'').
==The Holy Spirit in the Bible==
In mainstream [[Christianity]], the Holy Spirit is one person of the [[Trinity]], co-equal with the Father ([[God]]) and the Son ([[Jesus]]).
Christians believe it is the Holy Spirit who leads people to faith in Jesus and the one who gives them the ability to lead a Christian life. The Spirit dwells inside every true Christian, each one's body being His temple ([[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] 3:16). He is depicted as a 'Counsellor' or 'Helper' (''paracletus'' in [[Latin]], derived from [[Greek language|Greek]]), guiding them in the way of the truth. The Spirit's action in one's life is believed to produce positive results, known as the Fruit of the Spirit. The Spirit is also believed to give gifts (i.e. abilities) to Christians. These may include the [[charismatic]] gifts such as [[prophecy]], [[gift of tongues|tongues]], healing, and knowledge. Christians holding a view known as [[cessationism]] believe these gifts were given only in New Testament times. Christians almost universally agree that certain more mundane "[[spiritual gifts]]" are still in effect today, including the gifts of ministry, teaching, giving, leadership, and mercy (see, e.g. [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 12:6-8). In some sects of Christianity, the experience of the Holy Spirit is referred to as being "anointed". In the [[African American]] [[Gospel music]] tradition, the experience of the Holy Spirit is referred to as '[[Get Happy|getting happy]]'.
Christians believe that it is the Holy Spirit whom Jesus mentions as the promised "Comforter" (i.e. "strengthener", "fortifier") in [[Gospel of John|John]] 14:26. After his [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]], Christ told his disciples that they would be "[[baptism|baptized]] with the Holy Ghost", and would receive power from this event ([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 1:4-8); a promise that was fulfilled in the events recounted in the second chapter of Acts. On the first [[Pentecost]], Jesus' disc
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<page>
<title>Inosite triphosphate</title>
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<timestamp>2002-05-07T02:10:02Z</timestamp>
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<page>
<title>Iron Age</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age; for the mythological Iron Age see [[Ages of Man]].''
In [[archaeology]], the '''Iron Age''' is the stage in the development of any people where the use of [[iron]] implements as tools and weapons is prominent. The adoption of this new material coincided with other changes in past societies often including differing agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles.
The Iron Age is the last principal period in the [[three-age system]] for classifying [[prehistory|pre-historic]] societies and its meaning varies depending on the country or geographical region. This variation even occurs within [[Europe]] where the Iron Age distinction was first identified; the [[Nordic]] Iron Age and [[Roman Iron Age]] are examples. The Iron Age was preceded by the [[Copper Age]] and later the [[Bronze Age]] in Europe and [[Asia]] whilst in the rest of the world it was adopted directly after one or other sub-phases of the [[Stone Age]].
For each individual region, the period is very hard to state in years, but the Iron Age corresponds to the stage at which iron production was the most sophisticated form of [[metalworking]]. Iron's hardness, high melting point and the abundance of [[iron ore]] sources made iron more desirable and "cheaper" than bronze and contributed greatly to its adoption as the most commonly used metal. The arrival of iron use in various areas is listed below, broadly in chronological order.
Because iron working was introduced directly to the [[Americas]] and [[Australasia]] by European colonization, there was never an iron age in either location.
==The Iron Age==
The first signs of iron use come from [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Sumer]], where around [[4000 BC]] small items, such as the tips of spears and ornaments, were being fashioned from iron recovered from [[meteorite]]s (see [[Iron#History|Iron: History]]). By [[3000 BC]] to [[2000 BC]] increasing numbers of [[smelting|smelted]] iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by the lack of nickel in the product) appear in [[Anatolia]], [[Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley]] ([[Pakistan]] and [[North India]]). However, their use appears to be ceremonial, and iron was an expensive metal, more expensive than [[gold]]. Some sources suggest that iron was being created then as a by-product of [[copper]] refining, as [[sponge iron]], and was not reproducible by the metallurgy of the time.
The earliest systematic production and use of iron implements appears from the [[14th century BC]] in the [[Hittite Empire]] though recent excavations in Middle [[Ganga|Ganga Valley]] in [[India]] done by archaelogist Rakesh Tewari show Iron working in India since [[1800 BC]]. By [[1200 BC]], iron was widely used in the [[Middle East]] but did not supplant the dominant use of [[bronze]] for some time.
==The Iron Age in Asia==
===Indian Subcontinent===
Recent excavations in Middle [[Ganga|Ganga Valley]] in [[India]] done by archaelogist Rakesh Tewari show iron working in India since 1800 BC. Archaeological sites in India, such as [[Malhar]], Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in the state of [[Uttar Pradesh]] show iron implements in the period between 1800 BC - 1200 BC.
The [[Black and red ware culture|Black and Red Ware culture]] was another early Iron Age archaeological culture of the northern [[Indian Subcontinent]]. It is dated to roughly the 12th – 9th centuries BC, and associated with the post-[[Rigvedic]] [[Vedic civilization]]. It reached from the upper [[Gangetic plain]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] to the eastern [[Vindhya]] range and [[West Bengal]].
Perhaps as early as [[300 BC]], although certainly by [[200|200 A.D.]], high quality steel was being produced in [[South India|southern India]] by what Europeans would later call the [[crucible steel|crucible technique]]. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in crucibles and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. The resulting high-carbon steel, called '''''fūlāḏ فولاذ''''' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and '''''[[wootz steel|wootz]]''''' by later Europeans, was exported throughout much of Asia and Europe.
===Near East===
The Iron Age in the [[Near East]] is believed to have begun with the discovery of iron smelting and smithing techniques in [[Anatolia]] or the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]] in the late [[2nd millennium BC]] (circa [[1300 BC]]). From here it spread rapidly throughout the Near East as iron weapons replaced bronze weapons by the early [[1st millennium BC]]. The use of iron weapons by the [[Hittites]] is believed to have been a major factor in the rapid rise of the Hittite Empire. Because the area in which iron technology first developed was near the Aegean, where [[Asia]] meets [[Europe]], the technology propagated equally early into both Asia and Europe, aided by Hittite expansion. The [[Sea Peoples]] and the related [[Philistines]] are often associated with the introduction of iron technology into Asia, as are the [[Dorians]] with respect to [[Ancient Greece|Greece]]. It ought also be noted that the [[Assyrian Empire]] had trade contacts with the area in which iron technology was first developed at the time that it was developing.
===East Asia===
Cast-iron artifacts are found in [[history of China|China]] that date as early as the [[Zhou dynasty]] of the [[6th century BC]]. An Iron Age culture of the [[Tibetan Plateau]] has tentatively been associated with the [[Zhang Zhung culture]] described in early Tibetan writings. In 1972, near the city of [[Gaocheng]] (藁城) in [[Shijiazhuang]] (now [[Hebei]] province), an iron-bladed [[bronze]] [[Tomahawk (axe)|tomahawk]] (&#38081;&#20995;&#38738;&#38108;&#38074;) dating back to the [[14th century BC]] was excavated. After a scientific examination, the iron was shown to be made from [[aerosiderite]].
In the Korean Peninsula, iron objects were introduced through trade just before the Western Han Dynasty began (c. 300 B.C.). Iron ingots became an important mortuary item in Proto-historic Korea. Iron production quickly followed in the 2nd century B.C., and iron implements came to be used by many farmers by the 1st century A.D. in Southern Korea.
== The Iron Age in Africa ==
The earliest known production of steel occurred around [[1400 BC]] in [[North Africa]] where steel was being produced in carbon [[furnace]]s. The [[Egypt]]ian ruler [[Tutankhamun]] died in [[1323 BC]] and was buried with an iron dagger with a golden hilt. Also an Egyptian sword bearing the name of [[pharaoh]] [[Merneptah]] and a [[battle axe]] with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze haft were both found in the excavation of [[Ugarit]] (see [[Ugarit#History|Ugarit: History]] and [[Steel#History of iron and steelmaking|Steel: History of iron and steelmaking]]), dating to circa [[1400 BC]]. The [[Kushite]] city of [[Meroe]] near modern-day [[Khartoum]] was an important site of iron-smelting during the 5th and 6th centuries BC.
The [[Nok]] civilization became the first iron [[smelting]] people in [[West Africa]]. Iron and copper working then continued to spread southward through the continent, reaching the Cape around 200 A.D. The widespread use of iron revolutionised the [[Bantu]] farming communities who adopted it, driving out the stone tool using hunter-gatherer societies they encountered as they expanded to farm wider areas of [[Savanna|savannah]]. The technologically superior Bantu spread across southern Africa and became rich and powerful, producing iron for tools and weapons in large, industrial quantities.
==The European Iron Age==
Iron working was introduced to [[Europe]] around [[1000 BC]], probably from [[Asia Minor]] and slowly spread westwards over the succeeding 500 years. In the Netherlands, a starting date from about [[800 BC]] is generally accepted. The Romans introduced writing and therefore ended the prehistoric Dutch Iron Age around 50 A.D.
===Eastern Europe===
The early 1st millennium BC marks the Iron Age in Eastern Europe. In the steppes north of the [[Black Sea]] and [[Azov Sea]] and the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]], the Iron Age begins with the [[Koban culture|Koban]] and the [[Novocerkassk culture|Chernogorovka and Novocerkassk]] cultures from ca. 900 BC. By 800 BC, it was spreading to [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt C]] via the alleged "[[Thraco-Cimmerian]]" migrations. From the Hallstatt culture, the Iron Age spreads west with the [[Celt]]ic expansion from the 6th century BC. In Poland, the Iron Age reaches the late [[Lusatian culture]] in about the 6th century,
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empire was the [[Sapa Inca]] ('the unique Inca'). When a new ruler was chosen, his subjects would build his family a new royal dwelling. The former royal dwelling would remain the dwelling of the former Inca's family. Only descendants of the original Inca tribe ever ascended to the level of Inca. Most young members of the Inca's family attended [[Inca education|Yachayhuasis]] (houses of knowledge) to obtain their education.
The Tahuantinsuyu was a [[federation|federalist system]] which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provinces: [[Chinchaysuyu]] (NW), [[Antisuyu]] (NE), [[Qontisuyu]] (SW), and [[Qollasuyu]] (SE). The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cuzco. Each province had a governor who oversaw local officials, who in turn supervised agriculturally-productive river valleys, cities and mines. There were separate chains of command for both the military and religious institutions, which created a system of partial checks and balances on power. The local officials were responsible for settling disputes and keeping track of each family's contribution to the [[Mita (Inca)|mita]] (mandatory public service).
The four provincial governors were called ''apos''. The next rank down, the ''tukuyrikuq'' (local leaders), numbered about 90 in total and typically managed a city and its hinterlands. Below them were four levels of administration:
{|
|- align=right
!Level name !!Mita payers
|- align=right
|Hunu kuraqa ||10,000
|- align=right
|Waranqa kuraqa ||1,000
|- align=right
|Pachaka Kuraqa ||100
|- align=right
|Chunka kamayuq ||10
|}
Every five ''waranqa curaca'', ''pachaka curaca'', and ''chunka kamayuq'' had an intermediary to the next level called, respectively, ''picqa waranqa curaca'', ''picqa pacaka curaca'', and ''picqa conka kamayoq''. This means that the middle managers managed either two or five people, while the ''conka kamayoq'' (at the worker manager level) and the ''apos'' and ''t'oqrikoq'' (in upper management) each had about 20 people reporting to them.
The descendants of the original Inca tribe were not numerous enough to administer their empire without help. To cope with the need for leadership at all levels the Inca established a [[civil service]] system. Boys at age of 13 and girls at age of first menstruation had their intelligence tested by the local Inca officials. If they failed, their [[ayllu]] (extended family group) would teach them one of many trades, such as farming, gold working, weaving, or military skills. If they passed the test, they were sent to Cuzco to attend school to become administrators. There they learned to read the [[quipu]] (knotted cord records) and were taught Inca [[iconography]], leadership skills, religion, and, most importantly, [[mathematics]]. The graduates of this school constituted the nobility and were expected to marry within that nobility.
While some workers were held in great esteem, such as royal [[goldsmith]]s and [[weaver]]s, they could never themselves enter the ruling classes. The best they could hope for was that their children might pass the exam as adolescents to enter the civil service. Although workers were considered the lowest social class, they were entitled to a modicum of what today we call [[due process]], and all classes were equally subject to the [[rule of law]]. For example, if a worker was accused of stealing and the charges were proven false, the local official could be punished for not doing his job properly.
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=== Childhood ===
Inca childhood was harsh by modern standards. When a baby was born, the Inca would wash the child in cold water and wrap it in a blanket. Soon after, the baby was put in a pit dug in the ground like a playpen. By about age one, they expected the baby to crawl and walk independently. At age two, the child was ceremonially named and were considered to have left infancy. From then on, boys and girls were expected to help around the house. Misbehaving during this time could result in very severe punishment. At age fourteen, boys received a loincloth in a [[ceremony]] to mark their [[manhood]]. Boys from noble families were subjected to many different tests of endurance and knowledge. After the test, they received earplugs and a weapon, whose color represented rank in [[society]].
This doesn't really fit into this article at the moment [[User:Zenyu|Zenyu]] 18:15, Dec 7, 2004 (UTC)
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=== Arts ===
The Inca were a conquering society, and their expansionist assimilation of other cultures is evident in their artistic style. The artistic style of the Inca utilized the vocabulary of many regions and cultures, but incorporated these themes into a standardized imperial style that could easily be replicated and spread throughout the empire. The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylized animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles and metalwork were all part of the Inca culture. The motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were directly used with the exception of [[Huari]] and [[Tiwanaku]] arts.
====Architecture====
:''Main article: [[Incan architecture]]
[[Architecture]] was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with pottery and textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. The stone temples constructed by the Inca used a mortarless construction process first used on a large scale by the [[Tiwanaku]]. The Inca imported the stoneworkers of the Tiwanaku region to Cusco when they conquered the lands south of Lake Titicaca. The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable in the frequent earthquakes that strike the area. The Inca used straight walls except on important religious sites and constructed whole towns at once.
The Inca also sculpted the natural surroundings themselves. One could easily think that a rock along an [[Inca road system|Inca trail]] is completely natural, except if one sees it at the right time of year when the sun casts a stunning shadow, betraying its synthetic form. The [[Inca rope bridge]]s were also used to transport messages and materials by [[Chasqui]] running messengers. The Inca also adopted the terraced agriculture that the previous [[Huari]] civilization had popularized. But they did not use the terraces solely for food production. At the Inca ''tambo'', or inn, at [[Ollantaytambo]] the terraces were planted with flowers, extraordinary in this parched land.
The terraces of Moray were left unirrigated in a desert area and seem to have been solely decorative. The Inca provincial thrones were often carved into natural outcroppings, and there were over 360 natural springs in the areas surrounding Cusco, such as the one at Tambo Machay. At Tambo Machay the natural rock was sculpted and stonework was added, creating alcoves and directing the water into fountains. These pseudo-natural carvings functioned to show both the Inca's respect for nature and their command over it.
==== Clothing ====
[[Image:Tupa-inca-tunic.png|thumb|300px|Inca tunic]]
Inca officials wore stylized [[tunic]]s that indicated their status. The tunic displayed here is the highest status tunic known to exist today. It contains an amalgamation of motifs used in the tunics of particular officeholders. For instance, the black and white [[checkerboard]] pattern topped with a red triangle is believed to have been worn by soldiers of the Inca army. Some of the motifs make reference to earlier cultures, such as the stepped diamonds of the [[Huari]] and the three step stairstep motif of the [[Moche]]. In this royal tunic, no two squares are exactly the same.
Cloth was divided into three classes. ''Awaska'' was used for household use, having an approximate [[threadcount]] of about 120 [[threads per inch]]. Finer cloth, ''qunpi'', was divided into two classes: The first, woven by male ''qunpikamayuq'' (keepers of fine cloth), was collected as tribute from throughout the country and was used for trade, to adorn rulers and to be given as gifts to political allies and subjects to cement loyalty. The other class of ''qunpi'' ranked highest. It was woven by ''aqlla'' (female virgins of the sun god temple) and used solely for royal and religious use. These had threadcounts of 600 or more per inch, unsurpassed anywhere in the world, until the [[Industrial Revolution]] of the 19th century.
Aside from the tunic, a person of importance wore a ''[[llawt'u]]'', a series of cords wrapped around the head. To establish his importance, the Inca [[Atahualpa]] commissioned a ''llawt'u'' woven from vampire bat hair. The leader of each [[ayllu]], or extended family, had its own headdress.
In conquered regions, traditional clothing continued to be worn, but the finest weavers, such as those of [[Chan Chan]], were transferred to Cusco and kept there to weave ''qunpi''. (The [[Chimu|Chimú]] had previously transferred these same weavers to Chan Chan from [[Sican]].)
The wearing of [[jewellery]] was not uniform throughout the empire. Chimú [[artisan]]s, for example, continued to wear [[earrings]] after their integration into the empire, but in many other regions, only local leaders wore them.
==== Ceramics and metalwork ====
Ceramics were for the most part utilitarian in nature, but also incorporated the imperialist style that was prevalent in the Inca textiles and metalwork. In addition, the Inca played drums and on woodwind instruments including [[flute]]s, [[pan-pipe]]s and [[trumpet]]s made of shell and ceramics.
The Inca made beautiful objects of gold. But precious metals were in much shorter supply than in earlier Peruvian cultures. The Inca metalworking style draws much of its inspiration from [[Chimú]] art and in fact the best metal workers of [[Chan Chan]]
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ichords in many of their songs.
*Queen used a harpsichord on their song "Fairy Feller's Master Stroke" from their album Queen II
*The harpsichord was a key component of the "sound" of recordings created for the popular 1970s TV show and albums of [[The Partridge Family]], featuring [[David Cassidy]].
*The [[Paula Abdul]] Top 10 hit "Blowing Kisses In The Wind" features the harpsichord.
*British group [[The Stranglers]] used the harpsichord to lead their 1982 hit [[Golden Brown]].
*Many Metal bands like Sonata Arctica and Imperanon use their [[keyboard synthesizer]]s to emulate the sounds of harpsichords.
*Joanna Newsom used the harpsichord for the track Peach, Plum, Pear on her Milk-Eyed Mender album.
==Further reading==
''Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making'' by Frank Hubbard (1967, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; ISBN 0674888456) is an authoritative survey of how early harpsichords were built and how the harpsichord evolved over time in different national traditions.
==External links==
{{Commonscat|Harpsichords}}
*[http://www.sankey.ws/history.html A brief history of the harpsichord]
*[http://www.bigduck.com/harp1.html A harpsichord site with images]
*[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~bpl/hpsi.html Hear the sound of various harpsichords]
*[http://www.bigduck.com/mottos.html Latin mottoes painted on harpsichords]
*[http://www.harpsichord.org.uk Extensive source of harpsichord information]
*[http://www.albany.edu/faculty/bec/hpschd-l/ HPSCHD-L is a list devoted to early stringed keyboard instruments.]
*[http://HarpsichordPhoto.org/ HarpsichordPhoto is a site devoted to photographs of early stringed keyboard instruments.]
[[Category:Keyboard instruments]]
[[Category:String instruments]]
[[ca:Clavicèmbal]]
[[da:Cembalo]]
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[[es:Clave (teclado)]]
[[eo:Klaviceno]]
[[fr:Clavecin]]
[[ko:하프시코드]]
[[he:צ'מבלו]]
[[it:Clavicembalo]]
[[mk:Чембало]]
[[nl:Klavecimbel]]
[[ja:チェンバロ]]
[[pl:Klawesyn]]
[[pt:Cravo (música)]]
[[sl:Čembalo]]
[[sr:Чембало]]
[[fi:Cembalo]]
[[sk:Čembalo]]
[[sv:Cembalo]]
[[zh:羽管键琴]]
[[tr:Klavsen]]
[[ru:Клавесин]]
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<page>
<title>Hair</title>
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<timestamp>2006-03-03T19:49:31Z</timestamp>
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<text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Hair''' is also the name of a [[Musical theater|musical]]; see the [[Hair (musical)|stage production]] and the [[Hair (film)|movie]]''.
[[Image:Anderson Sophie Young Girl Fixing Her Hair.jpg|thumb|right|"Young Girl Fixing her Hair", by [[Sophie Gengembre Anderson]]]]
'''Hair''' (latin ''pili'') is a filamentous outgrowth of the [[skin]] found only in [[mammal]]s. In some species it is absent at certain stages of life. It projects from the [[epidermis (skin)|epidermis]], though it grows from [[follicles]] deep in the [[dermis]]. So-called "hairs" ([[trichome]]s) are also found on [[plant]]s. The projections on [[insect]]s and [[spider]]s are actually [[insect bristle]]s. The hair of non-[[human]] [[species]] is commonly referred to as [[fur]]. There are varieties of [[cat]]s, [[dog]]s, and [[mouse|mice]] bred to have little or no visible hair.
Hair serves a number of different functions. It provides [[thermal insulation|insulation]] from the cold, and in some species from hot [[weather]]. It is generally [[pigment]]ed, providing coloration, sometimes the same as the underlying skin. It often serves as [[camouflage]], both for prey and [[predator]]s. In some species the pigmentation changes with the [[season]]s; e.g., becoming white during the snowy [[winter]], and in cases even more rapidly than that with changes in background. Hair can also provide protection against [[abrasion]], and [[head]] hair can buffer impacts to the [[skull]]. In some species, hair patterns can be a part of [[sexual dimorphism]]; e.g., the long [[mane]]s of male [[lion]]s.
In modern [[Western world|Western societies]] it is considered [[masculinity|masculine]] for [[man|men]] to maintain the naturally thicker hair on their [[face]]s, [[arm]]s, [[chest]]s, [[back]]s, [[buttocks]] and [[human leg|legs]], but the hair growing from the top of the head is generally kept relatively short. By contrast, it is considered [[femininity|feminine]], for [[woman|women]] to have little or no hair on their bodies, including [[pubic hair]], but to let it grow long on the tops of their heads. Before [[World War I]] men generally had longer hair and [[beard]]s. The [[trench warfare]] between [[1914]] and [[1918]] exposed men to [[lice]] and [[flea]] [[infestation]]s, which caused the order for hair to be cut short, establishing a norm that has persisted. [[Hair care]] for humans is a major world industry with specialized tools, chemicals and techniques. In most [[society|societies]], people style or adorn their hair for aesthetic reasons and often have it [[haircut|cut]] or removed by [[shave|shaving]] or [[depilation|other means]]. In some, women usually shave their legs, [[armpit]]s and the entirety or just parts of the pubic area, and shape their [[eyebrow]]s.
== Human hair ==
[[Image:Hair.jpg|right|thumb|120px|People from different cultures have invented various ways to arrange, or "style" their hair.]]
Typically, humans have the longest hair on the top of the head, with shorter hair on the [[eye]]lids and [[eyebrow]]s. [[Armpit hair]] and [[pubic hair]] serves as lubrication during rubbing.
Sometimes, the term '''body hair''' is used, to distinguish it from hair on the head. Individual hairs alternate periods of growth and dormancy. During the growth portion of the cycle, [[hair follicles]] are long and bulbous, and the hair advances outward at about a third of a millimeter per day. After three to six months, body hair growth stops (the pubic and armpit areas having the longest growth period). The follicle shrinks and the root of the hair rigidifies. Following a period of dormancy, another growth cycle starts, and eventually a new hair pushes the old one out of the follicle from beneath. Head hair, by comparison, grows for a long duration and to a great length before being shed. The rate of growth is approximately 1.25 centimeters, or about 0.5 inches, per month. [[Anthropologist]]s speculate that the functional significance of long head hair may be [[adornment]], a byproduct of secondary [[natural selection]] once other somatic hair had been lost. Another possibility is that long head hair is a result of [[Fisherian runaway]] [[sexual selection]], where long lustrous hair is a visible marker for a healthy individual (with good nutrition, waist length hair&mdash;approximately 1 meter or 39 inches long&mdash;would take ~80 months or just under 7 years to grow), and this would explain why long head hair (in both sexes) is viewed as "sexy" even now.
[[Image:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 043.jpg|left|thumb|Traditional Hopi hair style, photo by Edward S. Curtis, 1922]]Hair grows from all areas of the skin on humans regardless of sex or race except in the following locations: the lips, the nipples, the palms of hands, the soles of feet, certain external genital areas, the navel and other scar tissue. Some people seem to have less body and facial hair than others, but in fact have shorter and finer body hair while the total number of follicles is relatively constant.
Several theories have been advanced to explain the apparent bareness of human body hair. One suggests that nature selected humans for shorter and thinner body hair as part of a set of adaptations including [[bipedal]] locomotion and an upright posture. There are several problems with this ''savanna'' theory, not least of which is that [[cursorial hunting]] is used by (other) animals that do not show any thinning of hair, and that hair similar to [[chimpanzee]]s and [[gorilla]]s also shades the skin from radiant heat and protects it from hot winds, and thus another mechanism for heat loss is not required. Another problem is that bipedal locomotion apparently now predates hominids moving from a forest environment to a savanna environment. A more recent theory for human hair loss has to do with a possible period of bipedal wading in a salt marsh in the Danakil region of [[Ethiopia]], possibly occurring in the hominid lineage between 5 and 7 million years ago. As a wading animal, it was more efficient to develop short body hair and a layer of subcutaneous fat for streamlining and insulation in the aquatic environment; the eccrine sweat glands developed later after the hominids left the water; see [[Aquatic ape hypothesis]]. One problem with this theory is that both chimpanzees and gorillas have the same density and distribution of the eccrine glands, but that they have not been developed for sweat production.
A ''third'' theory for the thin body hair on humans proposes that [[Fisherian runaway]] [[sexual selection]] played a role here (as well as in the selection of long head hair). Possibly this occurred in conjunction with [[neoteny]], with the more juvenile appearing females being selected by males as more desirable; see [[#Types_of_hair|types of hair]] and [[vellus hair]]. The human female body hair typically has more [[vellus hair]] (making the skin appear bare), while the male body typically has more terminal hair (especially on the chest and back). Thus [[sexual selection]] can explain the [[sexual dimorphism]] in human body hair, with the results of selection being more evident (more extreme) in the female than in the male, a point which the other two theories cannot address without proposing substantially different behavior between males and females. Also, we see that artificially bare (shaved, etc.) legs, arms, etc. on women are seen as "sexy" even today, while bo
|
y received other royal charters later. In 1319, the Great Charter of [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert the Bruce]] transformed Aberdeen into a property owning and financially independent community. Bruce had a high regard for the citizens of Aberdeen who had sheltered him in his days of outlawry, helped him win the Battle of Barra and slayed the English garrison at the Castle. He granted Aberdeen with the nearby Forest of Stocket. The income from this land has formed the basis for the city's Common Good Fund, which is used to this day for the benefit of all Aberdonians.
The city was burned by [[Edward III of England]] in 1336, but was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New Aberdeen. For many centuries the city was subject to attacks by the neighbouring lords, and was strongly fortified, but the gates were all removed by 1770. In 1497 a blockhouse was built at the harbour mouth as a protection against the English. During the [[Scottish Civil War]] of 1644-47 between the Royalists and Covenanters the city was impartially plundered by both sides. In 1644, it was taken and sacked by Royalist troops comprising of Irishmen and Highlanders after the [[battle of Aberdeen]]. In 1715 the Earl Marischal proclaimed the Old Pretender at Aberdeen, and in 1745 the Duke of Cumberland resided for a short time in the city before attacking the Young Pretender.
In the [[18th century]] a new Town Hall was built, elegantly furnished with a marble fireplace from Holland and a set of fine crystal chandeliers and sconces. The latter are still a feature in the Town House. This century also saw the beginnings of social services for the Infirmary at Woolmanhill which was opened in 1742 and the Lunatic Asylum in 1779.
The [[19th century]] was a time of considerable expansion. By 1901 the population was 153,000 and the city covered more than 6,000 acres (24 km²). In the late 18th century, the council embarked on a scheme of road improvements, and by 1805 George Street, King Street and Union Street were open, the latter a feat of extraordinary engineering skill involving the partial levelling of St Catherine's Hill and the building of arches to carry the street over Putachieside. The Denburn Valley was crossed by Union Street with a single span arch of 130 ft (40 m). Along these new streets was built the nucleus of the ''Granite City'' in buildings designed by John Smith and [[Archibald Simpson]].
The increasing economic importance of Aberdeen and the development of the shipbuilding and fishing industries brought a need for improved harbour facilities. During this century much of the harbour as it exists today was built including Victoria Dock, the South Breakwater and the extension to the North Pier. Such an expensive building programme had, of course, repercussions, and in 1817 the city was in a state of bankruptcy. However, a recovery was made in the general prosperity which followed the [[Napoleonic wars]]. Improvements in street lighting came in 1824 with the advent of gas, and a vast improvement was made to the water supply in 1830 when water was pumped from the Dee to a reservoir in Union Place. An underground sewerage system was begun in 1865 to replace the open sewers which previously ran along certain of the streets.
==Background==
[[Image:Elphinstone_Hall2.jpg|thumb|University of Aberdeen, Elphinstone Hall]]
Though Old Aberdeen, extending from the area surrounding the [[University of Aberdeen]] to the southern banks of the Don, had a separate charter, privileges, and history, the distinction between it and New Aberdeen can no longer be said to exist. Aberdeen's popular name of the "Granite City", is justified by the fact that the bulk of the city is built of [[granite]], but to appreciate its more poetical designation of the "Silver City by the Golden Sands", it should be seen after a heavy rainfall when its public buildings and countless houses gleam pure and white under brilliant sunshine. It is also known as the 'Flower of Scotland', as Aberdeen has long been famous for its outstanding parks, gardens and floral displays that include 2 million roses, 11 million daffodils and 3 million crocuses. Aberdeen has won the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Britain in Bloom]] contest on numerous occasions, and at one time was banned from entering to enable other cities to win. On [[5 March]], [[2003]] Aberdeen was granted [[Fairtrade City]] status.
The area of the city extends to 71.22 square miles (184.46 [[square kilometre|km²]]), and includes the former burghs of Old Aberdeen, New Aberdeen, Woodside and the district of [[Torry]] to the south of the Dee. The city was first [[incorporation (municipal government)|incorporated]] in 1891. The city is represented in Westminster by two MPs who are both from the Labour party, and in the [[Scottish Parliament]] by three MSPs (one Labour, one SNP and one Liberal Democrat). The city council comprises forty-three councillors who represent the city's [[ward (politics)|wards]] and is headed by the Lord Provost. The current [[List of Provosts and Lord Provosts of Aberdeen|Lord Provost]] is John Reynolds.
As of 1996, Aberdeen has been governed by the unitary [[City of Aberdeen|Aberdeen City Council]] and no longer has any direct control over the neighbouring area of [[Aberdeenshire (unitary)|Aberdeenshire]] (although the headquarters of Aberdeenshire Council are located within the city's boundaries).
Aberdeen has good links to the rest of Scotland and the UK. The main road south to [[Edinburgh]] is a fast dual carriageway and plans are in hand to build a bypass round the city. Aberdeen is served by good rail links to the south and north to [[Inverness]], all services running from the Railway Station in the city centre. Although there are no direct sea links south any more there is still a ferry service running to [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]]. [[Aberdeen Airport]] is located at Dyce, about 5 miles (8 km) north west of the city centre, and has frequent services to [[London]] and several international destinations.
The mean temperature is 8 °[[Celsius|C]] (47 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]) and it varies between 0.4 °C (32.7 °F) in winter and 17.6 °C (63.7 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]) in summer. The average yearly rainfall is 816 [[millimetre|mm]]. The city is one of the healthiest in Scotland.
==Art and architecture==
[[Image:Union Street, Aberdeen.jpg|thumb|Union Street]]
[[Image:Aberdeen Market Cross.jpg|thumb|Aberdeen Market Cross]]
[[Image:marschal college.jpg|frame|right|Marischal College as seen from Upperkirkgate]]
Union Street is one of the most imposing and famous thoroughfares in Britain. From Castle Street it runs for nearly a mile (1.5 km), is 70 ft (21 m) wide, and originally contained the principal shops and most of the public buildings, all of granite. Part of the street crosses the Denburn ravine (utilized for the line of the Great North of Scotland railway) by Union Bridge, a fine granite arch of 132 ft (40 m) span, with portions of the older town still fringing the gorge, 50 feet (15 m) below the level of Union Street. Union Street was built from 1801 to 1805, and named after the 1800 Act of Union with [[Ireland]].
Amongst the notable buildings in the street are the Town and County Bank, the Music Hall 1822, the Trinity Hall of the incorporated trades (originating between 1398 and 1527), now a shopping mall; the Palace Hotel; the former office of the Northern Assurance Company, and the National Bank of Scotland.
In Castle Street, a continuation eastwards of Union Street, is the Town House, the headquarters of the city council. One of the most splendid granite edifices in Scotland, in the Franco-Scottish Gothic style, it contains the great hall, with an open timber ceiling and oak-panelled walls; the Sheriff Court House; the Town and County Hall, with portraits of [[Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]], the 4th [[Earl of Aberdeen]], various Lord Provosts and other distinguished citizens. In the vestibule of the entrance corridor stands a suit of black armour, believed to have been worn by Provost [[Sir Robert Davidson]], who fought in the [[Battle of Harlaw]] in 1411. On the south-western corner is the 210 ft (64 m) grand tower, which commands a fine view of the city and surrounding country. Adjoining the Town House is the old North of Scotland Bank building, in [[Greek Revival]] style. This building is now a pub named the [[Archibald Simpson]], after its original architect. On the opposite side of the street is the fine building of the Union Bank.
At the upper end of Castlegate stands [[The Salvation Army]] Citadel, an effective castellated mansion, on the site of the medieval castle. In front of it is the [[Market Cross]], built in 1686 by [[John Montgomery]], a native architect. This open-arched structure, 21 ft (6 m) in diameter and 18 ft (5 m) high, comprises a large hexagonal base from the centre of which rises a shaft with a Corinthian capital, on which is the royal [[unicorn]]. The base is highly decorated, including medallions illustrating Scottish monarchs from [[James I of Scotland|James I]] to [[James VII of Scotland|James VII]]. To the east of Castle Street were the military barracks, which were demolished in 1965 and replaced with two tower blocks.
Marischal College on Broad Street, opened by King [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]] in 1906, is the second largest granite building in the world (after the [[Escorial]], [[Madrid]]), and is one of the most splendid examples of Edwardian architecture in Britain. The architect, [[Alexander Marshall Mackenzie]], a native of Aberdeen, adapted his material, white granite, to the design of the building with the originality of genius. This magnificent building is sadly no longer a seat of learning and is under renovation as the new home of Aberdeen City Council.
There are no tramways in Aberdeen. The last [[tram]] went through the streets on [[May 3]] [[1958]]. All trams except one were scrap
|
ell nuclear transfer can create clones for both reproductive and therapeutic purposes. The diagram depicts the removal of the donor nucleus for schematic purposes; in practice the whole donor cell is transferred.]]
Cloning a cell means to derive a population of cells (a clonal population) from a single cell. This is an important in vitro procedure when the expansion of a single cell with certain characteristics is desired, for example in the production of gene-targeted ES cells. Most individuals began as a single cell (a zygote) and are therefore the result of clonal expansion in vivo.
Cloning an organism broadly means to create a new organism with the same genetic information as a cell from an existing one. In a modern context, this can involve [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]] in which a cell of the organism to be cloned, with its [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] containing the DNA, is transferred into an [[Ovum|egg]] cell which has had its nucleus removed (currently, both the egg cell and the transferred nucleus must be from the same species). As the nucleus contains almost all of the genetic information of a lifeform, the "host" egg cell will develop into an organism with genetically identical nuclear DNA to the nucleus "donor". However, this process does not conserve the [[Mitochondrial genome|mitochondrial genome]] unless the nucleus and egg cell donor were the same individual. Thus, nuclear transfer clones are not clones in the strictest sense because the mitochondrial genome is not the same as that of the nucleus donor cell from which it was produced. This may have important implications for cross-species nuclear transfer in which nuclear-mitochondrial incompatibilities may lead to inviability.
The first animal clone was a frog cloned by [[Thomas J. King]] and [[Robert W. Briggs]] in 1952.
===Horticultural===
The term ''clone'' is used in [[horticulture]] to mean all descendants of a single plant, produced by [[vegetative reproduction]]. Many horticultural varieties of plants are clones, having been derived from a single individual, multiplied by some process other than sexual reproduction. As an example, some European varieties of grapes represent clones that have been propagated for over two millennia. Other such examples are potatoes or bananas. Also [[grafting]] can be regarded as cloning, since all the shoots and branches coming from the graft are genetically a clone of a single individual. These are genuine examples of cloning in the broader biological sense, as they create genetically identical organisms by biological means, but this particular kind of cloning has not come under [[ethics|ethical]] scrutiny and is generally treated as an entirely different kind of operations.
===Natural clones===
[[Image:RIFA.jpg|frame]]
Cloning exists in nature in some species and is referred to as [[parthenogenesis]]. An example is the "Little [[Fire ant|Fire Ant]]," ''[[Wasmannia auropunctata]]'', which is native to Central and South America but has spread throughout many tropical environments.{{ref|Wasmannia}} In this species, circumstantial evidence from microsatellite DNA suggests that both queens and males may reproduce clonally in one population in [[Suriname]].
== Species cloned ==
The modern cloning techniques involving nuclear transfers have been successfully performed on several species. Land mark experiments in chronological order:
* [[Tadpole]]: (1951)
* [[Carp]]: (1963) In [[China]], [[embryologist]] [[Tong Dizhou]] cloned a fish. He published the findings in an obscure Chinese science journal which was never translated into English. [http://www.pbs.org/bloodlines/timeline/text_timeline.html]
* [[Sheep]]: (1986) From early embryonic cells by Steen Willadsen. Megan and Morag cloned from differentiated embryonic cells in June 1995 and Dolly the sheep in 1997.
* [[Rhesus monkey]]: [[Tetra (monkey)|Tetra]] (female, January 2000)
* [[Cattle]]: [[Alpha and Beta]] (males, 2001) and (2005) Brazil [http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Endangered_cow_cloned_in_Brazil]
* [[Cat]]: [[CopyCat]] "CC" (female, late 2001), [[Little Nicky (cat)|Little Nicky]], 2004, was the first cat cloned for commercial reasons
* [[Mule]]: [[Idaho Gem]], a john mule born May 4, 2003, was the first horse-family clone
* [[Horse]]: [[Prometea]], a Halflinger female born May 28, 2003, was the first horse clone
* [[Human]]: embryo <strike>(2004) in Korea</strike> (retracted [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v439/n7073/full/439122a.html]) and (2005) in Britain
* [[Dog]]: [[Snuppy]] (2005) at the [[Seoul National University]] in South Korea. [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v436/n7051/abs/436641a.html] [http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/tech/200508/kt2005080403360611820.htm]
For a complete list see: [[List of animals that have been cloned]].
==Ethical issues of cloning==
===Christian views===
{{main|Christian views on cloning}}
Christian views of cloning are diverse and sometimes conflicting.
[[Roman Catholicism]] and other [[conservative Christian]] [[Christian denominations|denominations]] believe that the [[soul]] enters the body at the moment of [[conception]] when the [[sperm]] and [[ovum|egg]] unite. They feel harvesting cells for embryonic cloning is tantamount to live [[human experimentation]] and contrary to God's will. Further, they maintain that producing cloned [[zygotes]] that are unlikely to survive is tantamount to murder. Some Christian conservatives express concern that cloned [[embryo]]s would have no soul, since it was, in their view, born outside of God's parameters.
Other Christian traditions like the [[United Church of Christ]] do not believe a fertilized [[ovum]] constitutes a person. They believe that cloning can be conducted [[ethics|ethically]] in order to help treat [[disease]] and improve the [[public health]].
Now, libertarian views on the subject suggest that it is in a person's constitutional rights to conduct this process, similar to abortion.
== Health aspects ==
However, the success rate has been very low: [[Dolly the sheep|Dolly]] was born after 276 failed attempts; 70 calves have been created from 9,000 attempts and one third of them died young; [[Prometea]] took 328 attempts, and, more recently, [[Paris Texas the horse|Paris Texas]] was created after 400 attempts. Notably, although the first clones were frogs, no adult cloned frog has yet been produced from a somatic adult nucleus donor cell.
A surprising development to do with [[Senescence|aging]] resulted from finds that [[Dolly the sheep|Dolly]] was apparently subject to accelerated aging. Aging of this type is thought to be due to [[telomere]]s, regions at the tips of [[chromosome]]s which prevent genetic threads fraying every time a [[cell division|cell divides]]. Over time telomeres get worn down until cell-division is no longer possible - this is thought to be a cause of aging. However, when researchers cloned cows they appeared to age more slowly than expected. Analysis of the cow's telomeres showed they had not only been 'reset' to birth-length, but they were actually longer - suggesting these clones would live longer life spans than normal cows (but many have died young after excessive growth). Researchers think that this could eventually be developed to reverse aging in humans, provided that this is based chiefly on shortening of telomeres. Although some work has been performed on telomeres and aging in nuclear transfer clones, the evidence is contradictory and does not support any generalizable link.
Dolly died in the year of 2003.
[[Therapeutic cloning]] is the procedure for creating stem cells genetically compatible with the patient. Therapeutic cloning might provide a way to grow organs in host carrier, which become completely compatible with the original. Host carrier growing poses a risk of trans-species diseases if the host is of a different species (e.g. a pig.) In human beings, this is a highly controversial issue, as it involves creating human embryos in vitro and then destroying them to obtain multipotent embryonic stem cells.
==Human cloning==
{{main|Human cloning}}
Human cloning is the creation of a [[genetics|genetically]] identical copy of an existing, or previously existing [[human]] or growing [[cloning|clone]]d [[biological tissue|tissue]] from that individual. The term is generally used to refer to ''artificial'' human cloning; human clones in the form of [[identical twin]]s are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of reproduction.
==Cloning extinct species==
Cloning, or more precisely, the reconstruction of functional DNA from extinct species has, for decades, been a dream of some scientists. The possible implications of this were dramatized in the novel by [[Michael Crichton]] and high budget Hollywood thriller, "[[Jurassic Park]]". In real life, one of the most anticipated targets for cloning was once the [[Woolly mammoth]], but attempts to extract DNA from frozen mammoths have been unsuccessful, though a Japanese team is currently working toward this goal.
In [[2000]], a cow named Bessie gave birth to a cloned Asian [[gaur]], an endangered species, but the calf died after 2 days; the attempt to clone a [[banteng]] was more successful and provided hope that similar techniques (using surrogate mothers of another species) might be used to clone extinct species; in anticipation of this possibility, the last ''bucardo'', a [[Pyrenean ibex]], was frozen immediately after it died (from illness after birth). Researchers are also considering cloning endangered species such as the giant panda, ocelot, and cheetah[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/aponline/20001008/aponline171938_000.htm]. See the discussion under "[[Dolly_the_sheep#Legacy|Dolly]]" for a discussion of the promises and limitations of this approach.
In [[2002]], geneticists at the Australian Museum announced that they had replicate
|
he nature of Christ, of Paradise, angels, and men. Isidore also produced a ''History of the Goths''; ''On the Nature of Things'' (not the poem of [[Lucretius]]), a book of astronomy and natural history dedicated to the Visigothic king [[Sisebut]]; and ''Questions on the Old Testament''. There is a mystical treatise on the allegorical meanings of numbers, and a number of brief letters.
He was [[Canonization|canonized]] as a [[saint]] by the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] in [[1598]] and declared a [[Doctor of the Church]] in [[1722]].
In [[2003]] he was proposed as the patron saint of the Internet, but was not among the top six vote totals in an Italian language Internet poll (Google translation: [http://translate.google.com/translate?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.santiebeati.it%2Fpatrono.html&langpair=it%7Cen&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&prev=%2Flanguage_tools])
Alternative spelling: Isadore.
''See also'': [[Cartographer]]
==External links==
*[http://www.ccel.org/w/wace/biodict/htm/TOC.htm Henry Wace, ''Dictionary of Christian Biography'']
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08186a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', 1913: 'Isidore of Seville']
*[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,49995,00.html?tw=wn_story_related St. Isidore proposed as patron saint of the Internet]
[[Category:Spanish saints|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category:560 births|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category:636 deaths|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category: Encyclopedists|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category:Spanish philosophers|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category:Spanish theologians|Isidore of Seville]]
[[bg:Исидор Севилски]]
[[de:Isidor von Sevilla]]
[[es:Isidoro de Sevilla]]
[[fr:Isidore de Séville]]
[[ia:Isidor de Sevilla]]
[[id:Isidore dari Sevilla]]
[[it:Isidoro di Siviglia]]
[[he:איזידור מסביליה]]
[[la:Isidorus Hispalensis]]
[[nl:Isidorus van Sevilla]]
[[pl:Izydor z Sewilli]]
[[pt:Isidoro de Sevilha]]
[[sk:Izidor zo Sevilly]]</text>
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<page>
<title>Inorganic chemistry of carbon</title>
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<comment>Added link to list of inorganic carbon compounds</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">There is a rich variety of [[carbon]] [[chemistry]] that does not fall within the realm of [[organic chemistry]] and is thus called '''inorganic carbon chemistry'''.
Perhaps best well known are the [[oxide]]s of carbon, [[carbon dioxide]] and [[carbon monoxide]]. Other types include
(but are not limited to) inorganic [[salt]]s and [[complex (chemistry) | complexes]] of the carbon-containing [[polyatomic ion]]s, [[cyanide]], [[cyanate]], [[thiocyanate]], [[carbonate]], and [[carbide]].
The known inorganic chemistry of the [[allotropy|allotrope]]s of carbon ([[diamond]], [[graphite]], and the [[fullerene]]s) blossomed with the discovery of buckminsterfullerene in the late twentieth century as additional fullerenes and their various derivatives were discovered. One such class of derivatives is inclusion compounds, in which an ion is enclosed by the all-carbon shell of the fullerene. This inclusion is denoted by the "@" symbol. For example, an ion consisting of a lithium ion trapped within buckminsterfullerene would be denoted C<sub>60</sub>@Li<sup>+</sup>. As
with any other ionic compound, this complex ion could in principle pair with a [[counterion]] to form a salt.
For a fairly full listing of inorganic carbon compounds on Wikipedia see [[Inorganic_compounds_by_element#Carbon]].</text>
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<page>
<title>Industrial espionage</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve"><div class="messagebox" style="width: 40em;">
<div style="float: left;">[[Image:Stop hand.svg|40px| ]]</div>
<div style="margin-left: 60px;">'''This article may contain [[Wikipedia:No original research|original research]] or [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|unverified]] claims.''' <br> Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the [[:{{NAMESPACE}} talk:{{PAGENAME}}|talk page]] for details [[Category:Articles which may contain original research|{{PAGENAME}}]].</div>
</div>'''Industrial espionage''' is [[espionage]] conducted for [[commerce|commercial]] purposes instead of [[national security]] purposes. It is conducted both by governments and by private organizations.
At the most innocuous level, the term is applied to the legal and mundane methods of examining corporate publications, web sites, [[patent]] filings, and the like to determine the activities of a corporation (though this is normally referred to as [[business intelligence]]), through to illegal methods such as [[bribe]]ry, [[blackmail]], technological surveillance and even occasional violence. As well as spying on commercial organizations, governments can also be targets of commercial espionage&mdash;for example, to determine the terms of a tender for a government contract so that another tenderer can underbid.
Most large corporations openly acknowledge the existence of departments to perform the legal aspects of corporate espionage. Many also spend considerable amounts on precautions to protect against the more cloak-and-dagger varieties.
The [[United States]] government has admitted to using commercial espionage, for instance using surveillance of phone calls to determine that a French competitor of a US firm was bribing Brazilian officials to obtain an air traffic control radar contract (it was later revealed that the US firm was ''also'' bribing officials). It is generally believed that most large intelligence agencies are involved in the practice.
A commission of the [[European Parliament]] suspects that [[ECHELON]], a communications espionage system operated by the [[NSA]] and agencies of the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, is used for political espionage and occasionally to help American companies against European competitors.
The government of [[France]] has conducted ongoing industrial espionage against American aerodynamics and satellite companies. [http://www.hanford.gov/oci/maindocs/ci_r_docs/frenchesp.pdf]
The development of the [[Tupolev Tu-144]] [[supersonic]] aircraft, with its rapid design and similarity to [[Concorde]], was one of the most prominent examples of industrial espionage in the 20th century.
==See also==
*[[Business intelligence]]
*[[Trade secret]]
==External links==
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/pp144.html Recent cases and future of industrial espionage]
[[category:Business intelligence]][[Category:Espionage]][[Category:Management]]
[[category:Strategic management]]
[[de:Wirtschaftsspionage]]
[[fr:Espionnage industriel]]
[[he:ריגול תעשייתי]]
[[pl:Wywiad gospodarczy]]
[[ru:Промышленный шпионаж]]
[[sv:Industrispionage]]
[[th:การจารกรรมข้อมูลในอุตสาหกรรม]]</text>
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<title>Instruction set architectures</title>
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<title>Isaac Bashevis Singer</title>
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<comment>/* List of works */ Needed a link to Yentl somewhere</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the fiction writer. For the inventor of the sewing machine, see [[Isaac Singer]].}}
[[Image:Ibsinger.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
'''Isaac Bashevis Singer''' ([[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]: יצחק באַשעװיס זינגער or יצחק בת־שבֿעס זינגער) ([[November 21]], [[1902]] or [[July 14]], [[1904]] - [[July 24]], [[1991]]) was a [[Nobel Prize in literature|Nobel Prize]]-winning [[Jewish]] writer of both short stories and novels.
==Biography==
Isaac Bashevis Singer was born Icek-Hersz Zynger in [[Radzymin]], near [[Warsaw]] in [[Poland]], then part of the [[Russian Empire]]. His father was a [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] [[rabbi]] and his mother, Bathsheba, was the daughter of a rabbi. Singer later used her name in his penname "Bashevis" (son of Bathsheba). His brother [[Israel Joshua Singer]] also was a noted writer and was the first and greatest literary influence on his younger brother Isaac. Their sister, [[Esther Kreitman]], was also a writer.
Singer grew up in the [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]-speaking poor Jewish quarter of Warsaw, where his father acted as a rabbi, judge, and spiritual leader, and in [[Bilgoraj]], a traditional Jewish village or ''shtetl''. Singer entered in [[1920]] the Tachkemoni Rabbinical Seminary, but then returned to Bilgoraj, where he supported himself by giving [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] lessons. Though his rabbinical studies would remain a strong influence on him, he longed to be a part of a literary community. In [[1923]] he moved to Warsaw, where he worked as a proofreader for the ''Literarische Bleter'', edited by his brother Israel. The older brother contributed to the younger brother's spiritual liberation and contact with the new currents of seething political, social and cultural upheaval.
Singer made his debut with
|
t. He played in the first violins at the Worcester and Birmingham Festivals, and one great experience was to play [[Antonin Dvorak]]'s [[Symphony No. 6 (Dvorak)|Sixth Symphony]] and ''Stabat Mater'' under the composer's baton. Elgar was thrilled by Dvorak's orchestration and this remained an influence on his own style for more than a decade.
At 29, through his teaching, he met (Caroline) Alice Roberts, a Major-General's daughter (shades of [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]) and an author of verse and prose fiction. He married her three years later against the wishes of her family, giving her as an engagement present the short [[violin]] and piano piece ''Salut d'amour''. The Elgars moved to [[London]] to be closer to the centre of British musical life, and Edward started composing in earnest. The stay was unsuccessful, however, and they were obliged to return to [[Great Malvern]], where Edward could earn a living teaching.
===Growing reputation===
During the 1890s Elgar gradually built up a reputation as a composer, chiefly of works for the great choral festivals of the [[Midlands]]. ''The Black Knight'','' King Olaf'' ([[1896]]), ''The Light of Life'' and ''[[Caractacus]]'' were all modestly successful and he obtained a long-standing publisher in Novello and Company.
In [[1899]], at the age of 42, his first major orchestral work, the ''[[Enigma Variations]]'', was premiered in London under the baton of the eminent German conductor [[Hans Richter (conductor)|Hans Richter]]. It was received with general acclaim, establishing Elgar as the pre-eminent British composer of his generation. This work is formally titled ''Variations on an Original Theme (Enigma)''. The enigma is that although there are thirteen variations on the "original theme", the 'enigma' theme, which Elgar said 'runs through and over the whole set' is never heard. Many later commentators have observed that although Elgar is today regarded as a characteristically English composer, his orchestral music and this work in particular share much with the Central European tradition typified at the time by the work of [[Richard Strauss]]. Indeed, the ''Enigma Variations'' were well-received in Germany.
The [[1900|following year]] saw the production in [[Birmingham]] of his choral setting of [[John Henry Newman|Cardinal Newman's]] poem ''[[The Dream of Gerontius]]''. Despite a disastrous first performance, the work was established within a few years as one of Elgar's greatest, and it is now regarded as one of the finest examples of English choral music from any era.
Elgar is probably best known for the ''[[Pomp and Circumstance Marches]]'' ([[1901]]). Shortly after their composition, Elgar was asked to set the first march to words by [[A C Benson]] as a Coronation [[Ode]] to mark the coronation of [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VII]]. The suggestion had already been made (allegedly by the future King himself) that words should be fitted to the broad tune which formed the [[trio]] section of this march. Against the advice of his friends, Elgar suggested that Benson furnish further words to allow him to include it in the new work. The result was ''[[Land of Hope and Glory]]'', which formed the finale of the ode and was also issued (with slightly different words) as a separate song.
Between [[1902]] and [[1914]] Elgar enjoyed phenomenal success, made four visits to the USA including one [[conducting]] tour, and earned considerable fees from the performance of his music. Between [[1905]] and [[1908]] Elgar held the post of Professor of Music at the [[University of Birmingham]]. His lectures there caused controversy owing to remarks he made about other English composers and English music in general; he was quoted as saying "English music is white -- it evades everything". The University of Birmingham's Special Collections contain an archive of letters written by Elgar.
Elgar's [[Symphony No. 1 (Elgar)|Symphony No. 1]] ([[1908]]) was given one hundred performances in its first year, and in [[1911]], the year of the completion of his [[Symphony No. 2 (Elgar)|Symphony No. 2]], he had the [[Order of Merit]] bestowed upon him.
Elgar's musical legacy is primarily orchestral, but he did write for soloists and groups of other instruments. His one work for [[brass band]], ''The [[Severn]] Suite'' (later arranged by the composer for orchestra), remains an important part of the brass band repertoire. It is occasionally performed in its arrangement by [[Sir Ivor Atkins]] for [[organ (music)|organ]] as the composer's second Organ Sonata; Elgar's first, much earlier (1895) Organ Sonata was written specifically for the instrument in a highly orchestral style, and remains a frequently-performed part of the English Romantic organ repertoire.
===Later years===
With the advent of [[World War I]] his music began to fall out of fashion, and after the death of his wife in 1920 he wrote little of importance. Shortly before her death he composed the elegiac [[Cello Concerto (Elgar)|Cello Concerto]].
Elgar lived in the village of [[Kempsey, England|Kempsey]] from [[1923]] to [[1927]], during which time he was made [[Master of the King's Musick]].
At the end of his life Elgar began work on an [[opera]], ''The Spanish Lady'', and accepted a commission from the [[BBC]] to compose a Third Symphony. His final illness prevented their completion.
[[Image:Edward Elgar statue.png|200px|thumb|left|The statue of Edward Elgar at the end of Worcester High Street]]
== Posthumous recognition ==
The house in Lower Broadheath where Elgar was born is now a museum devoted to him.
The statue of him at the end of Worcester High Street stands facing the cathedral, only yards from where his father's shop once stood.
Another statue of the composer is at the top of Church Street in Malvern, overlooking the town and giving visitors an opportunity to stand next to the composer in the shadow of the Hills which he so often regarded.
A portrait of Sir Edward Elgar can be found on the [[British banknotes|Bank of England twenty pound note]].
Elgar's sketches for his third symphony were elaborated in the 1990s by the composer [[Anthony Payne]].
==Quotes==
"[Elgar's music is] wonderful in its heroic melancholy."
''[[William Butler Yeats]] on the incidental music for "Grania and Diarmid".''
==Honours and Awards==
* [[1904]] - Elgar was made a [[knight bachelor]]. This entitled him to the title 'Sir Edward Elgar', but no post-nominal letters.
* [[1911]] - he was admitted to the [[Order of Merit]]. He was now 'Sir Edward Elgar OM'.
* [[1924]] - he was made [[Master of the King's Musick]]
* [[1928]] - Elgar was created a [[Royal Victorian Order|Knight Commander]] of the [[Royal Victorian Order]], becoming 'Sir Edward Elgar OM KCVO'.
* [[1931]] - he was made a [[baronet]], becoming 'Sir Edward Elgar Bt OM KCVO'. A baronetcy is an hereditary knighthood, but is passed on only through the male line. As Elgar had only a daughter, the baronetcy became extinct on his death.
* [[1933]] - Elgar was promoted within the Royal Victorian Order to [[Royal Victorian Order|Knight Grand Cross]]. He was now 'Sir Edward Elgar Bt OM GCVO'.
{{clear}}
==Works==
: ''See also [[:Category:Compositions by Edward Elgar]]''
===Orchestral Works===
*''Froissart'', Overture for orchestra, Op.19 (1890)
*Serenade for string orchestra, Op.20 (revised version of Three Pieces for string orchestra, 1888/ 1892)
*''[[Enigma Variations|Variations on an original Theme '''Enigma''']]'' for orchestra, Op.36 (1899)
*''[[Sea Pictures]]'', Song Cycle for contralto and orchestra, Op.37 (1897-99)
*''Cockaigne (In London Town)'', Overture for orchestra, Op.40 (1900/01)
*''[[Pomp and Circumstance Marches|Pomp and Circumstance]]'', Marches No.1 and 2 for orchestra, Op.39 (1901)
*Funeral March from ''Grania and Diarmid'' for orchestra, Op.42 (1902, from the incidental music by [[William Butler Yeats]])
*''Dream Children'', Two pieces for chamber orchestra, Op.43 (1902)
*''[[In the South (Alassio)]]'', Concert Overture for orchestra, Op.50 (1903/04)
*''[[Pomp and Circumstance Marches|Pomp and Circumstance]]'', March No.3 for orchestra (1904)
*''[[Introduction_and_Allegro_(Elgar)|Introduction and Allegro]]'' for string quartet and string orchestra, Op.47 (1904/05)
*''[[Pomp and Circumstance Marches|Pomp and Circumstance]]'', March No.4 for orchestra (1907)
*''The Wand of Youth'', Suite No. 1 for orchestra, Op.1a (1867-71/1907)
*''The Wand of Youth'', Suite No. 2 for orchestra, Op.1b (1867-71/1908)
*''[[Symphony No. 1 (Elgar)|Symphony No.1 in A flat]]'' for orchestra, Op.55 (1907/08)
*''Elegy'' for string orchestra, Op.58 (1909)
*''Romance'' for bassoon and orchestra, Op.62 (1909)
*[[Violin Concerto (Elgar)|Concerto for Violin and Orchestra in B minor]], Op.61 (1909/10)
*''[[Symphony No. 2 (Elgar)|Symphony No.2 in E flat]]'' for orchestra, Op.63 (1909-1911)
*''Coronation March'' for orchestra, Op.65 (1911)
*''The Crown of India'', Suite for orchestra, Op.66 (1911/12)
*''Falstaff'', Symphonic Study for orchestra, Op.68 (1913)
*''Sospiri'' for string orchestra and harp, Op.70 (1914)
*''Polonia'', Symphonic Prelude for orchestra, Op.76 (1915)
*''The Starlight Express'', Suite for vocal soloists and orchestra, Op.78 (from the inicidental music to the play by [[Algernon Blackwood]], 1915/1916)
*''[[The Sanguine Fan]]'' for orchestra, Op.81 (1917)
*[[Cello Concerto (Elgar)|Concerto for Cello and Orchestra in E minor]], Op.85 (1918/1919)
*''Empire March'' for orchestra (1924)
*Suite from ''Arthur'' for chamber orchestra (from the incidental music to [[Laurence Binyon]]'s ''Arthur'', 1924)
*Minuet from ''Beau Brummel'' for orchestra (1928/1929)
*''[[Pomp and Circumstance Marches|Pomp and Circumstance]]'', March No.5 for orchestra (1930)
*''Nursery Suite'' for orchestra (1931)
*''Severn Suite'' for orchestra, Op.87a (1930/1932)
*''Mina'' for chamber orchestra (1933)
*''Symphony No.3'' for
|
od February 3rd 1966. Session artists included Glen Campbell, Larry Knechtel, Jim Gordon and Hal Blaine. Released as a single April 1966 this song was a cohesive effort for Warner Brothers and still remains a favorite today. The song featured on the `In Our Image` album subsequently released by Warner Brothers. `In Our Image` is one of a trilogy of albums regarded by Don Everly as the best {they} recorded for the Warner Bros.label, the other two being `Rock N Soul` and `Beat N Soul`.
==Other==
*The English DiC version of the [[Sailor Moon]] Aru movie, entitled ''Sailor Moon R: The Promise of the Rose'', replaces the Japanese climactic song [[Moon Revenge]] with the English version, simply known as '''The Power of Love'''. The singer and writer are unknown.
*There is also a song by Christian artist Ashley Cleveland called '''The Power Of Love''', which gained particular attention when it was performed by contestant [[Nadia Turner]] in the semi-finals of Season 4 of [[American Idol]].
[[Category:1985 singles|Power of Love, The]]
[[Category:Back to the Future|Power of Love, The]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Welcome To The Pleasuredome (single)</title>
<id>11263</id>
<revision>
<id>40363524</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- BEGIN WikiProject Album infobox (scroll down to edit main article text) -->
{| align=right border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2 width=225
!align="center" bgcolor="yellow" colspan="3"|''Welcome to the Pleasuredome''
|-
|align="center" colspan="3"|[[Image:WTTP_-_single.jpg|225 px|WTTP]]
|-
!align="center" bgcolor="yellow" colspan="3"|[[Single (music)|Single]] by [[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Released
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[18 March]], [[1985]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Recorded
|colspan="2" valign="top"|May - June, [[1983]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Musical genre|Genre]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[Dance music|Dance]], [[New Wave music|New Wave]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Record label]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[ZTT Records|ZTT]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Cat. #
|colspan="2" valign="top"|ZTAS 7
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Record producer|Producer]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[Trevor Horn]]
|-
!bgcolor="yellow" colspan="3"|Frankie chronology
|-align="center"
|valign="top"|<small>''[[The Power Of Love (Frankie Goes to Hollywood)|The Power Of Love]]''<br />([[1984]])</small>
|valign="top"|<small>'''''Welcome To The Pleasuredome'''''<br />([[1985]])</small>
|valign="top"|<small>''[[Rage Hard]]''<br /> ([[1986]])</small>
|}
<!-- END WikiProject Album infobox -->
'''''Welcome to the Pleasuredome''''' is the title of the fourth single from [[Frankie Goes to Hollywood]], released in 1985. It is taken from [[Welcome To The Pleasuredome (album)|the album of the same name]].
The lyrics of the track "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" were inspired by the 56-line poem ''[[Kubla Khan]]'', written by English poet [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]].
The "Welcome To The Pleasuredome" was the first release by the band not to hit top spot on the UK singles chart. Although it only reached Number 2, being kept off top spot by the Phil Collins - Philip Bailey duet "Easy Lover", "Pleasuredome" spent a total of 11 weeks in the chart.
The intro to the 12" mixes included a spoken word introduction by the actor [[Geoffrey_Palmer_%28actor%29|Geoffrey Palmer]].
The video, by [[Bernard Rose]], feature the band stealing a car, going to a carnival and encountering all manner of "pleasureable" activities. The audio soundtrack of the video was included as a track on the cassette single.
==Tracklisting==
All discographical information pertains to UK releases only
===7" single (ZTAS 7)===
# "Welcome To The Pleasuredome (altered real)" (4:20)
# "Get It On (longer version)" (3:28)
# "Happy Hi!" (4:04)
===2nd issue 7" single (ZTAS 7)===
#" Welcome To The Pleasuredome (alternative reel) ["video mix"]" (5:05)
# "Get It On (shorter version)" (2:32)
# "Happy Hi!" (4:04)
Issued as an apple-shaped picture disc
===12" single (12 ZTAS 7)===
# "Welcome To The Pleasuredome (real altered)" (9:42)
# "Get It On (shorter version)" (2:32)
# "Happy Hi!" (4:04)
# "Relax (international)" (4:51)
===2nd 12" single (12 XTAS 7)===
# "Welcome To The Pleasuredome (fruitness)" (10:47)
# "[excerpts from The Pleasuredome]" (1:23)
# "Get It On (shorter version)" (2:32)
# "Happy Hi!" (4:04)
# "Born To Run (live in newcastle, from "Europe A Go Go")" (4:49)
===Cassingle (CTIS 107)===
# "Happy Hi! (all in the body)" (1:18)
# "Soundtrack From The "Welcome..." Bernard Rose Video" (5:37)
# "Get It On (even longer version)" (3:56)
# "Welcome To The Pleasuredome (how to remake the world)" (10:59)
# "Happy Hi! (all in the mind)" (1:05)
==External links==
* [http://www.fgth.nl/FGTH-NET/rare-unreleased2/Pleasuredome-cassingle.ram Listen to CTIS 107]
[[Category:1985 singles]]
[[Category:Frankie Goes To Hollywood singles]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Rage Hard</title>
<id>11264</id>
<revision>
<id>38006339</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-03T15:22:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>139.149.1.203</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* 2nd 12" single (12 ZTAX 22) */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- BEGIN WikiProject Album infobox (scroll down to edit main article text) -->
{| align=right border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2 width=225
!align="center" bgcolor="yellow" colspan="3"|''Rage Hard''
|-
|align="center" colspan="3"|[[Image:Rage_Hard_singles.jpg|225 px|Rage Hard]]
|-
!align="center" bgcolor="yellow" colspan="3"|[[Single (music)|Single]] by [[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Released
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[22 August]], [[1986]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Recorded
|colspan="2" valign="top"|May - June, [[1983]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Musical genre|Genre]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[Dance music|Dance]], [[New Wave music|New Wave]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Record label]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[ZTT Records|ZTT]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Cat.|Cat. #]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|ZTAS 22
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|[[Record producer|Producer]]
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[Stephen Lipson]]
|-
!bgcolor="yellow" colspan="3"|Frankie chronology
|-align="center"
|valign="top"|<small>''[[Welcome To The Pleasuredome (single)|Welcome To The Pleasuredome]]''<br />([[1985]])</small>
|valign="top"|<small>'''''Rage Hard'''''<br />([[1986]])</small>
|valign="top"|<small>''[[Warriors Of The Wasteland]]''<br /> ([[1986]])</small>
|}
<!-- END WikiProject Album infobox -->
"Rage Hard" is the fifth single by [[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]. It was released in [[August]] [[1986]].
==Background==
Having topped the charts around the world with ''Welcome To The Pleasuredome'' and it's accompanying singles, Frankie Goes To Hollywood took off to [[Amsterdam]] to record the follow up album, ''[[Liverpool (album)|Liverpool]]''. Taking on a rockier edge, "Rage Hard" was the first single culled from the disc.
The single's title came from the [[Dylan Thomas]] poem "Do not go gentle into that good night".
Of note, "Rage Hard" was a testament to the changing musical landscape in Britain at the time. It was not only the first Frankie single to be featured on CD single, it was also the first single to not feature a cassette release.
"Rage Hard" eventually hit Number 4 in the UK singles charts and Number 1 in Germany.
== B-sides ==
The b-sides to "Rage Hard" were, for the most part, straight forward cover songs. Firstly there was a cover of [[David Bowie]]'s 1972 glam-rock classic "Suffragette City", slightly renamed to "SufferRAGEette City" to fit in with the "Rage Hard" promotion. The second cover song was "Roadhouse Blues" by [[The Doors]] which featured on the 2nd 12". A shorter version features on the CD single.
The original b-side is an odd composition entitled "(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind". It was released in two versions, a 4 minute mix and a 6 minute mix and featured [[Holly Johnson]] vamping in a strange "vampire voice" ("Ha ha ha / I am the count") over the band's backing track.
==Tracklisting==
(All discographical information pertains to UK releases only)
===7" single (ZTAS 22)===
"rage rage"
# "Rage Hard (7" mix)" (5:05)
# "(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Lit
|
ter with a draugr is [[Frodo Baggins|Frodo]]'s spectral struggle with the "barrow-wight" in [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s book ''[[The Fellowship of the Ring (book)|The Fellowship of the Ring]]'', in the chapter "Fog on the Barrow-Downs."
Dr. [[John Tanke]] has theorized that the words [[western dragon|dragon]] and draugr might be related. He notes that both the [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] and the spirit serve as jealous guardians of the graves of kings or ancient civilizations. Dragons that act as draugrs appear in [[Beowulf]] as well as in the stories of [[Sigurd|Siegfried]].
A somewhat ambivalent, alternative view of the draugr is however presented by the example of Gunnar in [[Njál's saga]]:
*"It seemed as though the howe was agape, and that Gunnar had turned within the howe to look upwards at the moon. They thought that they saw four lights within the howe, but not a shadow to be seen. Then they saw that Gunnar was merry, with a joyful face".
It has been speculated that there is a strong correlation between the draugr and the monster [[Grendel]] in the [[Old English language|Old English]] narrative poem [[Beowulf]].
In the movie [[Van Helsing]], [[Dracula]]'s servants - dwarfish black-clad vampiric undead named Dwergers - vaguely resemble the draugr and may have been inspired by them, their name being a Romanized corruption of that of the Norce undead.
==External links==
*[http://www.vikinganswerlady.com/ghosts.shtml "Draugr and Aptrgangr in Old Norse Literature"]
{{NorseMythology}}
[[Category:Creatures in Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Corporeal undead]]
[[de:Draugr]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Day</title>
<id>8376</id>
<revision>
<id>39244152</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-11T20:30:21Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vary</username>
<id>208472</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Revert to revision 38107191 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''The [[Day language]] is spoken in [[Chad]].''
A '''day''' (symbol: d) is a [[units of measurement|unit]] of [[time]] equal to 24 [[hour]]s. It is not an [[SI]] unit but it is accepted for use with SI. The SI unit of time is the [[second]].
It has several definitions.
==Definition of a day in SI==
A day is defined as 86,400 SI seconds.
==Definition of a day in astronomy==
For a given planet, there are two types of day defined in [[astronomy]]:
1 apparent [[sidereal day]] = a single rotation of a planet with respect to the distant stars (for [[Earth]] it is 23.934 solar hours or 24 sidereal hours)
1 [[solar day]] = a single rotation of a planet with respect to [[Sun]].
==Origin==
The term comes from the Old English ''dæg'', with similar terms common in all other [[Indo-European languages]], such as ''dies'' in [[Latin]] and ''dive'' in [[Sanskrit]].
==Colloquial definition of day==
The word refers either to the period of light when the Sun is above the local [[horizon]] or to the full day covering a dark and a light period. The latter is sometimes called a ''nychthemeron'' in [[English language|English]], from the [[Greek language|Greek]] for ''night-day''.
[[Image:Dagr_by_Arbo.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Dagr]], the [[Norse god]] of the day, rides his horse in this [[19th century]] painting by [[Peter Nicolai Arbo]].]]
==Introduction==
Different definitions of the day are based on the apparent motion of the Sun across the sky (solar day; see [[solar time]]). The reason for this apparent motion is the [[rotation]] of the Earth around its axis, as well as the revolution of the Earth in its [[orbit]] around the Sun.
A day, as opposed to [[night]], is commonly defined as the period during which sunlight directly reaches the ground, assuming that there are no local obstacles. Two effects make days on average longer than nights. The Sun is not a point, but has an apparent size of about 32 [[minute of arc|minutes of arc]]. Additionally, the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] [[refraction|refracts]] sunlight in such a way that some of it reaches the ground even when the Sun is below the [[horizon]] by about 34 minutes of arc. So the first light reaches the ground when the centre of the Sun is still below the horizon by about 50 minutes of arc. The difference in time depends on the angle at which the Sun rises and sets (itself a function of [[latitude]]), but amounts to almost seven minutes at least.
Ancient custom has a new day start at either the rising or setting of the Sun on the local horizon (Italian reckoning, for example). The exact moment of, and the interval between, two sunrises or two sunsets depends on the geographical position ([[longitude]] as well as latitude), and the time of [[year]]. This is the time as indicated by ancient hemispherical [[sundial]]s.
A more constant day can be defined by the Sun passing through the local [[meridian]], which happens at local noon (upper [[culmination]]) or midnight (lower culmination). The exact moment is dependent on the geographical longitude, and to a lesser extent on the time of the year. The length of such a day is nearly constant (24 hours ± 30 seconds). This is the time as indicated by modern sundials.
A further improvement defines a fictitious mean Sun that moves with constant speed along the [[celestial equator]]; the speed is the same as the average speed of the real Sun, but this removes the variation over a year as the Earth moves along its orbit around the Sun (due to both its velocity and its axial tilt).
The Earth's day has increased in length over time. The original length of one day, when the Earth was new about 4.5 billion years ago, was about six hours as determined by computer simulation. It was 21.9 hours 620 million years ago as recorded by rhythmites (alternating layers in sandstone). This phenomenon is due to [[tide]]s raised by the [[Moon]] which slow Earth's rotation. Because of the way the [[second]] is defined, the mean length of a day is now about 86,400.002 seconds, and is increasing by about 1.7 milliseconds per century (an average over the last 2700 years). See [[tidal acceleration]] for details.
==Civil day==
For civil purposes a common clock time has been defined for an entire region based on the mean local solar time at some central meridian. Such [[time zone]]s began to be adopted about the middle of the [[19th century]] when [[railroad]]s with regular schedules came into use, with most major countries having adopted them by 1929. For the whole world, 39 such time zones are now in use. The main one is "world time" or [[UTC]] (Coordinated Universal Time).
The present common convention has the civil day starting at midnight, which is near the time of the [[lower culmination]] of the mean Sun on the central meridian of the time zone. A day is commonly divided into 24 hours of 60 minutes of 60 seconds each.
==Leap seconds==
In order to keep the civil day aligned with the apparent movement of the Sun, positive or negative [[leap seconds]] may be inserted.
A civil clock day is typically 86400 [[SI]] [[second]]s long, but will be 86401 s or 86399 s long in the event of a leap second.
Leap seconds are announced in advance by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] which measures the Earth's rotation and determines whether a leap second is necessary. Leap seconds occur only at the end of a UTC month, and have only ever been inserted at the end of [[June 30]] or [[December 31]].
==Astronomy==
In [[astronomy]], the [[sidereal day]] is also used; it is about 3 minutes 56 seconds shorter than the solar day, and close to the actual rotation period of the Earth, as opposed to the Sun's apparent motion. In fact, the Earth spins 366 times about its axis during a 365-day year, because the Earth's revolution about the Sun removes one apparent turn of the Sun about the Earth.
==Boundaries of the day==
For most diurnal animals, including ''Homo sapiens'', the day naturally begins at dawn and ends at sunset. Humans, with our cultural norms and scientific knowledge, have supplanted Nature with several different conceptions of the day's boundaries. The [[Judaism|Jewish]] day begins at either [[sunset]] or at nightfall (when three second-magnitude stars appear). [[Middle Ages|Medieval]] [[Europe]] followed this tradition, known as Florentine reckoning: in this system, a reference like "two hours into the day" meant ''two hours after sunset'' and thus times during the evening need to be shifted back one calendar day in modern reckoning. Days such as [[Christmas Eve]], [[Halloween]], and the Eve of [[Saint Agnes]] are the remnants of the older pattern when [[holiday]]s began the evening before. Present common convention is for the civil day to begin at [[midnight]], that is 00:00, and last a full twenty-four [[hour]]s until the next 00:00 (also known as 24:00, but this is not as widely used).
In [[ancient Egypt]], the day was reckoned from [[sunrise]] to sunrise. [[Muslim]]s fast from dawn (traditionally when a white thread can be distinguished from a black thread) to sunset each day of the month of [[Ramadan]]. The "[[Damascus Document]]", copies of which were also found among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], states regarding [[Sabbath]] observance that "No one is to do any work on Friday ''from the moment that the sun's disk stands distant from the horizon by the length of its own diameter''," presumably indicating that the monastic community responsible for producing this work counted the day as ending shortly before the sun had begun to set. <!--There are presumably other traditions to present here.-->
In the [[United States]]<!--and elsewhere perhaps-->, nights are named after the previous day, ''e.g.'' "Friday night" usually means the entire night between [[Friday]] and [[Saturday]]. This is the opposite of the Jewish pattern. Th
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supposed to ensure that the proportion of English speakers in the local population does not increase. But even this may be too little, too late, as many of those areas have a majority of English speakers, with all Irish speakers being bilingual, using English as their everyday language except among themselves.
Attempts have been made to offer some support for the language through the media, notably the launch of [[Raidió na Gaeltachta]] (Gaeltacht radio) and [[Teilifís na Gaeilge]] (Irish language television, called initially 'TnaG', now renamed [[TG4]]); both have been relatively successful. TG4 has offered Irish-speaking young people a forum for youth culture ''as Gaeilge'' (in Irish) through rock and pop shows, travel shows, dating games, and even a controversial award-winning [[soap opera]] in Irish called ''[[Ros na Rún]]'' (featuring, among other characters, an Irish-speaking gay couple and their child). Most of TG4's viewership, however, tends to come from showing [[Gaelic football]], [[hurling]] and [[rugby football|rugby]] matches, and films in English.
There is also a daily Irish-language newspaper called ''[[Lá]]'', a weekly called ''[[Foinse]]'', and the ''[[Irish Times]]'' and ''[[Daily Ireland]]'' have pages in Irish, with articles appended with short lists giving the meaning of some of the words used in English.
More controversially the Official language required the use of both the Irish and English placenames in English speaking areas of the state but only allows for the use of Irish placenames on all official documents, maps and roadsigns in or referring to (what are often only nominally) Gaeltacht areas.
Opposition to these measures comes from several quarters including some people within popular tourist destinations located within the Gaeltacht (such as [[Dingle]]/An Daingean) who complain that tourists may not recognise the Gaelic forms of the placenames.
In 1938, the founder of the Conradh na Gaeilge, Douglas Hyde, was inaugurated as the first [[President of Ireland]]. The record of his delivering his inauguration 'Declaration of Office' in his native [[County Roscommon|Roscommon]] Irish remains almost the only surviving remnant of anyone speaking in that dialect, which in effect died out with him. Over sixty years later, the majority of the Gaeltacht and Irish-speaking areas in existence as he took that oath no longer exist.
There is a concerted effort to promote the language among recent immigrants. In 2003, the [[Qur'an]] was translated into Irish, following a collaboration between the Islamic Cultural Centre in [[Dublin]] and [[Foras na Gaeilge]].
===Northern Ireland===
:''Main article: [[Irish language in Northern Ireland]]''
As in the Republic, the Irish language is a [[minority language]] in Northern Ireland, known in Irish as ''Tuaisceart na hÉireann''/''Tuaisceart Éireann'' or ''na sé chontae'' (the [[six counties]]).
Attitudes towards the language in Northern Ireland have traditionally reflected the political differences between its two divided communities. The language has been regarded with suspicion by [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionists]], who have associated it with the [[Catholic]]-dominated Republic, and more recently, with the [[Irish republicanism|republican]] movement. Many republicans in Northern Ireland, including [[Sinn Féin]] President [[Gerry Adams]], learnt Irish while in prison, a development known as the ''jailtacht''. Although the language was taught in Catholic secondary schools (especially by the [[Congregation of Christian Brothers|Christian Brothers]]), it was not taught at all in state ([[Protestant]]) schools and public signs in Irish were effectively banned under laws by the [[Parliament of Northern Ireland]], which stated that only [[English language|English]] could be used.
These laws were not repealed by the [[British government]] until the early 1990s. However, Irish-medium schools, known as ''[[gaelscoil]]eanna'', had already been founded in [[Belfast]] and [[Derry]], and an Irish-language newspaper called ''Lá'' ('day') was established in Belfast. [[BBC]] [[BBC Radio Ulster|Radio Ulster]] began broadcasting a nightly half-hour programme in Irish in the early 1980s called ''Blas'' ('taste', 'accent'), and [[BBC Northern Ireland]] also showed its first TV programme in the language in the early 1990s.
The ''[[Ultach Trust]]'' was also established, with a view to broadening the appeal of the language among Protestants, although hardline [[loyalist]]s like [[Ian Paisley]] continued to ridicule it as a "[[leprechaun]] language". [[Ulster Scots language|Ulster Scots]], promoted by many [[loyalist]]s, was, in turn, ridiculed by nationalists (and even some [[Unionist]]s) as "a [[DIY]] language for [[Orange Order|Orangemen]]" According to recent statistics, there is no significant difference between the number of Catholic and Protestant speakers of Ulster Scots in Ulster (see [[Ulster Scots language#Who speaks it|Ulster Scots language]]), although those involved in promoting Ulster-Scots as a language are almost always unionist. Although Ulster-Scots is now officially recognised as a language in Northern Ireland (there are also some attempts to promote it in some border counties of the Republic) many people claim it is actually little more than a [[dialect]] of English
Irish received official recognition in Northern Ireland for the first time in [[1998]] under the [[Belfast Agreement|Good Friday Agreement]]. A cross-border body known as ''[[Foras na Gaeilge]]'' was established to promote the language in both Northern Ireland and the [[Republic of Ireland|Republic]], taking over the functions of the previous Republic-only ''Bord na Gaeilge''.
The British government has ratified the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] in respect to Irish in Northern Ireland.
It has been claimed that [[Belfast]] now represents the fastest growing centre of Irish language usage on the island - and the [[Good Friday Agreement]]'s provisions on 'parity of esteem' have been used to give the language an official status there. In [[March 2005]], the Irish language TV service [[TG4]] began broadcasting from the Divis transmitter near [[Belfast]], as a result of agreement between the [[Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs|Department of Foreign Affairs]] and the [[Northern Ireland Office]], although so far this is the only transmitter to carry it.
==Irish language today==
The number of native Irish-speakers in the [[Republic of Ireland]] today is a tiny fraction of what it was at independence. The [[Official Languages Act 2003|Official Languages Act]] of 2003 gave people the right to interact with state bodies in Irish. It is too early to assess how well this is working in practice. Other factors were outward migration of Irish speakers from the Gaeltacht and inward migration of English-speakers. The Planning and Development Act (2000) attempted to address the latter issue, but the response is almost certainly inadequate. Planning controls now require new housing in Gaeltacht areas to be allocated to English-speakers and Irish-speakers in the same ratio as the existing population of the area. This will not prevent houses allocated to Irish-speakers subsequently being sold on to English-speakers. Outward migration of Irish-speakers could be reduced if the state, which is the main employer in the [[Republic of Ireland]], were to exercise its right to have certain jobs performed in Irish and relocated to the Gaeltacht. On 3rd December 2003 the [[Minister for Finance (Ireland)|Minister for Finance]] announced a new Decentralisation programme, moving over 10,000 civil and public service jobs to 53 locations in 25 other counties outside Dublin. The government explicitly said this was being done to boost the economy of outlying areas. None of these jobs were used to provide employment for native Irish-speakers in the Gaeltacht.
According to data compiled by the Irish Department of Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs, only one quarter of households in Gaeltacht areas possess a fluency in Irish. The author of a detailed analysis of the survey, Donncha Ó hÉallaithe, described the Irish language policy followed by Irish governments a 'complete and absolute disaster.' [[The Irish Times]] ([[January 6]], [[2002]]), referring to his analysis, which was initially published in the Irish language newspaper ''Foinse'', quoted him as follows: 'It is an absolute indictment of successive Irish Governments that at the foundation of the Irish State there were 250,000 fluent Irish speakers living in Irish-speaking or semi Irish-speaking areas, but the number now is between 20,000 and 30,000.'
According to the language survey, levels of fluency among families is 'very low', from 1% in [[Galway]] suburbs to a maximum of 8% parts of west [[Donegal]]. With such sharp decline, particularly among the young, the real danger exists that Irish will largely become extinct within two generations, possibly even one. While the language will continue to exist among English speakers who have learned fluency and are bilingual (though mainly English-speaking in their everyday lives) Gaeltachtaí embody more than just a language, but the cultural context in which it is spoken, through song, stories, social traditions, folklore and dance. The death of the Gaeltachtaí would make a break forever between Ireland's cultural past and identity, and its future. All sides, irrespective of their view on the methodology used by independent Ireland in its efforts to preserve the language, agree that such a loss would be a cultural tragedy of a monumental scale.
The [http://www.usenglish.org/foundation U.S. English Foundation] has published analyses of the United States Census 2000, and states that 25,870 US residents [http://www.usenglish.org/foundation/research/lia/languages/irish_gaelic.pdf speak the Irish language at home (pdf file)].
An interest in the Irish language is ma
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בורו]]
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<page>
<title>Ernest Rutherford</title>
<id>9603</id>
<revision>
<id>41929745</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T18:18:07Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Discospinster</username>
<id>82432</id>
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<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ernest Rutherford.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Ernest Rutherford]]
'''Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson,''' [[Order of Merit|OM]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]], [[Royal Society|FRS]] ([[August 30]], [[1871]] &ndash; [[October 19]], [[1937]]), was a [[New Zealand]] nuclear physicist. He was known as [[List of people known as the father or mother of something|the "father" of]] [[nuclear physics]], pioneered the [[Bohr model|orbital theory]] of the [[atom]], notably in his discovery of [[Rutherford scattering]] off the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] with the [[gold foil experiment]].
Rutherford was born at Spring Grove, (now in [[Brightwater]]), near [[Nelson, New Zealand|Nelson]]. He studied at [[Nelson College]] and won a [[Bursary|scholarship]] to study at [[University of Canterbury|Canterbury College]], [[University of New Zealand]], with three degrees and two years of research at the forefront of electrical technology.
In [[1895]] Rutherford travelled to [[England]] for postgraduate study at the [[Cavendish Laboratory]], [[University of Cambridge]] (1895-[[1898]]), and was resident at [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]]. There he briefly held the world record for the distance over which wireless waves were detected. During the investigation of [[radioactivity]] he coined the terms [[alpha ray|alpha]], [[beta ray|beta]], and [[gamma ray]]s.
[[Image:Nz100.jpg|thumb|left|255px|Lord Rutherford of Nelson on the New Zealand 100 [[New Zealand dollar|dollar]] note]]
In [[1898]] Rutherford was appointed to the chair of physics at [[McGill University]] where he did the work which gained him the [[1908]] [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]. He had demonstrated that radioactivity was the spontaneous disintegration of [[atom]]s. He noticed that in a sample of radioactive material it invariably took the same amount of time for half the sample to decay &mdash; its "[[half-life]]" &mdash; and created a practical application for this phenomenon using this constant rate of decay as a clock, which could then be used to help determine the actual age of the [[Earth]] that turned out to be much older than most scientists at the time believed.
[[Image:Rutherfordcoatofarms.jpg|thumb|255px|Rutherford's coat of arms, which incorporates [[Hermes Trismegistus]] (left) and elements from his native New Zealand, a [[kiwi]] bird (top) and a [[Māori]] warrior (right). The Latin motto ''Primordia Quaerere Rerum'' means "To seek the first principles of things", taken from ''[[On the Nature of Things]]'' by [[Lucretius]].]]
In [[1907]] he took the chair of physics at the [[University of Manchester]]. There he discovered the nuclear nature of atoms and was the world's first successful "[[alchemy|alchemist]]": he converted [[nitrogen]] into [[oxygen]]. While working with [[Niels Bohr]] (who figured out that electrons moved in specific orbits) Rutherford theorized about the existence of [[neutron]]s, which could somehow compensate for the repulsive effect of the positive charges of [[proton]]s by causing an attractive nuclear force and thus keeping the nuclei from breaking apart.
In [[1917]] he returned to the Cavendish as Director. Under him, Nobel Prizes were awarded to [[James Chadwick|Chadwick]] for discovering the neutron (in [[1932]]), [[John Cockcroft|Cockcroft]] and [[Ernest Walton|Walton]] for splitting the atom using a [[particle accelerator]] and [[Edward Victor Appleton|Appleton]] for demonstrating the existence of the [[ionosphere]].
His research, along with that of his protege, [[Mark Oliphant|Sir Mark Oliphant]] was instrumental in the convening of the [[Manhattan Project]].
He was [[Knight Bachelor|knighted]] in [[1914]], was admitted to the [[Order of Merit]] in [[1925]] and in [[1931]] was created '''Baron Rutherford of Nelson''' of Cambridge in the County of Cambridge, a title which became extinct upon his death. He appears on New Zealand's $100 note and has appeared on [[postage stamp]]s of the [[Soviet Union]] ([[1971]]), [[Canada]] ([[1971]]), [[Sweden]] ([[1968]]) and [[New Zealand]] ([[1971]] and [[1999]]). In [[1997]] the element [[rutherfordium]] was named in his honour. A West Auckland school has been named after him ([[Rutherford College, Auckland]]) and the physics building at McGill University. Also, [[Impact crater|crater]]s on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and the [[Moon]] are named after him.
He is famously quoted as saying: "''In science there is only physics; all the rest is [[stamp collecting]].''"
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the Royal Society]]|before=[[Charles Sherrington|Sir Charles Sherrington]]|after=[[Frederick Hopkins|Sir Frederick Hopkins]]|years=1925&ndash;1930}}
{{end box}}
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Ernest Rutherford}}
*http://www.physics.mcgill.ca/museum/rutherford_museum.htm
*http://www.rutherford.org.nz
*http://www.dnzb.govt.nz
*http://www.nobel.se
*[http://www.orcbs.msu.edu/radiation/radhistory/ernestrutherford.html www.orcbs.msu.edu]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bpruth.html www.pbs.org]
*http://www.nzedge.com/heroes/rutherford.html
*[http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Rutherford,+Ernest alsos.wlu.edu Bibliography for Ernest Rutherford]
[[Category:1871 births|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:1937 deaths|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Knights bachelor|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Nelsonians|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:New Zealand chemists|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:New Zealand physicists|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Nuclear physicists|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Royal Society|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Scottish-New Zealanders|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences|Rutherford]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>Many-worlds interpretation</title>
<id>9604</id>
<revision>
<id>42128110</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-04T00:26:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>CSTAR</username>
<id>61089</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Oops, my mistake--- clicked on wrong button. Rollback to Laplace's demon</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
The '''many-worlds interpretation''' (or MWI) is an [[interpretation of quantum mechanics|interpretation]] of [[quantum mechanics]] that rejects the [[non-deterministic]] and [[irreversible]] [[wavefunction collapse]] associated with [[measurement]] in the [[Copenhagen interpretation]] in favor of a description in terms of [[quantum entanglement]] and [[reversible]] time evolution of states. The phenomena associated with measurement are explained by [[decoherence]] which occurs when states interact with the environment.
== Outline ==
Although several versions of MWI have been proposed since Everett's original work, they all share two key ideas. The first of these is the existence of a [[state function]] for the entire [[universe]] which obeys [[Schrödinger's equation]] for all [[time]] and for which there is no process of non-deterministic wavefunction collapse. The second idea is that the universal state is a [[quantum superposition]] of several, possibly [[infinite]]ly many, states of identical non-communicating parallel universes.
The ideas of MWI originated in [[Hugh Everett]]'s [[Princeton University|Princeton]] [[Ph. D.]] thesis, developed under his thesis advisor [[John Wheeler]], but the phrase "many worlds" is due to [[Bryce DeWitt]], who wrote more on the topic of Everett's original work. DeWitt's formulation has become so popular that many confuse it with Everett's original work.
MWI is one of many [[multiverse]] hypotheses in [[physics]] and [[philosophy]]. It is currently consid
|
;old-school" Pagan black metal band. The Ukrainian neo-Nazi [[Nokturnal Mortum]] has achieved very large recognition in the west; their earlier albums relied heavily on synthesizers, but their current work has a grimmer, more abrasive feel flavored with [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] folk instruments. [[Poland]]'s neo-Nazi band [[Graveland]] has, in recent albums, striven for a 'medieval' feel, much like a much more developed version of later 'viking' Bathory albums, but in the past made much rawer music which still held a certain intangible folk flavor. From [[Romania]], [[Negură Bunget]] is a prime example of traditional black metal, injecting their own indigenous mix of [[Dacian]] and Latin elements, along with a Scandinavian sound. Also, notable are Serbian elite bands - The Stone and May Result.
There is also a growing number of American bands playing black metal (sometimes called USBM bands). This movement has not taken a particularly clear form, but better-known groups are [[Typhus]], [[Fog]], [[Judas Iscariot (music)|Judas Iscariot]], [[Absu (music)|Absu]], [[Krieg (music)|Krieg]], [[Grand Belial's Key]], [[Goatwhore]], [[Kult ov Azazel]], [[Choronzon (Music project)]], [[Xasthur]], [[Leviathan band|Leviathan]], and the death metal-influenced [[Acheron (band)|Acheron]] and [[Averse Sefira]].
==Literature==
* [[Michael Moynihan (journalist)|Michael Moynihan]], ''[[Lords of Chaos|Lords of Chaos: The Bloody Rise of the Satanic Metal Underground]]'' ([http://www.feralhouse.com/ Feral House]) ISBN 0922915482
==Subforms==
===Troll Metal===
Most would agree that this is a sub-genre of goth.
'''Troll metal''' is a term used to group [[black metal]] bands, and bands rooted in black metal, that deal with lyrical themes and imagery about [[troll]]s, [[goblin]]s and other related subjects that are closely related to those of [[Power Metal]].
There are three important bands of this form of black metal: [[Finntroll]], [[Mortiis]], and [[Arckanum]]. Whilst serving as a good form of black metal for these bands to expand their musical style, they usually try to stay close to their usual lyrics. It is for the aforementioned reason that the three major bands sound so different: Mortiis, with a medieval ambient sound (no longer as current); Arckanum, with a pretty simple black metal sound, only with troll themed lyrics; and Finntroll with mixture of black metal and [[polka]].
In most songs of Finntroll, [[Troll|trolls]] relate their hate of humans, especially [[Christianity|Christians]], which is for them a plague to eradicate, usually by eating them. They relate how they prepare for battles without fear, arming themselves with axes and subsequently how much humans should fear them. They also tell about their [[rite]]s and [[belief]]s, and thematically live in the north and humans in the south (as trolls come from the [[Scandinavian folklore]] and most troll metal bands are from [[Nordic countries]]). Trolls also seem to have a '[[Monarch|King]]' and a '[[Lord]]' that is referenced in lyrics.
Finntroll's album covers represent trolls with very different physical appearances. One is green and looks strong and tall, one's skin is gray-blue and has a pointy nose and ears, making him look [[elf|elven]], one looks like a [[dwarf]], and others are smaller, strong, green, with big noses and pointy and hairy ears.
Troll metal is sometimes called '''forest metal''', since trolls live in forests and sounds of forests are common place in songs.
Notable troll metal bands include [[Arckanum]], [[Finntroll]], [[Gotmoor]], [[Mortiis]], [[Mystifier]], [[Taur Nu Fuin]], [[Troll (band)|Troll]], [[Trollkotze]], [[Trollheims Grott]], [[Trollfest]].
=== War Metal ===
'''War Metal''' is a [[black metal]] offshoot sub-genre that, since the release of a now infamous split between the bands [[Black Witchery]] and [[Conqueror (band)|Conqueror]], has been used to describe a certain sound; although the title was first coined by [[Bestial Warlust]] on their 1994 debut ''Vengeance War 'Till Death'' (wherein they describe themselves as Satanic War Metal). The style picks out a unique mixture of black metal, [[death metal]], and [[grindcore]]. The prime aesthetic of war metal is to present an audial image of war, using buzzsaw guitars, brutal blasting drums, and screeched vocals reminiscent of a war command. Musically, the dubious sub-genre differs much from most other metal stylings, as the guitar riffing is intended more to present a noisy brutal ambiance (often there will not be any 'real' riffing).
Lyrically, war metal bands almost always leans towards [[Satanic]] or [[anti-Christian]] ideals, and without fail always refer to [[war]]; with topics including genocide, nuclear warfare, holocaust, death, ending humanity and/or life, tanks, and related topics. The visual aesthetics are similar.
Many prefer not to use the genre name because they consider it superfluous; some war metal bands can be considered [[blackened death metal]]. Moreover, it is contended that it is a very minimalistic and non-expansive style, and given the small amount of bands that play it, it therefore ought not have its own distinct genre-name.
Although the phrase was coined by Bestial Warlust, most look towards Canada's [[Blasphemy (band)|Blasphemy]] and Brazil's [[Sarcofago]] as the fathers of the sub-genre. Blasphemy, however, was the first to play it as it is known today. They dubbed themselves Black Metal Skinheads, opting for a more warlike image than the corpsepainted black metal bands of their age. Blasphemy also wrote music in the stylings as described above, and their 1990 debut album ''Fallen Angel of Doom'' is to war metal as [[Mayhem]]'s ''[[De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas]]'' is to black metal.
War metal is often associated with [[Canada]] because of native bands Blasphemy and Conqueror, and many others that originated there.
==Black metal controversy in Malaysia==
In Malaysia, the government blames black metal music for a number of social problems, such as anti-social behavior. The government believes the music causes teens to become disrespectful to parents and elderly, as well as lowering their respect for religion. The music was also deemed to be responsible for crime-related cases such as gang fights. As a result, the government has announced that it will ban black metal, and now does not provide permits to foreign bands unless they first submit their music to the government for approval.
Previously, the government has conducted "strip searches" looking for [[Tattoo|tattoos]] of inverted crucifixes of students. Those found with these symbols or others deemed to be related to black metal music are detained and then forced into "treatment" which included counselling, rehabilitation and ingestion of an herbal medicine — administered by a private drug company — to “stimulate thinking” (BBC, August 13, 2001).
==See also==
* [[List of black metal bands]]
* [[List of black metal fanzines]]
==External links==
*[http://www.hmas.org/ HMAS] - Heavy Metal Appreciation Society
*[http://www.anus.com/metal Anus.com Metal] - writings on heavy metal with a focus on black and death metal: reviews, history, philosophy, and articles
*[http://www.blackmetal.co.uk/ BlackMetal.co.uk] - UK Black Metal Resource.
*[http://www.BlackMetalRadio.com/ Black Metal Radio] - BMR
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Bin Laden</title>
<id>4875</id>
<revision>
<id>35939020</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T10:38:09Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Commander Keane</username>
<id>169380</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.237.141.43|82.237.141.43]] ([[User talk:82.237.141.43|talk]]) to last version by Fire Star</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=bin Laden}}
The name '''bin Laden''' may refer to:
* the '''[[bin Laden family]]'''
** '''[[Osama bin Laden]]'''
{{disambig}}</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blizzard Entertainment</title>
<id>4876</id>
<revision>
<id>41914871</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T16:14:19Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>70.48.249.161</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company |
company_name = Blizzard Entertainment|
company_logo = [[Image:Blizzard_Entertainment-Logo.png|right|250px|Blizzard Entertainment logo]] |
company_slogan = N/A |
company_type = [[Private company|Private]]</br>(subsidiary of [[Vivendi Universal]]) |
foundation = 1991 |
location = [[Irvine, California|Irvine]], [[California|CA]] |
industry = [[Computer and video game industry]] |
revenue = |
num_employees = More than 250 |
key_people = [[Mike Morhaime]] (president and co-founder) |
products = [[Rock & Roll Racing]] (as ''Silicon & Synapse'')<br>[[The Lost Vikings]] (as ''Silicon & Synapse'')<br>[[Warcraft Universe|The Warcraft series]]<br>[[StarCraft universe|The StarCraft series]]<br>[[Diablo universe|The Diablo series]]<br>(full list in article) |
homepage = [http://www.blizzard.com Blizzard.com] |
}}
'''Blizzard Entertainment''' is a [[computer game|PC game]] [[video game developer|developer]] and [[video game publisher|publisher]]. Since its release of ''[[Warcraft]]'' in 1994, it has been one of the most successful game development studios in the world. Its
|
ributor>
<ip>71.33.202.129</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>bit more correct</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Temple Square October 05 (8) c.JPG|thumb|right|345px|The [[Salt Lake Temple]] of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] is the largest attraction in the city's [[Temple Square]].]]
'''The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints''', widely known as the "'''LDS Church'''" or the "'''Mormon Church'''", is the largest and best known [[Christian denomination|denomination]] within the [[Latter Day Saint movement]] (a form of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Restorationism]]). The church is headquartered in [[Salt Lake City, Utah|Salt Lake City]], [[Utah]], [[United States]].
[[Latter-day Saints]] are widely known for:
* Active [[proselytism|proselyting]] by full-time volunteer [[missionary|missionaries]].
* Belief in modern-day [[revelation#Mormon concept of Revelation|revelation]] through [[prophet]]s, beginning with [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], and continuing until the present through [[Gordon B. Hinckley]].
* Acceptance of the ''[[Bible]]'' as scripture as far as it is translated correctly, and the ''[[Book of Mormon]]'', ''[[Doctrine and Covenants]]'', and ''The [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]]'' as reliable works of scripture.
* A health code called the [[Word of Wisdom]], which suggests refraining from alcohol, tobacco, coffee, tea, and illegal drugs. The Word of Wisdom also encourages individuals to be healthy and balanced in other aspects of life, such as exercise and sleep.
* Belief in God the Father, the Son ([[Christ]]), and the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]] existing as three separate individual beings or personages with one common goal. Thus, they are sometimes said to be "one in spirit."
* Belief in a form of [[theosis]] called ''[[exaltation]]'' or ''[[eternal progression]]''.
* Wearing ceremonial [[temple garment]]s under their daily clothes by Temple worthy members.
* Doing [[genealogy|genealogical]] research, and performing by proxy saving ordinances such as [[Baptism for the dead]] and other ordinances in [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]].{{Template:LDS}}
As the name of the church implies, Latter-day Saints regard Jesus Christ as the head of their church and count themselves as Christians, but do not consider themselves part of the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox]], or [[Protestantism|Protestant]] traditions. Rather, they believe the church to be the restoration of the original church established by Jesus Christ on Earth. Some outside observers classify the church as a Protestant denomination, while others do not consider it to be a Christian church at all (see [[Mormonism and Christianity]]). The church has no formal association with groups of [[Mormon fundamentalism|"Mormon fundamentalists"]], who still practice [[polygamy]].
The church reports a worldwide membership of 12,275,822 as of [[December 31]], [[2004]], with 6.7 million members residing outside the United States. It is the fourth largest religious body (or denomination - not denomination family) in the United States [http://adherents.com/rel_USA.html#bodies]. The church membership report includes all those who have been [[baptism|baptized]] by the church (adults and youth), regardless of attendance (people who ask to have their names removed from church records are not included in the tally). However, this report includes unbaptized children of record (between the ages of 0 and 8 years). <!-- please see discussion page before changing--> According to statistics released by the church, 47% of its members live in the United States and Canada, 36% in Latin America, and 17% in other parts of the world. (See [http://www.lds.org/newsroom/page/0,15606,4036-1---12-168,00.html Membership Distribution])
== History ==
{{main articles|[[History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] and [[History of the Latter Day Saint movement]]}}
Members of the church &mdash; known as Latter-day Saints &mdash; believe their faith to be the divinely appointed, [[Restoration (Mormonism)|restoration]] of the church established by Jesus Christ as depicted in the [[New Testament]]. They believe that following the crucifixion of [[Jesus]] and the death of his [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]], the authentic Christian church and its authority rapidly began to disappear, leading ultimately to the [[Great Apostasy]]. As a result, new doctrine influenced by Hellenistic philosophy came to the fore, and by the fourth century, the [[Priesthood (Mormonism)|Priesthood]] &mdash;or the authority to act in the name of God&mdash; had been lost from the Earth completely.
[[image:Joseph Smith, Jr. profile by Bathsheba Smith circa 1843.jpg|thumb|190px|Profile of Joseph Smith, Jr. (circa [[1843]]) by [[Bathsheba W. Smith]], first wife of [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]] [[George A. Smith]]. Joseph Smith was the founder and first [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|President]] of the church.]]
Church members further believe the testimony of Joseph Smith: that in the spring of [[1820]], [[God the Father]] and His Son, Jesus Christ, appeared to a 14-year-old boy, [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], in response to his prayer inquiring which sect he should join. He was commanded to join none of the existing churches, and through other angelic visits was eventually called as the first [[prophet]] of the restored church. This event set in motion the events that led to the earthly restoration of the ancient church of Jesus Christ with its truths and priesthood authority. Ten years later, after a series of other revelations and visitations to Joseph and others, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was officially organized by Joseph Smith, Jr. and five associates on [[6 April]] [[1830]], in [[Fayette, New York]]. They were in the company of some 56 men and women.
The church teaches that over time, Joseph Smith and [[Oliver Cowdery]] received the priesthood and its keys lost to the earth from resurrected beings who held the authority anciently, including [[John the Baptist]] ([[May 15]], [[1829]], Aaronic Priesthood), the apostles [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[Saint James the Great|James]] and [[John the Apostle|John]] (May or June 1829, Melchizidek Priesthood{{fn|1}}), and the ancient prophet [[Elijah]] ([[April 3]], [[1836]]). These priesthoods brought with them the restoration of the authority to perform [[baptism]] and other [[ordinance (Mormonism)|ordinances]].
After suffering under persecution in several states, including a government-ordered [[Extermination Order (Mormonism)|extermination order]] from Lilburn W. Boggs, governor of [[Missouri]], Smith was eventually [[death of Joseph Smith, Jr.|killed]] by a mob on [[June 27]], [[1844]]. [[Brigham Young]], then [[President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles|President]] of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], was sustained by the majority of the church as the next Prophet and [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|President]] of the church (see also [[Succession crisis (Mormonism)|succession crisis]]). Faced with further persecution in [[Nauvoo, Illinois]] and surrounding towns, members of the church eventually followed Brigham Young to the [[Salt Lake Valley]], and settled a large [[State of Deseret|area]] now encompassed by the state of [[Utah]] and parts of [[Arizona]], [[California]], [[Nevada]], [[Idaho]], and [[Wyoming]]. The church remains headquartered in the Salt Lake Valley and is currently led by President [[Gordon B. Hinckley]].
== Name of the church ==
[[Image:Logo_of_the_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints_(1995).gif|thumb|left|The Church's official [[logo]] since 1995]] When the church was organized in 1830 it was called the "[[Church of Christ (Mormonism)|Church of Christ]]". It was also referred to as the "Church of Latter Day Saints" to differentiate the church of this era from that of the New Testament, and was generally known by that name between 1834 and 1838. In April [[1838]], the full name was stated as "the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints"{{fact|punctuation check is need in primary document}}, according to direction recorded in [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/115/3-4 Doctrine and Covenants 115:3-4]. When the church became a corporation in 1851, the legal documents used the current standardized spelling and punctuation, capitalizing the first article, "The", and using the British hyphenation of "Latter-day": The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. There is some dispute as to whether or not this was the official name prior to 1851, mostly because there was not standard spelling or punctuation in any church publications prior to that time and legal documents of the organization are not readily available. The church currently uses the word "The" as part of its official name, as opposed to a modifying article.
The church is also commonly referred to as the "LDS Church" in Utah and surrounding areas, while it is more often known as the "Mormon Church" throughout the rest of the world. Church members are often known simply as "Mormons", "the Saints", or "Latter-day Saints" with the latter two being the currently preferred terms by most Latter-day Saints themselves. Occasionally, these names may bring about confusion, as other groups outside the church are sometimes alluded to using these same terms. Of all of the [[Latter Day Saint]] groups, however, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is the one most commonly referenced when using these terms. The nickname "[[Mormon]]" arose soon after the publication of ''[[The Book of Mormon]]'' in 1830. Although originally used [[Pejorative|pejoratively]] to refer to the church or its members, the term came to be used widely within the church.
|
nt crops: 0%
:* Other: 97.86% (2001 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: 0 km²
; Natural hazards:
: NA
; Environment--current issues:
: NA
; Environment--international agreements:
: NA
; Geography--note:
: Archipelago of 17 inhabited islands and one uninhabited island, and a few uninhabited islets; strategically located along important sea lanes in northeastern [[Atlantic]]; precipitous terrain limits habitation to small coastal lowlands.
== See also ==
* [[List of islands of the Faroe Islands]]
* [[Various maps of the Faroe Islands]]
== References ==
* '''"Faroe Islands"''' ''World Fact Book 2004'', ''CIA,'' Washington.
[[Category:Geography of Denmark| ]]
[[Category:Geography of the Faroe Islands| ]]
[[de:Geologie und Geographie der Färöer]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of the Faroe Islands</title>
<id>10700</id>
<revision>
<id>32889217</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-27T16:59:51Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrianBird</username>
<id>602480</id>
</contributor>
<comment>This is no stub but the data needs updating</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Faroe-islands-demography.png|thumb|550px|center|Demographics of the Faroe Islands, Data of [[FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
'''Population:'''
48,700 (July 2004 est.)
'''Age structure:'''
<br>''0-14 years:''
23% (male 5,233; female 5,163)
<br>''15-64 years:''
63% (male 15,270; female 13,382)
<br>''65 years and over:''
14% (male 2,788; female 3,460) (2000 est.)
'''Population growth rate:'''
0.83% (2000 est.)
'''Birth rate:'''
13.58 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Death rate:'''
8.7 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Net migration rate:'''
3.38 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
'''Sex ratio:'''
<br>''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
<br>''under 15 years:''
1.01 male(s)/female
<br>''15-64 years:''
1.14 male(s)/female
<br>''65 years and over:''
0.81 male(s)/female
<br>''total population:''
1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
'''Infant mortality rate:'''
6.94 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
<br>''total population:''
78.43 years
<br>''male:''
74.96 years
<br>''female:''
81.92 years (2000 est.)
'''Total fertility rate:'''
2.32 children born/woman (2000 est.)
'''Nationality:'''
<br>''noun:''
[[Faroese people|Faroese]] (singular and plural)
<br>''adjective:''
Faroese
'''Ethnic groups:'''
[[Scandinavia]]n (Faroese, [[Danish people|Danish]])
'''Religions:'''
[[Lutheran]]
'''Languages:'''
[[Faroese language|Faroese]] (derived from [[Old Norse]]), [[Danish language|Danish]]
'''Literacy:'''
<br>''definition:''
NA
<br>''total population:''
NA%
<br>''male:''
NA%
<br>''female:''
NA%
<br>''note:''
similar to [[Denmark]] proper
{| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="5" border="1" align="center"
!Name
!Area
!Inhabitants
!People per km²
!Main places
!Regions
|-
|[[Streymoy]]
|373.5
|21,717
|57.4
|[[Tórshavn]] and [[Vestmanna]]
|Tórshavn and rest of Streymoy
|-
|[[Eysturoy]]
|286.3
|10,738
|37
|[[Fuglafjørður]] and [[Runavík]]
|North Eysturoy and South Eysturoy
|-
|[[Vágar]]
|177.6
|2,856
|15.7
|[[Míðvágur]] and [[Sørvágur]]
|Vágar
|-
|[[Suðuroy]]
|166
|5,074
|30.9
|[[Tvøroyri]] and [[Vágur]]
|Suðuroy
|-
|[[Sandoy]]
|112.1
|1,428
|12.4
|[[Sandur]]
|Sandoy
|-
|[[Borðoy]]
|95
|5,030
|52.4
|[[Klaksvík]]
|Klaksvík and rest of northern Faroes ([[Norðoyar]])
|-
|[[Viðoy]]
|41
|605
|15
|[[Viðareiði]]
|[[Norðoyar]]
|-
|[[Kunoy]]
|35.5
|135
|3.8
|Kunoy
|[[Norðoyar]]
|-
|[[Kalsoy]]
|30.9
|136
|4.8
|[[Mikladalur]] and [[Húsar]]
|[[Norðoyar]]
|-
|[[Svínoy]]
|27.4
|58
|2.7
|Svínoy
|[[Norðoyar]]
|-
|[[Fugloy]]
|11.2
|46
|4
|[[Kirkja]]
|[[Norðoyar]]
|-
|[[Nólsoy]]
|10.3
|262
|26.1
|Nólsoy
|[[Streymoy]]
|-
|[[Mykines]]
|10.3
|19
|2
|Mykines
|[[Vágar]]
|-
|[[Skúvoy]]
|10
|61
|5.7
|Skúvoy
|[[Sandoy]]
|-
|[[Hestur]]
|6.1
|40
|7.1
|Hestur
|[[Streymoy]]
|-
|[[Stóra Dímun]]
|2.7
|7
|1.9
|Dímun
|[[Sandoy]]
|-
|[[Koltur]]
|2.5
|2
|0.8
|Koltur
|[[Streymoy]]
|-
|[[Lítla Dímun]]
|0.8
|0
|0
|–
|[[Sandoy]]
|}
==See also==
* [[Faroe Islands]]
* [[List of Faroese people]]
[[Category:Faroe Islands]]
[[fr:Démographie des îles Féroé]]
[[he:אוכלוסיית איי פארו]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of the Faroe Islands</title>
<id>10701</id>
<revision>
<id>36143469</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T23:19:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Electionworld</username>
<id>201260</id>
</contributor>
<comment>It is not about Politics of Denmark, changed intro</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Faroe Islands}}
'''Politics of the [[Faroe Islands]]''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[dependency]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. The [[Faroe Islands]] are part of the Kingdom of [[Denmark]], but have been self-governing since [[1948]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[Løgting]].
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature and the responsibility of Denmark.
There are currently 36 municipalities.
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|High Commissioner
|[[Birgit Kleis]]
|
|[[2001]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands|Prime Minister]]
|[[Jóannes Eidesgaard]]
|
|[[4 February]] [[2004]]
|}
The high commissioner is appointed by the [[Queen of Denmark]]. Following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually elected prime minister by the Faroese Parliament. He leads the Landsstyri elected by the [[Faroese Parliament]].
==Legislative branch==
The '''[[Løgting|Faroese Parliament]]''' (''Løgtingið in [[Faroese_language|Faroese]]'') has up to 32 MP's(member of parliament), elected for a four year term by [[proportional representation]].
Election of 2 seats to the Danish Parliament was last held on [[8 February]] [[2005]]: Republican Party 1, People's Party 1.
== Political parties and elections ==
{{elect|List of political parties in the Faroe Islands|Elections in the Faroe Islands}}
The Faroe Islands have a [[multi-party]] system (disputing on independence and unionism as well as left and right), with numerous [[political parties|parties]] in which no one party often has a chance of gaining power alone, and [[political parties|parties]] must work with each other to form [[coalition government]]s.The Faroese Parliament ([[Løgting]]) has 27 - 32 seats. Members are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis from the seven constituencies to serve four-year terms.
{{Faroe legislative election, 2004}}
==International affairs==
The islands participate in the [[Nordic Council]], NIB, [[International Maritime Organization]], [[International Whaling Commission]]
<br>[http://www.faroeislands.org.uk/Default.asp?d=8D6305E5-11A4-4D39-8262-8A7B41E1F330 Complete list]
[[Category:Politics of the Faroe Islands| ]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of the Faroe Islands</title>
<id>10702</id>
<revision>
<id>32888610</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-27T16:53:14Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BrianBird</username>
<id>602480</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Economy - overview:'''
After the severe economic troubles of the early 1990's, brought on by a drop in the vital [[fish]] catch, the [[Faroe Islands]] have come back in the last few years, with unemployment down to 5% in mid-1998. Nevertheless, the almost total dependence on fishing means the economy remains extremely vulnerable. The Faroese hope to broaden their economic base by building new fish-processing plants. [[Petroleum]] finds close to the Faroese area give hope for deposits in the immediate area, which may lay the basis to sustained economic prosperity. The Faroese are supported by a substantial annual subsidy from [[Denmark]].
'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $700 million (1996 est.)
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
6% (1996 est.)
'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $16,000 (1996 est.)
'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
<br>''agriculture:''
20%
<br>''industry:''
16%
<br>''services:''
64% (1996 est.)
'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
<br>''lowest 10%:''
NA%
<br>''highest 10%.:''
NA%
'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2.8% (1996 est.)
'''Labor force:'''
20,500 (1996 est.)
'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
largely engaged in fishing, manufacturing, transportation, commerce
'''Unemployment rate:'''
5% (1998 est.)
'''Budget:'''
<br>''revenues:''
$467 million
<br>''expenditures:''
$468 million, including capital expenditures of $11 million (1996 est.)
'''Industries:'''
[[fishing]], [[shipbuilding]], construction, [[handicrafts]]
'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%
'''Electricity - production:'''
186 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - production by source:'''
<br>''fossil fuel:''
53.76%
<br>''hydro:''
45.7%
<br>''nuclear:''
0%
<br>''other:''
0.54% (1998)
'''Electricity - consumption:'''
173 GWh (1998)
'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)
'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[milk]], [[potato]]es, [[vegetable]]s; [[domestic sheep|sheep]]; [[salmon]], other [[fish]]
'''Exports:'''
$362 million (f.o.b., 1995)
'''Exports - commodities:'''
fish and fish products 92%, animal feedstuffs, transport equipment (ships)
'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Denmark]] 31%, [[United Kingdom]] 25%, [[Germany
|
]]<br />[[Doom engine]]<br />[[Quake]]<br />[[Quake II]]<br />[[Quake III Arena]]<br />[[Quake 4]]<br />[[Quake engine]]<br />[[Commander Keen]] |
revenue = n/a|
homepage = [http://www.idsoftware.com/ www.idsoftware.com]
}}
'''id Software''' is a [[video game developer|computer game developer]] based in [[Mesquite, Texas|Mesquite]], [[Texas]], a suburb of [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]. The company was founded by four members of the computer company [[Softdisk]]: [[John Carmack]], a [[game programmer|programmer]], [[John Romero]] and [[Tom Hall]], [[game designer]]s, and [[Adrian Carmack]], an [[artist]]. id Software is now considered the most influential of the many game development companies in the Dallas area, known as the [[Dallas Gaming Mafia]].
Note the lower-case ''id'', which some say refers to the [[Ego, superego, and id|id]] as a psychological concept. Originally, both letters were capitals (ID Software), and came from "Ideas from the Deep". The "I" was made lowercase in the release of the second Commander Keen series, and eventually the "D" was also dropped down to lowercase which, according to some changed the meaning of the company name.
The correct pronunciation of id Software is a much-argued subject. Since the original name came from "Ideas from the Deep", many argue that it is an abbreviation and hence should be pronounced "eye-dee". However, since both letters were changed from upper to lower case, and id Software's [http://www.idsoftware.com/business/history/ id History page] makes a direct reference to [[Sigmund_Freud|Freud]], many now argue that it is [[Ego, superego, and id|id]] as in "did" or "kid".
==History==
The founders of id Software met in the offices of [[Softdisk]] developing multiple games for Softdisk for monthly publishing. These included [[Dangerous Dave]] and other titles. Once [[Apogee Software]] learned of the group and their exceptional talent, they recruited them, and developed the necessary titles for them to get out of their Softdisk contracts. Meanwhile, they worked on titles that would be developed under the ID Software moniker. The most successful of those outings would be ''[[Commander Keen]]''.
===''Commander Keen''===
The [[Commander Keen]] series, a [[platform game]] introducing one of the first smooth side-scrolling [[game engine]]s for the [[IBM PC compatible|PC]], brought id Software into the gaming mainstream. The game was very successful and spawned a whole series of titles. It was also the group of id Software that designer Tom Hall was most affiliated with.
The [[shareware]] distribution method was initially employed by id Software through Apogee Software to sell their products, such as the Commander Keen, Doom and Wolfenstein games. They would release the first part of their trilogy as shareware, then sell the other two installments by mail order. Only later (about the time of the release of ''Doom II'') did id release their games via more traditional shrink-wrapped boxes in stores (through other [[video game publisher|game publishers]]). It is likely that id Software has been the most successful shareware publisher to date.
===''Wolfenstein 3D''===
The company's breakout product was ''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'', a [[first person shooter]] with smooth 3D graphics that were unprecedented in computer games, and with violent game play that many gamers found engaging. After essentially founding an entire genre with this game, id created ''[[Doom]]'', ''[[Doom II]]'', ''[[Quake]]'', ''[[Quake II]]'', ''[[Quake III Arena]]'', ''[[Doom 3]]'', and ''[[Quake 4]]''. Each of these first person shooters featured progressively higher levels of graphical technology (and progressively higher minimum system requirements).
===John Carmack===
The [[lead programmer]] for id Software is [[John Carmack]], whose skill at [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[computer programming|programming]] is widely recognized in the software industry. He is the last of the original lead designers remaining in the company.
===Tom Hall===
[[Tom Hall]] left id Software during the early days of ''Doom'' development (but not before he had some impact: he was responsible, for example, for the inclusion of teleporters in the game). He was let go before the shareware release of ''Doom'' and then went to work for Apogee working on ''[[Rise of the Triad]]'' with the "Developers of Incredible Power". Hall has frequently commented that if id Software ever sold him the rights to ''Commander Keen'' he will immediately develop another Keen title.
===John Romero===
[[John Romero]], who was also asked to leave, left after the release of the shareware ''Quake'' to form the ill-fated [[Ion Storm]]. Having already finished his work on ''Rise of the Triad'' and not finding himself compatible with the ''[[Prey (computer game)|Prey]]'' development team at Apogee, Tom Hall left to join his ex-id compadre in this new company.
Both Hall and Romero are seen as excellent designers and idea men who have helped shape some of the key PC gaming titles of the 1990s.
Romero now heads the [[Cyberathlete Professional League]] Board of Directors.
===''Quake''===
The release of ''Quake'' marked the second milestone in id history. ''Quake'' combined a cutting edge fully 3D engine with an excellent art style to create what was at the time regarded as a feast for the eyes. Audio was not neglected either, having recruited [[Trent Reznor]] to facilitate unique sound-effects and ambient music for the game. Furthermore, ''Quake'''s main innovation&mdash;the capability to play a deathmatch (competitive gameplay between living opponents instead of against computer-run characters) over the [[Internet]] (especially through the add-on ''QuakeWorld'') seared the title into the minds of gamers as another smash hit.
===Opinion and engines===
The success of ''Quake II'', ''Quake III'' and ''Doom 3'', though financially very successful, have met some critical opposition. id's games have continued to rate well in magazines, but community opinion on the later id games is often divided, with some accusing the company of being too orthodox in their design principles, especially with ''Doom 3''. id's games have always included new revolutionary technologies, varying from graphics to netcode.
Currently, id's "game engines" are [[license]]d to many other developers. This, along with Carmack's heavily orthodox FPS design ideas are two facts that have helped shape public opinion, to the point at which some in the community regard id firstly as a technology developer, and only secondly as a game developer. The price of licensing id's engines normally runs about $250,000 per title. Id releases its older game engines, such as that of ''Quake'', ''Quake II'' and ''Quake III'', under the GNU [[GPL]] for others to use free of charge (bound by the GPL license restrictions) [http://www.idsoftware.com/business/techdownloads/].
The source code to the ''Quake III'' engine was previously supposed to have been released around the end of 2004, which would be consistent with an apparent policy of releasing all the 3d engines under the GPL when they are over 5 years old. However, John Carmack announced that the GPL release had been put on hold in order to maintain a grace period, since the ''Quake III'' engine was still being licensed to commercial customers who would otherwise become upset over the sudden loss in value of their recent investment. The fact that software from 1999 continued to be worth considerable licensing fees by the market at least until 2004 is a testament to its quality. The ''Quake III'' source code was released under the GPL on [[August 19]], [[2005]].
In 2003, the book ''Masters of Doom'' chronicled the development of id, concentrating on the personalities and interaction of John Carmack and John Romero.
==Games by id Software==
*''[[Commander Keen]]''
**Episode 1: ''Marooned on Mars'' (1990)
**Episode 2: ''The Earth Explodes'' (1991)
**Episode 3: ''Keen Must Die'' (1991)
**''Keen Dreams'' (1991)
**Episode 4: ''Secret of the Oracle'' (1991)
**Episode 5: ''The Armageddon Machine'' (1991)
**Episode 6: ''Aliens Ate My Baby Sitter'' (1991)
*''[[Dangerous Dave|Dangerous Dave in the Haunted Mansion]]'' (1991)
*''[[Rescue Rover]]'' (1991)
*''[[Rescue Rover 2]]'' (1991)
*''[[Hovertank 3D]]'' (1991)
*''[[Catacomb 3D]]'': ''A New Dimension'' (1992) re-released as ''Catacomb 3-D: The Descent''
**''Catacomb Abyss'' (1992)
**''Catacomb Armageddon'' (1992) re-released as ''Curse of the Catacombs''
**''Catacomb Apocalypse'' (1992) re-released as ''Terror of the Catacombs''
*''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' (1992)
**''Spear of Destiny'' (1992)
*''[[Doom]]'' (1993)
**''The Ultimate Doom'' (1995)
*''[[Doom II: Hell on Earth]]'' (1994)
**''[[Master Levels for Doom II]]'' (1995)
**''[[Final Doom]]'' (1996)
*''[[Quake]]'' (1996)
**Mission Pack 1: ''[[Quake Mission Pack: Scourge of Armagon|Scourge of Armagon]]'' (1997) (developed by [[Hipnotic Interactive]], now known as [[Ritual Entertainment]])
**Mission Pack 2: ''Dissolution of Eternity'' (1997) (developed by [[Rogue Entertainment]])
*''[[Quake II]]'' (1997)
**Mission Pack 1: ''The Reckoning'' (1998) (developed by [[Xatrix Entertainment]], now known as [[Gray Matter Interactive]])
**Mission Pack 2: ''Ground Zero'' (1998) (developed by [[Rogue Entertainment]])
*''[[Quake III Arena]]'' (1999)
**Expansion: ''Team Arena'' (2000)
*''[[Return to Castle Wolfenstein]]'' (2001) (developed by [[Gray Matter Interactive]], multiplayer portion by [[Nerve Software]])
*''[[Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory]]'' (2003) (developed by [[Splash Damage]])
*''[[Doom 3]]'' (2004)
**Expansion: ''[[Doom 3: Resurrection of Evil|Resurrection of Evil]]'' (2005) (developed by [[Nerve Software]])
*''[[Quake 4]]'' (2005) (developed by [[Raven Software]])
*''[[Enemy Territory: Quake Wars]]'' (2006)
|
he detector would be shorter due to the mirror's higher rate of motion at the outside.
This signal makes the tracking system both simpler and better. Instead of simply pointing the missile at the target (which is inefficient), the Sidewinder "remembered" each flash's direction and time. By attempting to zero out the changes, instead of the difference between the detector and missile angles, the Sidewinder flies a course known as ''proportional pursuit'', which is much more efficient and makes the missile "lead" the target.
However this system also requires the missile to have a fixed roll axis orientation. If the missile spins at all, the timing based on the speed of rotation of the mirror is no longer accurate. Correcting for this spin would normally require some sort of sensor to tell which way is "down" and then adding controls to correct it. Instead, small control surfaces were placed at the rear of the missile with spinning disks on their outer surface. Airflow over the disk spins them to a high speed. If the missile starts to roll, the gyroscopic force of the disk drives the control surface into the airflow, cancelling the motion. Thus the Sidewinder team replaced a potentially complex control system with some simple mechanical bits.
===Service entry===
A prototype Sidewinder, the '''XAAM-N-7''' (later '''AIM-9A'''), was first fired successfully in September [[1953 in aviation|1953]]. The initial production version, designated '''AAM-N-7''' (later '''AIM-9B'''), entered operational use in [[1956 in aviation|1956]], and has been improved upon steadily since. The first combat use of the Sidewinder was in [[1958 in aviation|1958]] with the air force of the [[Republic of China]] on Taiwan. During that period of time, the ROC was engaged in air battles with the [[People's Republic of China]] over the [[Taiwan Strait]]. The United States provided a few dozen Sidewinders to ROC forces, which used them to great effect against PRC [[MiG-15]]s, adding a new element to an air war which had formerly been fought only with guns.
The Taiwan Strait battles inadvertently produced a new derivative of Sidewinder: shortly after that conflict the [[Soviet Union]] began the manufacture of the [[Vympel K-13|K-13/R-3S]] missile ([[NATO reporting name]] '''AA-2 'Atoll''''), a reverse-engineered copy of the Sidewinder. It was reportedly made possible after a Taiwanese AIM-9B hit a Chinese [[MiG-15]] without exploding, and served as a "university course" in missile design for Soviet engineers. The K-13 and its derivatives remained in production for nearly 30 years.
Although originally developed for the USN, the Sidewinder was subsequently adopted by the USAF as the '''GAR-8''' (later '''AIM-9E'''). During the [[1960s]] the USN and USAF pursued their own separate versions of the Sidewinder, but cost considerations later forced the development of common variants.
The Sidewinder subsequently evolved through a series of upgraded versions with newer, more sensitive seekers with various types of cooling and various propulsion, fuse, and warhead improvements.
Although each of those versions had various seeker, cooling, and fuzing differences, all but one shared infrared homing. The exception was the US Navy '''AAM-N-7 Sidewinder IB''' (later '''AIM-9C'''), a Sidewinder with a [[semi-active radar homing]] seeker head developed for the [[F-8 Crusader]]. Only about 1,000 of these weapons were produced, many of which were later rebuilt as the [[AGM-122 Sidearm]] [[anti-radiation missile]].
The '''AIM-9J Sidewinder''' version was used by the United States Air Force as well as being widely exported. An improved version of the basic AIM-9B, the main features are larger control surfaces as well as a more aerodynamic IR seeker and improved rocket motor. The missile however still has to be fired at the target from behind, a drawback of all early IR missiles.
===All-Aspect Sidewinders===
==== AIM-9L / AIM-9M / AIM-9M-7 ====
The next major advance in IR Sidewinder development was the '''AIM-9L''' ('''"Lima"''') model, introduced in [[1978 in aviation|1978]]. This was the first "[[all-aspect]]" Sidewinder with the ability to attack from all angles, including head-on. In its first combat uses by [[Israel]] over [[Lebanon]] and by the [[United Kingdom]] during the [[Falklands War]], the "Lima" reportedly achieved a kill ratio of around 80%, a dramatic improvement over the 10-15% levels of earlier weapons. In both cases, the users' opponents had not developed any tactics for the evasion of a head-on missile shot of this kind, making them all the more vulnerable.
The subsequent '''AIM-9M''' ('''"Mike"''') has the all-aspect capability of the L model while providing all-around higher performance. The M model has improved defense against infrared countermeasures, enhanced background discrimination capability, and a reduced-smoke rocket motor. These modifications increase its ability to locate and lock on a target and decrease the missile's chances for detection. Deliveries began in [[1983 in aviation|1983]]. The '''AIM-9M-7''' was a specific modification to AIM-9M in response to threats expected in the [[Persian Gulf]] war zone.
==== AIM-9X ====
Now entering service is the '''AIM-9X''', a new variant with an imaging infrared focal plane array seeker with claimed 90° off-boresight capability, compatibility with [[helmet-mounted sight]]s (the new U.S. [[Joint Helmet-Mounted Cueing System]]), and a totally new thrust-vectoring system replacing the traditional control surfaces. It retains the same motor and warhead of the "Mike," but its lower drag gives it improved range and speed.
==== SIDEARM / AGM-122A ====
[[Image:Sidearm_loading.jpg|thumb|left|120px|AGM-122A SIDEARM being loaded onto an [[F-14 Tomcat]].]]
The Sidewinder was also adapted into a new missile, the '''[[AGM-122 Sidearm|AGM-122A Sidearm]]''', which is an [[Anti-radiation missile]] utilizing an AIM-9C guidance section modified to detect and track a radiating ground-based air defense system radar. The target detecting device is modified for air-to-surface use, employing forward hemisphere acquisition capability. Sidearm stocks have apparently been expended, and the weapon is no longer in the active inventory.
==== Architecture ====
The AIM-9 is made up of a number of different components manufactured by different companies including [http://www.aerojet.com/default.cfm AeroJet] and [http://www.raytheon.com Raytheon]. The missile is divided into four main sections: guidance, target detector, warhead, and rocket motor.
The Guidance and Control Unit (GCU) contains most of the electronics and mechanics that enable the missile to function. At the very front is the IR seeker head utilizing the rotating spindle, mirror, and five [[Photoresistor#Cadmium sulfide cells|CdS]] cells or “pan and scan” [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]] (AIM-9X), [[Electric motor|electric motor]], and armature all protruding into a glass dome. Directly behind this are the electronics that gather data, interpret signals, and generate the control signals that steer the missile. An umbilical on the side of the GCU attaches to the launcher, which is pulled from the missile at launch. A 5,000 [[pound-force per square inch|psig]] (35 [[megapascal|MPa]]) [[Argon|argon]] bottle or Sterling liquid nitrogen generator (AIM-9X) is used to cool the electronics. Two electric servos power the [[Canard|canards]] to steer the missile (Except AIM-9X). At the back of the GCU is a gas grain generator or thermal battery (AIM-9X) to provide electrical power. The AIM-9 X features High-Off-Boresight capability, together with [[Helmet-mounted sights | JHeMoCS]] (Joint Helmet Mounted Cuing System) this missile is capable of locking on to a target that it is behind it. The Aim-9X also features a Built-In-Test to aid in maintenance and reliability.
Next is a target detector with four IR emitters and detectors that detonate the warhead in the event of a near miss. Versions older than the AIM-9L featured an influence fuze that relied on the targets magnetic field as input. Current trends in shielded wires and non-magnetic metals in aircraft construction rendered this obsolete.
Recent models of the AIM-9 are configured with an annular blast fragmentation [[Warhead|warhead]], the WDU-17B by Argotech Corperation. The case is made of spirally wound spring steel filled with 8 pounds (4 kg) of PBXN-3 tritonol. The [[Fuse (explosives)|fuze]] requires five seconds at 20 ''g'' (200 m/s²) acceleration to arm and features a safe/arm device.
The solid propellant [[Solid rocket|rocket]] motor provides propulsion for the missile. A reduced smoke propellant makes it difficult for a target to see and avoid the missile. This section also features the launch lugs used to hold the missile to the rail of the missile launcher. The forward of the three lugs has two contact buttons that electrically pre-arm the warhead and activate the motor igniter. The fins provide stability from an aerodynamic point of view but it is the rolerons at the end of the fins providing [[Precession|gyroscopic precession]] that prevents the [[snake|serpentine]] motion that gave the Sidewinder its name in the early days. The wings and fins of the AIM-9X are smaller to accommodate its use on the [[F-22]] and this time it is the fins that do the steering while the wings up front provide stability. The AIM-9X also features [[Thrust vectoring | Vectored Thrust]] to increase maneuverability and accuracy with four vanes inside the exhaust that move as the fins move. The last upgrade to the missile motor on the AIM-9X is the addition of a wire harness that allows communication between the guidance section and the control section as well as a new 1760 bus to connect the guidance section with the launcher’s digital umbilical.
===Conclusion===
The Sidewinder is the most widely use
|
nodechile.cl/organigrama/organigrama.asp] which are sometimes refered to as [[comuna]]s, each with its own mayor, and [[councilor]]s, known as ''consejales'' elected by their inhabitants.
Each region is designated by a name and a [[Roman numeral]], assigned from north to south. In general, the Roman numeral is used, rather than the name. The only exception is the region where Santiago is situated, which is designated ''RM'', that stands for ''Región Metropolitana'', ''Metropolitan Region''.
In 2005, the Chilean congress passed a reform to create two new regions, one in the north, around the city of [[Arica]], and one in the south centered around [[Valdivia]] (aka Region of the Rivers). Being designated by numerals XIV and XV, both break the geographical numerical order from north to south. There is speculation that the numeral system will be dropped in favor of their formal names.
== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Chile}}
[[Image:Volcan Osorno.jpg|thumb|left|Osorno volcano]]
A long and narrow coastal [[Southern Cone]] country on the west side of the [[Andes]] Mountains, Chile stretches over 4,630 [[kilometre]]s (2,880&nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) north to south, but only 430 kilometres (265&nbsp;mi) at its widest point east to west.
The northern [[Atacama]] desert contains great mineral wealth, primarily copper and [[nitrate]]s. The relatively small Central Valley, which includes Santiago, dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area also is the historical center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century, when it integrated the northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands and features a string of [[volcano]]es and [[lake]]s. The southern coast is a labyrinth of [[fjord]]s, [[inlet]]s, [[canal]]s, twisting [[peninsula]]s, and [[island]]s. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border. Chile is the longest (N-S) country in the world (over 4,200&nbsp;km&nbsp;/&nbsp;2,600&nbsp;mi), and also claims 1,250,000 square kilometers (482,628&nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]) of [[Antarctica]] as part of its territory.
Chile controls [[Easter Island|Easter]] and [[Sala-y-Gómez Island]]s, the easternmost islands of [[Polynesia]], which it incorporated to its territory in 1888, and [[Robinson Crusoe Island]], more than 600 kilometres (375&nbsp;mi) from the mainland, in the [[Juan Fernández]] archipelago. Also controlled but uninhabited are the small islands of Sala y Gomez, San Ambrosio and San Felix, these islands are notable because they extend Chile's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific.
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Chile}}
After a decade of impressive growth rates, Chile experienced a moderate downturn in 1999 brought on by the global economic slowdown. The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 3.3% real [[Gross_domestic_product|GDP]] growth. The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6.1% and its economic growth in 2005 was 6.3%.
Chile has pursued generally sound economic policies for nearly three decades. The 1973-[[1990|90]] military government sold many state-owned companies, and the three democratic governments since 1990 have continued privatization at a slower pace. The government's role in the economy is mostly limited to regulation, although the state continues to operate copper giant [[Codelco]] and a few other enterprises. Chile is strongly committed to [[free trade]] and has welcomed large amounts of foreign investment. Chile has signed Free Trade agreements (FTAs) with several important economies, including an FTA with the United States, which was signed in 2003 and implemented in January 2004. High domestic savings and investment rates also helped propel Chile's economy to average growth rates of 8% during the 1990s. The privatized national [[pension]] system has encouraged domestic investment and contributed to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP in 2003.
Unemployment has hovered in the 8%-10% range in recent years, well above the 5%-6% average for the 1990s. Unemployment remained at 8.8% at the end of 2004 in spite of strong economic growth. Wages have risen faster than inflation as a result of higher productivity, boosting national living standards. The share of Chileans with incomes below the poverty line--defined as twice the cost of satisfying a person's minimal nutritional needs--fell from 46% of the population in 1987 to 18.8% in 2003.
Chile's independent [[Central Bank]] pursues a policy of maintaining [[inflation]] between 2% and 4%. Inflation has not exceeded 5% since 1998. Chile registered inflation of 2.4% in 2004 and is expected to see a 2.5% increase in 2005. Most wage settlements and spending decisions are indexed, reducing inflation's volatility. Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds.
Total foreign direct investment rose to $7.1 billion in 2004, up from $2.5 billion in 2003. Both foreign and domestic investment in Chile had declined during the country’s period of slower economic growth from 1999-2003, but appear to be recovering strongly. The Chilean Government committed, in early 2002, to undertake a series of [[microeconomy|microeconomic]] reforms designed to create new incentives for private investment. The government also has encouraged the use of Chile as an "investment platform" for multinational corporations planning to invest in the region. Chile's welcoming attitude toward foreign direct investment is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law, which gives foreign investors the same treatment as Chileans. Registration is simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the official foreign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital. The U.S.-Chile Free Trade Agreement offers a number of other investor protections.
===Foreign Trade ===
Chile's economy is highly dependent on international trade. In 2004, exports accounted for about 34% of GDP. Chile has traditionally been dependent upon copper exports; the state-owned firm [[Codelco]] is the world's largest copper-producing company. Nontraditional exports have grown faster than those of copper and other minerals. In 1975, non-mineral exports made up just over 30% of total exports, whereas now they account for about 60%. The most important non-mineral exports are forestry and wood products, fresh [[fruit]] and processed [[food]], fishmeal and [[seafood]], and [[wine]]. The [[trade balance]] for 2005 showed a historic surplus $9,2 billion, slightly higher than 2004 and considerably higher than 2003. Total exports in 2005 were $39,4 billion, a 23.1% increase from $32 billion in 2004. Chile's export markets are fairly balanced among [[Europe]] (25.1%), [[Asia]] (33.1%), [[Latin America]] (15.7%), and [[North America]] (19%). The [[U.S.]], the largest national market, takes in 17.3% of Chile's exports. Asia has been the fastest-growing export market in recent years.
Chilean imports increased 31,7% in 2005, to $30,3 billion, reflecting a positive change in consumer demand and economic recovery. [[Capital goods]] made up about 66% of total imports. The United States represented 14.6% of Chilean imports in 2004. As a bloc, the [[European Union|European Union (EU)]] in 2004 supplied 16.3% of Chile's imports, while Argentina contributed 16%. Chile unilaterally lowered its across-the-board [[import tariff]] for all countries with which it does not have a trade agreement to 6% in 2003.
Higher effective tariffs are charged only on imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar as a result of a system of import price bands. The price bands were ruled inconsistent with Chile's [[WTO]] obligations in 2002 and the government has introduced legislation to modify them. Chile will have to phase out the price bands within 12 years under the terms of the U.S.-Chile FTA.
Successive Chilean governments have actively pursued liberalizing trade agreements. During the 1990s, Chile signed FTAs with [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], and [[Central America]]. Chile also concluded preferential trade agreements with [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], and [[Ecuador]]. An association agreement with [[Mercosur]]--[[Argentina]], [[Brazil]], [[Paraguay]], and [[Uruguay]]--went into effect in October 1996. Chile, a member of the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] ([[APEC]]) organization, is seeking to boost commercial ties to Asian markets. Continuing its export-oriented development strategy, Chile completed landmark free trade agreements in 2002 with the European Union and [[South Korea]]. After two years of negotiations, the United States and Chile signed an agreement in June 2003. The agreement will lead to completely duty free bilateral trade within 12 years. The U.S.-Chile FTA entered into force January 1, 2004 following approval by the U.S and Chilean congresses. Chile is a strong proponent of pressing ahead on negotiations for a [[Free Trade Area of the Americas]] (FTAA). Chile also has signed trade agreements with [[China]], as well as a four-party agreement with [[Singapore]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Brunei]] ([[Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership|P4]]).
===Finance ===
Chile's financial sector has grown faster than other areas of the economy over the last few years; a banking reform law approved in 1997 broadened the scope of permissible foreign activity for Chilean banks. The Chilean government implemented a further liberalization of capital markets in 2001. Chileans have enjoyed the recent introduction of new financial tools such as home equity loans, currency futures and options, factoring, leasing, and debit cards. The introduction of these new products has been accompanied by increased use of traditional instruments such as loans and credit cards. Chile's private pension
|
g speed. When feeding they slow down to 5 km/h (3 mph). Some Blues in the North Atlantic and North Pacific raise their tail fluke when diving. The majority, however, do not.
Blue Whales most commonly live alone or with one other individual. It is not known whether those that travel in pairs stay together over many years or form more loose relationships. In areas of very high food concentration, as many as 50 Blue Whales have been seen scattered over a small area. However, they do not form large close-knit groups as seen in other baleen species.
===Size===
The Blue Whale is believed to be the largest animal ever to have lived on Earth. The largest creature known from the [[dinosaur]] era is the [[Argentinosaurus]] of the [[Mesozoic era]], which is estimated to have weighed up to 90 [[tonne]]s (100 [[short ton]]s). There is some uncertainty as to the biggest Blue Whale ever found. Most data comes from Blue Whales killed in [[Antarctic]] waters during the first half of the twentieth century and was collected by whalers not well-versed in standard zoological measurement techniques. The longest whales ever recorded were two females measuring 33.6&nbsp;m and 33.3&nbsp;m (110&nbsp;ft 3&nbsp;in and 109&nbsp;ft 3&nbsp;in) respectively. However, there are some disputes over the reliability of these measurements. The longest whale measured by [[scientist]]s at the American [[National Marine Mammal Laboratory]] (NMML) was 29.9&nbsp;m long (98 ft) — about the same length as a [[Boeing 737]] airplane or three [[double-decker bus]]es.
A Blue Whale's head is so wide that 50 humans would be able to stand on its tongue. Its heart is close to the size of a small car, such as a Volkswagen Beetle. A human baby could crawl through a Blue Whale's arteries. During the first 7 months of its life, a baby Blue Whale drinks approximately 400 litres (100 U.S. gallons) of milk every day. Baby Blue Whales also gain [[body weight|weight]] quickly: 90 kg (200 pounds) every 24 hours. Even at birth, they weigh up to 1350 kg (3,000 lbs). – the same size as fully-grown [[hippopotamus]].
Blue Whales are very difficult to weigh because of their massive size. Most Blue Whales killed by whalers were not weighed as a whole, but cut up into manageable pieces before being weighed. This caused an underestimate of the total weight of the whale, due to loss of blood and other fluids. Even so, measurements between 150 to 170 tonnes (160 and 190 short tons) were recorded of animals up to 27&nbsp;m (88&nbsp;ft 6&nbsp;in) in length. The weight of a 30&nbsp;m (98&nbsp;ft) individual is believed by the NMML to be in excess of 180 tonnes (200 short tons). The largest Blue Whale accurately weighed by NMML scientists to date was a female that weighed 177 tonnes (196 short tons)
===Feeding===
Blue Whales feed exclusively on [[krill]]. The exact species of this [[zooplankton]] eaten by Blue Whales varies from ocean to ocean. In the North Atlantic ''[[Meganyctiphanes norvegica]]'', ''[[Thysanoessa raschii]]'', ''[[Thysanoessa inermis]]'' and ''[[Thysanoessa longicaudata]]'' are the usual food. In the North Pacific ''[[Euphausia pacficia]]'', ''[[Thysanoessa inermis]]'', ''[[Thysanoessa longipes]]'', ''[[Thysanoessa spinifera]]'' and ''[[Nyctiphanes symplex]]''; in the Antarctic ''[[Euphausia superba]]'', ''[[Euphausia crystallorophias]]'' and ''[[Euphausia vallentni]]''.
The whales always feed on the highest concentration of krill that they can find. This means that they typically feed at depth (more than 100 m) during the daytimes, and only surface feed at night. Dive times are typically ten minutes when feeding. Diving for twenty minutes is quite common. The longest recorded is thirty-six minutes (Sears 1998). The whale feeds by lunging forward at groups of krills, taking the animals and a large quantity of water into the mouth at once. The water is then squeezed out through the baleen plates by pressing the ventral pouch and tongue up against the water. Once the mouth is clear of water, the remaining krill, unable to pass through the plates, are swallowed. According to Ted Dewan's ''Inside the Whale and Other Animals'', as well as krill, the blue whale filters small fish and squid. It may even swallow something else that was also feeding on the krill.
===Life cycle===
Mating starts in the latter part of the autumn, and continues to the end of winter. Little is known about mating behaviour or even breeding grounds. Females typically give birth at the start of the winter once every two to three years after a [[gestation period]] of ten to twelve months. The calf weighs about two and a half tonnes and is around 7 m in length. [[Weaning]] takes place after about six months, by which time the calf has doubled in length. Sexual maturity is typically reached at eight to ten years by which time males are at least 20 m long (or more in the southern hemisphere). Females are larger still, reaching sexual maturity around 21 m or around the age of five.
Scientists estimate that Blue Whales can live for at least eighty years; however, since individual records do not date back into the whaling era, this will not be known with certainty for many years yet. The longest recorded study of a single individual is thirty-four years, in the northeast Pacific (reported in Sears, 1998). The whales' only natural predator is the [[Orca]]. Calambokidis et al (1990) report that as many as 25% of mature Blue Whales have scars resulting from Orca attack. The rate of mortality due to such attacks is unknown.
Blue Whale strandings are extremely uncommon and, because of the species' social structure, mass strandings are unheard of. However when strandings do occur they can become quite a public event. In 1920, a Blue Whale washed up near [[Bragar]] on the [[Isle of Lewis]] in the [[Outer Hebrides]] of [[Scotland]]. It had been shot in the head by whalers, but the harpoon had failed to explode. As with other mammals, the fundamental instinct of the whale was to try to carry on breathing at all costs, even though this meant beaching to prevent itself from drowning. Two of the whale's bones were erected just off a main road on Lewis, and remain a tourist attraction.
===Vocalisations===
''See also: [[Whale song]]''
The Blue Whale is the second loudest animal in the world (the loudest is the sperm whale [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/11/1103_031103_tvspermwhale.html]). Estimates made by Cummings and Thompson (1971) and Richardson et al (1995) suggest that source level of sounds made by Blue Whales are between 155 and 188 [[decibel]]s when measured at a reference pressure of one [[micropascal]] at one [[metre]]. Even accounting for different [[acoustic impedance]]s between water and air and different standard reference pressures, an equivalent sound range in air is 89–122 decibels.{{ref|voc}} By comparison, a [[pneumatic drill]] is about 100 dB. A human, however, would likely not perceive the Blue Whale as the second loudest of all animals. All Blue Whale groups make calls at a [[fundamental frequency]] of between 10 and 40 [[Hertz|Hz]], and the lowest frequency sound a human can typically perceive is 20&nbsp;Hz. Blue Whale calls last between ten and thirty seconds. Additionally Blue Whales off the coast of [[Sri Lanka]] have been recorded repeatedly making "songs" of four notes duration lasting about two minutes each, reminiscent of the well-known [[whale song|Humpback Whale songs]]. Researchers believe that as this phenomenon has not been seen in any other populations, it may be unique to the ''B. m. brevicauda'' (Pygmy) subspecies.
Scientists do not know why Blue Whales vocalise. Richardson et al (1995) discuss six possible reasons:
# Maintenance of inter-individual distance
# Species and individual recognition,
# Contextual information transmission (e.g., feeding, alarm, courtship)
# Maintenance of social organization (e.g., contact calls between females and males)
# Location of topographic features
# Location of prey resources
(List adapted from National Marine Fisheries Service Biological Opinion paper, 2002)
==Population and whaling==
[[Image:BlueWhaleSkeleton.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Blue whale skeleton, outside the Long Marine Laboratory at the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]]'']]
===The hunting era===
Blue Whales are not easy to catch, kill, or retain. Their speed and power meant that they were often not the target of early whalers who instead targeted [[Sperm whale|Sperm]] and [[Right Whale]]s. As the populations of these species declined, whalers increasingly hunted the largest baleen whales, including the Blue Whale. In 1864 Norwegian [[Svend Foyn]] equipped a [[steamboat]] with [[harpoon]]s specifically designed for catching large whales. Although initially troublesome, the method caught on, and by the end of the nineteenth century, the population of Blue Whales in the North Atlantic had diminished.
Hunting of Blue Whales rapidly increased around the world, and by 1925, the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[Japan]] had joined [[Norway]] in chasing whales on 'catcher boats' that caught the whales and handed them onto huge 'factory ships' for processing. In 1930/1931, these ships killed 29,400 Blue Whales in the Antarctic alone. By the end of [[World War II]] populations had been significantly depleted, and in 1946 the first quotas restricting international trade in whales were introduced. These were ineffective because of the lack of differentiation between species. Rare species could be hunted equally with those found in relative abundance. By the time Blue Whale hunting was finally banned in the 1960s by the [[International Whaling Commission]], 350,000 Blue Whales had been killed and the world population had been reduced to less than 1% of its total one hundred years before.
===Population and distribution today===
Since the whaling ban, it is not well known whethe
|
omacy)|ambassador]] to [[Naples]] is also well known, and he is honoured by the [[London]] landmark of [[Nelson's Column]], which stands in [[Trafalgar Square]].
==Biography==
===Early life===
Horatio Nelson was born in [[Burnham Thorpe]], [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]], [[England]] to the [[Reverend Edmund Nelson]] and [[Catherine Suckling|Catherine Nelson]]. (His mother was a grandniece of [[Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford]].) His mother died when Nelson was nine. Nelson was the sixth child out of eleven. He learned to sail on Barton Broad on the [[Norfolk Broads]], was briefly educated at [[Paston Grammar School]], [[North Walsham]] and [[Norwich School]] and by the time he was twelve, he had enrolled in the [[Royal Navy]]. His naval career began on [[1 January]] [[1771]], when he reported to the [[third-rate]] [[HMS Raisonnable (1768)|''Raisonnable'']] as an [[Ordinary Seaman]] and [[coxswain]]. Nelson’s maternal uncle Captain [[Maurice Suckling]] commanded the vessel. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was appointed a [[midshipman]] and began officer training. Ironically, Nelson found that he suffered from chronic [[seasickness]], a complaint that dogged him for the rest of his life.
By [[1777]] he had risen to the rank of [[lieutenant]], and was assigned to the [[West Indies]], during which time he saw action on the British side of the [[American Revolutionary War]]. By the time he was 20, in June [[1779]], he was made post; the 28-gun frigate [[HMS Hinchinbrook (1779)|''Hinchinbrook'']], newly captured from the French, was his first command as a [[post-captain]].
In [[1781]] he was involved in an action against the Spanish fortress of San Juan in [[Nicaragua]]. Though a success, the efforts involved still damaged Nelson's health to the extent that he returned to England for more than a year. He eventually returned to active duty and was assigned to [[HMS Albemarle (1779)|''Albemarle'']], in which he continued his efforts against the American rebels until the official end of the war in [[1783]].
===Command===
In [[1784]], Nelson was given command of the 28-gun frigate ''Boreas'', and assigned to enforce the [[1651 Navigation Act|Navigation Act]] in the vicinity of [[Antigua]]. This was during the denouement of the American Revolutionary War, and enforcement of the act was problematic&mdash;now-foreign American vessels were no longer allowed to trade with British colonies in the [[Caribbean Sea]], an unpopular rule with both the colonies and the Americans. After seizing four American vessels off [[Nevis]], Nelson was sued by the captains of the ships for illegal seizure. As the merchants of Nevis supported them, Nelson was in peril of imprisonment and had to remain sequestered on ''Boreas'' for eight months. It took that long for the courts to deny the captains their claims, but in the interim Nelson met Fanny Nesbit, a widow native to Nevis, whom he would marry on [[11 March]] [[1787]] at the end of his tour of duty in the Caribbean.
Nelson lacked a command from [[1789]], and lived on half pay for several years (a reasonably common occurrence in the peacetime Royal Navy). However, as the [[French Revolution]]ary government began aggressive moves beyond [[France]]'s borders, he was recalled to service. Given the 64-gun [[HMS Agamemnon (1781)|''Agamemnon'']] in [[1793]], he soon started a long series of battles and engagements that would seal his place in history.
He was first assigned to the Mediterranean, based out of the [[Kingdom of Naples]]. In [[1794]] he was wounded in the face by stones and debris thrown up by a close cannon shot during a joint operation at [[Calvi]], [[Corsica]]. This cost him the sight in his right eye and half of his right eyebrow. Despite popular legend, there is no evidence that Nelson ever wore an eye patch, though he was known to wear an eyeshade to protect his remaining eye.
In [[1796]], the commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Mediterranean passed to Sir [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|John Jervis]], who appointed Nelson to be [[Commodore (rank)|commodore]] and to exercise independent command over the ships blockading the French coast. ''Agamemnon'', often described as Nelson's favourite ship, was by now worn out and was sent back to England for repairs. Nelson was appointed to [[HMS Captain (1787)|HMS ''Captain'']] 74.
===Admiralty===
[[Image:Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson - Project Gutenberg eText 15233.png|thumbnail|250px|Admiral Nelson]]
[[1797]] was a full year for Nelson. On [[February 14]], he was largely responsible for the British victory at the [[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1797)|Battle of Cape St Vincent]]. In the aftermath, Nelson was [[knight]]ed as a member of the [[Order of the Bath]] (hence the postnominal initials "KB"<!--NB: not KCB-->). In April of the same year he was promoted to [[Admiral (United Kingdom)|Rear Admiral of the Blue]], the ninth highest rank in the Royal Navy. Later in the year, during an unsuccessful expedition to conquer [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]], he was shot in the right arm with a musket ball, fracturing his [[humerus]] bone in multiple places. Since medical science of the day counseled amputation for almost all serious limb wounds (to prevent gangrene, and subsequent death) Nelson lost almost his entire right arm, and was unfit for duty until mid-December. He referred to the stub as "my fin."
This was not his only reverse. In December 1796, on leaving [[Elba]] for [[Gibraltar]], Nelson transferred his flag to the [[frigate]] ''Minerve'' (of French construction, commanded by Captain Cockburn). A Spanish frigate, ''Santa Sabina'', was captured during the passage and Lieutenant Hardy was put in charge of the captured vessel. The following morning, two Spanish ships of the line and one frigate appeared. Nelson decided to flee, leaving ''Santa Sabina'' to be recovered by the Spanish and Hardy was captured. The Spanish captain who was on board ''Minerve'' was later exchanged for Hardy in Gibraltar.
In 1798, Nelson was once again responsible for a great victory over the French. The [[Battle of the Nile]] (also known as the Battle of Aboukir Bay) took place on [[1 August]] [[1798]] and, as a result, Napoleon's ambition to take the war to the British in [[India]] came to an end. The forces [[Napoleon]] had brought to [[Egypt]] were stranded. Napoleon attempted to march north along the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coast but was defeated at the [[Siege of Acre (1799)|Siege of Acre]] by Captain Sir [[Sidney Smith (admiral)|Sidney Smith]]. Napoleon then left his army and sailed back to France, evading detection by British ships.
[[Image:Luny Thomas Battle Of The Nile August 1st 1798 At 10pm.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Battle of the Nile]], painted by Thomas Luny.]]
For the spectacular victory of the Nile, Nelson was granted the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile (Nelson felt cheated that he was not awarded a more prestigious title; [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Sir John Jervis]] had been made Earl of St Vincent for his part in that battle, but the British Government insisted that an officer who was not the commander-in-chief, could not be raised to any peerage higher than a barony. Nelson felt throughout his life that his accomplishments were not fully rewarded by the British government, a fact he ascribed to his more humble birth and lack of political connections when compared to Sir John Jervis, or The Duke of Wellington).
[[Image:EmmaHamilton.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|[[Emma Hamilton]], in a portrait by [[George Romney (painter)|George Romney]], at the height of her beauty in the 1780s]]
Not content to rest on his laurels, he then rescued the Neapolitan royal family from a French invasion in December. During this time, he fell in love with [[Emma Hamilton]]&mdash;the young wife of the elderly British ambassador to [[Naples]]. She became his mistress, returning to England to live openly with him, and eventually they had a daughter, Horatia. Some have suggested that a head wound he received at Abukir Bay was partially responsible for that conduct, and for the way he conducted the Neapolitan campaign&mdash;due simultaneously to his English hatred of [[Jacobin]]s and his status as a Neapolitan royalist (he had been made Duke of [[Bronte, Sicily|Bronte]] in Sicily by the King of Naples in 1799)&mdash;now considered something of a disgrace to his name. He was accused of allowing the monarchists to kill prisoners contrary to the laws of war.
In 1799, he was promoted to [[Admiral (United Kingdom)|Rear Admiral of the Red]], the seventh highest rank in the Royal Navy. He was then assigned to the new [[second-rate]] [[HMS Foudroyant (1798)|''Foudroyant'']]. In July, he aided [[Admiral Ushakov]] with the reconquest of [[Naples]], and was made Duke of [[Bronte, Sicily|Bronte]] by the Neapolitan king. His personal problems, and upper-level disappointment at his professional conduct caused him to be recalled to England, but public knowledge of his affection for Lady Hamilton eventually induced the Admiralty to send him back to sea if only to get him away from her.
On [[January 1|1 January]] [[1801]], he was promoted to [[Admiral (United Kingdom)|Vice Admiral of the Blue]] (the sixth highest rank). Within a few months he took part in the [[Battle of Copenhagen]] ([[2 April]] [[1801]]) which was fought in order to break up the armed neutrality of [[Denmark]], [[Sweden]] and [[Russia]]. During the battle, Nelson was ordered to cease the battle by his commander Sir [[Hyde Parker]] who believed that the Danish fire was too effective. In a famous incident, however, Nelson claimed he could not see the signal flags conveying the order, pointedly raising his telescope to his blind eye. (Though firmly part of the Nelson mythology, some biographers think this account may be apocryphal.) His action was approved in retrospect, and in May, he became commander-in-chief in the [[Baltic
|
azil]] and it was developed by crossing the [[India]]n [[Zebu]] cattle (''Bos taurus indicus'') and the [[Europe]]an (''Bos taurus taurus'') [[Charolais cattle]] which were introduced to Brazil in the [[18th century]]. Compared to the very productive European cattle, Zebu cattle is better suited to the Brazilian climate.
==External links==
* [http://www.canchim.com.br/ingles.htm English version of Brazilian Canchim site]
* [http://www.embryoplus.com/cattle_canchim.html Extensive article at Embryoplus.com]
{{agri-stub}}
[[Category:Cattle breeds]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Christkindlmarkt</title>
<id>7266</id>
<revision>
<id>15905343</id>
<timestamp>2004-12-29T14:15:52Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>213.7.14.70</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christmas Market]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Central Committee</title>
<id>7269</id>
<revision>
<id>40750854</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T19:58:41Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jfruh</username>
<id>21397</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>missing "and"</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:16thcentcom.png |frame|''16th Central Committee meeting of the [[Communist Party of China]]'']] -->
'''Central Committee''' most commonly refers to the central executive unit of a [[communist party]], whether ruling or non-ruling. In a communist party, the Central Committee is made up of delegates elected at a [[Party Congress]]. In ruling communist parties, the Central Committee makes decisions for the party between congresses, and usually is responsible for electing the [[Politburo]]. In non-ruling communist parties, the Central Committee is usually understood by the party membership to be the ultimate [[authority]] in decision-making once the process of [[democratic centralism]] has led to an agreed-upon position
Organizations besides communist ones also have Central Committees, such as the [[Mennonite Central Committee|Mennonite Church]] and [[Alcoholics Anonymous]], as well as the ''Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors'' (to [[war]]). In the United States the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] and the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Parties both have Central Committees; these act as the leading body of those organizations at the national/administrative level, as well as local committees in a similar capacity within the local Democratic or Republican governments of individual [[county|counties]] and states.
==See also==
*[[Central Committee of the CPSU|Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]
*[[Central Committee of the Communist Party of China]]
[[Category:Political parties]]
[[de:Zentralkomitee]]
[[eo:Centra Komitato]]
[[fr:Comité central]]
[[no:Sentralkomité]]
[[ro:Comitet Central]]
[[ru:Центральный комитет]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</title>
<id>7270</id>
<revision>
<id>38447866</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-06T10:45:10Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>.:Ajvol:.</username>
<id>102531</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>+ru</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Central Committee''', abbreviated in Russian as '''ЦК''', "Tseka", was the highest body of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU). Its full name was
''Центра́льный Комите́т Коммунисти́ческой Па́ртии Сове́тского Сою́за = ЦК КПСС; Tsentralnyy Komitet Kommunistitcheskoy Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza = TSK KPSS'', or the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.
According to Party rules, the Central Committee directed all Party and government activities between each [[Congress of the CPSU|Party Congress]] with the [[Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee|Politburo]] elected by and reporting to the Central Committee. Members of the committee were elected at the Party Congress every five years.
For most of its existence, the power of the Central Committee was limited by its infrequent meetings and large membership, and true power lay with the Politburo. The Committee functioned as a rubber-stamp to legitimise and give an aura of consensus to Politburo decisions. The Committee would meet only twice a year, with sessions lasting one or two days. Special plenary sessions would be held before a major event, such as a new long-term plan or the selection of a new General Secretary. The elections were façades too, with the membership being selected in advance by the leaders.
From [[1917]] to [[1934]], the Central Committee did act as a parliament. But its occasional opposition to [[Stalin]] led to a [[purge]] of the body between the 17th and 18th Party Congresses ([[1934]]-[[1939|39]]). Until Stalin's death, its role was therefore almost non-existent. After Stalin's death, there was a period of collective leadership, which revitalised the Committee before it was returned to its compliant role. However the Committee did play a critical role in the career of [[Nikita Khrushchev]]. In [[1957]], the Central Committee played a critical role when it overturned a decision by the Presidium (ie the Politburo) to remove Nikita Khrushchev as party leader. Khrushchev, with the assistance of [[Marshal of the Soviet Union|Marshal]] [[Zhukov]], rallied the support of the Central Committee against what he called the [[Anti-Party Group]]. Seven years later, on [[October 14]], [[1964]] it was a meeting of the Central Committee that deposed Khrushchev. The Central Committee also made a landmark decision in March 1985 when it elected the reformist [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] as the next [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary of CPSU]] with the margin of just one vote more than the hardliner [[Viktor Grishin]].
Following the failed coup of August [[1991]], the Central Committee was dissolved as was the Communist Party itself.
''See also [[Organization of the Communist Party of the USSR]]''
[[Category:Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]
[[ro:Comitetul Central al Partidului Comunist al Uniunii Sovietice]]
[[ru:ЦК КПСС]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Communist Party of the Soviet Union</title>
<id>7271</id>
<revision>
<id>41371397</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-26T22:26:34Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>210.15.254.41</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Structure */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''"CPSU" redirects here. For other uses, please see [[CPSU (disambiguation)]].''
{{Communism}}
The '''Communist Party of the [[Soviet Union]]''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: ''Коммунисти́ческая Па́ртия Сове́тского Сою́за'' = ''КПСС'') was the name used by the successors of the [[Bolshevik]] [[political faction|faction]] of the [[Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party]] from [[1952]] to [[1991]], but the wording '''Communist Party''' was present in the party's name since [[1918]] when the Bolsheviks became the ''All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''. In 1925 the party became the ''All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)'' (Всесоюзная коммунистическая партия (большевиков), '''ВКП(б)'''); both '''VKP(b)''' and '''AUCP(b)''' abbreviations are in use. Finally in 1952 it became simply the '''Communist Party of the Soviet Union''' or '''CPSU'''. This article follows the course of the party from 1918 until its dissolution in 1991. ''For information on the pre-1918 party see [[Bolshevik]]. ''
Once the ''Third International'' or [[Comintern]] was formed in 1919, the [[democratic centralism|democratic centralist]] [[Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] structure of the CPSU was copied by the other Comintern members resulting in [[Communist Party|Communist parties]] being formed around the world.
For most of the history of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union, the Communist Party was virtually indistinguishable from the government, as it was the only political party tolerated by the government and its security forces. Consequently, the history of the USSR and the CPSU are deeply intertwined and overlapping. Therefore, it is useful for those interested in the history of the CPSU to also consult the [[History of Russia]] series of articles.
==Structure==
===CPSU===
The governing body of the CPSU was the [[Congress of the CPSU|Party Congress]] which initially met annually but whose meetings became less frequent, particularly under [[Stalin]]. Party Congresses would elect a [[Central Committee]] which, in turn, would elect a [[Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee|Politburo]]. Under Stalin the most powerful position in the party became the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]] who was elected by the Politburo. In 1952 the title of ''General Secretary'' became ''First Secretary'' and the ''Politburo'' became the ''Presidium'' before reverting to their former names under [[Brezhnev]] in 1966.
In theory, supreme power in the party was invested in the Party Congress, however, in practice the power structure became reversed and, particularly after the death of Lenin, supreme power became the domain of the General Secretary.
At lower levels, the organizational hierarchy was managed by Party Committees, or '''partkoms''' (партком). A partkom was headed by the elected '''partkom secretary''' (секретарь парткома). At enterprises, institutions, [[kolkhoz]]es, etc., they were called as such, i.e., "partkoms". At higher levels the Committees were abbreviated accordingly: '''raikoms''' (райком) at [[raion]] level, '''obkoms''' (обком) at [[oblast]] levels (known earlier as '''gubkoms''' (губком) for [[guberniya]]s), '''gorkom''' (горком) it city level, etc.
The bottom level of the Party was the
|
f World War I|Allies]] on the basis of [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s "[[Fourteen Points]]". However, since the population of the city was predominantly German, it was not placed under Polish sovereignty, but became the [[Free City of Danzig]], an independent quasi-state under the auspices of the [[League of Nations]], governed by its predominantly German residents but with its external affairs largely under Polish control. The Free City issued its own stamps and currency, bearing the legend "''Freie Stadt Danzig''" and symbols of the city's maritime orientation and history.
The ethnically German majority of the city's population favored eventual return to Germany. In the early 1930s the [[Nazi]] Party capitalized on these pro-German sentiments, and in 1933 garnered 38 percent of vote for the Danzig ''Volkstag''. Thereafter the Nazis under ''Gauleiter'' [[Albert Förster]], a native of [[Fürth]] in northern [[Bavaria]], achieved dominance in the city government - which, nominally, was still overseen by the League of Nations' High Commissioner.
Nazi demands for easier access from [[Pomerania]] to Danzig and to [[East Prussia]] served as a direct pretext for the German [[Polish September Campaign|attack on Poland]] on [[September 1]], [[1939]] and triggered the outbreak of [[World War II]].
Military assault on Danzig began with an artillery bombardment by the old German [[HMS Dreadnought (1906)|pre-Dreadnaught]] [[battleship]] ''[[German battleship Schleswig-Holstein|Schleswig-Holstein]]'' of the [[Westerplatte]] peninsula and a subsequent landing of German infantry. Polish defenders at the Westerplatte resisted for nearly a week before running out of ammunition. Many members of Danzig's Polish and [[Kashub]] population were deported to [[Stutthof concentration camp]] near Danzig or were executed at [[Piaśnica]] forest. The city was annexed by [[Nazi Germany]] and incorporated into the [[Reichsgau]] [[Danzig-Westpreussen]].
Most of the [[Jewish community]] in Danzig was able to escape from the [[Nazis]] shortly before the outbreak of hostilities. However, German secret police had been observing Polish circles since 1936, compiling information which in 1939 served to prepare conscription lists of Poles to be arrested or executed in [[Operation Tannenberg]]. After the Nazi invasion, massive arrests of Poles started. On the first day of the war alone approx. 1,500 people were arrested[http://www.kki.net.pl/~museum/museums.htm], mainly Poles active in the social and economical life, activists and members of Polish organizations. On [[2 September]] [[150]] of them were deported to Stutthof, where most were eventually killed.
After the final Soviet offensive began in January 1945, hundreds of thousands of German refugees fled through the city's port in a large-scale naval operation employing hundreds of German cargo and passenger ships. On [[30 March]] [[1945]], the [[Red Army]] entered a city 90% in ruins. It is estimated that 25 percent of the pre-war population had been killed. After the [[Yalta conference|Yalta]] and [[Potsdam Conference|Potsdam]] conferences, Gdańsk was assigned to Poland along with other German territories west of the Oder-Neisse line. The remaining German residents of the city who survived the war were expelled to what remained of Germany, and the city henceforth became a wholly Polish city known as Gdańsk.
=== Modern age ===
Poles came to the city from throughout Poland, especially from the regions of eastern Poland annexed by the [[Soviet Union]]. The Old City was rebuilt during the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. Because of the development of its port and three major shipyards, Gdańsk was a major shipping and industrial center of the [[Communist]] [[People's Republic of Poland]].
In the course of German-Polish reconciliation policies driven by [[West Germany|West German]] [[Chancellor]] [[Willy Brandt]]'s ''[[Ostpolitik]]'', German territorial claims on Gdańsk (and all other formerly German territories now under Polish administration) were renounced, and its full incorporation into Poland was recognized in the [[Treaty of Warsaw (1970)|Treaty]] of [[Warsaw]] in [[1970]].
In 1970, Gdańsk was the scene of anti-government demonstrations which led to the downfall of Poland's communist leader [[Wladyslaw Gomulka]]. Ten years later the [[Gdańsk Shipyard]] was the birthplace of the [[Solidarity]] trade union movement, whose opposition to the government led to the end of communist party rule ([[1989]]). Solidarity's leader [[Lech Wałęsa]] became [[President of the Republic of Poland|President of Poland]] in [[1990]]. Today Gdańsk is a major industrial city and shipping port.
Throughout its long history Gdansk faced various periods of rule from different states before 1945, 997-1308: as part of Poland 1308-1466: as part of territory of Teutonic Order 1466-1793: as part of Poland 1793-1805: as part of Prussia 1807-1814: as free city 1815-1871: as part of Prussia 1871-1918: Imperial Germany 1918-1939: as free city 1939-1945: Nazi Germany
Alltogether combining the number of years, the city was under rule of Poland for 641 years, under the rule of Teutonic Order for 158 years, 125 years as part of Prussia and later Germany, 29 years of its history are marked by the status of a free city, and 6 years under the occupation of Nazi Germany until it was given back to Poland in 1945.
<div style="float:right;margin:0 0 .5em 1em;" class="toccolours">
'''Historical population <br>of Gdańsk'''
{| cellpadding=2 style="background:transparent;"
|-
| ca. 1000
| align="right" |
|1,000
|-
| 1235
| align="right" |
|2,000
|-
| 1308
| align="right" |
|10,000
|-
| 1600
| align="right" |
|40,000
|-
| 1650
| align="right" |
|70,000
|-
| 1700
| align="right" |
|50,000
|-
| 1750
| align="right" |
|46,000
|-
| 1793
| align="right" |
|36,000
|-
| 1800
| align="right" |
|48,000
|-
| 1825
| align="right" |
|61,900
|-
| 1840
| align="right" |
|65,000
|-
| 1852
| align="right" |
|67,000
|-
| 1874
| align="right" |
|90,500
|-
| 1880
| align="right" |
|103,701
|-
| 1885
| align="right" |
|108,500
|-
| 1900
| align="right" |
|140,600
|-
| 1910
| align="right" |
|170,300
|-
| 1920
| align="right" |
|360,000 (whole [[Free City of Danzig|FCD]])
|-
| 1925
| align="right" |
|210,300
|-
| 1939
| align="right" |
|250,000
|-
| 1946
| align="right" |
|118,000
|-
| 1950
| align="right" |
| ?
|-
| 1960
| align="right" |
|286,900
|-
| 1970
| align="right" |
|365,600
|-
| 1975
| align="right" |
|421,000
|-
| 1980
| align="right" |
|456,700
|-
| 1990
| align="right" |
|464,600
|-
| 1994
| align="right" |
|464,000
|-
| 2000
| align="right" |
|456,600
|-
| 2004
| align="right" |
|460,524
|-
|}
Compare: population of [[Tricity]]
</div>
==Economy==
[[Image:250px-GD022003_ubt.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Poseidon|Neptune]] statue at the Old Town.]]
The city's industrial landscape is dominated by shipbuilding, petrochemical and chemical industries, and food processing. The share of high-tech sectors such as electronics, telecommunications, IT engineering, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals is on the rise. [[Amber]] processing for the local economy is also important.
==Culture==
Gdańsk was once an important center of culture. In the [[16th century]] it hosted Shakespearean theater on foreign tours, and the [[Danzig Research Society]] founded in 1743 was one of the first of its kind. Currently, there is a ''Fundation Theatrum Gedanensis'' aimed at rebuilding the Shakespeare theater at its historical site. It is expected that Gdańsk will have a permanent English-language theater, as at present it is only an annual event.
==Tourism==
The city boasts many fine buildings from the time of the [[Hanseatic League]]. Most tourist attractions are along or near Ulica Długa (Long Street) and Długi Targ (Long Market), a pedestrian thoroughfare lined by buildings reconstructed in historical (primarily 17th Century) style and capped on either end by elaborate city gates. This part of the city is sometimes referred to as the Royal Way because it was the procession route of visiting kings.
Walking from end to end, sites encountered on or near the Royal Way include:
<ul><li>Upland Gate</li>
<li>Torture House</li>
<li>Prison Tower</li>
<li>[[Golden Gate (Gdańsk)|Golden Gate]]</li>
<li>Long Street (Ulica Długa)</li>
<ul><li>Uphagen House</li>
<li>Main Town Hall</li></ul>
<li>Long Market (Długi Targ)</li>
<ul><li>Arthur's Court (Artus)</li>
<li>Neptune fountain</li></ul>
<li>Green Gate</li></ul>
Gdańsk has a number of historical churches:
<ul><li>St Bridget's Church</li>
<li>St Catherine's Church</li>
<li>St John's Church</li>
<li>[[St. Mary's Church, Gdańsk|St Mary's Church]] (''Bazylika Mariacka''), a municipal church built during the [[15th century]], is one of the largest brick churches in the world.</li>
<li>St Nicholas' Church</li>
<li>Church of the Holy Trinity</li></ul>
On the [[Motława]] river the museum ship [[SS Soldek]] is anchored.
Gdańsk is the starting point of the [[EuroVelo]] 9 cycling route which continues southward through Poland, then into the [[Czech Republic]], [[Austria]] and [[Slovenia]] before it finally ends at the Adriatic Sea at [[Pula, Croatia|Pula]] in [[Croatia]].
== Transportation ==
* [[Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport]]
* [[Port of Gdańsk]]
* [[Szybka Kolej Miejska]]
== Sports ==
''Main article: [[Sports in Gdańsk
|
[id:Iran]]
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[[zh:伊朗]]</text>
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<title>Iran/History</title>
<id>14654</id>
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<title>Iran/Geography</title>
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<title>Iran/People</title>
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<title>Iran/Government</title>
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<title>Iran/Communications</title>
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<title>Iran/Transportation</title>
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<title>Iran/Military</title>
<id>14661</id>
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<id>15912199</id>
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<page>
<title>History of Iraq</title>
<id>14664</id>
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<id>42023465</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T07:35:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.85.210.181</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Ethnic Diversity & Religion */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{NPOV}}
This '''history of Iraq''' includes an overview from prehistory to the present in the region of the current state of [[Iraq]] in [[Mesopotamia]]. See also [[Chronology of the ancient orient]], [[History of the Middle East]], and [[History of Mesopotamia]].
== Prehistory ==
[[Neandertal]]s lived in Iraq about 60,000 years ago; Neanderthal remains include those discovered at the [[Shanidar]] cave.
== Ancient Times ==
For most of historic time, the land area now known as modern Iraq was almost equivalent to [[Mesopotamia]]. The Mesopotamian plain between the two rivers [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] (in Arabic, the Dijla and Furat, respectively), is part of the [[Fertile crescent|Fertile Crescent]]. Many dynasties and empires ruled the Mesopotamia region such as [[Sumer]], [[Akkad]], [[Assyria]] and [[Babylonia]].
===Mesopotamia ===
{{Template:Ancient Mesopotamia}}
It was in Mesopotamia about [[3000 BC]] where the Sumerian culture flourished. The civilized life that emerged at Sumer was shaped by two conflicting factors: the unpredictability of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which at any time could unleash devastating floods that wiped out entire peoples, and the extreme richness of the river valleys, caused by centuries-old deposits of soil.
Eventually, the Sumerians had to battle other peoples. Some of the earliest of these wars were with the [[Elam|Elamites]] living in what is now western Iran. This frontier has been fought over repeatedly ever since; it is arguably the most fought over frontier in the world. Sumerian dominance was challenged by the Akkadians, who migrated up from the Arabian Peninsula. The Akkadians were a [[Semitic]] people, that is, they spoke a language drawn from a family of languages called [[Semitic languages]].
In [[2340 BC]], the great Akkadian leader [[Sargon of Akkad|Sargon]] conquered Sumer and built the [[Akkadian Empire]] stretching over most of the Sumerian city-states and extending as far away as [[Lebanon]]. Sargon based his empire in the city of [[Akkad]], which became the basis of the name of his people.
Sargon's ambitious empire lasted for only short time in the long time spans of Mesopotamian history. In [[2125 BC]], the Sumerian city of [[Ur]] in southern Mesopotamia rose up in revolt, and the Akkadian empire fell before a renewal of Sumerian city-states.
===Post-Sumerian civilizations===
After the later collapse of the Sumerian civilization, the people were reunited in [[1700 BC]] by King [[Hammurabi]] of [[Babylon]] (1792-1750 BC), and the country flourished under the name of Babylonia. Babylonian rule encompassed a huge area covering most of the Tigris-Euphrates river valley from Sumer and the [[Persian Gulf]]. He extended his empire northward through the Tigris and Euphrates River valleys and westward to the coast of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. After consolidating his gains under a central government at Babylon, he devoted his energies to protecting his frontiers and fostering the internal prosperity of the Empire. Hammurabi's dynasty, otherwise referred to as the First Dynasty of Babylon, ruled for about 200 years, until [[1530 BC]]. Under the reign of this dynasty, [[Babylonia]] entered into a period of extreme prosperity and relative peace.
After Hammurabi's death, however, a tribe known as the [[Kassites]] began to attack Babylonia as early as the period when Hammurabi's son ruled the empire. Over the centuries, Babylonia was weakened by the Kassites. Finally, around 1530 BC (given in some sources as 1570 or 1595 BC), a Kassite Dynasty was set up in Babylonia.
The [[Mitanni]], another culture, were meanwhile building their own powerful empire. They had only temporary importance -- they were very powerful, but were around for only about 150 years. Still, the Mitanni were one of the major empires of this area in this time period, and they came to almost completely control and subjugate the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] (who were located directly to the east of Mitanni and to the northwest of Kassite Babylonia).
The Assyrians, after they finally broke free of the Mitanni, were the next major power to assert themselves on Mesopotamia. After defeating and virtually annexing Mitanni, the Assyrians, challenged Babylonia. They weakened Babylonia so much that the Kassite Dynasty fell from power; the Assyrians virtually came to control [[Babylonia]], until revolts in turn deposed them and set up a new dynasty, known as the Second Dynasty of Isin. Nebuchadnezzar I (Nabu-kudurri-usur; c. 1119 BC-c. 1098 BC) was the best known of this dynasty.
Nebuchadnezzar the First added a good deal of land to Babylonia and eventually came to attack Assyria.
===Chaldeans===
Eventually, during the 800s BC, one of the most powerful tribes outside Babylon, the [[Chaldea]]ns (Latin Chaldaeus, Greek Khaldaios, Assyrian Kaldu), gained prominence. The Chaldeans rose to power in Babylonia and, by doing so, seem to have increased the stability and power of Babylonia. They fought off many revolts and aggressors. Chaldean influence was so strong that, during this period, Babylonia came to be known as Chaldea.
In 626 BC, the Chaldeans helped Nabo-Polassar to take power in Babylonia. At that time, Assyria was under considerable pressure from an Iranian people, the [[Medes]] (from [[Medes|Media]]). Nabo-Polassar allied Babylonia with the Medes. [[Assyria]] could not withstand this added pressure, and in 612 BC, [[Nineveh]], the capital of Assyria, fell. The entire city, once the capital of a great empire, was burned and sacked.
===Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon===
Later, [[Nebuchadrezzar II]] ([[Nabopolassar]]'s son) inherited the empire of Babylonia. He added quite a bit of territory to Babylonia and rebuilt
|
mon approximations: No illumination, just '''[[texture mapping]]''' &mdash; since the intrinsic colors of an object has the greatest influence on its appearance. Or '''direct illumination''' &mdash; light from light-source to surface, then reflected from surface to camera/eye, since this light path is usually dominant in a scene. These would often be augmented with other special-case effects, or precalculations.
There are two large-scale approaches to rendering that can be applied to almost any rendering task. Which approach is chosen for a given task greatly influences the kind of problems that will have to be solved to create a successful renderer.
There are some lesser known approaches to rendering, [[spherical harmonics]] among others. These techniques are lesser known often due to slow speed, lack of practical use or simply because they are in early stages of development, maybe some will offer a new solution.
===Pixel-by-pixel===
As stated earlier, rendering is the problem of deciding what color each pixel should be, given a high-level representation of an image. One way to accomplish rendering is to take this description literally: loop over each pixel in the image, and determine based on the high-level description what color should be assigned to that pixel.
This approach is frequently used when one is rendering to perform [[color balance|color balancing]], video [[compositing]], and similar effects. In this case, each pixel in the rendered image depends on exactly one pixel in each of the source images, so a pixel-by-pixel technique is the natural approach.
When this approach is applied to 3D rendering, one arrives at the most basic version of the [[ray tracing]] algorithm.
===Primitive-by-primitive===
A high-level representation of an image necessarily contains elements in a different domain from pixels. These elements are referred to as primitives. In a schematic drawing, for instance, line segments and curves might be primitives. In a graphical user interface, windows and buttons might be the primitives. In 3D rendering, triangles and polygons in space might be primitives.
If a pixel-by-pixel approach to rendering is impractical or too slow for some task, then a primitive-by-primitive approach to rendering may prove useful. Here, one loops through each of the primitives, determines which pixels in the image it affects, and modifies those pixels accordingly. This is called '''rasterization''', and is the rendering method used by all current [[graphics card]]s.
Rasterization is frequently faster than pixel-by-pixel rendering. First, large areas of the image may be empty of primitives; rasterization will ignore these areas, but pixel-by-pixel rendering must pass through them. Second, rasterization can improve [[cache coherency]] and reduce redundant work by taking advantage of the fact that the pixels occupied by a single primitive tend to be contiguous in the image. For these reasons, rasterization is usually the approach of choice when [[interactivity|interactive]] rendering is required; however, the pixel-by-pixel approach can often produce higher-quality images and is more versatile because it does not depend on as many assumptions about the image as rasterization.
Rasterization exists in two main forms, not only when an entire face (primitive) is rendered but when the vertices of a face are all rendered and then the pixels on the face which lie between the vertices rendered using simple blending of each vertex colour to the next, this version of rasterization has overtaken the old method as it allows the graphics to flow without complicated textures (a rasterized image when used face by face tends to have a very block like effect if not covered in complex textures, the faces aren't smooth because there is no gradual smoothness from one pixel to the next,) this meens that you can utilise the graphics card's more taxing shading functions and still achieve better performance because you have freed up space o the card because complex textures aren't necessary. sometimes people will use one rasterization method on some faces and the other method on others based on the angle at which that face meats other joined faces, this can increase speed and not take away too much from the images overall effect.
===Sampling and filtering===
One problem that any rendering system must deal with, no matter which approach it takes, is the '''sampling problem'''. Essentially, the rendering process tries to depict a [[continuous function]] from image space to colors by using a finite number of pixels. As a consequence of the [[Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem|Nyquist theorem]], the scanning frequency must be twice the dot rate, which is proportional to [[image resolution]]. In simpler terms, this expresses the idea that an image cannot display details smaller than one pixel.
If a naive rendering algorithm is used, high frequencies in the image function will cause ugly [[aliasing]] to be present in the final image. Aliasing typically manifests itself as [[jaggies]], or jagged edges on objects where the pixel grid is visible. In order to remove aliasing, all rendering algorithms (if they are to produce good-looking images) must filter the image function to remove high frequencies, a process called [[antialiasing]].
* the [[painter's algorithm]]
* [[Scanline rendering|Scanline algorithms]] like [[Reyes rendering | Reyes]]
* [[Z-buffering|Z-buffer algorithms]]
* [[Global illumination]]
* [[Radiosity]]
* [[Ray tracing]]
* [[Volume rendering]]
Rendering for movies often takes place on a network of tightly connected computers known as a [[render farm]].
The current state of the art in 3-D image description for movie creation is the [[RenderMan]] [[scene description language]] designed at [[Pixar]]. (compare with simpler 3D fileformats such as [[VRML]] or [[application programming interface|API]]s such as [[OpenGL]] and [[DirectX]] tailored for 3D hardware accelerators).
Movie type rendering software includes:
* [[Renderman | RenderMan compliant renderers]]
* [[Mental Ray]]
* [[Brazil R/S|Brazil]]
* [[Blender (software)|Blender]] (may also be used for modeling)
== Academic core ==
Most rendering development and use aims at '''photorealism''' &mdash; to produce images indistinguishable from photographs.
The implementation of a realistic renderer always has some basic element of physical simulation or emulation &mdash; some computation which resembles or abstracts a real physical process.
The term "''physically-based''" indicates the use of physical models and approximations that are more general and widely accepted outside rendering. A particular set of related techniques have gradually become established in the rendering community.
The basic concepts are moderately straightforward, but intractable to calculate; and a single elegant algorithm or approach has been elusive for more general purpose renderers. In order to meet demands of robustness, accuracy, and practicality, an implementation will be a complex combination of different techniques.
Rendering research is concerned with both the adaptation of scientific models and their efficient application.
===The rendering equation===
{{main|Rendering equation}}
This is the key academic/theoretical concept in rendering. It serves as the most abstract formal expression of the non-perceptual aspect of rendering. All more complete algorithms can be seen as solutions to particular formulations of this equation.
: <math>L_o(x, \vec w) = L_e(x, \vec w) + \int_\Omega f_r(x, \vec w', \vec w) L_i(x, \vec w') (\vec w' \cdot \vec n) d\vec w'</math>
Meaning: at a particular position and direction, the outgoing light (L<sub>o</sub>) is the sum of the emitted light (L<sub>e</sub>) and the reflected light. The reflected light being the sum of the incoming light (L<sub>i</sub>) from all directions, multiplied by the surface reflection and incoming angle. By connecting outward light to inward light, via an interaction point, this equation stands for the whole 'light transport' &mdash; all the movement of light &mdash; in a scene.
===The Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function===
The '''[[Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function]]''' (BRDF) expresses a simple model of light interaction with a surface as follows:
: <math>f_r(x, \vec w', \vec w) = \frac{dL_r(x, \vec w)}{L_i(x, \vec w')(\vec w' \cdot \vec n) d\vec w'}</math>
Light interaction is often approximated by the even simpler models: diffuse reflection and specular reflection, although both can be BRDFs.
===Geometric optics===
Rendering is practically exclusively concerned with the particle aspect of light physics &mdash; known as geometric optics. Treating light, at its basic level, as particles bouncing around is a simplification, but appropriate: the wave aspects of light are negligible in most scenes, and are significantly more difficult to simulate. Notable wave aspect phenomena include diffraction &mdash; as seen in the colours of [[Compact disc|CD]]s and [[DVD]]s &mdash; and polarisation &mdash; as seen in [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]]s. Both types of effect, if needed, are made by appearance-oriented adjustment of the reflection model.
===Visual perception===
Though it receives less attention, an understanding of human visual perception is valuable to rendering. This is mainly because image displays and human perception have restricted ranges. A renderer can simulate an almost infinite range of light brightness and color, but current displays &mdash; movie screen, computer monitor, etc. &mdash; cannot handle so much, and something must be discarded or compressed. Human perception also has limits, and so doesn't need to be given large-range images to create realism. This can help solve the problem of fitting images into displays, and, furthermore, suggest
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n also be denoted with an [[apostrophe]], either before or after depending on the letter, as shown below. See the individual articles on [[pronunciation]].
b' / [[Image:hausa_b.gif]], an [[implosive consonant]], [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[&#595;]}}, or sometimes {{IPA|[&#660;b]}};
d' / [[Image:hausa_d.gif]], an implosive {{IPA|[&#599;]}}, sometimes {{IPA|[d&#660;]}};
ts', an [[ejective consonant]], {{IPA|[ts&#700;]}} or {{IPA|[s&#700;]}} according to the dialect;
ch', an ejective {{IPA|[t&#643;&#700;]}} (does not occur in Kano dialect)
k' / [[Image:hausa_k.gif]], an ejective {{IPA|[k&#700;]}}; {{IPA|[k&#690;&#700;]}} and {{IPA|[k&#695;&#700;]}} are separate consonants;
'y is a glottalized ''y'', found in only a small number of high frequency words. Historically it developed from [[palatalization|palatalized]] {{IPA|[&#599;]}}.
===Tones===
Hausa is a [[tone language]]. Each of its five [[vowel]]s a, e, i, o and u may have low tone, high tone and falling tone.
For representing tones the French accented vowels may be used:
à è ì ò ù (low tone)
á é í ó ú (high tone)
â ê î ô û (falling tone)
In standard written Hausa, tone is not marked. However it is needed for disambiguation and thus it is marked in dictionaries and other scientific works.
==Writing system==
Hausa has had a written form for more than 200 years, at first with a variant of [[Arabic script]] called ''[[Ajami script|Ajami]]'', but this has largely been superseded by a Latin alphabet which was introduced at the beginning of the [[20th century]]. There are three additional consonants which are added to the basic [[Latin alphabet]]: &#595;, &#599; and &#409;, a fourth consonant ƴ is also sometimes used.
==See also==
* [[Kanem-Bornu Empire]]
* [[Learn Hausa]]
==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=ha}}
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=HUA Ethnologue report on Hausa]
* [http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/humnet/aflang/Hausa/hausa.html Hausa at UCLA]
* [http://www.univie.ac.at/afrikanistik/oracle/KofarHausaE.html Kofar Hausa dictionary at University of Vienna]
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Hausa_phrasebook Hausa phrasebook]
[[Category:Chadic languages]] [[Category:Languages of Niger]] [[Category:Languages of Nigeria]] [[Category:Tonal languages]]
[[ar:لغة الهاوسا]]
[[ca:Hausa]]
[[de:Hausa (Sprache)]]
[[es:Idioma hausa]]
[[eo:Haŭsa lingvo]]
[[eu:Hausa]]
[[fr:Haoussa]]
[[he:האוסה (שפה)]]
[[nl:Hausa (taal)]]
[[ja:ハウサ語]]
[[nn:Hausa]]
[[pl:Język hausa]]
[[fi:Hausan kieli]]
[[sv:Hausa]]
[[zh:豪萨语]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Homophobic</title>
<id>14219</id>
<revision>
<id>15911788</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>Conversion script</ip>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Homophobia]]
</text>
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<page>
<title>History of mathematics</title>
<id>14220</id>
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<id>41689761</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T02:03:44Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jagged 85</username>
<id>468111</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Mathematics in prehistory */ great pyramid was built around 2600 BC</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Timeline of mathematics]] for a timeline of events in mathematics. See [[list of mathematicians]] for a list of biographies of mathematicians.''
The word "[[mathematics]]" comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &#956;&#940;&#952;&#951;&#956;&#945; (''máthema'') which means "science, knowledge, or learning"; &#956;&#945;&#952;&#951;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962; (''mathematikós'') means "fond of learning". Today, the term refers to a specific body of knowledge -- the rigorous, deductive study of quantity, structure, space and change.
While almost all cultures use basic mathematics{{rf|1|Amazon}} (counting and measuring), new mathematical discoveries have been reported in relatively few cultures and ages. Before the modern age and the worldwide spread of knowledge, written examples of new mathematical discoveries come to light only in a few locales. The most ancient mathematical texts come from [[ancient Egypt]] in the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom period]] circa [[2000 BC|2000]]-[[1800 BC]] (Berlin 6619), [[Mesopotamia]] circa [[1900 BC|1900]]-[[1700 BC]] (Plympton 322), and [[ancient India]] circa [[800 BC|800]]-[[600 BC]] ([[Sulba Sutras]]). All of these texts concern the so-called [[Pythagorean theorem]], which seems to be the most ancient and widespread mathematical discovery after basic arithmetic and geometry. [[Ancient Greece]] and the [[Hellenistic]] cultures of [[Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]] and the city of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] increased mathematical knowledge immensely. The [[Han Dynasty]] in [[ancient China]] circa [[200 BC]] to [[200|AD 200]] contributed the ''Sea Island Manual'' and ''[[The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]''. [[Jain]]a mathematicians contributed from [[200 BC]] to [[400|AD 400]], followed by [[Hindu]] mathematicians from [[400]] and [[Islam]]ic mathematicians from [[800]] who made major contributions to mathematics.
One striking feature about the history of ancient mathematics is that bursts of mathematical discovery tended to be followed by centuries of non-discovery. Beginning in [[Renaissance]] [[Italy]] in the [[16th century]], new mathematical discoveries, interacting with new scientific discoveries, were made at an ever increasing pace, and this continues to the present day. People throughout the world have contributed to modern mathematics.
==Mathematics in prehistory==
Long before the earliest written records, there are drawings that indicate a knowledge of mathematics and of measurement of time based on the stars. For example, [[Paleontology|paleontologists]] have discovered [[ochre]] rocks in a cave in [[South Africa]] adorned with scratched [[Geometry|geometric]] patterns dating back to c. 70,000 BC [http://www.accessexcellence.org/WN/SU/caveart.html]. Also [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] [[artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s discovered in [[Africa]] and [[France]], dated between [[35000 BC|35,000 BC]] and [[Upper Paleolithic|20,000 BC]], indicate early attempts to [[quantification|quantify]] [[time]]. Evidence exists that early counting involved women who kept records of their monthly biological cycles; twenty-eight, twenty-nine, or thirty scratches on bone or stone, followed by a distinctive scratching on the bone or stone, for example. Moreover, hunters had the concepts of ''one'', ''two'', and ''many'', as well as the idea of ''none'' or ''zero'', when considering herds of animals. (references: [http://www.tacomacc.edu/home/jkellerm/Papers/Menses/Menses.htm], [http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/lebombo.html], [http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/ishango.html]).
The [[Ishango Bone]], found in the area of the headwaters of the [[Nile River]] (northeastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]]), is the earliest known demonstration of [[sequence]]s of [[prime number]]s, and some series of multiples, dating as early as [[Upper Paleolithic|20,000 BC]]. [[Predynastic Egypt]]ians of the [[5th millennium BC]] pictorially represented [[Geometry|geometric]] [[spatial]] designs. [[Megalith]]ic monuments from as early as the [[5th millennium BC]] in [[Egypt]], and then subsequently [[England]] and [[Scotland]] from the [[3rd millennium BC]], incorporate geometric ideas such as [[circle]]s, [[ellipse]]s, and [[Pythagorean triples]] in their design, as well as a possible understanding of the measurement of time based on the movement of the stars. From circa [[3100 BC]], Egyptians introduced the earliest known [[decimal|decimal system]], allowing indefinite counting by way of introducing new symbols, [http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egyptpapyrus.html#berlin].
The earliest known mathematics in [[ancient India]] dates back to circa [[3000 BC]] in the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] ([[Harappan civilization]]) of [[North India]] and [[Pakistan]], which developed a system of [[Ancient Indus Valley units of measurement|uniform weights and measures]] that used [[decimal]] [[fraction]]s, a surprisingly advanced [[brick]] technology which utilised [[ratio]]s, streets laid out in perfect [[right angle]]s, and a number of geometrical shapes and designs, including [[cuboid]]s, [[barrel]]s, [[cone (solid)|cones]], [[cylinder]]s, and drawings of concentric and intersecting [[circle]]s and [[triangle]]s. Mathematical instruments discovered include an accurate decimal ruler with small and precise subdivisions, a shell instrument that served as a [[compass]] to measure angles on plane surfaces or in horizon in multiples of 40–360 degrees, a shell instrument used to measure 8–12 whole sections of the horizon and sky, and an instrument for measuring the positions of stars for navigational purposes. The [[Indus script]] has not yet been deciphered; hence very little is known about the written forms of [[Indian mathematics#Harappan Mathematics .283300 BC - 1700 BC.29|Harappan mathematics]]. Archeological evidence has led some historians to believe that this civilization used a [[base 8]] [[numeral system]] and possessed knowledge of the ratio of the length of the [[circumference]] of the circle to its [[diameter]], thus a value of [[π]].
Circa [[2600 BC]], Egypt's massive construction techniques represent not only precision [[surveying]] but also suggest knowledge of the [[golden ratio]].
==Ancient Egyptian mathematics (2000 BC - 600 BC) ==
{{Main|Egyptian mathematics}}
[[Egypt]]ian mathematics refers to mathematics written in the [[Egyptian language]]. From the [[
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text xml:space="preserve">{{The Holocaust}}
'''Extermination camp''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Vernichtungslager'') or '''Death Camp''' was the term applied to a group of facilities set up by [[Nazi Germany]] during [[World War II]] for the express purpose of killing the [[Jew]]s of [[Europe]], although members of some other groups whom the Nazis wished to exterminate, such as [[Roma (people)|Roma]] (Gypsies), [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[prisoners of war]], [[Poland|Poles]] and many others, were also killed in these camps. Prisoners at these camps were not expected to live more than 24 hours beyond arrival. This was part of what has become known as [[the Holocaust]].
==Terminology==
Extermination camps are distinguished from [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camps]] (such as [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]] and [[Belsen]]), which were mostly located in Germany and intended as places of incarceration and [[Slave labour|forced labour]] for a variety of "enemies of the state" of the Nazi [[regime]] (such as [[Communists]] and [[homosexuality|homosexuals]]). In the early years of the Nazi regime, many Jews were sent to these camps, but after [[1942]] all Jews were [[Deportation|deported]] to the extermination camps.
They should also be distinguished from slave [[labor camp]]s, which were set up in all German-occupied countries to exploit the labor of prisoners of various kinds, including prisoners of war. Many Jews were worked to death in these camps, but eventually the Jewish labour force, no matter how useful to the German war effort, was destined for extermination. In all Nazi camps there were very high death rates as a result of [[starvation]], [[disease]] and [[exhaustion]], but only the extermination camps were designed specifically for mass killing.
==The camps==
[[Image:Massdeportations.gif|thumb|360px|right|Major deportation routes to the [[extermination camps]] in Europe.]]
Most accounts of the Holocaust recognise six extermination camps, all located in occupied [[Poland]]. These were:
* [[Auschwitz concentration camp#Auschwitz II (Birkenau)|Auschwitz II (Auschwitz-Birkenau)]] ([[Auschwitz concentration camp#Auschwitz I|Auschwitz I]] was a [[concentration camp]] and [[Auschwitz concentration camp#Auschwitz III|Auschwitz III]] a [[labor camp]])
* [[Belzec]]
* [[Chelmno concentration camp|Chelmno]] (German: Kulmhof an der Nehr, Polish: Chelmno nad Nerem)
* [[Majdanek]]
* [[Sobibór]]
* [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka]]
Of these, Auschwitz II and Chelmno were located within areas of western Poland [[annexed]] by Germany - the other four were located within the [[General Government]] area.
A seventh camp, much less known than these six, was located at [[Maly Trostenets]], in present-day [[Belarus]]. The [[Croatia]]n [[Ustase|Ustaše]] puppet regime also operated an [[Jasenovac concentration camp|extermination camp at Jasenovac]].
[[Treblinka]], [[Belzec]] and [[Sobibór]] were constructed during [[Operation Reinhard]], the [[codename]] for the systematic killing of the Jews of Europe, widely known under the [[euphemism]], the "[[final solution|final solution of the Jewish question]]" (''Endlösung der Judenfrage''). The operation was decided at the [[Wannsee Conference]] of January [[1942]] and carried out under the administrative control of [[Adolf Eichmann]].
While Auschwitz II was part of a [[labour camp]] complex, and Majdanek also had a labour camp, the Reinhard camps and [[Chełmno extermination camp|Chelmno]] were ''pure'' extermination camps, built solely to kill vast numbers of Jews within hours of arrival &ndash; the only prisoners sent to these camps not immediately murdered were those used as slave labour directly concerning the extermination process (e.g. to remove the corpses from the gas chambers). These camps were small in size &ndash; only several hundred meters on each side &ndash; as only minimal housing and support facilities were required. Arriving persons were told that they were merely at a transit stop for relocation east.
In addition, many non-Jews were also killed in these camps, mostly (non-Jewish) Poles and Soviet prisoners of war.
The number of people killed at the seven major camps has been estimated as follows:
* Auschwitz II: about 1,100,000
* Belzec: 436,000
* Chelmno: 340,000
* Majdanek: 78,000 {{ref|Majdanek}} - 235,000
* Sobibór: 260,000
* Treblinka: at least 700,000, possibly over 1,000,000
* Maly Trostenets: at least 200,000, possibly over 500,000
This gives a total of at least 3,100,000, and possibly 3,800,000. Of these, over 90% were Jews. These seven camps thus accounted for about half the total number of Jews killed in the entire Nazi Holocaust, including almost the whole Jewish population of Poland.
==Operation of the camps==
[[image:Majdanek piece.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Majdanek]] - crematorium]]
The method of killing at these camps was by [[poison gas]], usually in "[[gas chambers]]", although many prisoners were killed in mass shootings and by other means. The bodies of those killed were destroyed in [[crematorium|crematoria]] (except at [[Sobibór]] where they were cremated on outdoor [[pyre]]s), and the ashes buried or scattered.
The camps differed slightly in operation, but all were designed to kill as efficiently as possible. SS Lt. [[Kurt Gerstein]], who worked in the SS medical service, for example, testified to a Swedish diplomat during the war about what he had seen at the camps. He describes how he arrived at [[Belzec]] on [[August 19]] [[1942]] (at the time, the camp was still using primarily carbon monoxide from a gas engine in its gas chambers), where he was proudly shown the unloading of 45 train cars stuffed with 6700 Jews, many of whom were already dead, but the rest were marched naked to the gas chambers, where, he said:
<blockquote>Unterscharführer Hackenholt was making great efforts to get the engine running. But it doesn't go. Captain Wirth comes up. I can see he is afraid because I am present at a disaster. Yes, I see it all and I wait. My stopwatch showed it all, 50 minutes, 70 minutes, and the diesel did not start. The people wait inside the gas chambers. In vain. They can be heard weeping, "like in the synagogue," says Professor Pfannenstiel, his eyes glued to a window in the wooden door. Furious, Captain Wirth lashes the Ukrainian assisting Hackenholt twelve, thirteen times, in the face. After 2 hours and 49 minutes - the stopwatch recorded it all - the diesel started. Up to that moment, the people shut up in those four crowded chambers were still alive, four times 750 persons in four times 45 cubic meters. Another 25 minutes elapsed. Many were already dead, that could be seen through the small window because an electric lamp inside lit up the chamber for a few moments. After 28 minutes, only a few were still alive. Finally, after 32 minutes, all were dead...Dentists hammered out gold teeth, bridges and crowns. In the midst of them stood Captain Wirth. He was in his element, and showing me a large can full of teeth, he said: "See for yourself the weight of that gold! It's only from yesterday and the day before. You can't imagine what we find every day - dollars, diamonds, gold. You'll see for yourself!"</blockquote>
==Post war==
As the Soviet armed forces advanced into Poland in [[1944]], the camps were closed and partly or completely dismantled to conceal what had taken place in them. The [[postwar]] Polish Communist government further partly dismantled the camps, and generally allowed the sites to decay. [[Monument]]s of various kinds were erected at the sites of the former camps; these usually did not mention that most of the people killed in them were Jews.
After the [[History of Poland (1989-present)#Roundtable Talks and Elections|fall of communism]] in [[1989]], the camp sites became more accessible and have become centres of [[tourism]], particularly at Auschwitz, the best-known of them. There has been a series of disputes between the Jewish organisations and the Polish about what is appropriate at these sites. Some Jewish groups have objected strongly to the erection of [[Christian]] [[memorial]]s at the camps. In the most notable case (the [[Auschwitz cross]]), the cross was located near concentration camp Auschwitz I, where most of the victims were Poles, not the extermination camp Auschwitz II.
===Holocaust denial===
{{main|Holocaust denial}}
Some groups and individuals deny the existence of Nazi extermination camps. For example, [[Robert Faurisson]] claimed in [[1979]] that "the Nazis did not have gas chambers and did not attempt a genocide of Jews. He contended that the 'myth' of the gas chambers had been promoted by [[Zionist]]s...for the benefit of the state of [[Israel]] and to the detriment of Germans and [[Palestinians]]."
Scholars and historians point out that Holocaust denial is [[Contradiction|contradicted]] by the testimonies of survivors and perpetrators, material evidence, and photographs, as well as by the Nazis' own record-keeping. Efforts such as the [[Nizkor Project]], [[Deborah Lipstadt]], [[John Keegan]], [[Raul Hilberg]] who published [[The Destruction of the European Jews]], [[Lucy Davidowicz]] published [[The War Against the Jews]], [[Norman Davies]], [[Primo Levi]], [[Simon Wiesenthal]] and his [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]], and more at [[Holocaust (resources)#External links|Holocaust resources]], all [[Examination of Holocaust denial|track and explain Holocaust denial]].
==Notes==
* {{note|Majdanek}} A recent study radically revised downward the estimated number of deaths at Majdanek. According to a piece "Majdanek Victims Enumerated" by Paweł P. Reszka, Lublin, ''Gazeta Wyborcza'' [[12 December]] [[2005]], [http://www.auschwitz-muzeum.oswiecim.pl/new/index.php?tryb=news_big&language=EN&id=879 reproduced] on the site of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum, Lublin sch
|
style="font-size:larger"|公<font color=green>鸡</font>
|rooster ("male <font color=green>chicken</font>")
|-
|align=center|''fēi<font color=blue>jī</font>''
|align=center style="font-size:larger"|飛<font color=blue>機</font>
|align=center style="font-size:larger"|飞<font color=blue>机</font>
|aeroplane ("flying <font color=blue>machine</font>")
|-
|align=center|''<font color=blue>jī</font>qiāng''
|align=center style="font-size:larger"|<font color=blue>機</font>槍
|align=center style="font-size:larger"|<font color=blue>机</font>枪
|<font color=blue>machine</font> gun
|}
For this reason, it is very common for Mandarin speakers to put characters in context as a natural part of conversation. For example, when telling each other their names (which are often rare, or at least non-colloquial, combinations of zì), Mandarin speakers often state which words their names are found in. As a specific example, a speakers might say 名字叫嘉英，嘉陵江的嘉，英國的英 Míngzi jiào Jiāyīng, Jiālíngjiāng de jiā, Yīngguó de yīng "My name is Jiāyīng, the ''Jia'' of ''Jialing River'' and the ''Ying'' in ''England''."
The problem of homonyms also exists but is less severe in southern Chinese varieties like Cantonese and Taiwanese, which preserved more of the [[syllable rime|rimes]] of Middle Chinese. For instance, the previous examples of ''jī'' for "stimulated," "chicken," and "machine" have distinct pronunciations in Cantonese (romanized using [[jyutping]]): ''gik1'', ''gai1'', and ''gei1'', respectively. For this reason, southern varieties tend to employ fewer multisyllabic words.
There are a few morphemes in Chinese, many of them loanwords, that consist of more than one syllable. These words cannot be further divided into single-syllable meaningful units, however in writing each syllable is still written as separate ''zì''. One example is the word for "spider," ''zhīzhū'', which is written as 蜘蛛. Even in this case, Chinese tend to try to make some kind of meaning out of the constituent syllables. For this reason, the two characters 蜘 and 蛛 each have an associated meaning of "spider" when seen alone as individual characters. When spoken though, they can never occur apart.
===Loanwords===
Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times. Words borrowed from along the [[Silk Road]] in ancient times include 葡萄 "grape", 石榴 "pomegranate" and 獅子 "lion". Some words were borrowed from [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] scriptures, including 佛 "Buddha" and 菩薩 "bodhisattva". Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as 哥哥 "older brother" and 胡同 "[[hutong]]".
Foreign words continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations; characters in this case are usually taken strictly for their phonetic values. For example, "Israel" becomes 以色列 (pinyin: yǐsèliè). The Chinese characters used here literally mean "using-colour-rank", or "ranking using colour", but the sense is automatically ignored because it is understood that the characters are used for their phonetic values only. Characters which are used nearly exclusively in the transcription of foreign words are present in Chinese; many of these characters date back to Middle Chinese when they were used to translate [[Sanskrit]] [[phoneme]]s. For example, 斯 ''sī'' and 爾 ''ěr'', which are [[Classical Chinese]] words for "this" and "you", are never used in their original senses (except in a limited number of idiomatic expressions) and more often used to transcribe the sounds /s/ and /l/ in foreign words. Nevertheless, this method tends to yield somewhat strange results, and is therefore overwhelmingly used to transcribe foreign names only. A rather small number of direct phonetic borrowings have survived as common words, including 沙發 ''shāfā'' "sofa", 馬達 ''mǎdá'' "motor", 幽默 ''yōumò'' "humour", 邏輯 ''luójí'' "logic", 時髦 ''shímáo'' "smart, fashionable", 麥克風 ''màikèfēng'' "microphone", and 歇斯底里 ''xiēsīdǐlǐ'' "hysterics". The bulk of these words were originally coined in the [[Shanghainese]] dialect during the early 20th century and were later loaned into Mandarin, hence their pronunciations in Mandarin are quite off from the English. For example, 沙發 and 馬達 in Shanghainese actually sound like English "sofa" and "motor".
Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words in order to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions. Any [[Latin]] or [[Greek language|Greek]] etymologies are dropped, making them more comprehensible for Chinese but introducing more difficulties in understanding foreign texts. For example, the word ''telephone'' was loaned phonetically as 德律風 ([[Shanghainese]]: ''télífon'' [{{IPA|təlɪfoŋ}}], [[Standard Mandarin]]: ''délǜfēng'') during the [[1920s]] and widely used in Shanghai, but later the Japanese 電話 (''diànhuà'' "electric speech"), built out of native Chinese morphemes, became prevalent. Other examples include 電視 (''diànshì'' "electric vision") for television, 電腦 (''diànnǎo'' "electric brain") for computer; 手機 (''shǒujī'' "hand machine") for cellphone, and 藍牙 (''lányá'' "blue tooth") for [[Bluetooth]]. Occasionally half-transliteration, half-translation compromises are accepted, such as 漢堡包 (''hànbǎo bāo'', "''Hamburg'' bun") for ''hamburger''. Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes, such as 拖拉機 (''tuōlājī'', "tractor"). This is often done for commercial purposes, for example 奔騰 (''bēnténg'' "running leaping") for [[Pentium]] and 賽百味 (''sàibǎiwèi'' "better-than hundred tastes") for [[Subway (restaurant)|Subway restaurants]].
Another important source came from a related writing system, [[kanji]], which are Chinese characters used in the [[Japanese language]]. The Japanese used kanji to translate many European words in the late [[19th century]] and early [[20th century]]. These words are called ''[[wasei-kango]]'' in Japanese (和製漢語 literally ''Japanese-made Chinese''), and many of these Japanese words were then loaned into Mandarin Chinese. Examples include ''diànhuà'' (電話, denwa "telephone"), ''shèhùi'' (社会, Shakai "society"), ''kēxué'' (科學, kagaku, "science"), ''zhéxué'' (哲學, tetsugaku "philosophy"), ''chōuxiàng'' (抽象, Choushou, "abstract"), ''zhǔyì'' (主義, shugi, "-ism" or "ideology") and ''làngmàn'' (浪漫、romansu、"romance"). Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature, these include ''jīngjì'' (經濟, keizai) which in the original Chinese meant "the workings of the state" but in Japanese was narrowed to "economy," this narrowed definition was then reimported into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this to-and-fro process, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese continue to share many terms describing modern terminology, in parallel to a similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin terms shared among European languages.
==Grammar==
{{main|Chinese grammar}}
In general, all spoken varieties of Chinese are [[isolating language]]s, in that they depend on [[syntax]] (word order and sentence structure) rather than [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (changes in the form of the word through [[inflection]]). Because they are isolating languages, they make heavy use of [[grammatical particle]]s to indicate [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and [[grammatical mood|mood]].
Chinese features [[Subject Verb Object]] [[word order]], and like many other languages in East Asia, makes frequent use of the [[topic-comment]] construction to form sentences. Even though Chinese has no [[grammatical gender]], it has an extensive system of [[measure word]]s, another trait shared with neighbouring (but not related) languages like [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Korean language|Korean]]. See '''[[Chinese measure words]]''' for an extensive coverage of this subject.
Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of [[serial verb construction]], [[pro-drop language|pronoun dropping]] (and the related [[null subject language|subject dropping]]), and the use of aspect rather than [[grammatical tense|tense]].
Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess various differences. See '''[[Chinese grammar]]''' for the grammar of [[Standard Mandarin]] (the standardized Chinese spoken language), and the articles on other varieties of Chinese for their respective grammars.
==See also==
*[[Chinese numerals]]
*[[Chinese number gestures]]
*[[Haner language]]
*[[Four-character idiom]]
*[[Common phrases in different languages]]
*[[Chinese measure word|Chinese measure words]]
*[[Nü shu]]
*[[Han unification]]
*[[HSK test]]
*[[Subgroups of the Han nationality]]
*[[Chinese character encoding]]
*[[List of writing systems]]
*[[Numbers in various languages]]
*[[Chinese honorifics]]
*[[Chinese language facts and fantasy]]
*[[Pinyin]]
*[[Zhuyin]]
=
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NITAB<br>
OMR<br>
OMS<br>
OMT<br>
OMTool<br>
ONC<br>
Ondine<br>
one-banana problem<br>
one-line fix<br>
one-liner wars<br>
ones complement<br>
One-Time Password<br>
One Time Programmable Read-Only Memory<br>
one-way function<br>
one-way hash function<br>
on-line<br>
On-Line Analytical Processing<br>
Online Computer Library Center, Inc.<br>
On-Line Computer system<br>
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Online Public Access Catalog<br>
On-Line Transaction Processing<br>
Ontic<br>
onto<br>
ontology<br>
OnX<br>
OO<br>
OOA<br>
OOD<br>
[[OODB]] '''DONE'''<br>
[[OODBMS]] '''DONE'''<br>
OOF<br>
OOGL<br>
OOP<br>
OOPL<br>
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OOPSLA<br>
OOSD<br>
OOZE<br>
op<br>
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Opal<br>
op code<br>
open<br>
open box testing<br>
OpenBSD '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial<br>
open/closed principle<br>
open-collar worker<br>
Open DataBase Connectivity<br>
Open Data-link Interface<br>
Open DeathTrap<br>
Open Desktop<br>
Open Distributed Processing<br>
Open Distributed System Architecture<br>
OpenDoc<br>
Open Document Architecture<br>
Open Document Interchange Format<br>
Open Document Management API<br>
[[OpenGL]] '''DONE'''<br>
Open Graphics Library '''DONE'''<br>
OpenInsight<br>
Open Look<br>
Open Network Computing<br>
Open Prolog<br>
Open Scripting Architecture<br>
Open Shortest-Path First<br>
Open Shortest-Path First Interior Gateway Protocol<br>
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open source '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial<br>
Open Source Definition<br>
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Open source license<br>
[[OpenStep]] '''DONE'''<br>
open switch<br>
Open Systems Interconnect<br>
Open Systems Interconnection<br>
Open Telecom Platform<br>
Open Trading Protocol<br>
OpenTransport<br>
Open University<br>
OpenVMS<br>
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operand<br>
operating system<br>
Operating System/360<br>
Operating System/Multiprogramming of Fixed Tasks<br>
operational database<br>
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operational semantics<br>
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operation code<br>
operator<br>
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Opportunity Management System<br>
OPS<br>
OPS5<br>
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Optical Carrier n<br>
Optical Character Recognition<br>
optical diff<br>
optical fiber<br>
optical fibre<br>
optical grep<br>
Optical Mark Reader<br>
optical mouse '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial<br>
Optical Time Domain Reflectometer<br>
Optical Time Domain Reflectometry<br>
optimal<br>
optimise '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial<br>
optimising compiler '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial<br>
optimism<br>
optimize '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial<br>
option<br>
OPTRAN<br>
Opus<br>
OR<br>
Oracle 7<br>
Oracle Card<br>
Oracle*CASE<br>
Oracle Co-operative Applications<br>
Oracle Corporation<br>
[[ Oracle Rdb ]] '''DONE'''<br>
Oracle Toolkit<br>
Orange Book<br>
ORB<br>
Orbit<br>
Orca<br>
Order Code Processor<br>
order-embedding<br>
ordering<br>
ordinal<br>
ordinate<br>
OREGANO<br>
O'Reilly and Associates<br>
org<br>
Organic Mode<br>
Orient84/K<br>
Original Equipment Manufacturer<br>
ORKID<br>
ORM<br>
orphaned i-node<br>
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ORTHOCARTAN<br>
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orthogonal instruction set<br>
Orwell<br>
OS<br>
OS2<br>
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OS/360 '''DONE'''<br>
OS/390 '''DONE'''<br>
OS-9<br>
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OSA extension<br>
OSAX<br>
OSCAR<br>
OSD<br>
OSE<br>
OSF<br>
OSI<br>
OSI Model<br>
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OSI-RM<br>
OSI seven layer model<br>
O'small<br>
OS/MFT<br>
OS/MVT<br>
OSP<br>
OSPF<br>
OSQL<br>
OSSL<br>
OS/VS1<br>
OS/VS2<br>
OT<br>
OTDR<br>
OT&amp<br>E<br>
OTI<br>
OTOH<br>
OTP<br>
OTPROM<br>
OTT<br>
Ottawa Euclid<br>
Ousterhout, John K.<br>
Ousterhout's dichotomy<br>
Ousterhout's fallacy<br>
Ousterhout's false dichotomy<br>
outer join<br>
outline font<br>
[[out-of-band]] '''DONE'''<br>
output<br>
output device<br>
Outside Awareness Port<br>
outside-in testing<br>
outsourcing<br>
overclocking<br>
Overdrive<br>
overflow bit<br>
overflow pdl<br>
overhead<br>
overlay<br>
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overriding<br>
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overrun screw<br>
overuse strain injury<br>
OWHY<br>
OWL<br>
Owl<br>
Ox<br>
Oz<br>
oz<br>
Oz-Email<br>
P+<br>
P1754<br>
p2c<br>
P3L<br>
P4<br>
P6<br>
pa<br>
PABX<br>
PACE<br>
Packard Bell Electronics, Inc.<br>
[[packed decimal]] '''Done'''<br>
Packed Encoding Rules<br>
packet<br>
Packet Assembler/Disassembler<br>
packet driver<br>
Packet in Plastic Grid Array<br>
Packet InterNet Groper<br>
packet radio<br>
packet sniffer<br>
packet-switched<br>
packet switching<br>
Packet Switch Node<br>
packet writing<br>
PackIt<br>
PACT I<br>
PACTOLUS<br>
PAD<br>
padded cell<br>
Paddle<br>
PAGE<br>
page<br>
paged<br>
Page Description Language<br>
Paged Memory Management Unit<br>
page fault<br>
page in<br>
page mode<br>
Page Mode DRAM<br>
Page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory<br>
page out<br>
pager<br>
paging<br>
PaiLisp<br>
pain in the net<br>
Paintbrush<br>
PAISley<br>
PAL<br>
Palace<br>
palette<br>
palmtop<br>
Palo Alto Research Center<br>
Palo Alto Research Centre<br>
PAM<br>
Pam<br>
Pandora<br>
panic<br>
PANON<br>
PANS<br>
Pansophic<br>
Pantone<br>
PAP (computer)<br>
Paper Feed Control Character<br>
papermail<br>
paper-net<br>
paraconsistent probability<br>
PARADE<br>
PARADIGM PLUS<br>
Paradigms of AI Programming<br>
Paradise<br>
Paradox<br>
paradox<br>
Paradox Application Language<br>
Paragon<br>
Paralation<br>
Paralation C<br>
Paralation LISP<br>
ParAlfl<br>
Parallaxis<br>
Parallel C<br>
parallel computer<br>
parallel computing<br>
Parallel FORTH<br>
Parallel Fortran<br>
Parallel Haskell<br>
parallelism<br>
Parallel Pascal<br>
parallel port '''DONE'''<br>
Parallel Presence Detect<br>
parallel processing<br>
parallel processor<br>
parallel random access machine<br>
parallel reduction<br>
Parallel SML<br>
Parallel Sysplex<br>
[[Parallel Virtual Machine]]<br>
param<br>
parameter<br>
parameter RAM<br>
parametric polymorphism<br>
paraML<br>
paranoid programming<br>
ParaSoft Corp<br>
Parasol<br>
PARC<br>
parent<br>
parentheses<br>
parent message<br>
[[parent process]] '''DONE'''<br>
Pari<br>
Paris<br>
parity<br>
parity bit<br>
parity error<br>
Parkinson's Law of Data<br>
Park-Miller<br>
Parlance<br>
Parlog<br>
Parlog++<br>
parm<br>
PARMACS<br>
ParMod<br>
PARS<br>
PARSEC<br>
parser<br>
parser generator<br>
parsing<br>
Parsley<br>
Partial Differential Equation LANguage<br>
partial equivalence relation<br>
partial evaluation<br>
partial function<br>
partial key<br>
partially ordered set<br>
partial ordering<br>
[[Partial Response Maximum Likelihood]]<br>
partition<br>
PARTS<br>
@-party<br>
PARULEL<br>
Pascal<br>
Pascal-<br>
Pascal-80<br>
Pascal+CSP<br>
Pascal-F<br>
Pascal-FC<br>
Pascal/L<br>
Pascal-Linda<br>
Pascal-m<br>
Pascal-P<br>
Pascal P4<br>
Pascal Plus<br>
Pascal/R<br>
Pascal-S<br>
Pascal-SC<br>
pasos2<br>
Pasqual<br>
PASRO<br>
PASSIM<br>
passive matrix display<br>
passphrase<br>
password<br>
Password Authentication Protocol<br>
paste<br>
pastie<br>
PAT<br>
patch<br>
patch pumpkin<br>
patch space<br>
PATCHY<br>
path<br>
path coverage testing<br>
pathname<br>
pathname separator<br>
pathological<br>
Path Pascal<br>
pathspec<br>
pattern matching<br>
pattern recognition<br>
PAW<br>
PAW++<br>
payware<br>
PB Cache<br>
PBD<br>
PBEM<br>
PBM<br>
PBX<br>
PC<br>
pC++<br>
PC200<br>
PCA<br>
P-CAD<br>
PC AT<br>
PCB<br>
PC Card<br>
PCCTS<br>
PCF<br>
PCI '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial<br>
PCI bus '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial<br>
PCI Configuration Utility<br>
PCI Mezzanine Card<br>
PCI slot '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial<br>
PC-ism<br>
PCjr<br>
PCL<br>
PCLIPS<br>
|
ars or a telescope.
==== Using binoculars ====
With [[binoculars]] it is possible to see many [[deep sky object]]s (DSOs). Holding the binoculars can produce a shaky image. One way to improve the view is with the aid of a sturdy tripod mount to steady the view through the binoculars. Binoculars are still limited in range, although most of the [[Messier]] catalogue should be visible, as well as a great many [[New General Catalogue|NGC]]'s, especially near the [[Milky Way]]. An advantage of binoculars is that they allow more complete wide field views of the larger [[open clusters]] such as the [[Pleiades]], the [[Hyades]], the [[Coma Berenices]] cluster and [[Praesepe]], for example, of which only portions are usually observable in one [[field of view]] at higher magnifications.
==== Using a telescope ====
With a telescope, the sky really comes alive, especially one that has an [[aperture]] of six inches or more. Some amateur telescopes are [[telescope making|built]] by their owners from scratch, but many good quality telescopes can be purchased from reputable companies. Thousands of DSOs are visible in a telescope and the determined amateur with a large (about 41 cm) telescope can push this to tens of thousands or more.
Another type of telescope to consider, especially if the amateur is observing with children, is a wide-field telescope, such as Edmund Scientific's f/4 Astroscan compact [[Reflecting_telescope|reflector]]. This type of telescope is typically a short tube [[reflector telescope|reflector]] and has an [[aperture]] of only 80 to 120 mm (3 1/4 to 4 3/4 inches), but is easier to target an object, since it offers a much wider field of view. With the aid of high power lenses (i.e. eyepieces), the amateur can zoom in on planets and some of the closer DSOs. It is the best of a blend of a telescope's narrow long range light gathering ability with a binocular's wider field of view.
Those who are particularly interested in observing the moon and planets may prefer a high-power design such as the [[Maksutov telescope]].
With any telescope, though, the mount is the most important feature. A tripod that doesn't shake every time one uses it is a must. Too many amateur astronomers give up because they have a hard time targeting an object. If the mounting tripod is rock solid, the amateur can enjoy their time observing the heavens instead of fighting with the telescope.
==== Astrophotography ====
[[Image:Comet_Hale_Bopp_reduced.jpg|thumbnail|right|A photo taken of Comet Hale Bopp using a standard [[35 mm film|35 mm]] camera with a 50 mm lens and 400 ISO film. The exposure was taken for 10 seconds on a tripod using a shutter cable release.]]
The next step in an amateur astronomer's quest for more space adventure could be the purchase of a good camera for [[Astrophotography]]. Starting out with a good 35 mm camera with a 50 mm lens mounted on a tripod and using a cable release and 400 or faster speed film, the amateur can capture some nice pictures of the planets and some larger nebula, like the [[Orion Nebula]]. Some of the larger comets and prolific meteor showers can be photographed this way as well.
As one progresses, cameras can be mounted directly on to telescopes, capturing on film many DSOs. Special films and even the technique of hypering the film has been employed by the amateur. Many publications accept these astrophotos in their [[magazines]], [[i.e.]], ''[[Astronomy (magazine)|Astronomy]]'' and ''[[Sky & Telescope]]''.
A more recent development is the use of [[webcam|webcams]] to do [[speckle imaging]] (also known as ''video astronomy''). The resulting short exposure frames can be stacked using the [[shift-and-add]] method of [[speckle imaging]] or selected to do [[lucky imaging]], all using commercially available astronomy software.
==== Sketching ====
As an alternative to photography in order to make a record of observations, amateurs also use sketching. Sketching does not require the use of any specialized equipment and is therefore suitable for beginners as well as advanced amateur observers. There are different approaches to sketching that require different tools, simple pencil sketches can sometimes be used to make accurate renditions of what the observer sees through binoculars or a telescope. As the expewrience of the observer increases, more advanced drawing tools and techniques can be employed.
Sketching has the advantage of helping the observer scrutinize the object that is seen and can help bring out details that otherwise might have been overlooked.
=== Suggested reading ===
Some good books for amateur astronomers to start with are:
* ''The Stars: A New Way to See Them'', by Hans Augusto Rey, ISBN 0-395-081211
* ''NightWatch: An Equinox Guide to Viewing the Universe'', by [[Terence Dickinson]], ISBN 0-920-656897
* ''The Backyard Astronomer's Guide'', by Terence Dickinson and Alan Dyer, ISBN 0-921-820119
* ''Turn Left at Orion'', by [[Guy Consolmagno]], ISBN 0-521-34090-X
* ''Skywatching'', by David H. Levy and John O'Byrne, ISBN 0-707-8354751-X
* ''Seeing in the Dark: How Backyard Stargazers Are Probing Deep Space and Guarding Earth from Interplanetary Peril'', by Timothy Ferris, ISBN 0-684-865793
* ''The Complete Manual Of Amateur Astronomy'', by P. Clay Sherrod
* ''Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar System'' (3 vols.), by [[Robert Burnham, Jr.]], (Vol 1) ISBN 048623567X, (Vol 2) ISBN 0486235688, (Vol 3) ISBN 0486236730
== See also ==
* [[Amateur telescope making]]
* [[Astronomical object]]
* [[Astronomy]]
* [[Observation]]
* [[Observational astronomy]]
* [[Skygazing]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.nightskygazing.net Night Sky Gazing] - information for newcomers to the hobby
* [http://www.astroleague.org Astronomical League]
* [http://www.popastro.com Society for Popular Astronomy] - the UK's biggest society for amateur astronomers
* [http://www.licha.de astroscopic labs] - amateur astrophotography, reviews and articles
[[Category:Amateur astronomy| ]]
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[[es:Astronomía amateur]]
[[fr:Observation du ciel]]
[[it:Astronomia amatoriale]]
[[hu:Amatőrcsillagász]]
[[fi:Tähtitieteen harrastus]]
[[th:ดาราศาสตร์สมัครเล่น]]
[[zh:业余天文学]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Astronomers and Astrophysicists</title>
<id>749</id>
<revision>
<id>15899267</id>
<timestamp>2002-06-15T18:57:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>DavidLevinson</username>
<id>1689</id>
</contributor>
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Astronomer]] (merge content)</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Astronomer]]
</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Aikido</title>
<id>751</id>
<revision>
<id>41829883</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T00:42:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>PRehse</username>
<id>410898</id>
</contributor>
<comment>currently the the article is written in British English - change all or none.</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{| border="1" cellpadding="2" width="300" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="float:right;clear:right;"
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#FFCCCC" | Aikido
|-
! colspan="2" | Japanese Name
|-
| width="150" | [[Kanji]]
| width="150" | 合気道
|-
| width="150" | [[Hiragana]]
| width="150" | あいきどう
|-
| colspan="2" | [[image:nikyo omote.jpeg|300px]]
|}
'''Aikido''' (合気道 ''Aikidō'', also 合氣道 using an older style of [[kanji]]), literally meaning 'joining energy way', is a [[gendai budo]] — a modern [[Japan]]ese [[martial art]]. Practitioners of Aikido are known as '''aikidoka'''. It was developed by [[Morihei Ueshiba]] (植芝盛平) (also known by Aikidoka as [[o-sensei]] (翁先生) over the period of the [[1930s]] to the [[1960s]]. Technically, the major parts of Aikido are derived from [[Daito Ryu|Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu]] (大東流合気柔術), a form of Jujutsu with many joint techniques, and [[kenjutsu]] (剣術), or Japanese sword technique (some believe the tactics in Aikido are especially influenced by [[Yagyu Shinkage-ryu|Yagyū Shinkage-ryū]]). Aikido is also considered to contain a significant [[Spirituality|spiritual]] component.
==History==
The name aikido is formed of three Japanese characters, 合気道, usually romanised as ai, [[qi|ki]] and [[do]]. These are often translated as meaning union, universal energy and way, so aikido can be translated as 'the way to union with universal energy'. Another common interpretation of the characters is harmony, spirit and way, so Aikido can also mean 'the way of spiritual harmony'. Both interpretations draw attention to the fact that aikido's techniques are designed to control an attacker by controlling and redirecting their energy instead of blocking it. An analogy is often made of the way a flexible willow bends with the storm, whereas the stout oak will break if the wind blows too hard. (The Korean [[martial arts|martial art]] commonly known as [[hapkido]] uses the same three characters: some suggest a historical link through [[Daito-ryu]], the main origin of aikido).
Morihei Ueshiba developed aikido mainly from Daito-ryu [[aikijutsu]], incorporating training movements such as those for the ''[[yari]]'' ([[spear]]), ''[[jo (weapon)|jo]]'' (a short [[quarterstaff]]), and perhaps also ''juken'' ([[bayonet]]). But arguably the strongest influence is that of the [[katana]] ([[sword]]). In many ways, an aikido practitioner moves as an empty handed swordsman. The aikido strikes ''shomenuchi'' and ''yokomenuchi'' originated from weapon attacks, and resultant techniques likewise from weapon take-aways. Some schools of aikido do no weapons training at all; others, such as [[Iwama Ryu]] usually spend substantial time with ''[[bokken]]''/bokuto (wooden sword), ''[[jo (weapon)|jo]]'', and '
|
hael Clarke Duncan]], and directed by [[Mark Steven Johnson]]. While opening strongly and eventually surpassing $100 million in ticket sales, poor word-of-mouth and negative reviews curtailed its momentum. A [[director's cut]] [[DVD]] was released in November 2004 with nearly 30 minutes of additional footage.
Garner reprised her ''Daredevil'' movie role in the solo sequel [[Elektra (film) | ''Elektra'']] (2005), co-starring [[Goran Visnjic]] and directed by [[Rob Bowman]].
===Television===
Daredevil first appeared on television with the ''Trial of the Incredible Hulk'' ([[1989]]), a [[TV movie]] that was essentially a pilot for Daredevil, played by [[Rex Smith]]. The [[Kingpin (comics)|Kingpin]] was played by [[John Rhys Davies]]. The character would also appear as a guest in the various Marvel superhero [[animated series]] from that time, as well as on the Spider-Man and Fantastic Four series of the mid-1990s. [[Bill Smitrovich]] provided Daredevil's voice on the Fantastic Four animated series while [[Edward Albert]] provided Daredevil's voice on the Spider-Man animated series.
===Video games===
Daredevil had a small appearance in the [[Spider-Man]] [[Computer and video games|video game]] (where [[Dee Bradley Baker]] provided his voice) released for [[Sony PlayStation]], [[N64]], [[Sega]] [[Dreamcast]] and [[PC compatible|PC]]. His Matt Murdock alias also makes a cameo as the lawyer of [[Punisher|Frank Castle]] in the 2005 [[Punisher (game)|Punisher]] video game.
He also stars as a character in the 2005 video game Marvel Nemesis:Rise of the Imperfects.
==Bibliography==
{{expand_list}}
====Main====
* ''Daredevil'' Vol. 1: #1-380 (April 1964 - Oct. 1998)
* ''Daredevil'' Vol. 2: #1- (Nov. 1998- ) Note: With #22, began official dual-numbering with original series, as #22 / 402, etc.
* ''Daredevil Special'' #1 (Sept. 1967)
* ''Daredevil Special'' #2 (Feb. 1971; reprints)
* ''Daredevil Special'' #3 (Jan. 1972; reprints)
* ''Daredevil Annual'' #4 (1976)
* ''Daredevil Annual'' #4 (1989) Note: mislabeled #4, rather than #5, both on cover and in indicia
* ''Daredevil Annual'' #6-10 (1990-1994)
* ''Daredevil / [[Deadpool]] '97 Annual'' (1997)
====One-shots and limited series====
* ''Giant-Size Daredevil'' #1 (1975)
* ''Daredevil / Black Widow: Abattoir'' (July 1993 graphic novel)
* ''Daredevil: The Man Without Fear'' 1-5 (Oct. 1993 - Feb. 1994)
* ''Daredevil'' # ½ &nbsp;(17-page comic published within ''[[Wizard (magazine)|Wizard]]'' #96, Aug. 1999)
* ''Daredevil: Ninja'' #1-3 (Dec. 2000 - May 2001)
* ''Daredevil: Yellow'' #1-6 (Aug. 2001 - Jan. 2002)
* ''Daredevil: The Target'' (per indicia) a.k.a. ''Daredevil / Bullseye: The Target'' (per cover) #1 (Jan. 2003)
* ''Daredevil: Father'' #1-5 (June 2004, Oct. 2005 - Jan. 2006)
* ''Daredevil: 2099'' #1 (Nov. 2004)
* ''Daredevil: Redemption'' #1-6 (April-Aug. 2005; no cover dates; #1-2 both indicia-dated April 2005)
* ''[[Captain Universe]] / Daredevil'' #1 (Jan. 2006)
<!--* ''[[What If (comics)|What If?]] Featuring Daredevil'' (2006) Note: Awaiting full list of DD's many What If appearances, for proper placement-->
====Marvel teamups====
* ''Spider-Man and Daredevil Special Edition'' #1 (March 1984; reprints)
* ''Daredevil and the [[Punisher]]: Child's Play'' #1 (1988; reprints)
* ''Daredevil and the Punisher'' (1994))
* ''Spider-Man / Daredevil #1'' (Oct. 2002)
* ''Daredevil / Spider-Man'' #1-4 (Jan.-April 2001)
* ''Daredevil vs. Punisher: Means and Ends'' #1-6 (Sept. 2005 - Jan. 2006; no cover dates; #1-2 both indicia-dated Sept. 2005)
====Company crossovers====
* ''Daredevil / [[Batman]]'' (per indicia) a.k.a. ''Daredevil and Batman'' (per cover) #1 (Jan. 1997)
* ''[[Shi (comics)|Shi]] / Daredevil #1'' (Jan. 1997)
* ''Daredevil / Shi #1'' (Feb. 1997)
====Other====
* ''The Daredevils'' #1-11 (month n.a., 1982 - Nov. 1983) [[Marvel UK]] series, mostly reprint)
* ''Daredevil vs. Vapora'' #1 (1993)
:Free health-and-safety comic sponsored by Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association & Consumer Product Safety Commission
*''Marvels Comics: Daredevil'' #1 (July 2000)
==Awards==
Daredevil [[limited series]] have received the following awards:
* ''Daredevil: The Man Without Fear'': 1992 [[Comics Buyer's Guide]] Fan Award — Favorite Limited Comic-Book Series
* ''Daredevil: Yellow'': 2001 Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Award — Favorite Limited Comic-Book Series
==Footnotes==
* {{fnb|1}} Comics historian and former Kirby assistant [[Mark Evanier]], investigating claims of Kirby's involvement in the creation of both [[Iron Man]] and Daredevil, interviewed Kirby and Everett on the subject, years before their deaths, and concluded [http://povonline.com/jackfaq/JackFaq4.htm] that, "in both cases, Jack had already drawn the covers of those issues and done some amount of design work. He ... seems to have participated in the design of Daredevil's first costume. ... Everett did tell me that Jack had come up with the idea of Daredevil's billy club. ... Jack, in effect, drew the first page of that first Daredevil story. In the rush to get that seriously late book to press, there wasn't time to complete Page One, so Stan had [[Sol Brodsky]] slap together a paste-up that employed Kirby's cover drawing. ... Everett volunteered to me that Jack had 'helped him' though he wouldn't — or more likely, couldn't — elaborate on that. He just plain didn't remember it well, and in later years apparently gave others who asked a wide range of answers". Mavel editor-in-chief [[Joe Quesada]] later noted that when the legendary but troubled Everett turned in his first-issue pencils extremely late, and that production manager [[Sol Brodsky]] and [[Spider-Man]] artist [[Steve Ditko]] inked "a lot of backgrounds and secondary figures on the fly [and] cobbled the cover and the splash page together from Kirby's original concept drawing" [http://www.newsarama.com/JoeFridays/JoeFridays4.htm].
* {{fnb|2}} Bill Everett interview, originally published in ''Alter Ego'' Vol. 1, #11, 1978; reprinted in ''Alter Ego'' Vol. 3, #46 (March 2005); pp. 28-29 of the latter.
* {{fnb|3}} Romita, from ''[[Comic Book Artist]]'' #6 (Fall 1999) [http://www.twomorrows.com/comicbookartist/articles/06romita.html]: "I had inked an ''[[The Avengers (comics)|Avengers]]'' job for Stan, and I told him I just wanted to ink. I felt like I was burned out as a penciler after eight years of romance work. I didn't want to pencil any more; in fact, I couldn't work at home any more — I couldn't discipline myself to do it. He said, 'Okay,' but the first chance he had he shows me this Daredevil story somebody had started and he didn't like it, and he wanted somebody else to do it." Elaborating in ''Alter Ego'' #9 (July 2001) [http://www.twomorrows.com/alterego/articles/09romita.html], he added, "Stan showed me [[Dick Ayers]]' splash page for a ''Daredevil''. He asked me, "What would you do with this page?" I showed him on a tracing paper what I would do, and then he asked me to do a drawing of Daredevil the way I would do it. I did a big drawing of Daredevil ... just a big, tracing-paper drawing of Daredevil swinging. And Stan loved it."
==References==
* [http://www.marvel.com/publishing/showcomic.htm?id=5 Official webpage at Marvel.com]
* [http://www.marveldirectory.com/individuals/d/daredevil.htm Daredevil bio at MarvelDirectory]
* [http://www.manwithoutfear.com/daredevil.shtml Man Without Fear fan site]
* [http://www.adherents.com/lit/comics/Daredevil.html The religion of Matt Murdock, Daredevil]
* [http://www.salon.com/books/review/2006/01/05/daredevil/ "Secrets, lies — and lawyers!"], Douglas Wolk, [[Salon.com]], January 5, 2006. Retrospective of the Bendis/Maleev run.
[[Category:Anti-heroes]]
[[Category:Defenders members]]
[[Category:Fictional Catholics]]
[[Category:Fictional Irish-Americans]]
[[Category:Fictional lawyers]]
[[Category:Fictional martial artists]]
[[Category:Fictional ninja]]
[[Category:Fictional vigilantes]]
[[Category:Fictional_blind_characters]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics superheroes]]
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</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dallas (disambiguation)</title>
<id>8571</id>
<revision>
<id>41990360</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T02:01:30Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Dark Lord Revan</username>
<id>373670</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Dallas''' is the name of many things:
*Most common is the city of [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] in Dallas County in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Texas]].
*The [[Dallas (TV series)|''Dallas'' TV series]] was a US prime-time [[television]] [[soap opera]] set in [[Dallas, Texas]], that aired on [[CBS]] from [[1978]] to [[1991]].
* Dallas is the name of the captain of the commercial starship ''[[Nostromo]]'' in ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' ([[1979 in film|1979]]), a [[science fiction]]/[[horror film|horror]] [[film]] directed by [[Ridley Scott]]. Dallas was played by [[Tom Skerritt]].
*Dallas is a former persona of [[professional wrestling|professional wrestler]] [[Lance Hoyt]].
*[[USS Dallas (SSN-700)]] is a US Navy attack submarine in the Los Angeles class.
*[[Dallas Drake]] pro [[Ice Hockey]] player
*[[Dallas Smith]], former pro [[Ice Hockey]] Player
*[[Dallas Smith (singer)|Dallas Smith]] The singer for [[Default (band)|Default]]
Other cities named Dallas include:
*[[Dallas, Moray]], [[Scotland]], after which the other Dallas are named.
*[[Dallas, Victoria|Dallas]] is also a suburb in [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]].
U.S. cities named Dallas include:
*[[Dallas, Georgia]]
*[[Dallas, Maine]]
*[[Dallas, North Carolina]]
*[[Dallas, Oregon]]
*[[Dallas, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Dall
|
e foreign countries, but actually are infrequently eaten:
* [[Frog legs|Cuisses de grenouilles]] (Frog legs)
* [[Escargots]] (edible snails)
===Desserts===
* [[Crêpe]]s (a speciality of [[Brittany]])
* [[Chocolate Mousse|Mousse au chocolat]]
* [[Pastry|Pastries]]
** [[Mille-feuille]]s (flakey puff pastry)
** [[Pâte à choux]] pastry (e.g. [[eclair]]s and [[profiteroles]] or cream puffs)
** [[Baba au rhum]]
* [[Tart]]s (e.g. tarte Tatin with caramelized apples and a puff pastry base)
==Specialties by region/city==
[[Image:Salade_landaise_Chez_Papa.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The ''salade landaise'' is a popular dish mixing together typical Southwestern ingredients: [[gizzard]]s, [[pine nut]]s, and possibly duck or goose ''[[confit]]''.]]
* [[Alsace]]:
** [[Choucroute garnie]] ([[sauerkraut]] with sausages, salt pork and potatoes)
** [[Spätzle]]
** [[Baeckeoffe]]
** [[Kouglof]]
** [[Bredela]]
** [[Beerawecka]]
** [[Mannala]]
* [[Alps]]
** [[Raclette]] (the cheese is melted and served with potatoes, ham and often dried beef)
** [[Fondue savoyarde]] (fondue made with cheese and white wine into which cubes of bread are dipped)
** [[Gratin dauphinois]]
** [[Tartiflette]] (a Savoyard gratin with potatoes, [[Reblochon]] cheese, cream and pork)
* [[Artois]]-[[Picardy]]:
** [[andouillette]] of [[Cambrai]]
** [[Carbonnade]] (meat stewed in beer)
** [[Potjevlesch]] (a four-meat terrine)
** [[Waterzoï]] (a sweet water fish stew)
** [[Escavêche]] (a cold terrine of sweet water fish in wine and vinegar)
** [[Hochepot]] (four meats stewed with vegetables)
* [[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]]:
** [[Tripoux]] (tripe 'parcels' in a savoury sauce)
** [[Truffade]] (potatoes sautéed with garlic and young [[Tomme cheese]])
** [[Aligot]] (mashed potatoes blended with young [[Tomme cheese]])
** [[Pansette de Gerzat]] (lamb tripe stewed in wine, shallots and blue cheese)
* [[Brittany]]:
** [[Crêpe]]s
** [[Far Breton]] (a flan with prunes)
** [[Kik ar Fars]] (boiled pork dinner with a kind of dumpling)
** [[Kouign amann]] (a type of [[galette]] made flakey by a very high proportion of butter)
* [[Burgundy]]:
** [[Boeuf Bourguignon]] ([[beef]] stewed in red wine)
** [[Escargots]] de [[Bourgogne]] (snails baked in their shells with parsley butter)
** [[Fondue bourguignonne]] (fondue made with oil in which pieces of meat are cooked)
** [[Gougère]] (cheese in chou pastry)
** [[Pochouse]] (fish stewed in red wine)
* [[Lorraine (région)|Lorraine]]:
** [[Quiche Lorraine]]
** [[Potée Lorraine]]
** [[Pâté Lorrain]]
* [[Côte d'Azur]]/[[Provence]]:
** [[Bouillabaisse]] (a stew of mixed Mediterranean fish, tomatoes, and herbs)
** [[Ratatouille]] (a vegetable stew with sautéed eggplant, zucchini, yellow squash, bell peppers, tomato and basil)
** [[Pieds paquets]] Lambs' feet and tripe 'parcels' in a savoury sauce
* [[Nimes]]:
** [[Brandade]] de morue (puréed salt cod)
* [[Normandy]]:
** [[Tripe]]s à la mode de [[Caen]] (tripe cooked in [[cider]] and [[Calvados (spirit)|calvados]])
** [[Matelote]] (fish stewed in cider)
* Southwest:
** [[Cassoulet]] (a dish made with [[bean]]s, sausages and preserved duck or goose)
** [[Foie gras]] (the [[liver]] of a force-fed [[duck]] or [[goose]])
===Un-French dishes===
The following dishes may be thought of as French but really are not.
* [[Crème brûlée]], literally "burnt cream," actually invented in [[England]], or perhaps in [[Spain]].
* [[Crêpes Suzette]] invented in the [[United States of America]] by a French chef.
* [[Peach Melba]] invented in [[England]] by chef Auguste Escoffier for an Australian opera diva.
==See also==
{{cookbook}}
*[[Cuisine]], [[Haute cuisine]]
*[[Antoine Carême]]
*[[Auguste Escoffier]]
*[[French paradox]]
*[[List of recipes]]
*[[List of French cheeses]]
*''[[Larousse Gastronomique]]''
==External links==
* [http://www.frenchentree.com/france-brittany-restaurants-shops Breton Recipes]
* [http://www.gitesandmore.co.uk/Normandy%20Recipes.htm Norman Recipes & Gastronomy]
* [http://www.mediterrasian.com/cuisine_of_month_provence.htm Provençal Cuisine Guide and Recipes]
* [http://www.provence-hideaway.com/422.html Provence-Hideaways] Provençal Cuisine
[[Category:French cuisine|*]]
[[af:Franse kookkuns]]
[[da:Fransk madlavning]]
[[de:Französische Küche]]
[[eo:Franca kuirarto]]
[[fr:Cuisine française]]
[[it:Cucina francese]]
[[he:מטבח צרפתי]]
[[nl:Franse keuken]]
[[ja:フランス料理]]
[[pt:Culinária da França]]
[[sl:Kategorija:Francoska kuhinja]]
[[zh:法国烹饪]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Five-spice powder</title>
<id>11003</id>
<revision>
<id>35043637</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-13T18:31:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.57.133.195</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Five-spice powder''' (&#20116;&#39321;&#31881;, ''w&#468;xi&#257;ngf&#283;n'' in [[hanyu pinyin]]) is a convenient seasoning for [[Chinese cuisine]], particularly [[Cantonese cuisine]]. It incorporates the five basic flavours of Chinese cooking &mdash; [[sweet]], [[sour]], [[Bitter (taste)|bitter]], [[wiktionary:pungent|pungent]], and [[salty]].
It consists of China Tung Hing [[cassia|cinnamon]] (actually a type of cassia), powdered [[cassia]] buds, powdered [[star anise]] and [[anise]] seed, [[ginger root]], and ground [[clove]]s.
Another recipe for the powder consists of [[cinnamon]], [[black pepper]], [[clove|cloves]], [[fennel]] seed, and [[star anise]]. [[Szechuan pepper]] can also be used. It is used in most recipes for Cantonese roasted [[duck]], as well as [[beef]] [[stew]].
The formulae are based on the Chinese philosophy of balancing the [[Yin Yang|yin and yang]] in food.
A pinch of the powder goes a long way.
Although this spice is used in restaurant cooking, many Chinese households never use it in day-to-day cooking. In [[Cuisine of Hawaii|Hawaii]] some restaurants have it on the table.
A versatile seasoned salt can be easily made by stir-frying common [[edible salt|salt]] with five spice powder under low heat in a dry pan until the spice and salt are well mixed.
==Sample recipe==
Here's a basic recipe for home-made five spice powder.
#Roast two teaspoons of Szechuan peppercorns in a dry frypan for about three minutes.
#Grind the peppercorns in a pepper grinder or coffee grinder together with 8 star anise pods.
#Strain the ground spices to remove any larger bits.
#Mix together 1/2 teaspoon ground cloves, 1 tablespoon ground cinnamon, and 1 tablespoon ground fennel seeds.
#Grind the completed mixture until it is a very fine powder.
#Use sparingly, as it is extremely pungent.
==See also==
*[[Wikibooks:Cookbook:Five spice powder|The Wikibooks Cookbook]] may have additional variations on this theme
<!-- CAUTION: The Wikipedia Cookbook page relies on the history of this article for the validity of its GFDL license. If you move or delete this article you should update the cookbook article as well. A deletion would need to copy at least the five primary authors information to the cookbook, better the whole history complete with differences, in case there's multiple licensing (like CC and GFDL) involved which would be lost if only the five primary authors were copied. -->
[[category:Cantonese cuisine]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Herb and spice mixtures]]
[[et:Viievürtsisegu]]
[[fi:Viismauste]]
[[ja:五香粉]]
[[zh:五香粉]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Fundamental group</title>
<id>11004</id>
<revision>
<id>40911800</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-23T21:11:58Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>137.131.130.84</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Examples */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''fundamental group''' is one of the basic concepts of [[algebraic topology]]. Associated with every point of a [[topological space]] there is a fundamental [[group (mathematics)|group]] that conveys information about the 1-dimensional structure of the portion of the space surrounding the given point. The fundamental group is the first [[homotopy group]].
== Intuition and definition ==
Before giving a precise definition of the fundamental group, we try to describe the general idea in non-mathematical terms. Take some space, and some point in it, and consider all the loops at this point -- paths which start at this point, wander around as much they like and eventually return to the starting point. Two loops can be combined together in an obvious way: travel along the first loop, then along the second. The set of all the loops with this method of combining them is the fundamental group, except that for technical reasons it is necessary to consider two loops to be the same if one can be deformed into the other without breaking.
For the precise definition, let ''X'' be a topological space, and let ''x''<sub>0</sub> be a point of ''X''. We are interested in the set of [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] functions ''f'' : [0,1] &rarr; ''X'' with the property that ''f''(0) = ''x''<sub>0</sub> = ''f''(1). These functions are called '''[[Path (topology)|loops]]''' with '''base point''' ''x''<sub>0</sub>. Any two such loops, say ''f'' and ''g'', are considered equivalent if there is a continuous function ''h'' : [0,1] &times; [0,1] &rarr; ''X'' with the property that, for all ''t'' in [0,1], ''h''(''t'',0) = ''f''(''t''), ''h''(''t'',1) = ''g''(''t'') and ''h''(0,''t'') = ''x''<sub>0</sub> = ''h''(1,''t''). Such an ''h'' is called a '''homotopy''' from ''f'' to ''g'', and the corresponding [[equivalence class|equivalence classes]] are called '''homotopy classes'''. The product ''f'' &lowast; ''g'' of two loops ''f'' and ''g'' is defined by setting (''f'' &lowast; ''g'')(t) = ''f''(2''t'') if ''t'' is in [0,1/2] and (''f'' &lowast; ''g'')(t) = ''g''(2''t'' &minus; 1) if ''t'' is in [1/2,1]. The loop ''f'' &lowast; ''g'' th
|
e first computes the gcd with Euclid's algorithm and then divides the product of the given numbers by their gcd. The following versions of [[distributivity]] hold true:
::gcd(''a'',&nbsp;lcm(''b'',&nbsp;''c''))&nbsp;=&nbsp;lcm(gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''b''),&nbsp;gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''c''))
::lcm(''a'',&nbsp;gcd(''b'',&nbsp;''c''))&nbsp;=&nbsp;gcd(lcm(''a'',&nbsp;''b''),&nbsp;lcm(''a'',&nbsp;''c'')).
*It is useful to define gcd(0,&nbsp;0)&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 and lcm(0,&nbsp;0)&nbsp;=&nbsp;0 because then the [[natural number]]s become a [[complete lattice|complete]] [[distributive lattice|distributive]] [[lattice (order)|lattice]] with gcd as meet and lcm as join operation. This extension of the definition is also compatible with the generalization for commutative rings given below.
*In a [[Cartesian coordinate system]], gcd(''a'',&nbsp;''b'') can be interpreted as the number of points with integral coordinates on the [[straight line]] joining the points (0,&nbsp;0) and (''a'',&nbsp;''b''), excluding (0,&nbsp;0).
== The gcd in commutative rings ==
The greatest common divisor can more generally be defined for elements of an arbitrary [[commutative ring]].
If ''R'' is a commutative ring, and ''a'' and ''b'' are in ''R'', then an element of ''d'' of ''R'' is called a ''common divisor'' of ''a'' and ''b'' if it divides both ''a'' and ''b'' (that is, if there are elements ''x'' and ''y'' in ''R'' such that ''d''·''x''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''a'' and ''d''·''y''&nbsp;=&nbsp;''b'').
If ''d'' is a common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'', and every common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'' divides ''d'', then ''d'' is called a ''greatest common divisor'' of ''a'' and ''b''.
Note that with this definition, two elements ''a'' and ''b'' may very well have several greatest common divisors, or none at all. But if ''R'' is an [[integral domain]] then any two gcd's of ''a'' and ''b'' must be [[associate elements]]. Also, if ''R'' is a [[unique factorization domain]], then any two elements have a gcd.
If ''R'' is a [[Euclidean domain]] then a form of the Euclidean algorithm can be used to compute greatest common divisors.
The following is an example of an integral domain with two elements that do not have a gcd:
:<math>R = \mathbb{Z}[\sqrt{-3}],\quad a = 4 = 2\cdot 2 = (1+\sqrt{-3})(1-\sqrt{-3}),\quad b = (1+\sqrt{-3})\cdot 2</math>
The elements <math>1+\sqrt{-3}</math> and <math>2</math> are two "maximal common divisors" (i.e. any common divisor which is a multiple of 2 is associated to 2, the same holds for <math>1+\sqrt{-3}</math>), but they are not associated, so there is no greatest common divisor of ''a'' and ''b''.
Corresponding to the Bezout property we may, in any commutative ring, consider the collection of elements of the form <math>p a + q b</math>, where ''p'' and ''q'' range over the ring. This is the [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] generated by ''a'' and ''b'', and is denoted simply <math>(a,b)</math>. In a ring all of whose ideals are principal (a [[principal ideal domain]] or PID), this ideal
will be identical with the set of multiples of some ring element ''d''; then this ''d'' is a greatest common divisor of ''a'' and ''b''. But the ideal <math>(a,b)</math> can be useful even when there is no greatest common divisor of ''a'' and ''b''. (Indeed, [[Ernst Kummer]] used this ideal as a replacement for a gcd in his treatment of [[Fermat's last theorem]], although he envisioned it as the set of multiples of some hypothetical, or ''ideal'', ring element ''d'', whence the ring-theoretic term.)
== See also ==
* [[Least common multiple]]
* [[Lowest common denominator]]
* [[Binary GCD algorithm]]
== References ==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Section 4.5.2: The Greatest Common Divisor, pp.333&ndash;356.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Section 31.2: Greatest common divisor, pp.856&ndash;862.
==External links==
* [http://www.easycalculation.com/hcf.php Online HCF calculator]
* [http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?module=tool/popup.en&search=gcd Online gcd calculator]
* [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/binaryGCD.html A fast GCD algorithm for use in computer programs]
[[Category:Elementary arithmetic]]
[[Category:Multiplicative functions]]
[[cs:Největší společný dělitel]]
[[de:Größter gemeinsamer Teiler]]
[[eo:Plej granda komuna divizoro]]
[[es:Máximo común divisor]]
[[fr:Plus grand commun diviseur]]
[[he:מחלק משותף מקסימלי]]
[[id:Faktor persekutuan terbesar]]
[[id:Massimo comun divisore]]
[[ja:&#26368;&#22823;&#20844;&#32004;&#25968;]]
[[nl:Grootste gemene deler]]
[[pl:Najwi%C4%99kszy wsp%C3%B3lny dzielnik]]
[[ru:&#1053;&#1072;&#1080;&#1073;&#1086;&#1083;&#1100;&#1096;&#1080;&#1081; &#1086;&#1073;&#1097;&#1080;&#1081; &#1076;&#1077;&#1083;&#1080;&#1090;&#1077;&#1083;&#1100;]]
[[sl:najve&#269;ji skupni delitelj]]
[[fi:Suurin yhteinen tekijä]]
[[sv:största gemensamma delare]]
[[th:&#3605;&#3633;&#3623;&#3627;&#3634;&#3619;&#3619;&#3656;&#3623;&#3617;&#3617;&#3634;&#3585;]]
[[tr:OBEB]]
[[zh:&#26368;&#22823;&#20844;&#22240;&#25976;]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Gazpacho</title>
<id>12357</id>
<revision>
<id>42045045</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T12:25:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>172.188.174.27</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Gazpacho soup in fiction */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Gazpacho soup''', also known as '''gazpacho''', is a cold, tomato-based [[Spanish cuisine|Spanish]] soup that is popular in warmer areas and during the summer. It is usually spicy, but a milder variant has also become popular.
In both [[fiction]] and [[real life]], there have occurred embarrassing situations in which a [[show-off]] is chastened for insisting that his or her cold soup be heated up.
==Sample recipe==
===Ingredients===
*1 lb /450 g [[tomato]]es
*1/2 lb / 225 g [[Bell pepper|green peppers]]
*1/2 [[cucumber]]
*clove of [[garlic]]
*a few [[coriander]] leaves ([[cilantro]])
*1/4 [[chile pepper]], seeds removed (optional, leave out if you want a milder soup)
*2 oz / 50 g [[white bread]], 2-3 days old (also optional, leave out for a thinner soup)
*1/2 mild [[Spanish onion]]
*1 tbsp [[balsamic vinegar]]
*2 tbsp [[olive oil]]
*1/3 pt iced [[water]]
*Sea salt and [[black pepper]]
*[[Ice cube]]s
===To Garnish:===
*2 tomatoes, skinned
*1/2 green pepper
*1/4 peeled cucumber
*2 slices stale white bread, crusts removed
===Method===
Skin the tomatoes and cut into quarters. Remove seeds and stalks from peppers. Peel the cucumber and cut into chunks. Tear up the bread and soak it in water for 30 minutes and then squeeze it dry. Cut up the onion.
Blend all the ingredients until roughly chopped, not too fine, because the soup should have texture and discernible vegetable bits. Pour into large bowl with some ice, add salt and pepper. Then prepare the garnishes. Dice the bread and fry it in a little olive oil until brown. Chop the other vegetables finely. Serve in separate little bowls on the table, so that guests can sprinkle on their own toppings.
Serve chilled.
==Gazpacho soup in fiction==
* In the [[science fiction]] series ''[[Red Dwarf]]'', one character ([[Red Dwarf characters#Arnold Rimmer|Arnold Rimmer]]) dies in a radiation leak. His last words are 'gazpacho soup'. Later, when resurrected as a hologram, he is persuaded to explain why these were his last words. He recounts the sad story of his humiliation as a young officer cadet, in which he embarrassed himself in front of senior officers by complaining to the waiter that the gazpacho soup was cold. Rimmer ends up eating a 'bowl of piping hot gazpacho soup'.
* In [[Pedro Almodovar]]'s 1987 film ''[[Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown]]'' (''Mujeres al borde de un ataque de nervios''), different characters help themselves to gazpacho which has been spiked with [[barbiturates]] by Pepa ([[Carmen Maura]]) and instantly fall into a deep and long sleep.
* In [[The Simpsons]] series episode [3F03] - [[Lisa the Vegetarian]], [[Lisa Simpson]] pronounces the following piece of dialogue: 'Good news, everyone! You don't have to eat meat! I made enough gazpacho for all... It's a tomato soup, served ice cold!' to which [[Barney Gumble]] replies erroneously 'Go back to [[Russia]]!'
* In the second series episode of [[comedy]] show [[The Mighty Boosh]] titled "The fountain of youth", [[Howard Moon]] and [[Vince Noir]] sing a soup song. The lyrics are "Soup, soup, a tasty soup, soup/a spicy carrot and coriander (Chilly chowder)/Crouton, crouton! Crunchy friends in a liquid broth/I am gazpacho (huh)/I am a summer soup/Miso! Miso!/Fighting in the [[Dojo|dojo]]/Miso! Miso!/Oriental friends in the land of soup."
==External links==
{{cookbook}}
*[http://www.smart-spanish-recipes.com/gazpacho-recipes.html Gazpacho History & Recipes]
*[http://www.mediterrasian.com/delicious_recipes_gazpacho.htm Gazpacho recipe]
*[http://www.cellartastings.com/en/food-spanish-recipes.html Spanish Recipes]
==Gazpacho in pop culture==
Gazpacho is a song by [[progressive rock]] band [[Marillion]] from the [[Afraid of Sunlight (Album)]]
(1995)
==Gazpacho in [[software development]]==
[http://gazpacho.sicem.biz/ Gazpacho] is a [[GUI]] builder for the [[GTK+]] toolkit written in [[Python]].
[[Category:Soups]]
[[Category:Spanish cuisi
|
minalism]]
<!--Can someone well versed in medieval history help figure out how/where this fits in? -->
** Rejects Platonic realism as a requirement for thinking and speaking in general terms.
* [[Humanism]] (1500s)
<!-- description goes here -->
* [[Renaissance]]
** The use of light, shadow, and perspective to more accurately represent life. Because of how fundamentally these ideas were felt to alter so much of life, some have referred to it as the "Golden Age". In reality it was less an "Age" and more of a movement in popular philosophy, science, and thought that spread over Europe (and probably other parts of the world), over time, and affected different aspects of culture at different points in time. Very roughly, the following periods can be taken as indicative of place/time foci of the Renaissance: [[Italian Renaissance]] 1450-1550. [[Spanish Renaissance]] 1550-1587. [[English Renaissance]] 1588-1629.
* [[Mannerism]]
** Anti-classicist movement that sought to emphasize the feeling of the artist himself.
** See: [[Mannerism/Art]]
* [[Baroque]]
** Emphasizes power and authority, characterized by intricate detail and without the "disturbing angst" of Mannerism. Essentially is exaggerated Classicism to promote and glorify the Church and State. Occupied with notions of infinity.
** See: [[Baroque|Baroque art]] &mdash; [[Baroque music]]
* [[Rococo]]
* [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] (17th&ndash;19th centuries)
** Severe, unemotional movement recalling Roman and Greek ("classical") style, reacting against the overbred Rococo style and the emotional Baroque style. It stimulated revival of classical thinking, and had especially profound effects on science and politics. Also had a direct influence on Academic Art in the [[1800s]]. Beginning in the early [[1600s]] with Cartesian thought (see [[René Descartes]]), this movement provided philosophical frameworks for the natural sciences, sought to determine the principles of knowledge by rejecting all things previously believed to be known about the world. In [[Renaissance Classicism]] attempts are made to recreate the classic artforms - tragedy, comedy, and farce.
** Also: '''Cartesian''' &mdash; [[French neoclassicism]] 1630-1680.
* [[Romanticism]] (1770&ndash;1830)
** Began in Germany and spread to England and France as a reaction to Neoclassicism. The notion of "folk genius", or an inborn and intuitive ability to do magnificent things, is a core principle of the Romantic movement. Nostalgia for the primitive past in preference to the scientifically minded present. Romantic heroes, exemplified by Napoleon, are popular. Fascination with the past leads to a resurrection of interest in the Gothic period. It did not really replace the Neoclassical movement so much as provide a counterbalance; many artists sought to join both styles in their works.
** See: [[Symbolism]]
* [[Realism (arts)|Realism]] (1830&ndash;1905)
** Ushered in by the [[Industrial Revolution]] and growing [[Nationalism]] in the world. Began in France. Attempts to portray the speech and mannerisms of everyday people in everyday life. Tends to focus on middle class social and domestic problems. Plays by [[Ibsen]] are an example. [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]] evolved from Realism, following it briefly in art and more enduringly in theater, film, and literature. [[Impressionism]], based on 'scientific' knowledge and discoveries concerns observing nature and reality objectively.
** See: [[Fauvism]] &mdash; [[Post-impressionism]] &mdash; [[Pre-Raphaelite]]
* [[Art Nouveau]] (1880&ndash;1905)
** Decorative, symbolic art
** See: [[Transcendentalism]]
* [[Modernism]] (1880&ndash;1965)
** Also known as the [[Avant-garde]] movement. Originating in the 19th century with [[Symbolism]], the Modernist movement composed itself of a wide range of 'isms' that ran in constrast to Realism and that sought out the underlying fundamentals of art and philosophy. The Jazz age and Hollywood emerge and have their hey-days.
** See: [[Cubism]] &mdash; [[Futurism (art)|Futurism]] &mdash; [[Suprematism]] &mdash; [[Dada]] &mdash; [[Constructivist epistemology|Constructivism]] &mdash; [[Surrealism]] &mdash; [[Expressionism]] &mdash; [[Existentialism]] &mdash; [[Op Art]] &mdash; [[Art Deco]] &mdash; [[Bauhaus]] &mdash; [[Neo-Plasticism]] &mdash; [[Precisionism]] &mdash; [[Abstract expressionism]] &mdash; [[Pop Art]] &mdash; [[Photorealism]] &mdash; [[Minimalism]] &mdash; [[Situationism]]
* [[Postmodernism]] (since 1965)
** A reaction to Modernism, in a way, Postmodernism largely discards the notion that artists should seek pure fundamentals, often questioning whether such fundamentals even exist - or suggestion that if they do exist, they may be irrelevant. It is exemplified by movements such as [[deconstruction]], [[conceptual art]], ''etc.''
** See: [[Postmodern philosophy]] &mdash; [[Postmodern music]] &mdash; [[Postmodern art]]
* [[Posthumanism]]
<!--Other isms to try to work into the above, if relevant:
idealism, imagism
mystic(ism)
naturalism
Sophist(s)
Eclectic and Revival Styles -->
==See also==
* [[Art styles, periods and movements]]
* [[List of art movements]]
* [[Critical theory]]
* [[Cultural imperialism]]
* [[History of philosophy]]
* [[Periodization]]
* [[Self-declared art movement]]
* [[Social movement]]
<!--Given the technical innovations of the internet and the increasing use of computers in new ways, and the decreased emphasis on need for a commercial infrastructure to disseminate art, could we be on the verge of a new cultural movement? Increased emphasis on art as part of a system (e.g., in architecture) or in integrating several different disciplines into one work of art (e.g., involving the internet community as a prelude to a movie release, e.g. Babylon 5, Blair Witch, or A.I.) -->
==External links==
*[http://worldhistorytimeline.net/en/about/listed_entries Alphabetical list of some movements, styles, discoveries and facts on the World History Timeline chart]
[[Category:Cultural movements]]
[[da:Stilperiode]]
[[sr:Оса развоја културе]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Cybernetics</title>
<id>5904</id>
<revision>
<id>41912312</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T15:53:02Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>128.253.117.75</ip>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
{{alternateuses}}
[[Image:Science-symbol-13a.png|right|87px]]
'''Cybernetics''' is the study of [[communication]] and [[control theory|control]], typically involving regulatory [[feedback]], in living beings and machines, and in combinations of the two (e.g. sociotechnical systems).
The term ''cybernetics'' stems from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''&#922;&#965;&#946;&#949;&#961;&#957;&#942;&#964;&#951;&#962;'' (''kybernetes'' - meaning steersman, governor, pilot, or rudder; the same root as [[government]]). It became a powerful [[vogue idea]] from [[1948]] to the [[1960s]]; but since the [[1970s]] use of the term has decreased for a number of reasons, in part because it went out of fashion among devotees of [[artificial intelligence]], with which it differs philosophically. Current related fields include:- [[complexity theory]], [[Control theory]] and [[dynamic systems theory]].
A more philosophical definition, suggested in [[1958]] by [[Louis Couffignal]], one of the pioneers of cybernetics in the [[1930s]], considers cybernetics as ''"the art of assuring efficiency of action"'' (see external links for reference).
==History==
The modern study of cybernetics began at the intersection of [[neurology]], electronic [[network theory]] and [[logic modelling]] around the time of [[World War II|WWII]]. The name 'cybernetics' was coined by [[Norbert Wiener]] to denote the study of "teleological mechanisms" and was popularized through his book ''Cybernetics, or control and communication in the animal and machine'', ([[1948]]).
The word ''cybernetics'' ('cybernétique') had, unbeknownst to Wiener, also been used in [[1834]] by the physicist [[André-Marie Ampère]] (1775-1836) to denote the sciences of government in his classification system of human knowledge. It was also used by [[Plato]] in [[The Republic]] to signify the governance of people. The word [[governor]] and govern is also derived from the same Greek root.
The study of "teleological mechanisms" ("teleos" is Greek for "end" in the sense of "purpose for") in machinery (i.e. machines with corrective feedback) dates back at least to the late [[1700s]] when [[James Watt]]'s steam engine was equipped with a [[governor (device)|governor]]. In [[1868]] [[James Clerk Maxwell]] published a theoretical article on governors. In 1938 the Romanian scientist [[Stefan Odobleja]] published in Paris ''Psychologie consonantiste'' describing many cybernetic principles. In the [[1940s]] the study and mathematical modelling of regulatory processes became a continuing research effort and two key articles were published in [[1943]]. These papers were ''"Behavior, Purpose and Teleology"'' by [[Arturo Rosenblueth]], [[Norbert Wiener]], and [[Julian Bigelow]]; and the paper ''"A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity"'' by [[Warren McCulloch]] and [[Walter Pitts]].
Cybernetics as a discipline was firmly established by Wiener, McCulloch and others, such as [[W. Ross Ashby]] and [[Grey Walter|W. Grey Walter]]. Together with the [[United_States|US]] and [[UK]], an important geographical locus of early cybernetics was [[France]] where Wiener's book was first published.
In the spring of [[1947]], Wiener was invited to a congress on harmonic analysis, held in [[Nancy]], [[France]] and organized by the [[Bourba
|
:space="preserve">'''[[Military]] of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]''':
==Army Patches==
<gallery>
Image:Bosnia_coa.PNG|Bosnia and Herzegovina
Image:CoAFBH.jpg|Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Image:Republika Srpska coat large.png|Republika Srpska
</gallery>
==Military Photos==
<gallery>
Image:Aai.jpg|
Image:Ach.jpg|
Image:Aax.jpg|
Image:Aeq.jpg|
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Image:Agaaa.jpg|
Image:Agb.jpg|
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Image:Abtt.jpg|
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Image:Acr.jpg|
Image:Aeu.jpg|
</gallery>
==Foreign armies==
In 1995-96, a NATO-led international peacekeeping force ([[IFOR]]) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia, beginning on [[December 21]]st [[1995]] to implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement.
IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force or [[SFOR]]. The number of SFOR troops was reduced first to 12,000 and then to 7,000.
SFOR was in turn succeeded by an even smaller, [[EU]]-led European Union Force or [[EUFOR]] (Althea). [[As of 2004]], EUFOR numbers ca. 7,000 troops.
==Domestic armies==
Oruzane snage Bosne i Hercegovine (OSBIH); Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Central command, which was unified in 2003 into the [[OSB&H]].
==Statistical indicators==
'''Military service age and obligation:'''
18 years of age for compulsory military service in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina; 16 years of age in times of war; 18 years of age for Republika Srpska; 17 years of age for voluntary military service in the Federation and in the Republika Srpska; by law, military obligations cover all healthy men between the ages of 18 and 60, and all women between the ages of 18 and 55; service obligation is 4 months (July 2004)
'''Manpower available for military service:'''
<br />''males age 18-49:''
1,034,367 (2005 est.)
'''Manpower fit for military service:'''
<br />''males age 18-49:''
829,530 (2005 est.)
'''Manpower reaching military service age annually:'''
<br />''males:''
31,264 (2005 est.)
'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$234.3 million (FY02)
'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
4.5% (FY02)
==See also==
*[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
==External links==
* [http://www.mod.gov.ba/index.php MO Bosne i Hercegovine, МО Босне и Херцеговине, MoD of Bosnia and Herzegovina]
* [http://www.euforbih.org/ European Union Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina - EUFOR]
* [http://www.nato.int/sfor/index.htm Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina - SFOR]
* [http://www.oscebih.org/oscebih_eng.asp OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina]
[[Category:Military of Bosnia and Herzegovina| ]]
[[Category:Militaries|Bosnia and Herzegovina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Foreign relations of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
<id>3611</id>
<revision>
<id>35987906</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-20T19:04:13Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>MIsterMan</username>
<id>795809</id>
</contributor>
<comment>organizations</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
The implementation of the [[Dayton Accords]] of [[1995]] has focused the efforts of policymakers in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], as well as the international community, on regional stabilization in the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]]. With the end of the [[Kosovo conflict]], these efforts will continue to a larger extent. Within Bosnia and Herzegovina, relations with its neighbors of [[Croatia]] and [[Serbia and Montenegro]] have been fairly stable since the signing of Dayton in 1995.
== Foreign Aid ==
In the 3 years since the Dayton Accords were signed, over $4 billion in foreign aid has flown into Bosnia, about $800 million of it coming from SEED funds. As stated above, this support has been key to the growth and revitalization of the economy and infrastructure in the republic. However, most of this aid has been targeted at the Federation; the previous government of the RS was anti-Dayton and not assisted by the U.S. The election of the "Sloga" or "Unity" Coalition government, led by Prime Minister Dodik, has shifted the balance of power in the [[Republika Srpska]] (RS) to a pro-Dayton stance and will result in an upsurge of funding to the RS from the international community.
In addition to SEED funding, [[USAID]] programs have been crucial to the redevelopment of Bosnia and Herzegovina. USAID has programing in the following areas: economic policy reform and restructuring; private sector development (the Business Development Program); infrastructure rebuilding; democratic reforms in the media, political process and elections, and rule of law/legal code formulation; and training programs for women and diplomats.
== Disputes - international ==
Bosnia and Herzegovina has had Serbia and Montenegro (Former Yugoslavia) indicted at the [[International Court of Justice]] regarding its accusation that Serbia and Montenegro made an aggression on Bosnia and Herzegovina in the [[History of Bosnia and Herzegovina#Bosnian War|recent 1992-95 war]].
The delimitation of the border with [[Serbia and Montenegro]] is halfway completed, but sections along the [[Drina]] River remain in dispute.
Discussions continue with [[Croatia]] on problem sections of the [[Una]] River and villages at the base of Mount [[Pljesevica|Plješevica]].
== International organization participation ==
BIS, CE, CEI, EBRD, ECE, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), OAS (observer), OIC (observer), OPCW, OSCE, [[Southeast European Cooperative Initiative|SECI]], UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMEE, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (observer)
== Illicit drugs ==
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a minor transit point for [[marijuana]] and [[opiate]] trafficking routes to [[Western Europe]].
Organized crime launders money, but the lack of a well-developed financial infrastructure limits the country's utility as a money-laundering center.
== See also ==
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
[[Category:Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Bosnia and Herzegovina]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Botswana/History</title>
<id>3612</id>
<revision>
<id>15901930</id>
<timestamp>2002-03-01T18:43:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>LA2</username>
<id>445</id>
</contributor>
<comment>*</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Botswana]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Geography of Botswana</title>
<id>3613</id>
<revision>
<id>40555721</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T11:37:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Lupo</username>
<id>34978</id>
</contributor>
<comment>better map</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Botswana Map.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of Botswana]]
'''Location:'''
Southern [[Africa]], north of [[South Africa]]
'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|22|S|24|E|}}
'''Map references:'''
Africa
'''Area:'''
<br>''total:''
600,370 km²
<br>''land:''
585,370 km²
<br>''water:''
15,000 km²
'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than Texas
'''Land boundaries:'''
<br>''total:''
4,013 km
<br>''border countries:''
[[Namibia]] 1,360 km, [[South Africa]] 1,840 km, [[Zimbabwe]] 813 km, [[Zambia]] 0 km.
'''Coastline:'''
0 km (landlocked)
'''Maritime claims:'''
none (landlocked)
'''Climate:'''
semiarid; warm winters and hot summers
[[Image:BotswanaLotsane.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Goat grazing by the Lotsane River]]
'''Terrain:'''
The land is predominantly flat to gently rolling tableland. The [[Kalahari Desert]] is in the southwest. The [[Okavango Delta]], the world's largest inland delta, is in the northwest and the [[Makgadikgadi Pan]], a large [[salt pan]] lies in the north.
'''Elevation extremes:'''
<br>''lowest point:''
junction of the Limpopo and [[Shashe (disambiguation)|Shashe Rivers]] 513 m
<br>''highest point:''
Tsodilo Hills 1,489 m
'''Natural resources:'''
[[diamond]]s, [[copper]], [[nickel]], [[salt]], [[soda ash]], [[potash]], [[coal]], [[iron]] ore, [[silver]]
'''Land use:'''
<br>''arable land:'' 0.61%
<br>''permanent crops: ''0.01%
<br>''other:'' 99.38% (1998 est.)
''arable land:''
1%
<br>''permanent crops:''
0%
<br>''permanent pastures:''
46%
<br>''forests and woodland:''
47%
<br>''other:''
6% (1993 est.)
'''Irrigated land:'''
10 sq km (1998 est.), 20 km² (1993 est.)
'''Natural hazards:'''
periodic droughts; seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust across the country, which can obscure visibility
'''Environment - current issues:'''
overgrazing; desertification; limited fresh water resources
'''Environment - international agreements:'''
<br>''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
<br>''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements
'''Geography - note:'''
landlocked; population concentrated in eastern part of the country
==See also==
*[[Botswana]]
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography of Botswana| ]]
[[es:Geografía de Botsuana]]
[[pt:Geografia do Botswana]]
Slight mountainous areas where mining is done.</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Demographics of Botswana</title>
<id>3614</id>
<revision>
<id>36027954</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-21T00:43:54Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Guinnog</username>
<id>764861</id>
</contributor>
<comment
|
ose who have any dealings with the Necronomicon usually come to an unpleasant end, and Alhazred was no exception. Again according to Lovecraft:
:Of his final death or disappearance ([[738]] A.D.) many terrible and conflicting things are told. He is said by [[Ibn Khallikan]] ([[13th century]] biographer) to have been seized by an invisible monster in broad daylight and devoured horribly before a large number of fright-frozen witnesses. Of his madness many things are told. He claimed to have seen fabulous [[Irem of the Pillars|Irem]], or City of Pillars, and to have found beneath the ruins of a certain [[The Nameless City|nameless desert town]] the shocking annals and secrets of a race older than mankind. He was only an indifferent [[Muslim|Moslem]], worshipping unknown entities whom he called [[Yog-Sothoth]] and [[Cthulhu]].
[[August Derleth]] later made alterations to the biography of Alhazared. One change was redating Alhazared's death to [[731]]. Derleth further wrote on the final fate of Alhazred in his story "[[The Keeper of the Key]]", first published in May, [[1951]]. In this story [[Dr. Laban Shrewsbury]] (a recurring Derleth character) and his assistant at the time, [[Naylan Colum]], discovered Alhazred's burial site. More specifically they were heading a caravan from [[Salalah]], [[Oman]], and crossed the border into [[Yemen]]. There they found the unexplored desert area the Necronomicon names as "Roba el Ehaliyeh" or "Roba el Khaliyeh" -- perhaps a form of "Rabia al-Awliya" which, again, is not proper Arabic, but could be an allusion to the Sufi Saint Rabia (pure conjecture). More likely it refers the [[Empty Quarter]] or "Rub al Khali". At the center of the area they discovered [[The Nameless City|the Nameless City]], a domain of [[Hastur]]. Shrewsbury, as an old agent of Hastur and devoted enemy of his half-brother [[Cthulhu]], crossed its gates in search of Alhazred's burial site. He indeed found the gate of Alhazred's burial chamber and learned of his fate. Alhazred was kidnapped in Damascus and brought to the Nameless City, where he had earlier studied and learned some of Necronomicon's secrets. As punishment for his betrayal of their secrets, Alhazred was tortured. Then they blinded him and severed his tongue, and finally executed him. The entrance to the chamber warned against disturbing him. But Shrewbury proceeded in entering the chamber and opening the sarcophagus. Though only rugs, bones and dust remained of Alhazred, the sarcophagus also contained an incomplete personal copy of the Necronomicon, written in the [[Arabic alphabet]]. Then Shrewsbury used [[Necromancy]] to recall Alhazred's spirit and ordered it to draw a map of the world as he knew it. After obtaining the map, which revealed the location of [[R'lyeh]] and other secret places, Shrewsbury finally let Alhazred return to his eternal rest.
==Pop culture==
[[Roberta Williams]] used the name "Abdul Alhazred" as the name of the villain in [[King's Quest 6]].
Marvel comics has also used the name Abdul Alhazred as a supervillian working for Apocalypse.
==See also==
*[[Cthulhu mythos biographies]]
[[Category:Cthulhu mythos]]
[[Category:Fictional Arabs|Alhazred, Abdul]]
[[Category:Fictional writers|Alhazred, Abdul]]
[[es:Abdul Alhazred]]
[[fr:Abdul al-Hazred]]
[[ja:アブドル・アルハズラット]]
[[pl:Abdul Alhazred]]
[[sv:Abdul Alhazred]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>A priori and a posterior knowledge</title>
<id>973</id>
<revision>
<id>18021014</id>
<timestamp>2005-07-02T17:24:33Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Jyril</username>
<id>39573</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>avoid double redirect</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Knowledge]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Ada Lovelace</title>
<id>974</id>
<revision>
<id>41616123</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:15:49Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Schutz</username>
<id>27196</id>
</contributor>
<comment>Rvv by 168.9.44.2</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ada Lovelace 1838.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ada Lovelace]]
'''Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace''' ([[December 10]], [[1815]] &ndash; [[November 27]], [[1852]]) is mainly known for having written a description of
[[Charles Babbage]]'s early mechanical general-purpose computer, the [[analytical engine]].
== Life ==
Ada was the only legitimate child of the poet [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]] and his wife, [[Anne Isabella Milbanke|Annabella Milbanke]]. Ada was named after Byron's [[half-sister]], [[Augusta Leigh]], by whom he was rumoured to have fathered a child. It was Augusta who encouraged Byron to marry to avoid scandal, and he reluctantly chose Annabella. On [[January 16]], [[1816]], Annabella left Byron, taking 1-month old Ada with her. On [[April 21]], Byron signed the Deed of Separation and left England for good a few days later. He was never allowed to see either again.
Ada lived with her mother, as is apparent in her father's correspondence concerning her. Lady Byron was also highly interested in mathematics (Lord Byron once called her "the queen of parallelograms"), which dominated her life, even after marriage. Her obsession with rooting out any of the insanity of which she accused Lord Byron was one of the reasons why Annabella taught Ada [[mathematics]] at an early age. Ada was privately schooled in [[mathematics]] and [[science]], one of her tutors being [[Augustus De Morgan]]. An active member of [[London]] society, she was a member of the [[Bluestockings]] in her youth.
[[Image:Ada Lovelace.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Ada Lovelace]]
In 1835 she married [[William King, 1st Earl of Lovelace|William King, 8th Baron King]], later [[Earl of Lovelace|1st Earl of Lovelace]]. They had three children; Byron born [[12 May]] [[1836]], Annabella ([[Lady Anne Blunt]]) born [[22 September]] [[1837]] and Ralph Gordon born [[2 July]] [[1839]]. The family lived at Ockham Park, at [[Ockham, Surrey]]. Her full name and title for most of her married life was '''The Right Honourable Augusta Ada, Countess of Lovelace'''. She is widely known in modern times simply as '''Ada Lovelace'''.
She knew [[Mary Somerville]], noted researcher and scientific author of the [[19th century]], who introduced her in turn to [[Charles Babbage]] on [[June 5]], [[1833]]. Other acquaintances were [[David Brewster|Sir David Brewster]], [[Charles Wheatstone]], [[Charles Dickens]] and [[Michael Faraday]].
During a nine-month period in 1842-1843, Ada translated for Italian mathematician [[Luigi Menabrea]]'s memoir on Babbage's newest proposed machine, the Analytical Engine. With the article, she appended [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine|a set of Notes]] which specified in complete detail a method for calculating [[Bernoulli numbers]] with the Engine, recognized by historians as the world's first [[computer program]]. Biographers note, however, that the programs were written by Babbage himself, and Lovelace simply found a mistake in the program for calculating Bernoulli numbers and sent it back for amendment. The evidence and correspondence between Lovelace and Babbage indicate that he wrote all of the programs in the notes appended to the Menebrea translation. Her prose acknowledged some possibilities of the machine which Babbage never published, such as speculating that "the Engine might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent."
Ada Lovelace died at 36 after being [[Bloodletting|bled]] to death by her physicians, who were trying to treat her [[uterine cancer]]. Thus, she died, ironically, not only at the same age as her father did, but even of the same cause - the mistaken custom of bloodletting. She left two sons and a daughter, [[Lady Anne Blunt]], famous in her own right as a traveller in the [[Middle East]] and a breeder of [[Arabian horse]]s.
At her own request, Lovelace was buried next to the father she never knew at the [[Church of St. Mary Magdalene, Hucknall|Church of St. Mary Magdalene]] in [[Hucknall]], [[Nottingham]].
== Controversy over attribution ==
Biographers have noted that Lovelace struggled with mathematics, and there is some debate as to whether Lovelace understood deeply the concepts behind programming Babbage's engine, or was more of a figurehead used by Babbage for [[public relations]] purposes.
As an early woman in computing, Lovelace occupies a politically sensitive space in the canon of historical figures in [[computer science]], and therefore the extent of her contribution versus Babbage's remains difficult to assess based on current sources.
== Trivia ==
* On [[December 10]], [[1980]], (Ada's birthday), the [[U.S. Defense Department]] approved the reference manual for their new computer [[programming language]], called "[[Ada programming language|Ada]]".
* The U.S. [[Defense Standard|Department of Defense Military Standard]] for Ada (MIL-STD-1815) was assigned a number to commemorate the year of her birth.
* On the math-mystery cartoon, ''[[Cyberchase]]'', she appears as the animated character Lady Ada Lovelace, voiced by ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' comedian [[Jane Curtin]]. The episode is "Hugs and Witches" (#201) which premiered February 14, 2002 on [[PBS Kids GO!]].
* She is one of the main characters in the [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] novel ''[[The Difference Engine]]'' by [[Bruce Sterling]] and [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]], which posits a world in which Babbage's machines were [[mass production|mass produced]] and the computer age started a century early.
* ''Lord Byron's Novel'' by [[John Crowley]] is a pastiche of a novel supposedly by Byron (in real life he did begin writing one, but is not known to have
|
ome people say "I didn't do nothing", some say "I didn't do anything", and some say one or the other depending on social context.
The formal study of grammar is an important part of [[education]] from a young age through advanced [[learning]], though the rules taught in [[school]]s are not a "grammar" in the sense most [[linguistics|linguists]] use the term, as they are often prescriptive rather than descriptive.
[[Planned language|Planned languages]] are more common in the modern day. Many have been designed to aid human [[communication]] (such as [[Esperanto]] or the intercultural, highly logic-compatible artificial language [[Lojban]]) or created as part of a work of [[fiction]] (such as the [[Klingon language]] and [[Elvish languages]]). Each of these artificial languages has its own grammar.
It is a myth that [[analytic language]]s have simpler grammar than [[synthetic language]]s. Analytic languages use [[syntax]] to convey information that is encoded via [[inflection]] in synthetic languages. In other words, word order is not significant and [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is highly significant in a purely synthetic language, whereas morphology is not significant and syntax is highly significant in an analytic language. [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]], for example, are highly analytic and meaning is therefore very context dependent. (Both do have some inflections, and had more in the past; thus, they are becoming even less synthetic and more "purely" analytic over time.) [[Latin]], which is highly [[synthetic language|synthetic]], uses [[affix]]es and [[inflection]]s to convey the same information that Chinese does with [[syntax]]. Because Latin words are quite (though not completely) self-contained, an intelligible Latin [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] can be made from elements placed in largely arbitrary order. Latin has a complex affixation and a simple syntax, while Chinese has the opposite.
-----
In [[computer science]], the [[syntax]] of each [[programming language]] is defined by a [[formal grammar]]. In [[theory of computation|theoretical computer science]] and [[mathematics]], formal grammars define [[formal language]]s. The [[Chomsky hierarchy]] defines several important classes of formal grammars.
==References==
Bede Rundle, Grammar in Philosophy, Oxford 1979.
==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|grammar}}
*[[:Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
===Grammatical devices===
*[[Affixation]]
*[[Derivation (linguistics)|Derivation]]
*[[Reduplication]]
*[[Word order]]
===Grammatical terms===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Adjective]]
* [[Adjunct]]
* [[Adverb]]
* [[Appositive]]
* [[Article (grammar)|Article]]
* [[Grammatical aspect|Aspect]]
* [[Auxiliary verb]]
* [[Grammatical case|Case]]
* [[Clause]]
* [[Closed class word]]
* [[Comparative]]
* [[Complement]]
* [[Compound noun and adjective]]
* [[Grammatical conjugation|Conjugation]]
* [[Dangling modifier]]
* [[Declension]]
* [[Determiner]]
* [[Dual grammatical number|Dual]] (form for two)
{{col-break}}
* [[Expletive]]
* [[Function word]]
* [[Grammatical gender|Gender]]
* [[Infinitive]]
* [[Measure word]] (classifier)
* [[Modal particle]]
* [[Movement paradox]]
* [[Grammatical modifier|Modifier]]
* [[Grammatical mood|Mood]]
* [[Noun]]
* [[Grammatical number|Number]]
* [[Object (grammar)|Object]]
* [[Open class word]]
* [[Parasitic gap]]
* [[Part of speech]]
* [[Grammatical particle|Particle]]
* [[Grammatical person|Person]]
* [[Phrase]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Phrasal verb]]
* [[Plural]]
* [[Predicate (grammar)|Predicate]] (also verb phrase)
* [[Predicative (adjectival or nominal)]]
* [[Preposition]]
* [[Personal pronoun]]
* [[Pronoun]]
* [[Restrictive clause|Restrictiveness]]
* [[Sandhi]]
* [[Sentence (linguistics)]]
* [[Singular]]
* [[Subject (grammar)|Subject]]
* [[Superlative]]
* [[Grammatical tense|Tense]]
* [[Uninflected word]]
* [[Verb]]
* [[Grammatical voice|Voice]]
{{col-end}}
===See also===
* [[:Category:Grammar frameworks]]
* [[:Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
* [[Ambiguous grammar]]
* [[Analytic language]] vs. [[Synthetic language]]
* [[Government and binding]]
* [[Linguistic typology]]
* [[Syntax]]
* [[Systemic functional grammar]]
==External links==
*[http://pt.wikibooks.org/wiki/Grammar:_%C3%8Dndice English Grammar (Gramática da Língua Inglesa)], [[wikibooks| wikibook]] in [[English (language)|English]] and [[Portuguese (language)|Portuguese]]
*[http://www.gramster.com/ English Grammar Software]
*[http://www.krysstal.com/grammar.html Grammar Terms]
*[http://www.figarospeech.com/ It Figures-Figures of Speech]
*[http://www.grammarerror.com/ GrammarError: A blog with the best examples of the worst grammar]
* [http://www.lbt-languages.de/english/lernhilfe/lernhilfe.html Grammar Tutorials]
[[Category:Grammar|*]]
[[als:Grammatik]]
[[bg:Граматика]]
[[ca:Gramàtica]]
[[cs:Mluvnice]]
[[cv:Грамматика]]
[[da:Grammatik]]
[[de:Grammatik]]
[[eo:Gramatiko]]
[[es:Gramática]]
[[fa:دستور زبان]]
[[fi:Kielioppi]]
[[fr:Grammaire]]
[[he:דקדוק]]
[[hr:Gramatika]]
[[ia:Grammatica]]
[[id:Tata Bahasa]]
[[io:Gramatiko]]
[[it:Grammatica]]
[[ja:文法]]
[[ku:Rêziman]]
[[lv:Gramatika]]
[[nds:Grammatik]]
[[nl:Grammatica]]
[[nn:Grammatikk]]
[[no:Grammatikk]]
[[pl:Gramatyka]]
[[pt:Gramática]]
[[ru:Грамматика]]
[[simple:Grammar]]
[[sr:Граматика]]
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[[th:ไวยากรณ์]]
[[tpi:Grama]]
[[tr:Dilbilim]]
[[uk:Граматика]]
[[zh:语法]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Gigabyte</title>
<id>12570</id>
<revision>
<id>41812465</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T22:34:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Michiel Sikma</username>
<id>304976</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the unit of measurement, for the computer hardware manufacturer see [[Gigabyte Technology]].
{{Quantities of bytes}}
A '''gigabyte''' (derived from the [[SI prefix]] ''[[giga]]-'') is a unit of [[information]] or [[computer storage]] equal to one [[billion]] [[byte]]s. It is commonly abbreviated '''GB''' in writing (not to be confused with '''Gb''', which is used for [[gigabit]]) and '''gig''' in writing or speech.
There are two slightly different definitions of the size of a gigabyte in use:
* 1,000,000,000 bytes or 10<sup>9</sup> bytes is the decimal definition used in [[telecommunication]]s (such as network speeds) and some [[computer storage]] manufacturers (such as [[hard disk]]s and [[flash drives]]). This usage is compatible with [[SI]].
* 1,073,741,824 bytes, equal to 1024<sup>3</sup>, or 2<sup>30</sup> bytes. This is the definition used for [[computer memory]] sizes, and most often used in [[computer engineering]], [[computer science]], and most aspects of computer [[operating system]]s. The [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] recommends that this unit should instead be called a [[gibibyte]] (abbreviated '''GiB'''), as it conflicts with SI units used for bus speeds and the like.
== Distinction between 1000 and 1024 megabytes ==
:''Main article: [[Binary prefix]]''
As a result of this confusion, the unadorned term gigabyte is useful only where just one digit of precision is required. In technical specifications, the first usage is typically expanded to remove the ambiguity ("GB is one billion bytes"). The only exception is [[RAM]], where sizes are always given in the power-of-two units natural to this domain.
Thus, to convert metric gigabytes into binary gigabytes (for example a 100 GB drive contains 93 GiB when installed), follow this formula:
:<math>\frac{y \cdot 10^9}{2^{30}}</math>
where <math>y</math> is size of drive in metric gigabytes
To clarify the distinction between decimal and binary prefixes, in [[1997]] the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), a standards body, proposed complete conformity with the International System of Units ([[SI]]) conventions (standard [[IEC 60027-2]]). New units were formed as unions of the SI prefixes with the word "binary". Thus 2<sup>30</sup> bytes would be called a ''[[gibibyte]]'' (GiB) while the use of gigabyte is deprecated in this context. Thus, gigabyte unambiguously follows the SI convention as 10<sup>9</sup> bytes. This naming convention is steadily gaining acceptance, but deprecated usage is common. The convention must be inferred from context or fine print.
== Gigabytes in use ==
* As of [[2005]], most consumer [[hard drive]]s are defined by their gigabyte-range capacities. The true capacity is usually some number above or below the class designation. Although most hard disk manufacturers' definition of GB is 1,000,000,000 bytes (only [[computer memory]] has a natural inclination towards units that are powers of 2), most computer operating systems use the 1,073,741,824 byte definition. This distinction can cause confusion.
* [[As of 2005]], consumer hard drive per-gigabyte costs are 0.50-0.80 [[USD]].
* In speech, ''gigabyte'' is often informally abbreviated to ''gig'', as in "This is a ten-gig [[hard drive]]".
* A [[DVD#Technical_information|DVD-5]] format disc is capable of storing 4.7 GB. One gigabyte is roughly equal to 18 hours of [[MP3]] music (at 128 kbit/s).
* Most [[USB flash drive]]s have a capacity measured in [[MB]] but GB capacity flash drives have been released recently.
== See also ==
* [[gibibyte]]
* [[gigabit]]
* [[binary prefix]]
* [[orders of magnitude (data)]]
==External links==
* http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html
* http://www.iec.ch/zone/si/si_bytes.htm
* http://www.quinion.com/words/turnsofphrase/tp-kib1.htm
* http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/techbeat/tb9903.htm
[[Category:Units of information]]
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[[sk:
|
O IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
StarBurst '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
StarLISP '''DONE''' - Merged into Lisp programming language<br>
StarMOD '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
star network '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Starset '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STARSYS '''DONE''' (Convergent Technologies Operating System)<br>
start bit '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Start Of Header '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Start Of Text '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
start tag '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
state '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
state diagram '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (finite state machine)<br>
stateless '''DONE'''<br>
state machine '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (finite state machine)<br>
state transition diagram '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (finite state machine)<br>
State University of New York '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
static database management system<br>
static DBMS<br>
static link '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
static RAM '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
static random access memory '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
static scope '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (Static scoping)<br>
Station Management '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Statistical Analysis System '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
statistical time division multiplexing '''DONE''' (in my userspace, currently)<br>
statistics '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
StatMUX '''DONE''' (in my userspace, currently)<br>
STB '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STD '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STD 1 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STD 13 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STD 15 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STD 2 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STD 9 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
stderr<br>
stdin<br>
stdio<br>
stdio.h<br>
STDM '''DONE''' (in my userspace, currently)<br>
stdout<br>
STDWIN '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
steam-powered '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Steelman '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
steganography '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
stemmer '''DONE'''<br>
stemming '''DONE'''<br>
STENSOR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STEP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Stephen Cole Kleene '''DONE'''<br>
Stephen Jobs '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Stephen Kleene '''DONE'''<br>
Stepstone Corp '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
stepwise refinement '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
[[Autostereogram|Stereogram]] '''DONE'''<br>
Steve Jobs '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Steve's Shell '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Steve Wozniak '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Sticks&amp;Stones '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sticky analysis '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sticky bit<br>
sticky content '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
stiffy '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
STIL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STING '''DONE''' - merged into Lisp programming language<br>
STk '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STMP '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
stochastic '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
stock-keeping unit '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STOIC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
stomp on '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
STONE '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Stone Age '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
stone knives and bearskins '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Stoneman '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
stop bit '''DONE''' (in my userspace, currently)<br>
stoppage '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
storage '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Storage Allocation and Coding Program '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Storage Management Services '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
store '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
store and forward '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Story of Mel '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
STP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
StP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STP4 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Strachey, Christopher '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Strand '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Strand88 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Stratus '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
Strawman '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STREAM '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
stream '''DONE''' (in my userspace, currently)<br>
streaming '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (streaming media)<br>
stream-oriented '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STREAMS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
strength reduction '''DONE'''<br>
STRESS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
stress testing '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
strict<br>
strict evaluation<br>
strided '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
string '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (literal string)<br>
String EXpression Interpreter '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
STring Oriented Interactive Compiler '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
String Oriented Symbolic Language '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
String PRocessING language '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
string reduction '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
stripe '''DONE''' (Data striping)<br>
stripe set '''DONE''' (Data striping)<br>
striping '''DONE''' (Data striping)<br>
STROBES '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
stroke '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
StrongARM '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
strongly connected component<br>
strongly typed '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (datatype)<br>
strong typing '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (datatype)<br>
Stroustrup, Bjarne '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
struct '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
structural recursion '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (Structural induction)<br>
structured analysis '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
structured design '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
structure diagram '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
structured language '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
structured programming '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Structured Query Language '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Structure of Management Information '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
strudel '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
STRUDL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
STSC APL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
stub '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
stub network '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
stubroutine '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
STUDENT '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent<br>
Student PL/I '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
studly '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
studlycaps '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Stuffit '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Stupids '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
stupid-sort '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Sturgeon's Law '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
STX '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
su '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
SUB '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
subband encoding '''DONE'''<br>
subclass '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
subject '''DONE''' - merged into subject-oriented programming<br>
subject index '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
subject-oriented programming '''DONE'''<br>
sublanguage '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
subnet '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (subnetwork)<br>
subnet address '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
subnet mask '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
subnet number '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
subroutine '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
subscribe '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
subscribing '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
subseteq '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Subset-Equational Language '''DONE'''<br>
Substitute '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
substrate '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (integrated circuit)<br>
subtype '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
subtyping '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SuccessoR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
successor '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sucking mud '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Sue '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sufficiently small '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SUGAR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
suicideware '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
SUIF '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
suit '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
suitably small '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Suite Synthetique des Benchmarks de l'AFUU '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sum '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Summary Object Interchange Format '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SUMMER '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SUMMER SESSION '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sum of products type '''DONE'''<br>
Sun '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
Sun-2 Workstation '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Sun-3 Workstation '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
Sun-4 Workstation '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
sun lounge '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
Sun Microsystems, Inc. '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
SunOS '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info<br>
sunspots '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon<br>
sun-stools '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial<br>
SunView '''DONE'''<br>
SUNY
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d allowed suspects of felonies to have legal counsel (the ''Prisoners' Counsel Act''), and it was not until [[1963]] that the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] declared that legal counsel was a fundamental right of felony defendants in state courts. See ''[[Gideon v. Wainwright]]'', {{ussc|372|335|[[1963]]}}.
One of the most significant differences between the adversary system and the inquisitional system occurs when a criminal defendant admits to the crime. In an adversary system, there is no more controversy and the case proceeds to sentencing; though in many jurisdictions the defendant must have [[allocute|allocution]] of her or his crime, a false confession will not be accepted even in common law courts. By contrast, in an inquisitional system, the fact that the defendant has confessed is merely one more fact that is entered into evidence, and a confession by the defendant does not remove the requirement that the prosecution present a full case. This allows for [[plea bargain]]ing in adversary systems in a way that is difficult or impossible in inquisitional system, and many felony cases in the United States are handled without trial through such plea bargains.
Another difference is in the rules of evidence. Because the adversarial system assumes that the evidence is to be presented to laymen rather than to jurists, the rules of evidence are considerably more strict. Rules on [[hearsay]] are much stricter in most adversarial systems than in inquisitorial systems; though often lower tribunals are allowed some flexibility in applying the strict rules of common law evidence such as in domestic relations courts or in small claims proceedings where the parties are often unrepresented by lawyers and the judge functions as more of an inquisitor to protect the interests of children than a neutral arbiter of justice.
==History of the adversarial process==
Some writers trace the adversarial process to the medieval mode of [[trial by combat]], in which some litigants, notably women, were allowed a champion to represent them. Certainly the use of the [[jury]] in the common law system seems to have fostered the adversarial system, and there are many today who believe that it remains the best way of providing for the determination of a disputed issue. On the other hand, the new British Civil Justice reforms initiated by Lord Woolf (the Civil Procedure Rules or CPR) are prefaced with a case management system controlled by the judge rather than by the lawyers representing the different parties; similar case management systems are coming into use in the United States.
The adversarial system also disposes of the canard whereby lawyers are often asked how they can represent someone if they believe that person to be guilty (or innocent for that matter, although this might be a more difficult position): counsel must not deceive the court but his client is entitled to have the best presentation of the case laid before the tribunal and to have the evidence fully tested.
==Basic features of the adversarial system==
As an accused is not compelled to give evidence in a [[crime|criminal]] adversarial proceeding, he may not be questioned by prosecutor or judge unless he chooses to do so. However, should he decide to testify, he is subject to [[cross-examination]] and can be found guilty of [[perjury]]. As the election to maintain an accused person's 'right to silence' prevents any examination or cross-examination of that person's position, it follows that the decision of counsel as to what evidence will be called is a crucial tactic in any case in the adversarial system and hence it might be said that it is a lawyer's manipulation of the truth. Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge.
By contrast, while defendants in most civil law systems can be compelled to give a statement, this statement is not subject to cross-examination and not given under oath. This allows the defendant to explain his side of the case without being subject to cross-examination by a skilled opposition.
The passive role of the judge in the adversarial system also allows for [[plea bargain| plea bargaining]] in which the defendant agrees to plead guilty in exchange for a lesser sentence by the prosecution, or for out of court settlements in civil cases. In practice, most cases in the United States are disposed of in this manner. In the [[inquisitional system]], plea bargaining is impossible because there is no concept of a plea, and any attempt for the prosecution and defense to negotiate a sentence without the involvement of the judge would be considered highly unethical.
In some adversarial legislative systems, the court is permitted to make inferences on an accused's failure to face [[cross-examination]] or to answer a particular question. This obviously limits the usefulness of silence as a tactic by the defence. In [[United Kingdom|Britain]], the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 allowed such inferences to be made for the first time. This change was disparaged by critics as an end to the 'right to silence', though in fact an accused still has the right to remain silent and cannot be compelled to take the stand. In the [[United States]], the [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]] has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant's invocation of his right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests.
==Comparisons with the inquisitorial approach==
In many jurisdictions the approaches of each system are often formal differences in the way cases are reviewed. It is questionable that the results would be different if cases were conducted under the differing approaches; in fact no statistics exist that can show that these systems do not come to the same result. However, these approaches are often a matter of national pride and there are opinions amongst jurists about the merits of the differing approaches and their drawbacks as well.
Proponents of the adversarial system often argue that the system is more fair and less prone to abuse than the inquisitional approach, because it allows less room for the state to be biased against the defendant. It also allows most private litigants to settle their disputes in an amicable manner through discovery and pre-trial settlements in which non-contested facts are agreed upon and not dealt with during the trial process.
In addition, adversarial procedure defenders argue that the inquisitorial court systems are overly institutionalized and removed from the average citizen. The common law trial lawyer has ample opportunity to uncover the truth in a laboratory called the courtroom. Most cases that go to trial are carefully prepared through a discovery process that aids in the review of evidence and testimony before it is presented to judge or jury. The lawyers involved have a very good idea of the scope of agreement and disagreement of the issues to present at trial which develops much in the same way as the role of investigative judges. It has also been argued that a trial by a jury of one's peers may be more impartial than any government paid inquisitor and a panel of his peers. In the United States the right to a trial by a jury of one's peers who are common citizens is guaranteed by the United States Constitution.
Proponents of inquisitorial justice dispute these points. They point out that most cases in adversarial systems are actually resolved by [[plea bargain]] and [[Settlement (law)|settlement]]. Most legal cases in these systems do not go to trial; this can lead to great injustice when the defendant has an unskilled or overworked attorney, which is likely to be the case when the defendant is poor. In addition, proponents of inquisitorial systems argue that the plea bargain system causes the participants within the system to act in perverse ways, in that it encourages prosecutors to bring charges far in excess of what is warranted and defendants to plead guilty even when they believe that they are not. Furthermore, proponents of inquisitorial systems also argue that the power of the judge is limited by the use of lay assessors and that a panel of judges may not necessarily be more biased than a jury.
Furthermore, some countries with an [[inquisitorial system]] do use [[jury trial]]s for some categories of [[crime]]. Interestingly, some countries such as [[Japan]] before 1943 which used to have a right to jury trial, rarely used them, as there is a popular belief that any defendant who requests a jury trial has a case that is so weak that they are willing to risk pleading their case before strangers rather than professional judges. Hence, jurors in those countries are very unsympathetic toward defendants. (Jury system in Japan was suspended in 1943. In 2004, whole new lay-judge system was enacted in Japan and will be installed in 2009. In this system, 6 jurors and 3 judges will discuss and judge a case together.)
==Criticisms of the adversarial system==
Critics of this system suggest that the ability of a party to obtain a favorable result may hinge more upon the quality of their lawyers than on the facts of the case. An uncharismatic lawyer may fail to sway the jury with the plain facts of the case, whereas a highly charismatic lawyer may find favor with the jury by relating a narrative that seems to have little to do with the facts. This perception has been highlighted in popular culture - a classic example being the [[South Park]] episode in which [[Johnnie Cochran]] is portrayed as winning the jury over with his absurd and meaningless [[Chewbacca defense]].
The system is also criticized for the lucrative advantages it appears to present to the lawyer. Although both civil and criminal defendants are generally permitted to represent themselves ''pro se'', the complexity of
|
the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Communist International]]. In [[1940]], Prime Minister [[Fumimaro Konoye]] established the [[Imperial Rule Assistance Association]], or Taisei Yokusankai, to consolidate all political parties under a single umbrella group. That same year, Japan joined Germany and Italy in the [[Tripartite Pact]].
[[Spain]] ([[1936]]-[[1975]]) - After the 1936 arrest and execution of its founder [[José Antonio Primo de Rivera]] during the Spanish Civil War, the fascist [[Falange]] Española Party was allied to and ultimately came to be dominated by Generalísimo [[Francisco Franco]], who became known as ''El Caudillo'', the undisputed leader of the Nationalist side in the war, and, after victory, head of state until his death over 35 years later. However, it was best described as an autocracy based on the Falangist fascist principles in its early years. By the mid-50s, the [[Spanish Miracle]] and the rise of the [[Opus Dei]] in the Franco regime led to Falangist fascism being discarded and fascists minimized in importance.
[[Portugal]] ([[1932]]-[[1974]]) - Although less restrictive than the Italian, German and Spanish regimes, the [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]] regime of [[António de Oliveira Salazar]] was quasi-fascist. However, it was closer to the Spanish example of paternal authoritarianism than the Italian fascist or German Nazi model.
[[Greece]] - [[Joannis Metaxas]]' [[1936]] to [[1941]] dictatorship was not particularly ideological in nature, and might hence be characterized as authoritarian rather than fascist. The same can be argued regarding Colonel [[George Papadopoulos]]' [[1967]] to 1974 military dictatorship, which was supported by the United States.
[[Brazil]] ([[1937]]-[[1945]]) - Many historians have argued that Brazil's [[Estado Novo (Brazil)|Estado Novo]] under [[Getúlio Vargas]] was a Brazilian variant of the continental fascist regimes. For a period of time, Vargas' regime was aligned with [[Plínio Salgado]]'s [[Integralist Party]], Brazil's fascist movement. However, it also showed great affinity with organized labour and leftist ideas, leaving its classification open to interpretation.
[[Belgium]] ([[1940]]-[[1945]]) - The violent [[Rexism|Rexist]] movement and the [[Vlaamsch-Nationaal Verbond]] party achieved some electoral success in the 1930s. Many of its members assisted the Nazi occupation during World War II. The [[Verdinaso]] movement, too, can be considered fascist. Its leader, [[Joris Van Severen]], was killed before the Nazi occupation. Some of its adepts collaborated, but others joined the [[Resistance movement|resistance]]. These collaborationist movements are generally classified as belonging to the National Socialist model or the German fascist model because of its brand of racial nationalism and the close relation with the occupational authorities.
[[Slovakia]] ([[1939]]-[[1944]]) - The [[Slovak People's Party]] was a quasi-fascist nationalist movement associated with the Roman Catholic Church. Founded by Father [[Andrej Hlinka]], his successor Monsignor [[Jozef Tiso]] became the Nazis' [[Vidkun Quisling|quisling]] in a nominally independent Slovakia. The clerical element lends comparison with Austrofascism or the clerical fascism of Croatia, though not to the excesses of either model. The market system was run on principles agreeing with the standard Italian fascist model of industrial regulation.
[[France]] ([[1940]]-[[1944]]) - The Vichy regime of [[Philippe Pétain]], established following France's defeat by Germany, collaborated with the Nazis. However, the minimal importance of fascists in the government until its direct occupation by Germany makes it appear to seem more similar to the regime of Franco or Salazar than the model fascist powers. While it has been argued that anti-Semitic massacres performed by the Vichy regime were more in the interests of pleasing Germany than in service of ideology, anti-semitism was strong in France before World War II.
As early as October 1940 the Vichy regime introduced the infamous ''statut des Juifs'', that produced a new legal definition of Jewishness and which barred Jews from certain public offices. Worse still, in May 1941 the Parisian police force had collaborated in the internment of foreign Jews. As a means of identifying Jews, the German authorities required all Jews in the occupied zone to wear the Star of David on their clothing. On the [[11 June]], they demanded that 100, 000 Jews be handed over for deportation.
The most infamous of these mass arrests was the so-called grande rafle du Vél' d'Hiv' which took place in Paris on the 16th and [[17 July]] [[1942]]. The Vélodrome d'Hiver was a large indoor sports arena situated on the rue Nélaton near the Quai de Grenelle in the 15th arrondissment of Paris. In a vast operation codenamed vent printanier, the French police rounded up 12,884 Jews from Paris and its surrounding suburbs. These were mostly adult men and women but there were around 4,000 children amongst them. The rounding up was made easier by the large number of files on Jews complied and held by Vichy authorities since 1940. The French police, headed by René Bousquet, were entirely responsible for this operation and not one German soldier assisted.
[[Romania]] ([[1940]]-[[1944]]) - The [[Iron Guard]], turned more and more into a pro-Nazi and pro-German movement, and took power in September 1940 when [[Ion Antonescu]] forced King [[Carol II of Romania|Carol II]] to abdicate. However, the cohabitation between the Iron Guard and [[Ion Antonescu]] was short-lived.
The Antonescu regime that followed hardly qualifies as fascist, as it did not have a clear political program or party. It was rather a [[military dictatorship]]. The regime was characterized by nationalism, anti-semitism, and anti-communism, but had no social program. Despite the [[Iaşi pogrom]] and a near-liquidation of the Jews of many parts of [[Moldavia]], the regime ultimately refused to send the Romanian Jews to German death camps. The regime was overturned on [[23 August]] [[1944]] by a coup lead by the king [[Mihai of Romania]].
[[Independent State of Croatia]] ([[1941]]-[[1945]]) - ''Poglavnik'' [[Ante Pavelic|Ante Pavelić]], leader of the infamous [[Ustase|Ustaše]] movement, came to power in 1941 as the Croatian puppet leader under the control of Nazi Germany. Under the indirect control of Germany, the Ustaše regime was based heavily upon both upon clerical fascism and the Italian model of fascism, with elements of racial integrity and organic nationalism drawn from Nazism.
[[Norway]] ([[1943]]-[[1945]]) - [[Vidkun Quisling]] had staged a ''[[coup d'état]]'' during the German invasion on [[April 9]]th, 1940. This first government was replaced by a Nazi puppet government under his leadership from [[February 1]]st, 1943. His party had never had any substantial support in Norway, undermining his attempts to emulate the Italian fascist state.
[[Hungary]] ([[1932]]-[[1945]]) - By 1932, support for right-wing ideology, embodied by [[Gyula Gömbös]], had reached the point where Hungarian Regent [[Miklós Horthy]] could not postpone appointing a fascist prime minister. Horthy also showed signs of admiring the efficiency and conservative leanings of the Italian fascist state under Mussolini and was not too reluctant to appoint a fascist government (with terms for the extent of Horthy's power). Horthy would keep control over the mainstream fascist movement in Hungary until near the end of the Second World War. Starting in 1938, several racial laws were passed by the regime, but the extremist [[Arrow Cross]] party, led by [[Ferenc Szálasi]], was banned until German pressure lifted the law, and until Germany occupied Hungary within Operation Margareta on [[March 19]], 1944, no Jews were in direct danger of being annihilated. In July 1944, armour-colonel Ferenc Koszorús and the First Armour Division, under Horthy's orders, resisted the Arrow Cross militia and prevented the deportation of the Jews of Budapest, thus saved over 200,000 lives. This act impressed upon the German occupying forces, including [[Adolf Eichmann]], that as long as Hungary continued to be governed by Horthy, no real ''Endlösung'' could begin. Following Horthy's attempt to have Hungary change sides on [[October 13]], Szálasi, with German military support, replaced Admiral Horthy as Head of State. The regime changed to a system more in line with Nazism and would remain this way until the capture of Budapest by Soviet troops. Over 400,000 Jews were sent by Hungary to German death camps from 1944 to 1945.
Prior to World War II, fascist or quasi-fascist movements also appeared in democratic nations, often taking their inspiration from the regimes established by Mussolini and Hitler.
[[Ireland]] ([[1932]]-[[1933]]) - Fascist sympathizers led by Thomas O’Higgins and General Eoin O’Duffy established the [[Army Comrades Association]], or “Blueshirts”, in 1932, as a veterans organization. Renamed the National Guard, it eventually became the paramilitary wing of the United Ireland Party. The Blueshirts wanted to establish a corporate state in Ireland, and frequently clashed with Republican supporters of the ruling [[Fianna Fail]]. O’Duffy planned a March on Dublin in 1933, and the government, fearing a coup, banned the organization. A few Blueshirts remained under O’Duffy’s leadership and later joined the Italian and German foreign contingents in Franco’s uprising in Spain.
[[United Kingdom]] ([[1932]]-[[1940]]) - [[Sir Oswald Mosley]], an admirer of Mussolini, established the [[British Union of Fascists]] in 1932 as a nationalist alternative to the three mainstream political parties in Britain. Though the BUF achieved only limited success in some local elections, its paramilitary blackshirts engaged in street brawling and violence against Jewish citizens, trade unionists, and Communists. Alarmed at the organization’s violence, the government banned the
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unjustified, the argument that the death penalty is not specified for it in the [[Qur'an]], the idea that the punishment is unduly harsh, and opposition to the idea that the state's laws should be based on religion. The introduction of the [[AIDS]] [[pandemic]] in the Muslim world has also promoted more discussion about the legal status of homosexuality, as the legal sanctions against homosexuality have made it difficult to initiate any educational programs directed at high risk groups.
While executions and other criminal sanctions curtail any public [[gay rights]] movement, it is impractical to give criminal sanctions to all homosexuals living in a Muslim country, and it is common knowledge (e.g. to visiting foreigners) that some young men will experiment with homosexual relations as an outlet to sexual desires that cannot be met in a society where the sexes are often kept segregated. (See [[sex segregation]].) These discreet and casual homosexual relations allow men to engage in premarital sex with a low risk of facing the social or legal sanctions that would occur if they involved in [[adultery]] or [[fornication]] with a woman, which might result in a pregnancy. Most of these men do not consider themselves to be [[gay]] or [[bisexuality|bisexual]].
A related problem to full enforcement of the laws against homosexuality is that because the sexes are often segregated, men are encouraged to developed close friendships with other men, and women are encouraged to develop close friendships with other women. Also, Islamic law requires a certain number of male and female witnesses to the homosexual act to testify in court. Islam does place a strong value on the right to privacy in the home and thus homosexual relations that occur in private are theoretically outside the bounds of the law, although that is more theory then reality.
== Homosexuality in the Qur'an ==
:''See [[Islamic views of homosexuality#Homosexuality in the Qur'an|''Homosexuality in the Qur'an'']]''
The Qur'an specifically mentions that same-sex intercourse is forbidden.
The [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]] translation of the [[Qur'an]] states, in [[Al-A'raf]]:
:"We also sent [[Lut]]: He said to his people: Do ye commit lewdness such as no people in creation (ever) committed before you? For ye practice your lusts on men in preference to women: ye are indeed a people transgressing beyond bounds. And his people gave no answer but this: they said, "Drive them out of your city: these are indeed men who want to be clean and pure!"" (Qur'an 7:80-82)
[[Ash-Shu'ara]] (starting at 165):
:"Of all the creatures in the world, will ye approach males, And leave those whom Allah has created for you to be your mates? Nay, ye are a people transgressing (all limits)! They said: "If thou desist not, O Lut! thou wilt assuredly be cast out!" He said: "I do detest your doings:" "O my Lord! deliver me and my family from such things as they do!" So We delivered him and his family,- all Except an old woman who lingered behind. But the rest We destroyed utterly. We rained down on them a shower (of brimstone): and evil was the shower on those who were admonished (but heeded not)! Verily in this is a Sign: but most of them do not believe. And verily thy Lord is He, the Exalted in Might, Most Merciful." (Qur'an 26:165-175)
[[An-Naml]] (starting at 55):
:"Would ye really approach men in your lusts rather than women? Nay, ye are a people (grossly) ignorant! But his people gave no other answer but this: They said, "Drive out the followers of Lut from your city: these are indeed men who want to be clean and pure!" But We saved him and his family, except his wife; her We destined to be of those who lagged behind. And We rained down on them a shower (of brimstone): and evil was the shower on those who were admonished (but heeded not)!" (Qur'an 27:55-58)
[[Al-Ankabut]] (starting at 28):
:"And (remember) Lut: behold, he said to his people: "Ye do commit lewdness, such as no people in Creation (ever) committed before you. Do ye indeed approach men, and cut off the highway? - and practise wickedness (even) in your councils?" But his people gave no answer but this: they said: "Bring us the Wrath of Allah if thou tellest the truth." (Qur'an 29:28-29)
[[An-Nisa]], starting at 15-15:
:"If any of your women are guilty of lewdness, Take the evidence of four (Reliable) witnesses from amongst you against them; and if they testify, confine them to houses until death do claim them, or Allah ordain for them some (other) way. If two men among you are guilty of lewdness, punish them both. If they repent and amend, Leave them alone; for Allah is Oft-returning, Most Merciful." (Qur'an 4:15-16)
See also [[Khalil el-Moumni]]
== Liberal Islamic stances on homosexuality ==
Some self-described liberal Muslims, such as the members of the [[Al-Fatiha Foundation]], accept and consider homosexuality as natural, either regarding these verses as obsolete in the context of modern society, or pointing out that the Qu'ran speaks out against homosexual lust, and is silent on homosexual love. However, this position remains highly controversial even amongst [[liberal movements within Islam]], and is considered completely beyond the pale by mainstream Islam[http://www.al-fatiha.org/pamphlet.html].
==See also==
* [[Faisal Alam]]
* [[Irshad Manji]], Canadian lesbian and human rights activist
* [[Ghilman]]
* [[Historical pederastic couples]]
* [[Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni]]
* [[Malik Ayaz]]
* [[Mallam Abdullahi Ibrahim]]
* [[Nazar ill'al-murd]]
* [[Pederasty in the Islamic lands]]
* [[Usman Sani]]
* [[Yusuf Kabir]]
* [[Waheed Alli, Baron Alli]], British politician
* [[Festival of Muslim Cultures]]
==References==
*Khaled El-Rouayheb, ''Before Homosexuality in the Arab-Islamic World, 1500-1800'' Chicago, 2005
*James T. Monroe, ''Homoeroticism in Classical Arabic Literature'' New York, 1997
== External links ==
*[http://examinethetruth.com/manjism/homosexuality.htm Are homosexuals condemned eternally in Islam?]
[[Category:LGBT issues and religion|Islam]]
[[Category:Islamic law|Homosexuality, Islamic views of]]
[[Category:Religious ethics]]
[[Category:Pederasty]]
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<title>Isoroku Yamamoto/sleeping giant quote</title>
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<page>
<title>Infanticide</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">In [[sociology]] and [[biology]], '''infanticide''' is the practice of intentionally causing the [[death]] of an [[infant]] of a given species, by members of the same species. In many past societies, certain forms of infanticide were considered proper, whereas in most modern societies the practice is considered [[immoral]] and [[criminal]]. Nonetheless, it still takes place, in the [[Western world]] usually because of the mother's [[mental illness]], and in some poor countries because of tacit societal acceptance.
In the [[UK]], the [[Infanticide Act]] defines ''infanticide'' as a specific crime that can only be committed by the mother during the first twelve months of her infant's life. This article deals with the broader notion of infanticide explained above.
==Infanticide in history==
Infanticide was common in all well-studied ancient cultures, including those of ancient [[Greece]], [[Rome]], [[India]], [[China]], and [[Japan]]. The practice of infanticide has taken many forms. [[Child sacrifice]] to supernatural figures or forces, such as that allegedly practiced in ancient [[Carthage]], is one form; however, many societies only practiced simple infanticide and regarded child sacrifice as morally repugnant. The practice has become less common in the western world, but continues today in areas of extremely high [[poverty]] and [[overpopulation]], such as parts of China and India [http://www.gendercide.org/case_infanticide.html]. Female infants, then and now, are particularly vulnerable -- ''see'' [[female infanticide]].
One frequent method of infanticide in antiquity was simply to [[child abandonment|abandon the infant]], leaving it to death by exposure. Another method commonly used with female children was to severely malnourish them, resulting in a vastly increased risk of death by accident or disease. In some cultures, this is thought to have been an open and accepted practice, while in others it may have been practiced privately, with the passive acceptance of society.
Classic [[ancient Rome|Roman]] civilization can serve as an example of both aspects. In some periods of Roman history it was traditional practice for a newborn to be brought to the ''[[pater familias]]'', the family patriarch, who would then decide whether the child was to be kept and raised, or left to death by exposure. The [[Twelve Tables]] of [[Roman law]] obliged the ''pater f
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Liam Twomey]], elected as an Independent for Wexford, joined the Fine Gael Parliamentary Party in September 2004.
[[John Bruton]] resigned his Dáil seat in November 2004 to become EU Ambassador to the US, and was replaced in the March 2005 by-election by [[Shane McEntee]], also from Fine Gael.
== Associated figures==
[[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], [[W.T Cosgrave]], [[Kevin O'Higgins]], [[Eoin O'Duffy]], [[Richard Mulcahy]], [[John A. Costello]], [[James Dillon]], [[Liam Cosgrave]], [[ Tom O'Higgins]], [[Garret FitzGerald]], [[Peter Barry]], [[Alan Dukes]], [[John Bruton]], [[Nora Owen]], [[Michael Noonan]], [[Jim Mitchell]]
===Fine Gael in Europe===
Fine Gael [[Members of the European Parliament]] elected in June 2004:
*[[Gay Mitchell]] - Dublin
*[[Mairead McGuinness]] - Ireland East
*[[Avril Doyle]] - Ireland East
*[[Simon Coveney]] - Ireland South
*[[Jim Higgins]] - Ireland West
Fine Gael MEPs are part of the [[European People's Party - European Democrats|Group of the European People's Party (Christian Democrats) and European Democrats]] (EEP-ED) group in the European Parliament.
==Fine Gael Front Bench==
* [[Enda Kenny]] - '''Leader of Fine Gael''' and spokesperson on [[Northern Ireland]]
* [[Richard Bruton]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Finance|Finance]]
* [[Jim O'Keeffe]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Justice, Equality & Law Reform|Justice & Law Reform]]
* [[Bernard Allen (Irish politician)|Bernard Allen]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Affairs]]
* [[Phil Hogan]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Industry & Commerce|Enterprise, Trade & Employment]]
* [[Liam Twomey]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Health|Health And Children]]
* [[John Perry (Irish politician)|John Perry]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for the Marine & Natural Resources|the Marine]]
* [[Fergus O'Dowd]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for the Environment, Heritage & Local Government|Environment, Heritage & Local Government]]
* [[Jimmy Deenihan]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Arts, Sport & Tourism|Arts, Sport And Tourism]]
* [[David Stanton]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Social & Family Affairs|Social, Family Affairs & Equality]]
* [[Olivia Mitchell]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Transport|Transport]]
* [[Dinny McGinley]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for the Gaeltacht|Community, Rural And Gaeltacht Affairs]]
* [[Denis Naughten]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Agriculture|Agriculture And Food]]
* [[Olwyn Enright]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Education|Education And Science]]
* [[Billy Timmins]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Defence|Defence]]
* [[Bernard Durkan]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for the Marine & Natural Resources|Communications & Natural Resources]]
* [[Paul Connaughton]] - Spokesperson for Regional Development
* [[Senator]] [[Brian Hayes (politician)|Brian Hayes]] - Spokesperson on [[Dublin]].
* [[Paul Kehoe]] - [[Chief Whip]]
* [[Michael Noonan]] - Spokesperson [[Minister without portfolio|without portfolio]] and Chairman of the [[Public Accounts Committee]].
==Young Fine Gael==
Fine Gael have an active youth wing, [[Young Fine Gael]]. They were formed in [[1977]] by Garret FitzGerald and play an active part in the party's affairs and activities.
==Additional Reading==
* ''Nealon's Guide to the 29th Dáil and Seanad'' (Gill and Macmillan, 2002) (ISBN 0717132889)
* Stephen Collins, "The Cosgrave Legacy" (Blackwater, 1996) (ISBN 086121658X)
* Garret FitzGerald, "Garret FitzGerald: An Autobiography" (Gill and Macmillan, 1991) (ISBN 071711600X)
* Jack Jones, ''In Your Opinion: Political and Social Trends in Ireland through the Eyes of the Electorate'' (Townhouse, 2001) (ISBN 1860591493)
* Maurice Manning, ''James Dillon: A Biography'' (Wolfhound, 1999/2000) (ISBN 086327823X)
* Stephen O'Byrnes, ''Hiding Behind a Face: Fine Gael under FitzGerald'' (Gill and Macmillan: 1986) (ISBN 0717114481)
* Raymond Smith, ''Garret: The Enigma'' (Aherlow, 1985) (no ISBN)
==External links==
*[http://www.finegael.ie/ Official site]
==Footnote==
{{fnb|1}} The European Democrats party is a [[eurosceptic]] group that consists mainly of the [[Conservative Party (UK)]] with the sole MEP from the [[Ulster Unionist Party]], plus twelve from the Czech Republic, one Italian pensioner and two from Portugal. The EPP and the ED have common values on most issues, but are diametrically opposed on the future direction of the European Union.
{{Political parties in Ireland}}
[[Category:Republic of Ireland political parties]]
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[[he:פיין גייל]]
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<page>
<title>Fu Manchu</title>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the fictional literature character. For the distinctive [[moustache]] of which this character is an [[eponym]], see ''[[Fu Manchu moustache]]''. For the California rock band, see '''[[Fu Manchu (band)]]'''.}}
Dr. '''Fu Manchu''' is a [[fictional character]], an [[evil genius]] of [[China|Chinese]] origin, first featured in a series of novels by [[Birmingham]] author [[Sax Rohmer]] (real name Arthur Sarsfield Ward) during the early years of 20th century.
:"Imagine a person, tall, lean and feline, high-shouldered, with a brow like [[Shakespeare]] and a face like [[Satan]], a close-shaven skull, and long, magnetic eyes of the true cat-green. Invest him with all the cruel cunning of an entire Eastern race, accumulated in one giant intellect, with all the resources of science past and present... Imagine that awful being, and you have a mental picture of Dr. Fu-Manchu, the [[yellow peril]] incarnate in one man."&mdash;''The Insidious Dr. Fu Manchu''
A [[master criminal]], Fu Manchu works for the overthrow of Western civilization or the "White race." His murderous plots are marked by the extensive use of apparently Asian methods; he disdains guns or explosives, prefering [[Dacoity|dacoits]], [[Thuggee|phansigars]], and members of other secret societies as his agents armed with knives, or using "[[python]]s and [[king cobra|hamadryad]]s... [[fungus|fungi]] and my tiny allies, the [[bacillus|bacilli]]... my black spiders" and other peculiar animals or natural chemical weapons. The most prominent of his agents is the "seductively lovely" Karamaneh. Fu Manchu's daughter, Fah Lo Suee, is a devious mastermind in her own right, plotting to take control of the Si-Fan from her father and making things difficult for him.
Opposing Fu Manchu are [[Commissioner]] [[Sir Denis Nayland Smith]] and Dr. Petrie. They are in the [[Sherlock Holmes|Holmes]] and [[Dr. Watson|Watson]] tradition, with Dr. Petrie narrating the stories while Nayland Smith carries the fight, combating Fu Manchu more by doggedness and determination rather than any intellectual brilliance (except in extremis). Nayland Smith and Fu Manchu have grudging respect for each other, as each is from the old school where a man keeps his word even to an enemy.
According to Cay Van Ash (a friend and biographer of Sax Rohmer, who wrote his own authorized pastiches ''Ten years beyond Baker Street'' and ''The Fires of Fu Manchu'') "Fu Manchu" was a title of honor, which meant "the Warlike [[Manchu]]." It was thought that the character had been a member of the Imperial family who backed the losing side in the [[Boxer Rebellion]]. In the earliest books, Fu Manchu is an assassin sent on missions by the Si-Fan, but he quickly rises to become head of that dreaded secret society. At first, the Si-Fan's goal is to throw the Europeans out of Asia; later, the group attempts to intervene more generally in world politics, while funding itself by more ordinary crime. The character remains controversial as an example of the [[racism]] and stereotyping found frequently in [[Western]] representations of the Chinese at that time.
==Books==
*''The Insidious Dr Fu Manchu'' (1913)
*''The Return of Dr Fu Manchu'' (1916)
*''The Hand of Fu Manchu'' (1917)
*''Daughter of Fu Manchu'' (1931)
*''The Mask of Fu Manchu'' (1932)
*''The Bride of Fu Manchu'' (1933)
*''The Trail of Fu Manchu'' (1934)
*''President Fu Manchu'' (1936)
*''The Drums of Fu Manchu'' (1939)
*''The Island of Fu Manchu'' (1940)
*''The Shadow of Fu Manchu'' (1948)
*''The Wrath of Fu Manchu'' (1952)
*''Re-Enter Fu Manchu'' (1957)
*''Emperor Fu Manchu'' (1959)
==TV, serials, and feature films==
Fu Manchu has appeared as a villainous character in several [[film|motion pictures]] and [[cliffhanger]] [[serial]]s over the years, and even a [[television series]], ''[[The Adventures of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1956]]). There were a number made around [[1930]] including ''[[The Mysterious Dr. Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1929]]) and ''[[The Return of Dr. Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1930]]). ''[[The Mask of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1932]]), featuring [[Boris Karloff]], is considered the best of those produced in the [[1930s]]. In [[1940]], [[Republic Pictures|Republic Studios]] released ''[[The Drums of Fu Manchu]]'', a 15-episode serial considered to be one of the best the studio ever made. The name was revived in a series starring [[Christopher Lee]] in the [[1960s]] with ''[[The Face of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1965]]), ''[[The Brides of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1966]]), ''[[The Vengeance of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1967]]), ''[[The Brain of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1968]]), and finally ''[[The Castle of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1969]]). His last major fi
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ot; in the sense of a [[moral]] virtue, or it may also mean "virtue" in the somewhat archaic English sense of an inherent power (as in "healing virtue of a plant").
* &#32147; (''j&#299;ng'') means "scripture", "great book", or "doctrine".
Thus, &#36947;&#24503;&#32147; could be translated as "The Scripture of the Way and the Virtue", "The Great Book of the Way and its Power", "The Doctrine of The Path and its Virtues", etc.
Though commonly referred to as the &#36947;&#24503;&#32147; (''Tao Te Ching''), the title is probably a fusion of the two books of scriptures, namely &#36947;&#32147; (''Tao Ching'') and &#24503;&#32147; (''Te Ching''). In fact, the latter book has been found among some recent discoveries. It is likely that the combined name of both books has no real intended meaning, though this is at present impossible to ascertain given the numerous revisions of the scriptures.
*Note: As mentioned above in the sidebar, "Taoism" is also spelled "[[Daoism]]" in the ''pinyin'' system.*
==Structure==
In its present form, the ''Tao Te Ching'' is in two sections (''Tao'', containing chapters 1&ndash;37; and ''Te'', chapters 38&ndash;81), and uses around 5,000 [[Chinese characters]]. Each chapter is rather short, using few [[Chinese characters|characters]] to express its often difficult ideas poetically.
==Historical authenticity==
[[Image:Lao zi.PNG|thumb|[[Laozi]]]]The existence of Laozi is mentioned in scrolls dating back to 400 BCE, but the details of his life were not contemporaneously recorded. The Chinese historian [[Sima Qian]] wrote a supposed biography of him in about 100 BCE, indicating that his birth name was Li Er. Studies on the language and the [[rhyme]] scheme of the work point to a date of composition after the [[Shi Jing]] or ''Book of Songs'', yet before the writing of [[Zhuangzi]] &mdash; some time in the late fourth or early third centuries.
Scholars debate the authorship of the current version of the ''Tao Te Ching''. Sections of it in its current form have been found engraved on stone tablets dated to 300 BCE. The [[1973]] archeological discovery of more or less complete Chinese "scrolls" (actually silk rolls called the [[Ma-wang-tui Texts]] after the village where they were found: Text A, with more [[lacuna]]e, thought to have been written sometime before Text B which has been dated to 200 BCE) reveals that our most common versions of the [[received text]] are substantially the same as that which was known in antiquity, thus limiting the time period during which the writings might have been substantially changed or contributed to. In [[1993]], the oldest known version of the text was discovered, written in ink on [[bamboo]] strips and dated to [[300 BCE]]. This find unearthed 14 verses previously unknown, referred to as the ''Guodian text'' as they were discovered in a tomb in the town of [[Guodian]], in the [[Hubei]] [[Political divisions of China|province]]. Many newer translations include these texts, and the verses of the book are often reordered to synthesize the new find.
As early as the [[1930s]], ways to resolve disputes over authorship without declaring who is right or wrong (a [[Daoism|Taoist]] solution) have been proposed. In an essay accompanying a translation by [[Wai-tao]] and [[Dwight Goddard]], Dr. [[Kiang Kang-hu]] offers, "Three Taoist sages who lived two or three hundred or more years apart, according to history, are commonly believed to be the same man, who by his wisdom had attained longevity. The simpler and more probable solution of the confusion is to accept the historicity of all three but to give credit for the original writing to Laozi and consider the others as able disciples and possibly editors. The book in its present form might not have been written until the third century BCE, for it was engraved on stone tablets soon after that time". Credit for some verses might be conditionally given to later Taoists "without detracting from the larger credit that belongs to Laozi".
==Interpretation==
Many believe that the ''Tao Te Ching'' contains some universal truths which have since been independently recognized in other philosophies, both religious and secular. Each modern language interpretation (including even interpretation of the three-character title, of which there are dozens) differs at least slightly, and occasionally profoundly, from the next. Depending on how one reads them, some chapters could have three or more interpretations, ranging from practical wisdom for the common man to advice intended for kings to even the odd medical recipe. The following are some concepts and principles which may facilitate understanding of the text.
=== The [[Tao]] that can be told of...===
:The [Tao] that can be told of is not an Unvarying [Tao];
:The names that can be named are not unvarying names.
:It was from the Nameless that Heaven and Earth sprang;
:The named is but the mother that rears the ten thousand creatures,
: each after its kind.
::(tr. [[A. Waley]])
These are the first words of the text in its present form (Waley translates "Tao" as "Way"). The Tao Te Ching does not specifically define what the Tao is. Laozi himself reportedly said, "My words are very easy to understand [...] yet no one under heaven understands them." (chapter 70) However, we can point to some of the Tao's characteristics. Tao is the core topic of the book, supplemented by related themes such as ''[[De|Te]]'' ("virtue", or "power"), nothingness, return, detachment, and ''[[wu-wei]]'' ("non-action"). The Tao can be seen as all being, before and beyond all distinctions between different forms or essences of things. Everything comes from Tao and returns to Tao. Perhaps, in the sense of the physicist [[David Bohm]], Tao is 'that- which- is', perfect in being what it is, Being of all and nothing. Proper characteristics can never be truly attributed to the Tao, at least not in a form that can be expressed in words, because Tao represents the Highest form of Truth which transcends rationality or symbolic ideology, as no idea can capture 'truth', so Bohm says, in the sense of 'that which is'. This did not prevent the ancient Chinese Taoists from feeling the Power of Tao, but it did prevent them from properly ascribing their experiences into words.
===The "Valley Spirit"===
:The Valley Spirit never dies
:It is named the Mysterious Female.
:And the doorway of the Mysterious Female
:Is the base from which Heaven and Earth sprang.
:It is there within us all the while;
:Draw upon it as you will, it never runs dry.
::(Chapter VI, Tr. [[A. Waley]])
The ''Tao Te Ching'' can be seen as advocating mostly "feminine" (or ''[[Yin-Yang|Yin]]'') values, emphasising the qualities of ''water'' &mdash; fluidity and softness (instead of the solid and stable ''mountain''), choosing the obscure and mysterious aspect of things, and controlling things without ruling them, in other words to 'have without possessing'. In this respect, this book can be understood as challenging "male" (or ''Yang'') values such as clarity, stability, positive action, and domination of nature; such values are often referred to as [[Confucian]] values. Yet a perfect balance between the Yin and Yang is still encouraged in Taoism.
===The Return===
"When he is born, man is soft and weak; in death he becomes stiff and hard... the hard and mighty are cast down; the soft and weak set on high." (chapter 76) This quote shows again Laozi's focus on softness, but in another pair of counterparts: the newborn baby and the old man. Rigidity is the attribute of death, while weakness is the attribute of life. When things or beings are at their beginning, everything is possible. When things have not yet developed, it is the right time to act on them with a better chance for good results. A kind of return to the beginning of things, or to one's own childhood, is required.
This focus on the importance of beginnings also has social ramifications. As in the theory of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], the ''Tao Te Ching'' assumes that ancient times were those of happiness, purity of intentions, and full communion with nature: "the times when anyone could look inside the nests of all the birds". Problems arose when humanity "invented" culture and civilisation. The Tao Te Ching proposes a return to the more natural state, for example in chapter 80, where the text argues the people should "come back to the usage of knotted ropes" in place of any other form of writing.
However, the "Return" shouldn't be understood as a simple or reactionary way back to the past, but as a "contraction," a "reduction," a "withdrawal" or even a "retreat" in oneself. This is illustrated in the anti-Confucianist saying: ''Learning consists in adding to one's stock day by day; the practice of Tao consists in subtracting day by day'' (ch. 48) and in this strategic advice ''I dare not advance an inch but retreat a foot instead.'' (ch. 69) Diminishing one's ego, instead of "improving" it through studies, is the path to real wisdom. Letting the enemy take the first step (thus reducing his range of possiblities) is the way to gain the upper hand.
Although this idea of a "Return" is close to some modern psychological practices such as introspection, what is to be reached through "Return" is not the self but nothingness, a return to that-which-is.
=== ''The Sage has no heart on his own...'' ===
The Search for Vacuity is a common concern for many different [[Asian]] wisdoms including Taoism, Buddhism, and some aspects of Confucianism. In the ''Tao Te Ching'', nothingness is
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unitary hull classification symbol, meaning "aircraft carrier." Aircraft carriers are designated in two sequences: The first, which has run from CV-1 USS ''Langley'' to the very latest ships, and the second, the CVE escort carrier sequence, ran from CVE-1 ''Long Island'' to CVE-128 ''Okinawa'' before being discontinued.
*AVG Auxiliary Aircraft Ferry (Escort carrier) (1941-2)
*ACV Auxiliary Aircraft Carrier (Escort carrier) (1942)
*CV Multi-purpose [[Aircraft Carrier]]
*CVA Attack Aircraft Carrier (category merged into CV, 1975)
*CVAN Attack Aircraft Carrier, Nuclear (all CVA and CVAN changed to CV on 30 June 1975)
*CVB Large Aircraft Carrier (category merged into CVA, 1952)
*CVE [[Escort aircraft carrier]] (retired) (1943-retirement of type)
*CVHA Assault Helicopter Aircraft Carrier (retired in favor of various L-series [[amphibious assault ship]] hull codes)
*CVHE Escort Helicopter Aircraft Carrier (retired)
*CVL [[Light aircraft carrier]] (retired)
*CVN Multi-purpose Aircraft Carrier (Nuclear-Propulsion)
*CVS Antisubmarine Aircraft Carrier (retired)
*CVT Training Aircraft Carrier (changed to AVT (Auxiliary))
*CVU Utility Aircraft Carrier (retired)
=== Surface Combatant Type ===
Surface ships which are designed primarily to engage enemy forces on the high seas. The primary surface combatants are battleships, cruisers and destroyers. Battleships are very heavily armed and armored; cruisers moderately so; destroyers and smaller warships , less so. Before 1920, ships were called "<type> no. X," with the type fully pronounced. The types were commonly abbreviated in ship lists to "B-X," "C-X," "D-X" et cetera - for example, before 1920, [[USS Minnesota (BB-22)]] would have been called "USS ''Minnesota'', Battleship number 22" verbally and "USS ''Minnesota'', B-22" in writing. After 1920, the ship's name would have been both written and pronounced "USS ''Minnesota'' (BB-22)" In generally decreasing size, the types are:
*B [[Battleship]] (pre-1920)
*BB [[Battleship]]
*BBG Guided Missile Battleship (theoretical only, never assigned)
*BM [[Monitor (ship)|Monitor]] (1920-retirement)
*ACR Armored Cruiser (pre-1920)
*C [[Cruiser]] (pre-1920 Protected Cruisers and Peace Cruisers)
*CA (first series) Cruiser (retired, composed all surviving pre-1920 Protected and Peace Cruisers)
*CA (second series) [[Heavy Cruiser]], category later renamed Gun Cruiser (retired)
*CAG Guided Missile Heavy Cruiser (retired)
*CB [[Large Cruiser]] (retired)
*CBC Large Command Cruiser (retired, never used operationally)
*CC [[Battlecruiser]] (retired, never used operationally)
*CC (second usage) Command Cruiser (retired)
*CG Guided Missile Cruiser
*CGN Guided Missile Cruiser (Nuclear-Propulsion)
*CL [[Light Cruiser]] (retired)
*CLAA Antiaircraft Cruiser (retired)
*CLG Guided Missile Light Cruiser (retired)
*CLGN Guided Missile Light Cruiser (Nuclear-Propulsion) (retired)
*CLK Hunter-Killer Cruiser (abolished 1951)
*CS Scout Cruiser (retired)
*CSGN [[Strike Cruiser]]
*D Destroyer (pre-1920)
*DD [[Destroyer]]
*DDE Escort Destroyer (not to be confused with Destroyer Escort, DE - an Escort Destroyer, DDE, was a Destroyer, DD, converted for antisubmarine warfare) (category abolished 1962)
*DDG Guided Missile Destroyer
*DDK Hunter-Killer Destroyer (category merged into DDE, [[4 March]] [[1950]])
*DDR Radar Picket Destroyer (retired)
*DE [[Destroyer escort|Destroyer Escort]] (World War II, later became Ocean Escort)
*DE Ocean Escort (abolished [[30 June]] [[1975]])
*DEG Guided Missile Ocean Escort (abolished [[30 June]] [[1975]])
*DER Radar Picket Destroyer Escort (abolished [[30 June]] [[1975]])
A word about the DE type symbol is in order here. There were two distinct breeds of DE, the World War II Destroyer Escorts (some of which were converted to DERs) and the postwar DE/DEG classes, which were known as Ocean Escorts despite carrying the same type symbol as the WWII Destroyer Escorts. All DEs, DEGs, and DERs were reclassified as FFs, FFGs, or FFRs, [[30 June]] [[1975]].
*DL Destroyer Leader (later Frigate) (retired)
*DLG Guided Missile Frigate (abolished [[30 June]] [[1975]])
*DLGN Guided Missile Frigate (Nuclear-Propulsion) (abolished [[30 June]] [[1975]])
The DL category was established in 1951 with the abolition of the CLK category. CLK 1 became DL 1 and DD 927-930 became DL 2-5. By the mid-1950s the term Destroyer Leader had been dropped in favor of Frigate. Most DLGs and DLGNs were reclassified as CGs and CGNs, [[30 June]] [[1975]]. However, DLG 6-15 became DDG 37-46. The old DLs were already gone by that time.
*DM Destroyer Minelayer (retired)
*FF [[Frigate]] (retired)
*FFG Guided Missile Frigate
*FFR Radar Picket Frigate (retired)
*FFT Frigate (Reserve Training) (retired)
The FF, FFG, and FFR designations were established [[30 June]] [[1975]] as new type symbols for ex-DEs, DEGs, and DERs. The first new-build ships to carry the FF/FFG designation were the [[Oliver Hazard Perry class frigate|''Oliver Hazard Perry'' (FFG-7) class frigates]]. A new series of frigate-size warships for shallow-water combat at expense of battlegroup performance is under production:
*K [[Corvette]] (retired]
*LCS [[Littoral Combat Ship]]
*M Monitor (1880s-1920)
Note that this list is from a United States Navy perspective. Frigate and Corvette designations are used in other navies.
=== Submarine type ===
All self-propelled submersible types regardless of whether employed as combatant, auxiliary, or research and development vehicles which have at least a residual combat capability.
*SC Cruiser Submarine (retired)
*SF Fleet [[Submarine]] (retired)
*SM Submarine Minelayer (retired)
*SS [[Submarine]] (none in commission)
*SSA Cargo Submarine (retired)
*SSK Hunter-Killer Submarine (retired)
*SSN [[Attack submarine|Attack Submarine]] (Nuclear-Powered)
*SSBN [[Ballistic missile submarine|Ballistic Missile Submarine]] (Nuclear-Powered)
*SSG Guided Missile Submarine (retired)
*SSGN Guided Missile Submarine (Nuclear-Powered)
*SSO Submarine Oiler (retired)
*SSP Submarine Transport (retired)
*SSR Radar Picket Submarine (retired)
*SSRN Radar Picket Submarine (Nuclear-Powered) (retired)
*SST Training Submarine (retired)
There have been several other submarine designations which did not begin with SS, included here for completeness:
*AGSS Auxiliary Submarine
*AOSS Submarine Oiler (retired)
*ASSP Transport Submarine (retired)
*APSS Transport Submarine (retired)
*LPSS Amphibious Transport Submarine (retired)
(Note: SSP, ASSP, APSS, and LPSS were all the same type, redesignated over the years.)
*IXSS Unclassified Miscellaneous Submarine
=== Patrol Combatant Type ===
Combatants whose mission may extend beyond coastal duties and whose characteristics include adequate endurance and sea keeping providing a capability for operations exceeding 48 hours on the high seas without support. Few in service today.
*PC Coastal Patrol, originally Sub Chaser
*PCF Vietnam Swift Boat
*PE Eagle Boat of [[World War I]]
*PF World War II Frigate, Based on British [[River class frigates|River class]].
**PFG Original designation of [[USS Oliver Hazard Perry (FFG-7)|USS ''Oliver Hazard Perry'' (FFG-7)]]
*PG Gunboat, later [[Patrol combatant]]
*[[PT Boat|PT]] Motor Torpedo Boat (World War II)
*PGH Patrol Combatant, Hydrofoil
*PHM Patrol, [[Hydrofoil]] Missile
=== Amphibious Warfare Type ===
All ships having organic capability for amphibious assault and which have characteristics enabling long duration operations on the high seas. There are two classifications of craft here, the amhibious assault ships, built to cross oceans, and Landing Craft, to take men from the ship to the shore in an invasion.
'''Ships'''
*LHA [[Amphibious Assault Ship]] (General Purpose)
*LHD Amphibious Assault Ship (Multi-Purpose, i.e. added Landing Craft ability versus LHA)
*LPD [[Amphibious transport dock|Amphibious Transport, Dock]] (aka Landing Platform, Dock)
*LCC [[Amphibious Command Ship]]
*LKA Amphibious Cargo Ship (out of commission)
*LPA Landing Platform, Amphibious
*LPH [[Landing Platform, Helicopter]] (out of commission)
*LSD [[Dock Landing Ship|Landing Ship, Dock]]
*LSH Landing Ship, Heavy
*LSIL Landing Ship, Infantry (Large) (formerly LCIL)
**LCIL Landing Craft, Infantry (Large)
*LSL Landing Ship, Logistics
*LSM Landing Ship, Medium
*LSSL [[Landing ship support, large|Landing Ship, Support (Large)]] (formerly LCSL)
**LCSL Landing Craft, Support (Large)
*LST [[Tank landing ship|Landing Ship, Tank]]
*LSV [[Landing Ship Vehicle]]
'''Landing Craft'''
*LCAC [[Landing Craft]], Air Cushioned
*LCH Landing Craft, Heavy
*LCM Landing Craft, Mechanized
*LCU Landing Craft, Utility
*LCVP Landing Craft, Vehicle and Personnel
*LCT Landing Craft, Tank (World War II era)
=== Combat Logistics Type ===
Ships which have the capability to provide underway replenishment to fleet units.
*AC [[Collier]]
*AE [[Ammunition Ship]]
*AFS [[Combat Stores Ship]]
*AO Fleet [[Oiler (ship)|Oiler]]
*AOE [[Fast Combat Support Ship]]
*AOR [[Replenishment Oiler]]
*AW Distilling Ship
=== Mine Warfare Type ===
All ships whose primary function is mine warfare on the high seas.
*AM Minesweeper
*AMb Harbor Minesweeper
*AMc Coastal Minesweeper
*AMCU Underwater Mine Locater
*MSO [[Minesweeper (ship)|Minesweeper]] - Ocean
*MCM [[Mine Countermeasures Ship]]
*MCS [[Mine Countermeasures Support Ship]]
*MHC [[Minehunter]], Coastal
*MHI Mine Hunter Inshore
*CM Minelayer
*CMc Coastal Minelayer
*DM Destroyer Minelayer
=== Coastal Defense Type ===
All ships whose primary function is coastal patrol and interdiction.
*FS [[Corvette]]
*PB [[Patrol boat]]
*PC [[Patrol ship|Patrol]], Coastal
*PCE Patrol Escort
*PF [[Frigate]], in a role similar to World War II Commonwealth [[corvette]]s
*SP [[Shore patrol|Shore Patrol]]
=== Mobile Logistics Type ===
Ships which have the capability to provide direct mate
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pronounced than previously thought, although the two species are still closely related. As ''Albertosaurus'' and ''Gorgosaurus'' are considered [[sister taxa]], and there is no commonly accepted definition of a genus in paleontology, Currie acknowledged that the difference between retaining them in one genus or separating them into two is largely arbitrary. However, he recommended separating them to allow more flexibility when naming new species in the future, and because there is no greater degree of difference between the two than there is between ''[[Daspletosaurus]]'' and ''[[Tyrannosaurus]]'', which are almost universally retained as different genera. Other paleontologists, with the exception of Carr et al. (2005), have largely followed Currie's recommendation on the subject and ''Gorgosaurus'' is now widely recognized as a separate genus.
==Location and Age==
''Albertosaurus'' is known mostly from the [[Horseshoe Canyon Formation]] of [[Alberta]], [[Canada]]. This [[geologic formation|formation]] is from the early [[Maastrichtian]] stage of the [[Late Cretaceous]] Period, about 73 to 70 million years ago. Many other dinosaurs have been found there, including [[ornithomimidae|ornithomimids]], ''[[Chirostenotes]]'', [[dromaeosaurid]]s, [[ankylosauria]]ns, [[ceratopsia]]ns, [[pachycephalosaur]]s, and [[hadrosaurids]].
Fossils of ''Albertosaurus'' have also been reported from the [[United States|American]] states of Montana and [[Wyoming]], but these are not recognizable to species level according to Currie (2003) and Holtz (2004).
==Remains==
[[Image:Dd albertos 300.jpg|frame|Albertosaurus]]
Currie (2003) recognized ten skulls which belong to ''A. sarcophagus'' with certainty, as well as seven skeletons of varying completeness. The [[holotype]] skull was found by famous Canadian [[geologist]] [[Joseph Tyrrell|Joseph B. Tyrrell]].
===Bonebed in Alberta===
In addition, articulated remains of 12 more individuals of all different ages have been recovered from a [[bonebed]] locality in Alberta, providing a nearly complete sequence from juvenile to very old adults. This is now one of the most completely known tyrannosaurid species.
It is possible that such a large number of individuals in one place represents some sort of [[social behavior]] among albertosaurs, but this is difficult to prove.
==References==
#{{cite journal
| author = Osborn, H.F.
| year = 1905
| title = ''Tyrannosaurus'' and other Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaurs
| journal = Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History
| volume = 21
| pages = 259-265
}} [original description]
#{{cite journal
| author = Russell, D.A.
| year = 1970
| title = Tyrannosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of western Canada
| journal = National Museum of Natural Sciences, Publications in Paleontology
| volume = 1
| pages = 1-34
}} [synonymization with ''Gorgosaurus'']
#{{cite journal
| author = Currie, P.J.
| year = 2003
| title = Cranial anatomy of tyrannosaurids from the Late Cretaceous of Alberta
| journal = Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
| volume = 48(20)
| pages = 191-226
}} [anatomy, re-separation from ''Gorgosaurus'']
#{{cite journal
| author = Currie, P.J., J.H. Hurum, & K. Sabath
| year = 2003
| title = Skull structure and evolution in tyrannosaurid phylogeny
| journal = Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
| volume = 48(2)
| pages = 227-234
}} [includes phylogeny]
#{{cite book
| author = Holtz, T.R.
| year = 2004
| title = The Dinosauria
| chapter = Chapter 5: Tyrannosauroidea.
| editor = Weishampel, D.A., P. Dodson, & H. Osmolska, eds.
| edition = Second Edition
| pages = 111-136
| publisher = University of California Press
| location = Berkeley
}} [includes phylogeny]
#{{cite journal
| author = Carr, T.D., T.E. Williamson, & D.R. Schwimmer
| year = 2005
| title = A new genus and species of tyrannosauroid from the Late Cretaceous (middle Campanian) Demopolis Formation of Alabama
| journal = Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
| volume = 25(1)
| pages = 119-143
}} [description of ''Appalachiosaurus'', includes phylogeny]
[[Category:Cretaceous dinosaurs]]
[[Category:Theropods]]
[[Category:Tyrannosaurids]]
[[de:Albertosaurus]]
[[es:Albertosaurus]]
[[fr:Albertosaurus]]
[[he:&#1488;&#1500;&#1489;&#1512;&#1496;&#1493;&#1494;&#1488;&#1493;&#1512;]]
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[[sv:Albertosaurus]]
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[[pt:Albertossauro]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Assembly language</title>
<id>1368</id>
<revision>
<id>41739134</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-01T11:42:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Akamad</username>
<id>292168</id>
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<comment>Revert to revision 41652522 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Assembly language''' commonly called '''assembly''' or '''asm''', is a [[human-readable]] notation for the [[machine language]] that a specific [[computer architecture]] uses. Machine language, a pattern of bits encoding machine operations, is made readable by replacing the raw values with symbols called ''mnemonics''.
For example, a computer with the appropriate processor will understand this [[x86]]/[[IA-32]] [[machine language]]:
10110000 01100001
For programmers, however, it is easier to remember the equivalent assembly language representation:
mov al, 061h
which means to move the [[hexadecimal]] value 61 (97 [[decimal]]) into the [[processor register]] with the name "al". The [[mnemonic]] "mov" is short for "move", and a comma-separated list of arguments or parameters follows it; this is a typical assembly language statement.
Transforming assembly into machine language is accomplished by an [[assembler]], and the reverse by a [[disassembler]]. Unlike in [[high-level language]]s, there is usually a [[1-to-1]] correspondence between simple assembly statements and machine language instructions. However, in some cases an assembler may provide ''pseudoinstructions'' which expand into several machine language instructions to provide commonly needed functionality. For example, for a machine that lacks a "branch if greater or equal" instruction, an assembler may provide a pseudoinstruction that expands to the machine's "set if less than" and "branch if zero (on the result of the set instruction)".
Every [[computer architecture]] has its own machine language, and therefore its own assembly language. Computers differ by the number and type of operations that they support. They may also have different sizes and numbers of registers, and different representations of data types in storage. While all general-purpose computers are able to carry out essentially the same functionality, the way they do it differs, and the corresponding assembly language must reflect these differences.
In addition, multiple sets of [[mnemonic|mnemonics]] or assembly-language syntax may exist for a single instruction set. In these cases, the most popular one is usually that used by the manufacturer in their documentation.
==Machine instructions==
Instructions in assembly language are generally very simple, unlike in a [[high-level language]]. Any instruction that references memory (for data or as a jump target) will also have an [[addressing mode]] to determine how to calculate the required memory address. More complex operations must be built up out of these simple operations. Some operations available in most instruction sets include:
* moving
** set a [[processor register|register]] (a temporary "scratchpad" location in the CPU itself) to a fixed constant value
** move data from a memory location to a register, or vice versa. This is done to obtain the data to perform a computation on it later, or to store the result of a computation.
** read and write data from hardware devices
* computing
** add, subtract, multiply, or divide the values of two registers, placing the result in a register
** perform [[bitwise operation]]s, taking the conjunction/disjunction (and/or) of corresponding bits in a pair of registers, or the negation (not) of each bit in a register
** compare two values in registers (for example, to see if one is less, or if they are equal)
* affecting program flow
** jump to another location in the program and execute instructions there
** jump to another location if a certain condition holds
** jump to another location, but save the location of the next instruction as a point to return to (a ''call'')
Some computers include one or more "complex" instructions in their instruction set. A single "complex" instruction does something that may take many instructions on other computers. Such instructions are typified by instructions that take multiple steps, may issue to multiple functional units, or otherwise appear to be a design exception to the simplest instructions which are implemented for the given processor. Some examples of such instruction include:
* saving many registers on the stack at once
* moving large blocks of memory
* complex and/or floating-point arithmetic ([[sine]], [[cosine]], [[square root]], etc.)
* performing an atomic [[test-and-set]] instruction
* instructions that combine ALU with an operand from memory rather than a register
A form of complex instructions that has become particularly popular recently are [[SIMD]] operations that perform the same arithmetic operation to multiple pieces of data at the same time, which have appeared under various trade names beginning with [[MMX]] and [[AltiVec]].
The design of instruction sets is a complex issue, with a simpler instruction set (generally grouped under the concept [[RISC]]) perhaps offering the potential for higher speeds, while a more complex one (traditionally c
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n the refractive index of a material at the B and G [[fraunhofer line|Fraunhofer]] wavelengths of 686.7 [[Nanometre|nm]] and 430.8 nm. Simply, the degree to which the [[gemstone]] shows fire or color. See [[Abbe number]] and [[dispersion (optics)]].
* [[Statistical dispersion]].
* In mass transfer, [[Dispersive mass transfer]] is spreading of mass from highly concentrated areas to lower concentrated areas.
{{disambig}}
[[de:Dispersion]]
[[es:Dispersión]]
[[nl:Dispersie]]
[[ru:Дисперсия]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>Dyson sphere</title>
<id>8586</id>
<revision>
<id>42025540</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T08:01:37Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* See also */ remove external link to put in [[Kemperer rosette]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dysonspherediagram.gif|right|frame|A cut-away diagram of an idealized [[#Dyson shell|Dyson shell]] &mdash; a variant on Dyson's original concept &mdash; 1 AU in radius]]
A '''Dyson sphere''' (or "shell" as it appeared in the original paper) is a hypothetical [[megastructure]]. It was originally described as a system of orbiting [[solar power satellite]]s meant to completely englobe a [[star]] and capture its ''entire'' energy output, although other variants on this idea have been proposed &mdash; most notedly the [[#Dyson shell|solid shell]] concept pictured at right. The Dyson sphere concept was first mentioned in the [[novel]] ''[[Star Maker]]'', by [[Olaf Stapledon]], and ''formally'' described by [[physicist]] [[Freeman Dyson]] in his [[1959]] paper "Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation", published in the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]''. While building a Dyson sphere is far beyond present-day industrial capabilities, some proposed design variants of the sphere do not require technology much in advance of our own.
== History ==
The concept of the Dyson sphere was the result of a [[thought experiment]] by [[Freeman Dyson]] where he noted that every human technological civilization has constantly increased its demand for energy. He reasoned that if human civilization were to survive long enough, there would come a time when it required the ''total'' energy output of the sun. Thus, he proposed a system of orbiting structures designed to intercept and collect all energy produced by the sun. Dyson's proposal did not detail how such a system would be constructed, but focused only on issues of energy collection.
Although Dyson is credited with being the first to formalize the concept of the Dyson sphere, Dyson himself was inspired by the 1937 science fiction novel ''[[Star Maker]]'', by [[Olaf Stapledon]].
== Dyson spheres and SETI ==
In Dyson's original paper, he speculated that sufficiently advanced extraterrestrial civilizations would likely follow a similar power consumption pattern as humans, and would eventually build their own "sphere of collectors". Constructing such a system would make such a civilization a Type II [[Kardashev scale|Kardashev civilization]]. Since such a system would (at least partly) block the normal emissions of a star, and radiate [[blackbody radiation]] (most probably with a strong [[infrared]] component) rather than the [[emission spectrum]] of a [[stellar atmosphere]], he reasoned that it may be possible to detect advanced civilizations by examining the light from stars, looking for such atypical spectra. There have been attempts by [[SETI]] to search for Dyson spheres, and [[2005|as of 2005]] [[Fermilab]] has an ongoing survey for such spectra<ref>{{cite web| url=http://home.fnal.gov/~carrigan/Infrared_Astronomy/Fermilab_search.htm| title=Fermilab Dyson Sphere search program| year=2006| accessdate=2006-03-02| format=HTML| first=D.| last=Carrigan}}</ref> by analyzing data from the [[IRAS|Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS)]].
==Dyson spheres in fiction ==
''Main article: [[Dyson spheres in fiction]]''
<!-- PLEASE DO NOT ADD SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF THE DYSON SPHERE IN FICTION TO THIS SECTION. YOU ARE MORE THAN WELCOME TO ADD SUCH EXAMPLES TO THE ARTICLE 'DYSON SPHERES IN FICTION', WHICH WAS CREATED FOR THAT PURPOSE. THANK YOU. -->
As noted above, the Dyson sphere ''originated'' in fiction (see ''[[Star Maker]]'', by [[Olaf Stapledon]]), and it is a concept that has appeared often in [[science fiction]] since then (see [[Dyson spheres in fiction]] for listed examples). In fictional accounts, the Dyson sphere concept is most often interpreted as an artificial hollow [[sphere]] of [[matter]] around a [[star]] (see diagram). This perception is a ''misinterpretation'' of Dyson's original concept. In response to letters prompted by his original paper, Dyson said, "A solid shell or ring surrounding a star is mechanically impossible. The form of '[[biosphere]]' which I envisaged consists of a loose collection or swarm of objects traveling on independent orbits around the star."
More recently, the terms [[#Dyson swarm|'''Dyson swarm''']] and [[#Dyson shell|'''Dyson shell''']] have come into use to make the distinction between Dyson's original concept and the popularized depiction of a solid shell.
<!-- PLEASE DO NOT ADD SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF THE DYSON SPHERE IN FICTION TO THIS SECTION. YOU ARE MORE THAN WELCOME TO ADD SUCH EXAMPLES TO THE ARTICLE 'DYSON SPHERES IN FICTION', WHICH WAS CREATED FOR THAT PURPOSE. THANK YOU. -->
==Variants==
There are several variants on Dyson's original concept that have been proposed over the years, which differ based on their composition and method of construction.
=== Dyson swarm ===
The variant closest to Dyson's original conception, is the "Dyson swarm". It consists of a large number of independent constructs (usually [[solar power satellite]]s and [[Space colonization|space habitat]]s) orbiting in a dense formation around the star. These constructs could range widely in individual size and design, and could be constructed over a long period of time, making the construction of such a swarm an incremental process.
Such a swarm is not without drawbacks. The nature of orbital mechanics would make the "orbital formation" of such a swarm extremely complex. The simplest such pattern is the ''Dyson ring'' in which all such structures share the same orbit, although this pattern would intercept very little of the star's output. More complex orbital patterns add more rings, offset the "axis of rotation" of the rings' orbits with regards to one another, change the eccentricity of the orbits, and add rings at varying distances from the central star. More complex patterns with more rings would intercept more of the star's output, but would result in some constructs eclipsing others periodically when their orbits overlap. There is a definite trade-off between the complexity of the orbital formation &mdash; and thus its susceptibility to gravitational perturbations &mdash; and the percentage of the star's output that the swarm intercepts.
=== Dyson shell===
The variant of the Dyson sphere [[Dyson spheres in fiction|most often depicted in fiction]] is the "Dyson shell": a uniform solid shell of matter around the star. Such a structure would completely conceal the emissions of the central star, and would intercept 100% of the star's energy output. Such a structure would also provide an immense surface which many envision being used for habitation, if the surface could be made habitable.
There are several serious theoretical difficulties with the solid shell variant of the Dyson sphere.
* Such a shell would have no net gravitational interaction with its englobed sun (see [[Divergence theorem#Gravity|the divergence theorem applied to gravity]]). Such structures would need either some form of propulsion to counteract any "drift" moving it out of place relative to its star, or some way to repel the surface of the sphere away from the star.
* For the same reason, such a shell would have no net gravitational interaction with anything else inside it. Atmosphere placed on the inner surface to make it habitable, and any inhabitants, would not be attracted to the sphere's surface and would simply fall into the star. It has been proposed that atmosphere could be contained between a "main" sphere and an internal transparent sphere, though this could lead to difficulties in keeping the environment's contents from falling to the transparent sphere's surface. It has also been suggested that the atmosphere could be placed on the ''outside'' of the sphere, where it would be held in place by the star's gravity. Some form of illumination would have to be devised in this case as the star's light is otherwise completely hidden from the habitable surface.
* The tensile strength of the material forming the sphere would have to be immense. No known or theorized material is strong enough to form a rigid, static sphere around a star<ref>[http://www.nada.kth.se/~asa/dysonFAQ.html#STRENGTH Dyson FAQ "Strength" section], link is broken as of 2006-03-02</ref>. It has been proposed by [[Paul Birch]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.paulbirch.net/SupramundanePlanets.zip| format=ZIP | accessdate=2006-03-02| title=Supramundane Planets}}</ref> (in relation to smaller "[[Supra-Jupiter]]" constructions around a large planet rather than a star) that it may be possible to support a Dyson shell by dynamic means similar to those used in a [[space fountain]]. Masses travelling in circular tracks on the inside of the sphere, at velocities significantly greater than orbital velocity would press outwards due to centrifugal force. For a Dyson shell of 1AU radius around a star with the same mass as the Sun, mass travelling ten times orbital velocity (300 km/s) would support nine times its o
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le>AllSaints</title>
<id>33</id>
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<id>15898964</id>
<timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<comment>Automated conversion</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[All Saints]]
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</page>
<page>
<title>AlbaniaGovernment</title>
<id>35</id>
<revision>
<id>15898965</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:38:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
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<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Politics of Albania]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Albania]]</text>
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<page>
<title>AlbaniaEconomy</title>
<id>36</id>
<revision>
<id>15898966</id>
<timestamp>2002-10-09T13:39:00Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Magnus Manske</username>
<id>4</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>#REDIRECT [[Economy of Albania]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Albania]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>AlchemY</title>
<id>38</id>
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<ip>Conversion script</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alchemy]]
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<page>
<title>Albedo</title>
<id>39</id>
<revision>
<id>41496222</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-27T19:32:46Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.119.3.44</ip>
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<text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Albedo''' is the measure of [[reflectivity]] of a surface or body. It is the ratio of [[electromagnetic radiation]] (EM radiation) reflected to the amount incident upon it. The fraction, usually expressed as a percentage from 0% to 100%, is an important concept in [[climatology]] and [[astronomy]]. This ratio depends on the [[frequency]] of the radiation considered: unqualified, it refers to an average across the spectrum of [[visible light]]. It also depends on the [[angle of incidence]] of the radiation: unqualified, normal incidence. Fresh snow albedos are high: up to 90%. The ocean surface has a low albedo. The average albedo of [[Earth]] is about 30% whereas the albedo of the [[Moon]] is about 7%. In astronomy, the albedo of satellites and asteroids can be used to infer surface composition, most notably ice content. [[Enceladus_(moon)|Enceladus]], a moon of Saturn, has the highest known albedo of any body in the solar system, with 99% of EM radiation reflected.
Human activities have changed the albedo (via forest clearance and farming, for example) of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect is difficult on the global scale: it is not clear whether the changes have tended to increase or decrease [[global warming]].
The "classical" example of albedo effect is the snow-temperature feedback. If a snow covered area warms and the snow melts, the albedo decreases, more sunlight is absorbed, and the temperature tends to increase. The converse is true: if snow forms, a cooling cycle happens. The intensity of the albedo effect depends on the size of the change in albedo and the amount of [[insolation]]; for this reason it can be potentially very large in the tropics.
== Some examples of albedo effects ==
=== Fairbanks, Alaska ===
According to the [[National Climatic Data Center]]'s GHCN 2 data, which is composed of 30-year smoothed climatic means for thousands of weather stations across the world, the college weather station at [[Fairbanks]], [[Alaska]], is about 3 °C (5 °F) warmer than the airport at Fairbanks, partly because of drainage patterns but also largely because of the lower albedo at the college resulting from a higher concentration of [[pine]] [[tree]]s and therefore less open snowy ground to reflect the heat back into space. Neunke and Kukla have shown that this difference is especially marked during the late [[winter]] months, when [[solar radiation]] is greater.
=== The tropics ===
Although the albedo-temperature effect is most famous in colder regions of Earth, because more [[snow]] falls there, it is actually much stronger in tropical regions because in the tropics there is consistently more sunlight. When [[Brazil]]ian ranchers cut down dark, tropical [[rainforest]] trees to replace them with even darker soil in order to grow crops, the average temperature of the area appears to increase by an average of about 3 °C (5 °F) year-round, which is a significant amount.
=== Small scale effects ===
Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. People who wear dark clothes in the summertime put themselves at a greater risk of [[heatstroke]] than those who wear white clothes.
=== Pine forests ===
The albedo of a [[pine]] forest at 45°N in the winter in which the trees cover the land surface completely is only about 9%, among the lowest of any naturally occurring land environment. This is partly due to the color of the pines, and partly due to multiple scattering of sunlight within the trees which lowers the overall reflected light level. Due to light penetration, the ocean's albedo is even lower at about 3.5%, though this depends strongly on the angle of the incident radiation. Dense [[swamp]]land averages between 9% and 14%. [[Deciduous tree]]s average about 13%. A [[grass]]y field usually comes in at about 20%. A barren field will depend on the color of the soil, and can be as low as 5% or as high as 40%, with 15% being about the average for farmland. A [[desert]] or large [[beach]] usually averages around 25% but varies depending on the color of the sand. [Reference: Edward Walker's study in the Great Plains in the winter around 45°N].
=== Urban areas ===
Urban areas in particular have very unnatural values for albedo because of the many human-built structures which absorb light before the light can reach the surface. In the northern part of the world, cities are relatively dark, and Walker has shown that their average albedo is about 7%, with only a slight increase during the summer. In most tropical countries, cities average around 12%. This is similar to the values found in northern suburban transitional zones. Part of the reason for this is the different natural environment of cities in tropical regions, e.g., there are more very dark trees around; another reason is that portions of the tropics are very poor, and city buildings must be built with different materials. Warmer regions may also choose lighter colored building materials so the structures will remain cooler.
=== Trees ===
Because trees tend to have a low albedo, removing forests would tend to increase albedo and thereby cool the planet. Cloud feedbacks further complicate the issue. In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily.
Studies by the [[Hadley Centre]] have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of [[carbon sequestration]] on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g. Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming [http://66.102.11.104/search?q=cache:o7LD-owSkNgJ:www.ulapland.fi/home/arktinen/feed_pdf/Betts_revised.pdf+hadley+albedo+forest&hl=en].
=== Snow ===
Snow albedos can be as high as 90%. This is for the ideal example, however: fresh deep snow over a featureless landscape. Over [[Antarctica]] they average a little more than 80%.
If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt (the ice-albedo [[feedback]]). This is the basis for predictions of enhanced warming in the polar and seasonally snow covered regions as a result of [[global warming]].
=== Clouds ===
Clouds are another source of albedo that play into the global warming equation. Different types of clouds have different albedo values, theoretically ranging from a minimum of near 0% to a maximum in the high 70s. [[Climate model]]s have shown that if the whole Earth were to be suddenly covered by white clouds, the surface temperatures would drop to a value of about -150 °C (-240 °F). This model, though it is far from perfect, also predicts that to offset a 5 °C (9 °F) temperature change due to an increase in the magnitude of the [[greenhouse effect]], "all" we would need to do is increase the Earth's overall albedo by about 12% by adding more white clouds.
Albedo and climate in some areas are already affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the [[contrail]]s of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11 attacks]], after which all major airlines in the U.S. shut down for three days, showed a local 1 &deg;C increase in the daily temperature range (the difference of day and night temperatures) (''see: [[contrail]]'').
=== Aerosol effects ===
[[Particulate|Aerosol]] (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) has two effects, direct and indirect. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as [[Cloud condensation nuclei|CCN]]s and thereby change [[cloud properties]]) is less certain [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm#671].
=== Black carbon ===
Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the [[IPCC]] say that their "estimate of the global mean radiative forcing for BC aerosols from fossil fuels is ... +0.2 W m<sup>-2</sup> (from +0.1
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and [[Finland]] joined the EU. The two last governments of Norway have, however, been unable to advance the question, as they have both been coalition governments consiting of both proponents and opponents.
Iceland is not likely to join the EU in the near future due to political indifference towards the union, only one party supports starting entry-negotiations.
Since Switzerland rejected the EEA in 1992, referenda on EU-membership have been initiated, last time in 2001. These have, however, not been backed by the government, and been rejected by clear majorities.
In mid-2005, representatives of the [[Faroe Islands]] have hinted at the possibility of their territory joining EFTA. However, the chances of the Faroes' bid for membership are uncertain because according to the EFTA Convention, only states may become members of the Association.
==United Kingdom==
The United Kingdom benefited from the lack of common tariffs for EFTA members, by importing goods from the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and selling them on to other EFTA members. Due to the advancement of the EEC and the decision to focus on [[Europe]], rather than the [[United States]] and Commonwealth, as trading partners, the [[United Kingdom]] chose to apply for EEC membership in 1961 (however, it did not become a member until 1973).
==See also==
*[[Trade bloc]]
*[[Central European Free Trade Agreement]] (CEFTA)
*[[Euro-Mediterranean free trade area]] (EU-MEFTA)
== External links==
*[http://www.efta.int Official EFTA site]
*[http://secretariat.efta.int/Web/EFTAAtAGlance/history/ The history of EFTA in detail]
{{EFTA}}
[[Category:Europe|Free Trade Association]]
[[Category:Trade blocs]]
[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:1960 establishments]]
[[cs:Evropské sdružení volného obchodu]]
[[da:EFTA]]
[[de:Europäische Freihandelsassoziation]]
[[et:EFTA]]
[[es:Asociación Europea de Libre Comercio]]
[[fr:Association européenne de libre-échange]]
[[it:Associazione europea di libero scambio]]
[[ja:欧州自由貿易連合]]
[[nl:Europese Vrijhandels Associatie]]
[[no:Det europeiske frihandelsforbund]]
[[pl:Europejskie Stowarzyszenie Wolnego Handlu]]
[[ru:Европейская ассоциация свободной торговли]]
[[sk:Európske združenie voľného obchodu]]
[[fi:EFTA]]
[[sv:Europeiska frihandelssammanslutningen]]
[[zh:欧洲自由贸易联盟]]</text>
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</page>
<page>
<title>European Parliament</title>
<id>9581</id>
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<id>41864471</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T05:44:29Z</timestamp>
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<username>Jrleighton</username>
<id>140144</id>
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<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the European Union}}
The '''European Parliament''' is the [[parliament]]ary body of the [[European Union]] (EU), directly elected by [[EU citizen]]s once every five years. Together with the [[Council of the European Union|Council of Ministers]], it composes the legislative branch of the institutions of the Union. It meets in two locations: [[Strasbourg]] and [[Brussels]].
The European Parliament cannot initiate legislation, but it can amend or veto it in many policy areas. In certain other policy areas, it has the right only to be consulted. Parliament also supervises the [[European Commission]], must approve all appointments to it, and can dismiss it with a vote of censure. It also has the right to control the EU budget.
Other organisations of European countries, such as the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], the [[Council of Europe]], and the [[Western European Union]] have parliamentary assemblies as well, but the members of these assemblies are [[appoint]]ed by national parliaments. The European Parliament is [[direct election|directly elected by the people]] of the European Union and has some restricted [[legislature|legislative power]].
==Composition ==
[[Image:European_parliament.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The European Parliament building in Brussels]]
The European Parliament represents around 450 million citizens of the European Union. Its members are known as [[Member of the European Parliament|Members of the European Parliament]] (MEPs). Since [[13 June]] 2004, there have been 732 MEPs. (It was agreed that the maximum number of MEPs should be fixed at 750, with a minimum threshold of six per member state and no member state being allocated more than 96 seats.) Elections occur once in every five years, on the basis of universal adult suffrage. There is not a uniform [[voting system]] for the election of MEPs; rather, each member state is free to choose its own system subject to three restrictions<sup>[[#Footnotes|1]]</sup>:
*The system must be a form of [[proportional representation]], under either the [[party-list proportional representation|party list]] or [[Single Transferable Vote]] system.
*The electoral area may be subdivided if this will not generally affect the proportional nature of the voting system.
*Any [[election threshold]] on the national level must not exceed five percent.
[[Image:EuropeanParliament.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The European Parliament building in Strasbourg]]
The allocation of seats to each member state is based on the principle of degressive proportionality, so that, while the size of the population of each country is taken into account, smaller states elect more MEPs than would be strictly justified by their populations alone. As the number of MEPs granted to each country has arisen from treaty negotiations, there is no precise formula for the apportionment of seats among member states. No change in this configuration can occur without the unanimous consent of all governments.
The most recent elections to the European Parliament were the [[European Parliament election, 2004|European elections of 2004]], held in June of that year. These elections were the largest simultaneous transnational elections ever held anywhere in the world, since nearly 400 million citizens were eligible to vote.
<br>
{{Apportionment in the European Parliament}}
===Observers===
It is conventional for countries acceding to the European Union to send a number of observers to Parliament in advance. The number of observers and their method of appointment (usually by national parliaments) is laid down in the joining countries' Treaties of Accession.
Observers may attend debates and take part by invitation, but they may not vote or exercise other official duties. When the countries then become full member states, these observers become full MEPs for the interim period between accession and the next European elections.
In this way, the agreed maximum of 750 parliamentary seats may temporarily be exceeded. For instance, in 2004, the number of seats in the European Parliament was temporarily raised to 788 to accommodate representatives from the ten states that joined the EU on [[1st May]], but it was subsequently reduced to 732 following the elections in June.
Since [[September 26]] [[2005]], [[Bulgaria]] has 18 observers in Parliament and [[Romania]] has 35. These are selected from government and opposition parties as agreed by the countries' national parliaments. In [[2007]] these observers will become MEPs, but their number is expected to decrease when the number of seats assigned to each country is reassessed, according to the [[Treaty of Nice]].
==Constituencies==
{{main|European Parliament constituency}}
In five [[European Union]] Member States ([[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]] and the [[United Kingdom]]), the national territory is divided into a number of [[constituency|constituencies]] for [[Elections in the European Union|European elections]]. In the remaining 20 Member States the whole country forms a single electoral area. In [[Germany]] political parties are entitled to present lists of candidates either at [[States of Germany|''Land'']] (state) or national level. In [[Finland]] they may do so either at electoral district or national level. In [[Poland]] they may do so only at a constituency level, but seats are allocated nationally.
==Powers and functions==
{{main|European Union legislative procedure}}
[[Image:EuropeanParliamentHemicycle Copyright200406KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The debating chamber, the 'hemicycle' of the European Parliament in Brussels. Translation booths are provided near where the banners can be seen.]]
In some respects, the European Parliament and the Council of Ministers resemble the upper and lower houses of a [[bicameral]] legislature. Neither the European Parliament nor the Council of Ministers may initiate EU legislation, this power being reserved by the [[European Commission|Commission]], and the fact that the European Parliament cannot itself propose laws makes it different from most national legislative assemblies.
However, once a proposal for an [[European Union law|EU law]] or [[European Union directive|directive]] has been introduced by the Commission, it must usually receive the approval of both Parliament and Council in order to come into force. Parliament may amend and block legislation in those policy areas that fall under the [[codecision procedure]], which currently make up about three-quarters of EU legislative acts. Remaining policy areas fall under either the [[assent procedure]] or (in a very few cases) the [[consultation procedure]]; under the former Parliament has power to veto but not formally amend proposals, while under the latter it has only a formal right to be consulted. The European Parliament controls the EU budget, which must be approved by Parliament in order to become law.
The [[President of the European Commission]] is chosen by the [[European Council]], but must be approved by Parliament before she or he can assume office. The remaining members of the Commission are then appointed by the President, subject to approval of Parliament. Other than its president, members of the Commission are not confirmed by the European Parliament ind
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s Khan]]'', also available in the first edition of ''The Salmon of Doubt'', though later removed due to [[copyright]] issues
** ''[[A Christmas Fairly Story]]'' ([[sic]]) by Douglas Adams and [[Terry Jones]]
** A "Supplement to ''[[The Meaning of Liff]]''" with [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]] and [[Stephen Fry]]
* ''[[The Deeper Meaning of Liff]]'' (1990, with [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]]; extended version of ''The Meaning of Liff'')
* ''[[Last Chance to See]]'' (1991, with [[Mark Carwardine]], non-fictional account of several trips to see endangered species; according to a piece in ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]'', this book gave Adams the most satisfaction, if not the highest sales)
* ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)#Illustrated Edition|The Illustrated Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' (1994)
* ''[[Douglas Adams's Starship Titanic]]'' (1997, written by [[Terry Jones]] (who insists he wrote the whole thing while in the nude), based on an idea by Douglas Adams; also available as an [[audiobook]], read by [[Terry Jones]])
* ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]'' (2002), unfinished novel manuscript (11 chapters), short stories, essays, and interviews (also available as an audiobook, read by [[Simon Jones (actor)|Simon Jones]])
In 2004, BBC Audio published a 3-CD set entitled ''[[Douglas Adams at the BBC]]'', which covers the author's work from 1974 to 2003, including [[wiktionary:posthumous|posthumous]] projects and tributes. The CD is again narrated by [[Simon Jones (actor)|Simon Jones]].
===Tributes and honorifics===
* There is an official appreciation society (fan club) named ZZ9 Plural Z Alpha after the sector of the galaxy that ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' says the planet Earth is located in.
* ''[[18610 Arthurdent]]'' is a small [[asteroid belt|main belt]] [[asteroid]]. [[Felix Hormuth]] discovered it on [[February 7]], [[1998]]. It is named after Arthur Dent, the bewildered hero of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''. The name was officially published and announced by the [[Minor Planet Center]] of the [[International Astronomical Union]] on either [[9 May]] or [[10 May]] [[2001]] (accounts differ).
* On [[January 25]], [[2005]], it was announced that asteroid with preliminary designation ''2001 DA<sub>42</sub>'' had been named [[25924 Douglasadams]] in his honour. It was chosen because it referenced the year of Adams's death, his initials and the number "[[The Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything|42]]". {{ref|MSNBC}}
* Every [[May 25]], [[Towel Day]] is celebrated in recognition of Adams's [[genius]].
* Various [[Douglas Adams Society|Douglas Adams Societies]] exist or have existed.
==Notes==
#{{Note|PromoPhoto}} [http://www.rockarchive.com/ Photographer Jill Furmanovsky's official site]
#{{Note|2005Webb01}} {{cite book
| authorlink = Nick Webb (author) | last = Webb | first = Nick
| title=Wish You Were Here: The Official Biography of Douglas Adams
| edition =First U.S. hardcover edition
| publisher=Ballantine Books
| year=2005
| pages = Page 32
| id=ISBN 0-345-47650-6
}}
#{{Note|ODNB}} Webb, Nick, ‘Adams, Douglas Noël (1952–2001)’, ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', online edn, Oxford University Press, Jan 2005 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/75853, accessed [[25 October]] [[2005]]]
#{{Note|EB_Adams}} "Adams, Douglas Noël." Britannica Book of the Year, 2002 from Encyclopædia Britannica Online School Edition. [http://school.eb.com/eb/article-9383539, accessed [[November 13]] [[2005]]].
#{{Note|Webb2005_93}} Webb, page 93.
#{{Note|Adams2003_10}} {{cite book | author=Adams, Douglas| editor= Geoffrey Perkins (ed.), Additional Material by M. J. Simpson | title=[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: The Original Radio Scripts]] | pages = Page 10 | edition =25th Anniversary Edition | publisher=Pan Books | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-330-41957-9}}
#{{Note|Webb2005_120}} Webb, page 120.
#{{Note|2004bookslut}} [http://www.bookslut.com/nonfiction/2004_05_002057.php May 2004 review of] ''[[Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy Companion|Don't Panic]]'' by [[Neil Gaiman]].
#{{Note|HitchhikerUS236}} {{cite book | author=Simpson, M. J. | title=Hitchhiker: A Biography of Douglas Adams | pages = Page 236 | edition =First U.S. hardcover edition | publisher=Justin, Charles and Co. | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-932112-17-0}}
#{{Note|42PuzzleCovers}} [http://www.iblist.com/series.php?id=2 Internet Book List] page, with links to all five novels, and reproductions of the 1990s paperback covers that included the [[42 Puzzle]].
#{{Note|ScriptBookTwo356}} {{cite book | author=Adams, Douglas. As Dramatized and Directed by [[Dirk Maggs]]. | title=The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Radio Scripts: The Tertiary, Quandary and Quintessential Phases | pages = Page 356 | publisher=Pan Books | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0-330-43510-8}}
#{{Note|Webb2005_49}} Webb, page 49.
#{{Note|ProcolHarum}} [http://www.procolharum.com/dadams.htm Text of one of Douglas Adams's introductions of Procol Harum in concert], this one was read on [[8 February]] [[1996]].
#{{Note|Hyperland_IMDb}} [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0188677/ Internet Movie Database's page for ''Hyperland''].
#{{Note|Gaiman2003_169}} {{cite book | author=[[Neil Gaiman|Gaiman, Neil]] | title=Don't Panic: Douglas Adams & The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy | edition=Second U.S. edition | publisher=Titan Books | year=2003 | pages=Page 169 | id=ISBN 1-84023-742-2}}
#{{Note|AmAtheists}} [http://www.americanatheist.org/win98-99/T2/silverman.html David Silverman's interview with Douglas Adams] which first appeared in the American Atheists' Winter 1998-1999 newsletter.
#{{Note|DNAML}} [http://www.savetherhino.org/events/lectures__talks/the_fourth_douglas_adams_memorial_lecture.phtml Details of Fourth Douglas Adams Memorial Lecture].
#{{Note|TGAP}} {{cite book | author=[[Paola Cavalieri|Cavalieri, Paola]] and [[Peter Singer]], editors | title=The Great Ape Project: Equality Beyond Humanity | edition=U.S. Paperback | publisher=St. Martin's Griffin | year=1994 | pages=pages 19-23 | id=ISBN 0-312-11818-X}}
#{{Note|Simpson2003_184-5}} Simpson, pages 184-5.
#{{Note|LCtC_59}} {{cite book | author=Adams, Douglas and [[Mark Carwardine]] | title=Last Chance to See | edition=First U.S. Hardcover | publisher=Harmony Books | year=1991 | pages=Page 59 | id=ISBN 0-517-58215-5}}
#{{Note|Adams2002_90-1}} {{cite book | author=Adams, Douglas | title=The Salmon of Doubt: Hitchhiking the Galaxy One Last Time | edition=First UK hardcover edition | publisher=Macmillan | year=2002 | pages=Pages 90-1 | id=ISBN 0-333-76657-1}}
#{{Note|AdamsForum}} [http://www.douglasadams.com/cgi-bin/mboard/info/dnathread.cgi?2922,1 Adams's final post on his forums at douglasadams.com]
#{{Note|GoogleAFDA1}} [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/alt.fan.douglas-adams alt.fan.douglas-adams] access through [[Google]]'s newsgroup reader.
#{{Note|Webb2005_ch10}} Webb, Chapter 10.
#{{Note|2003WebbBio}} [http://www.douglasadams.com/news/#20030703-0-n.dna Press release announcing Nick Webb's biography of Adams] from [[2 July]] [[2003]].
#{{Note|2002Video}} [http://www.douglasadams.com/news/#20020415-0-n.dna Press release announcing the] ''Life, the Universe, and Douglas Adams'' documentary video from [[15 April]] [[2002]].
#{{Note|MSNBC}} [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6867061/ MSNBC article] about the announcement of an Asteroid named after Adams, dated [[25 January]] [[2005]].
==See also==
*[[H2G2|h2g2]]
*[[Towel Day]]
*[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Future]], Adams's final project for [[BBC Radio 4]] before his death.
*A list of verified influences that the ''Hitchhiker's Guide'' had on popular culture can be found in the article [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy cultural references]].
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-2|2006-02-11|Douglas_Adams_Part_1.ogg|Douglas_Adams_Part_2.ogg}}
*[http://www.douglasadams.com/ Douglas Adams's official web site], established by him, and still operated by [[The Digital Village]].
*[http://homepage.mac.com/dna/ Douglas Adams's .mac homepage]
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/douglasadams/ Two audio interviews of Douglas Adams (1983 &ndash; 23 min. 58 sec, 1989 &ndash; 25 min. 07 sec.) by Don Swaim of CBS Radio, RealAudio]
*[http://webcast.ucsd.edu:8080/ramgen/UCSD_TV/5779UniCalSanBar.rm Parrots, the Universe and Everything, 87 min talk at University of California Santa Barbara, 2001 (RealAudio)]
*[http://www.biota.org/people/douglasadams/ Douglas Adams speech at Digital Biota 2 (1998)]
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/authors/author/0,5917,-181,00.html Guardian Books "Author Page"], with profile and links to further articles.
* {{isfdb name|id=Douglas_Adams|name=Douglas Adams}}
* {{iblist name|id=5|name=Douglas Adams}}
* {{ibdof name|id=42|name=Douglas Adams}}
*{{imdb name|id=0010930|name=Douglas Adams}}
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/authors/douglas-adams/ Douglas Adams] &mdash; Rotten.com library article.
===Fan sites===
*[http://www.douglasadams.se/ Douglas Adams Continuum], a very active fan site and forum hosted in Sweden and run by Jenz Kjellberg.
*[http://www.douglasadams.info An English Language fansite] by Nicolas Botti.
*[http://www.zz9.org/ ZZ9 Plural Z Alpha] The official ''Hitchhiker's Guide to The Galaxy'' Appreciation Society
*[http://www.hhgttgonline.com/ Another Hitchhiker's Guide fansite], hosted in the USA, run by Jake Russell.
*[http://www.zootle.net/afda/faq/HomePage FAQ about Adams], compiled from the alt.fan.douglas-adams newsgroup.
*[http://www.spindlebook.com/ Home Page of Comedy SciFi writer Ian Taylor], whose work is frequently compared to that of Douglas Adams.
<!-- en-GB, -ise -->
[[Category:1952 births|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:Absurdist fiction|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:Alumni of St. John's College, Cambridge|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:Atheists|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Categ
|
recorded.
One way to think of the Degree Confluence Project is as a way of [[Sampling (statistics)|sampling]] the surface of the [[Earth]].
== Notes ==
<div style="font-size: 85%">
#{{note|numberofpoints}} Latitude lines 89°N to 89°S (179), multiplied by 360° of longitude (360), plus the two poles (2) = 179 &times; 360 + 2 = 64,442.
</div>
== See also ==
* [[Geocaching]]
* [[Geograph British Isles project]]
==External links==
* [http://www.confluence.org/ Degree Confluence Project website]
[[Category:Websites]]
[[Category:GPS]]
[[de:Degree Confluence Project]]
[[fr:Degree Confluence Project]]
[[zh:经纬汇合工程]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Danny Kaye</title>
<id>9002</id>
<revision>
<id>40710295</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T13:52:47Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>4.233.137.85</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>He was born with the last name 'Kaminsky' not 'Kaminski'</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dannykaye1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Kaye entertaining U.S. troops at [[U.S. Fleet Activities Sasebo|Sasebo, Japan]], 25 Oct 1945]]
'''Danny Kaye''' ([[January 18]], [[1913]] &ndash; [[March 3]], [[1987]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[actor]], [[singer]] and [[comedian]].
Born to [[Jewish]] immigrants in [[Brooklyn]] as '''David Daniel Kaminsky''', red-haired Kaye became one of the world's best-known comedians. In [[1941]] he appeared in the Broadway show, ''[[Lady in the Dark]]'' and performed the famous number "[[Tchaikovsky (song)|Tchaikovsky]]," by [[Kurt Weill]] and [[Ira Gershwin]], in which he sang the names of a whole string of [[Russia]]n composers at breakneck speed, seemingly without taking a breath.
He was propelled to what today would be called superstardom in [[1948]] when he appeared at the [[London Palladium]] music hall. According to ''The New York Times'', he "roused the Royal family to shrieks of laughter and was the first of many performers who have turned English variety into an American preserve." ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine described his reception as "worshipful hysteria" and noted that the royal family, for the first time in history, left the royal box to see the show from the front row of the orchestra.
Kaye made his film debut in a [[1935]] comedy short subject entitled ''Moon Over Manhattan'', although his feature film debut was ''[[Up in Arms]]'' ([[1944]]). He starred in several movies with actress [[Virginia Mayo]] in the 1940's, and is well known for his roles in films such as ''[[The Secret Life of Walter Mitty]]'' ([[1947]]), ''[[The Inspector General]]'' ([[1949]]), ''[[White Christmas (film)|White Christmas]]'' ([[1954]]), ''[[Knock on Wood]]'' ([[1954]]), ''[[The Court Jester]]'' ([[1956]]), and ''[[Merry Andrew (film)|Merry Andrew]]'' ([[1958]]). Kaye starred in two pictures based on biographies, ''[[Hans Christian Andersen (film)|Hans Christian Andersen]]'' ([[1952]]) about the [[Denmark|Danish]] story-teller, and ''[[The Five Pennies]]'' ([[1959]]) about [[jazz]] pioneer [[Red Nichols]]. Several of his films included the theme of doubles, two people who look identical (both played by Danny kaye) being mistaken for each other, to comic effect.
Kaye worked regularly in television in the [[1960s]] and beyond.
He hosted his own variety hour on [[CBS]], ''[[The Danny Kaye Show]]'', from [[1963]] to [[1967]]. Kaye also did a stint as one of the [[What's My Line? Mystery Guests]] on the popular Sunday Night CBS-TV program. Later, Kaye also served as a guest panelist on that quiz show. Years later, Kaye also guest-starred in episodes of ''[[The Cosby Show]]'' and of the 1980's remake of ''[[The Twilight Zone]]''.
Kaye's influence was felt beyond the entertainment world in the world of professional sports as well. Kaye was the original owner of the [[Seattle Mariners]] along with his partner Lester Smith, from 1977 - 81.
Kaye also acted in a [[pantomime]] production of ''[[Cinderella]]'', in [[Sydney]],[[New South Wales]], [[Australia]], during the [[1950]]'s, where he played the role of "''[[Buttons (pantomime)|Buttons]]''", Cinderella's stepfather's servant, and also Cinderella's friend.
In many of his movies, as well as on stage, Kaye proved to be an able actor, singer, dancer and comedian, often having his comedic talents showcased by special material written by his wife, [[Sylvia Fine]]. He showed quite a different and serious side as Ambassador for [[UNICEF]], and in one of his few dramatic roles in the memorable TV-movie ''[[Skokie]],'' in which he played a [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] survivor. Before he died in [[1987]], Kaye also demonstrated his ability to conduct an orchestra during a comical, but technically sound, series of concerts organised for [[UNICEF]] fundraising. Kaye received two [[Academy award]]s, an [[Academy Honorary Award|honorary award]] in [[1955]] and [[the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]] in [[1982]].
[[Joan Plowright]], widow of the actor [[Laurence Olivier]], claimed that Olivier had a long [[homosexuality|homosexual]] relationship with Kaye while Olivier was still married to his second wife, [[Vivien Leigh]]. Kaye's widow denied these rumors.
Kaye died in [[1987]] from a [[heart attack]], following a bout of [[hepatitis]]. He left a widow [[Sylvia Fine]] and a daughter Dena. He is interred in the [[Kensico Cemetery]] in [[Valhalla, New York]].
==Filmography==
*''[[Moon Over Manhattan]]'' ([[1935]]) (short subject)
*''[[Dime a Dance]]'' ([[1937]]) (short subject)
*''[[Money On Your Life]]'' ([[1938]]) (short subject)
*''[[Getting an Eyeful]]'' ([[1938]]) (short subject)
*''[[Cupid Takes a Holiday]]'' ([[1938]]) (short subject)
*''[[Up in Arms]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[Wonder Man (film)|Wonder Man]]'' ([[1945]])
*''[[The Kid from Brooklyn]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[The Secret Life of Walter Mitty]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Out-of-This-World Series]]'' ([[1947]]) (short subject)
*''[[A Song Is Born]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[It's a Great Feeling]]'' ([[1949]]) (Cameo)
*''[[The Inspector General]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[On the Riviera]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[Hans Christian Andersen (film)|Hans Christian Andersen]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[Assignment Children]]'' ([[1954]]) (short subject)
*''[[Knock on Wood]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Hula from Hollywood]]'' ([[1954]]) (short subject)
*''[[White Christmas (film)|White Christmas]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Hollywood Beauty]]'' ([[1955]]) (short subject)
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Playtime in Hollywood]]'' ([[1956]]) (short subject)
*''[[The Court Jester]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[Merry Andrew (film)|Merry Andrew]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[Me and the Colonel]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[The Five Pennies]]'' ([[1959]])
*''[[The Millionairess]]'' ([[1960]]) (Cameo)
*''[[On The Double]]'' ([[1961]])
*''[[The Man from the Diner's Club]]'' ([[1963]])
*''[[The Madwoman of Chaillot]]'' ([[1969]])
==References==
*"Parnell of the Palladium," Willi Frischauer, Oct. 24, 1948, p. X3. The London Palladium and Kaye's reception.
*[http://www.angelfire.com/film/dannykaye/DannyKaye_biography.htm Danny Kaye] bio, quotes ''Life'' magazine.
{{Commons|Danny Kaye}}
[[Category:1913 births|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:1987 deaths|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:American television actors|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Baseball executives|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Bisexual actors|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Brooklynites|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Film actors|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Jewish American comedians|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Seattle Mariners|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Vaudeville performers|Kaye, Danny]]
[[da:Danny Kaye]]
[[de:Danny Kaye]]
[[es:Danny Kaye]]
[[he:דני קיי]]
[[nl:Danny Kaye]]
[[nn:Danny Kaye]]
[[fi:Danny Kaye]]
[[sv:Danny Kaye]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Dan DeCarlo</title>
<id>9003</id>
<revision>
<id>38551600</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-07T01:44:40Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>24.110.113.180</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>fmt</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SherryShowgirl1.jpg|right|210px|thumb|''Sherry the Showgirl'' #2 (Sept. 1956): A lesser-known series and a rarely seen Dan DeCarlo cover.]]
'''Daniel S. DeCarlo''' ([[12 December]], [[1919]], [[New Rochelle]], [[New York]] - [[19 December]], [[2001]], New Rochelle, New York) was an [[United States|American]] [[cartoonist]] best known as the [[artist]] who developed the look of [[Archie Comics]] in the late [[1950s]] and early [[1960s]], modernizing the characters to their contemporary appearance and establishing the publisher's house style. As well, he is the generally recognized creator of [[Sabrina the Teenage Witch]], [[Josie and the Pussycats]] (with the lead character named for his wife), and [[Cheryl Blossom]].
Previous to this he had a remarkable 10-year run on the humor title ''[[Millie the Model]]'' for [[Marvel Comics]]' 1950s predecessor, [[Atlas Comics (1950s)|Atlas Comics]], writing and drawing the [[slapstick]]y adventures of Millie Collins, her redheaded friendly nemesis Chili Storm and the rest of cast from #18-93 (June 1949 - Nov. 1959). DeCarlo also contributed the short-lived ''Sherry the Showgirl'' and ''Showgirls'' for Atlas.
DeCarlo attended New Rochelle High School and [[Manhattan]]'s [[Art Students League]] from [[1938]] to [[1941]], when he was drafted into the [[U.S. Army]]. Stationed in [[Great Britain]], he worked in the motor pool and as a draftsman, and painted company mascots on the noses of airplanes. He also drew a weekly [[military]] [[comic strip]]. He met his future wife, [[France|French]] citizen Josie Dumont, in [[Belgium]] after the [[Battle of the Bulge]].
In addition to his comic-book work, DeCarlo drew freelance pieces for
|
* [[Heves (county)|Heves]] ([[Eger]])
* [[Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok]] ([[Szolnok]])
* [[Komárom-Esztergom]] ([[Tatabánya]])
* [[Nógrád (county)|Nógrád]] ([[Salgótarján]])
* [[Pest (county)|Pest]] ([[Budapest]])
* [[Somogy]] ([[Kaposvár]])
* [[Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg]] ([[Nyíregyháza]])
* [[Tolna (county)|Tolna]] ([[Szekszárd]])
* [[Vas]] ([[Szombathely]])
* [[Veszprém (county)|Veszprém]] ([[Veszprém]])
* [[Zala]] ([[Zalaegerszeg]])
</td></tr></table>
See also: [[Administrative divisions of the Kingdom of Hungary|List of historic counties of Hungary]]
== Geography ==
[[Image:Hu-map.png|thumb|Map of Hungary]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Hungary]]''
Hungary's landscape consists mostly of the flat to rolling plains of the [[Carpathian Basin]], with hills and lower mountains to the north along the [[Slovakia]]n border (highest point: the [[Kékes]] at 1,014 m). Hungary is divided in two by its main waterway, the [[Danube]] (''Duna''); other large rivers include the [[Tisza]] and [[Dráva]], while the western half contains [[Lake Balaton]], a major body of water. The largest thermal lake in the world, [[Lake Hévíz]] ([[Hévíz Spa]]), is located in Hungary. The second largest lake in the [[Carpathian Basin]] (and probably the largest artificial lake in Europe) is [[Lake Theiss]] (''Tisza-tó'').
== Climate ==
Hungary has a [[continental climate]], with cold, cloudy, humid winters and warm to hot summers. Average annual temperature is 9.7 °C (49.5 °F). Temperature extremes are about 38 °C (100 °F) in the summer and &minus;29 °C (&minus;20 °F) in the winter. Average temperature in the summer is 27 to 32 °C (81 to 90 °F), and in the winter it is 0 to &minus;15 °C (32 to 5 °F). The average yearly rainfall is approximately 600 mm (24 in). A small, southern region of the country near [[Pécs]] enjoys a [[Mediterranean climate]].
The relative isolation of the Carpathian Basin makes it susceptible to [[drought]]s and the effects of [[global warming]] are already felt. According to popular opinion, and many scientists in the latest decades the country became drier, as droughts are quite common; and summers became hotter, winters became milder. Because of these reasons snow has become much more rare in the area than before. Popular opinion also states that the four-season system became a two-season system as [[spring (season)|spring]] and [[autumn]] are getting shorter and shorter, even vanishing some years.
Most of Hungary is covered by agricultural plains, there are but few remnants of its original forests.
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Hungary]]''
[[Image:Ungheria 100 forint.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Hungarian 100 Forint]]
Hungary continues to demonstrate strong economic growth as one of the newest members of the [[European Union]] (since 2004). Together with Slovenia and the Czech Republic, Hungary provides one of the highest standard of living among Eastern European countries. The private sector accounts for over 80% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. Hungary gets nearly one third of all foreign direct investment flowing in to Central Europe. Foreign ownership of and investment in Hungarian firms are widespread, with cumulative foreign direct investment totalling more than US$23 billion since [[1989]]. Hungarian sovereign debt was upgraded in [[2000]] to the second-highest rating among all the Central European transition economies. [[Inflation]] and [[unemployment]] &ndash; both priority concerns in [[2001]] &ndash; have declined substantially. Economic reform measures such as health care reform, tax reform, and local government financing have not yet been addressed by the present government.
The Hungarian government has expressed a desire to adopt the [[euro]] currency in 2010, but the introduction of the currency is currently only in the early planning stages.
== Demographics ==
====Historical====
* [[Circa]] [[900]] [[Anno Domini|AD]]- according to various sources 250,000 - 400,000 [[Magyars]] settled in the Pannonian plain, inhabited predominantly by Slavs
* [[1222]] - 2,000,000 at the time of [[Golden Bull]]
* [[1242]] - 1,200,000 after the Mongol-Tatars invasion
* [[1370]] - 2,500,000 at the time of [[Angevin]] kings
* [[1490]] - 4,000,000 before the Ottoman conquest (3.2 million Magyars)
* [[1699]] - 3,300,000 at the time of [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] (less than 2 million Magyars)
* [[1711]] - 3,000,000 at the end of [[Kuruc]] War (1.6 million Magyars)
* [[1790]] - 8,000,000 (39% Magyars)
* [[1828]] - 11,495,536
* [[1846]] - 12,033,399
* [[1880]] - 13,749,603 (46% Magyars)
* [[1900]] - 16,838,255 (51,4% Magyars)
* [[1910]] - 18,264,533 (54,5% Magyars, 5% [[History of the Jews in Hungary|Jews]])
* [[1920]] - 7.516.000 after the [[Treaty of Trianon]] (90% Magyars, 6.1% Jews)
====Present====
''Main article: [[Demographics of Hungary]]''
For some 95% of the population, mostly [[Hungarians]], the mother tongue is [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], a [[Finno-Ugric]] language unrelated to any neighbouring language. Several ethnic minorities exist: [[Roma (people)|Roma]] (2%), [[ethnic German|German]]s (1.2%), [[Romanians]] (0.8%), [[Slovaks]] (0.4%), [[Croats]] (0.2%), [[Serbs]] (0.2%) and [[Ukrainians]] (0.1%).
The largest religion in Hungary is [[Catholicism]] &ndash; Roman and Greek &ndash; (approx 50% of the population), with a [[Calvinist]] minority (around 30%) and [[Lutheran]]s (5%). Jews are now approximately 1% of the population. However, these formal figures are not wholly representative, since the Hungarian population is not particularly religious; no more than 25% actively practice their faith. Furthermore, the active suppression of religion by the Communist regimes over 50 years has left religion mostly to older people who no longer were risking advancement opportunities.
Due to historical reasons, significant [[Magyars|Hungarian]] minority populations can be found in the surrounding countries, notably in [[Ukraine]] (in [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Transcarpathia]]), [[Slovakia]], [[Romania]] (in [[Transylvania]]), and [[Serbia]] (in [[Vojvodina]]). [[Austria]] (in [[Burgenland]]), [[Croatia]], and [[Slovenia]] are also host to a number of ethnic Magyars.
====The Roma Minority====
The [[Roma people|Roma]] suffer particular problems in Hungary. Currently slightly more than 70 % of Roma children complete primary schooling, but only one third continue studies into the intermediate (secondary) level. This is far lower than the more than 90 % proportion of children of non-Roma families who continue studies at an intermediate level. The situation is made still worse by the fact that a large proportion of young Roma are qualified in subjects that provide them with only limited chances for employment. Less than 1 % of Roma hold higher educational certificates.
== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Hungary]]''
[[Hungarian culture]] is diverse and varied.
[[Image:Franz Liszt photo.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Franz Liszt]], prominent Hungarian composer]]
The [[music of Hungary]] consists mainly of traditional Hungarian [[folk music]] and music by prominent [[Romantic music|Romantic]] and [[Baroque music|Baroque]] composers such as [[Franz Liszt]], [[Béla Bartók]] and [[Zoltán Kodály]] (although the latter mainly composed music with traditional elements). Hungarian traditional music tends to have a strong [[Dactyl (poetry)|dactylic]] [[rhythm]], just as the language is invariably stressed on the first syllable of each word.
[[Hungarian cuisine]] is also a prominent feature of Hungarian culture, with traditional dishes such as [[goulash]] a main feature of the Hungarian [[diet (nutrition)|diet]]. Dishes are often flavoured with [[paprika]] (also Hungarian for [[bell pepper|pepper]]). [[Stew|Stews]] are often to be found with typical elements such as [[pork]] or [[beef]], as the stew ''pörkölt'' shows.
Hungary is famous for its mathematics institute which has trained many Nobel Prize winners. Famous Hungarian mathematicians [[Paul Erdös]] who is famous for publishing in over forty languages and whose [[Erdös number]]s are still tracked, [[John von Neumann]] one of the pioneers in digital computing, [[Eugene Wigner]], and many others. Erdös, von Neumann, and Wigner, like other Hungarian Jewish scientists, fled rising anti-Semitism in Europe, and they made their most famous contibutions in the United States.
Hungarians are very proud of their inventions. These include the noiseless [[match]], the [[Rubik's cube]] and [[Non-Euclidean geometry]]. A number of other important inventions, including the [[holography]], the [[ballpoint pen]], the theory of the [[hydrogen bomb]], and the [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] [[programming language]] were invented by Hungarians who fled the country prior to World War II.
The literature of Hungary is very extensive, albeit not well known abroad due to the limited knowledge of the language. [[János Arany]] was a famous Hungarian poet who wrote a large amount of well-known poetry. [[Sándor Márai]] and [[Imre Kertész]] have gained acclaim in recent times: the latter has won the [[Nobel Prize]] for literature.
Hungarians are also known for their prowess at [[Water sport (recreation)|water sports]], mainly [[swimming]], [[water polo]] and canoeing; this can be said to be surprising at first, due to Hungary being [[landlocked]]. On the other hand, the presence of two major rivers ([[Danube|Duna]]/[[Tisza]]) and a major lake ([[Balaton]]) gives excellent opportunities to practice those sports.
=== See also ===
*[[Constitution of Hungary|The Constitution of Hungary]]
*[[List of Hungarians]]
*[[List of Hungarian rulers]]
*[[List of Hungarian writers]]
*[[List of universities in Hungary]]
*[[List of colleges in Hungary]]
*[[Public holidays in Hungary]]
*[[Music of Hungary]]
*[[Hungarian cuisine]]
*[[List of personal naming conventions#Name order|Eastern name order used in Hungarian personal names]]
*[[List of most popular
|
,000 population (2005 est.)
===Net migration rate===
:-11.99 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.6 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2005 est.)
===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 47.77 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 52.95 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 42.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)
===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 70.45 years
:Male: 67.13 years
:Female: 73.86 years (2005 est.)
===Total fertility rate===
:3.48 children born/woman (2005 est.)
===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 0.035% (2001 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 775 (2001)
:Deaths: 225 (as of 2001)
===Nationality===
:Noun: Cape Verdean(s)
:Adjective: Cape Verdean
===Ethnic groups===
:Creole (mulatto) 71%, African 28%, European 1%
===Religions===
:Roman Catholic (infused with indigenous beliefs); Protestant (mostly Church of the Nazarene)
===Languages===
:Portuguese, Crioulo (a blend of Portuguese and West African words)
===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 76.6%
:Male: 85.8%
:Female: 69.2% (2003 est.)
==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}
{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}
[[Category:Demographics by country|Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Cape Verde]]
[[pt:Demografia de Cabo Verde]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Politics of Cape Verde</title>
<id>5462</id>
<revision>
<id>41944250</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-02T20:15:06Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>FernValim</username>
<id>518993</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>including 5 new conselhos, new Ambassador in Praia</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cape Verde}}
The constitution first approved in 1980 and substantially revised in 1992 forms the basis of government organization. It declares that the government is the "organ that defines, leads, and executes the general internal and external policy of the country" and is responsible to the National Assembly. The Prime Minister is the head of the government and as such proposes other ministers and secretaries of state. Members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote for five-year terms; the most recent elections were held in 2001. The Prime Minister is nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the President. The President is the head of state and is elected by popular vote for a five-year term; the most recent elections were held in 2001.
The judicial system is comprised of a Supreme Court of Justice &mdash; whose members are appointed by the President, the National Assembly, and the Superior Board of the Magistrature &mdash; and regional courts. Separate courts hear civil and criminal cases. Appeal to the Supreme Court is possible.
===Principal Government Officials===
* President: [[Pedro Pires]] (Since March 2001)
* Prime Minister: [[José Maria Neves]] (Since February 2001)
* President of the National Assembly: [[Aristides Lima]] (as of 2000)
* Minister of Foreign Affairs: [[Victor Borges]] (since 2004)
* Minister of National Defense: [[Armindo Maurício]] (as of 2003)
* Ambassador to the United States: José Brito
* Ambassador to the United Nations: Fátima Veiga (as of August 2004)
Cape Verde maintains an embassy in the United States at 3415 Massachusetts Avenue, NW., Washington, D.C. 20007 (tel. 202-965-6820) and a consulate in Boston (tel. 617-353-0014).
===Political conditions===
Following independence in 1975, the [[African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde]] (PAIGC) established a one party political system. This become the [[African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde]] (PAICV) in 1980, as Cape Verde sought to distance itself from [[Guinea-Bissau]], following unrest in that country.
In 1991, following growing pressure for a more pluralistic society, multi-party elections were held for the first time. The opposition party, the [[Movement for Democracy (Cape Verde)|Movement for Democracy]] (MpD), won the legislative elections, and formed the government. The MpD candidate also defeated the PAICV candidate in the presidential elections. In the 1996 elections, the MpD increased their majority, but in the 2001 the PAICV returned to power, winning both the Legislative and the Presidential elections.
Generally, Cape Verde enjoys a stable democratic system. The elections have been considered free and fair, there is a free press, and the rule of law is respected by the State.
'''Country name:'''
<br>''conventional long form:''
Republic of Cape Verde
<br>''conventional short form:''
Cape Verde
<br>''local long form:''
Republica de Cabo Verde
<br>''local short form:'' Cabo Verde
'''Data code:''' CV
'''Government type:''' republic
'''Capital:''' [[Praia]]
'''Administrative divisions:'''
Cape Verde is divided into 22 municipalities (concelhos, singular - concelho): [[Boa Vista, Cape Verde|Boa Vista]], [[Brava, Cape Verde|Brava]], [[Maio]], [[Mosteiros]], [[Paul, Cape Verde|Paul]], [[Praia]], [[Porto Novo]], [[Ribeira Grande]], [[Ribeira Grande de Santiago]],[[Sal, Cape Verde|Sal]], [[Santa Catarina, Cape Verde|Santa Catarina]], [[Santa Catarina do Fogo]], [[Santa Cruz, Cape Verde|Santa Cruz]], [[São Domingos]], [[São Filipe]], [[São Lourenço dos Órgãos]],[[São Miguel]], [[São Nicolau]], [[São Salvador do Mundo]], [[São Vicente]], [[Tarrafal]], [[Tarrafal de São Nicolau]],
'''Independence:'''
[[July 5]] [[1975]] (from [[Portugal]])
'''National holiday:'''
Independence Day, [[5 July]] ([[1975]])
'''Constitution:'''
new [[Constitution of Cape Verde|constitution]] came into force [[25 September]] [[1992]]
'''Legal system:'''
derived from the legal system of Portugal
'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal
'''Executive branch:'''
<br>''Previous chief of state:''
President [[Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro|Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro]] (since [[22 March]] [[1991]]) (until March 2001)
Current chief of state: President Pedro Pires (since March 2001)
<br>''Previous head of government:''
Prime Minister [[Carlos Veiga|Carlos Alberto Wahnon de Carvalho VEIGA]] (since [[13 January]] 1991) (until February 2001)
Current head of government: Prime Minister José Maria Neves, since February 2001.
<br>''cabinet:''
Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister from among the members of the National Assembly
<br>''elections:''
president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election held [[18 February]] [[1996]] (last held 2001); prime minister nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the president
<br>''election results in 1996::''
Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro reelected president; percent of vote - Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro (independent) 80.1%
'''Legislative branch:'''
unicameral National Assembly or Assembleia Nacional (72 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
<br>''elections:''
held [[17 December]] [[1995]] (lastheld NA December 2000)
<br>''election results in 199:''
percent of vote by party - MPD5: 61.3%, PAICV 29.8%, PCD 6.7%, other 2.2%; seats by party - MPD 50, PAICV 21, PCD 1
'''Judicial branch:'''
Supreme Tribunal of Justice or Supremo Tribunal de Justiça
'''Political parties and leaders:''': see [[List of political parties in Cape Verde]]
'''International organization participation:'''
[[ACCT]], [[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[Customs Coordination Council|CCC]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[ECOWAS]], [[FAO]], [[G-77]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]] (observer), [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[NAM]], [[OAU]], [[OPCW]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WTrO]] (applicant)
'''Diplomatic representation in the US:'''
<br>''chief of mission:''
Ambassador José Brito
<br>''chancery:''
3415 Massachusetts Avenue NW, [[Washington, D.C.]] 20007
<br>''telephone:''
[1] (202) 965-6820
<br>''FAX:''
[1] (202) 965-1207
<br>''consulate(s) general:''
Boston
'''Diplomatic representation from the US:'''
<br>''chief of mission:''
Ambassador Roger Dwayne Pierce (since Sept 27,2005)
<br>''embassy:''
Rua Abilio Macedo 81, [[Praia]]
<br>''mailing address:''
C. P. 201, Praia
<br>''telephone:''
[238] 261 56 16
<br>''FAX:''
[238] 261 13 55
Web page: http://usembassy.state.gov/posts/cv1/
'''Flag description:'''
three horizontal bands of light blue (top, double width), white (with a horizontal red stripe in the middle third), and light blue; a circle of 10 yellow five-pointed stars is centered on the hoist end of the red stripe and extends into the upper and lower blue bands.
:''See also :'' [[Cape Verde]]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Cape Verde]]
[[fr:Politique du Cap-Vert]]
[[pt:Política de Cabo Verde]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Economy of Cape Verde</title>
<id>5463</id>
<revision>
<id>38982100</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-09T22:52:12Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Briaboru</username>
<id>284038</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Cape Verde table}}
'''Economy - overview:'''
Cape Verde's low per capita [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] reflects a poor natural resource base, including serious [[water]] shortages exacerbated by cycles of long-term [[drought]]. During pe
|
[Great Britain]]. America's historic [[Trans-Am Series]] is undergoing a period of transition, but is still the longest-running road racing series in the U.S. The [[National Auto Sport Association]] also provides a venue for amateurs to compete in home-built factory derived vehicles on various local circuits.
===Stock car racing===
[[Image:Riverside_Raceway.JPG|thumb|250px|right|One of the most famous NASCAR tracks was the old [[Riverside International Raceway]] in [[Riverside, California]].]]
:''Main article: [[Stock car racing]]''
[[Stock car racing]] is the American variant of touring car racing. Usually conducted on ovals, the cars look like production cars but are in fact purpose-built racing machines which are all very similar in specifications. Early stock cars were much closer to production vehicles; the car to be raced was often driven from track to track.
The main stock car racing series is [[NASCAR]] and among the most famous races in the series are the [[Daytona 500]] and [[Allstate 400 at The Brickyard]]. NASCAR also runs the [[Busch Series]] (a junior stock car league) and the [[Craftsman Truck Series]] ([[pickup truck]]s).
NASCAR also runs the [[Featherlite]] series of "modified" cars which are heavily modified from stock form. With powerful engines, large tires, and light bodies. NASCAR's oldest series is considered by many to be its most exciting.
There are also other stock car series like [[IROC]] in the United States and [[CASCAR]] in [[Canada]].
[[British Stock car racing]] is a form of Short Oval Racing
This takes place on Shale or Tarmac tracks in either Clockwise or Anti-Clockwise direction, Depending on the class some of which are contact.
Races are organised by local promoters and all drivers are registered with BRISCA and have their own race number.
What classes exist depends on the promoters, so events in [[Scotland]] at Cowdenbeath can be very different from an event at [[Wimbledon Stadium]] in [[London]].
''Formula Cars''
* F1 - Cars built to Specification normally utilising 5,6 or 7 Litre V8 engines
* F2 - Specification built cars similar to F1 with 2 Litre Ford Pinto Engines
These are the two main National forms of British Stock Car Racing, there are World Championships organised by the governing body [http://www.brisca.com/BRISCA]
There are also local variants raced in some smaller tracks, they are usually similar to F2 Stock Cars.
F1's race (in the UK) at the following venues:
Belle Vue Stadium (Manchester),
Owlerton Stadium (Sheffield),
Skegness Stadium,
Buxton,
Hednesford,
Birmingham,
Northampton,
Coventry,
Kings Lynn,
Ipswich,
Cowdenbeath,
Knockhill.
They also race in Holland.
''Hot Rods''
* Local Variations on the concept of fibreglass cars that look like production models Non Contact
''Production Models''
*Modified Road cars, classes range from Non-Contact 2 Litre Hot Rods to Contact Banger Racing.
Contact Classes can be identified by the inclusion of external side impact bars and large bumpers at either end made out of square section steel.
===Drag racing===
:''Main article: [[Drag racing]]''
In [[drag racing]], the objective is to complete a certain distance, traditionally 1/4 mile, (400 m), in the shortest possible time. The vehicles range from the everyday car to the purpose-built [[dragster]]. Speeds and elapsed time differ from class to class. A street car can cover the 1/4 mile (400 m) in 15 s whereas a [[top fuel dragster]] can cover the same distance in 4.5 s and reach 330 mph (530 km/h). Drag racing was organised as a sport by [[Wally Parks]] in the early [[1950s]] through the [[NHRA]] (National Hot Rod Association) which is the largest sanctioning motor sports body in the world. The NHRA was formed to prevent people from [[street racing]]. Illegal street racing is not drag racing.
Launching its run to 330 mph (530 km/h), a top fuel dragster will accelerate at 4.5 ''[[Gee|g]]'' (44 m/s<sup>2</sup>), and when braking and parachutes are deployed, the driver experiences deceleration of 4 ''g'' (39 m/s<sup>2</sup>), more than space shuttle occupants. A single top fuel car can be heard over eight miles (13 km) away and can generate a reading of 1.5 to 2 on the [[Richter scale]]. (NHRA Mile High Nationals 2001, and 2002 testing from the National Seismology Center.)
Drag racing is often head-to-head where two cars battle each other, the winner proceeding to the next round. Professional classes are all first to the finish line wins. Sportsman racing is handicapped (slower car getting a head start) using an index, and cars running faster than their index "break out" and lose.
Drag racing is mostly popular in the [[United States]].
===Sports car racing===
:''Main article: [[Sports car racing]]''
In [[sports car racing]], production versions of sports cars and purpose-built prototype cars compete with each other on closed circuits. The races are usually conducted over long distances, at least 1000 km, and cars are driven by teams of two or three drivers (and sometimes more in the US), switching every now and then. Due to the performance difference between production based sports cars and sports racing prototypes, one race usually involves many racing classes. In the US the [[American Le Mans]] Series was organized in 1999, featuring GT, GTS, and two prototype classes. Another series based on Le Mans began in 2004, the [[Le Mans Endurance Series]], which included four 1000 km races at tracks in Europe. A competing body, [[Grand-Am]], which began in 2000, sanctions its own set of endurance series, the [[Rolex Sports Car Series]] and the [[Grand-Am Cup]]. Grand-Am events typically feature many more cars and much closer competition than American Le Mans.
Famous sports car races include the [[24 Hours of Le Mans]], the [[24 Hours of Daytona]] and the [[12 Hours of Sebring]].
===Offroad racing===
:''Main article: [[Offroad racing]]''
In [[offroad racing]], various classes of specially modified vehicles, including cars, compete in races through off-road environments. In North America these races often take place in the desert, such as the famous [[Baja 1000]].
In Europe, "offroad" refers to events such as autocross or rallycross, while desert races and rally-raids such as the [[Paris-Dakar Rally|Paris-Dakar]], [[Master Rallye]] or European "bajas" are called Cross-Country Rallies.
===Hillclimbing===
:''Main article: [[Hillclimbing]]''
===Kart racing===
:''Main article: [[Kart racing]]''
Although often seen as the entry point for serious racers into the sport, [[kart racing]], or karting, can be an economic way to try your luck at motorsport and is also a fully fledged international sport in its own right. World-famous F1-drivers like [[Michael Schumacher|Michael]] and [[Ralf Schumacher]] and most of the typical starting grid of a modern Grand Prix took up the sport at around the age of eight, with some testing from age three. Several former motorcycle champions have also taken up the sport, notably [[Wayne Rainey]], who was paralysed in a racing accident and now races a hand-controlled kart. As one of the cheapest ways to go racing, karting is seeing its popularity grow worldwide.
Go-karts, or just "karts" - seem very distant from normal road cars, with dimunitive frames and wheels, but a small engine combined with very light weight make for a quick machine. The tracks are also on a much smaller scale, making kart racing more accessible to the people.
===Legend car racing===
:''Main article: [[Legend car racing]]''
===Other categories===
*[[Autocross|Autocrossing]]
*[[Autograss]]
*[[Demolition Derby]]
*[[Dirt speedway racing]]
*[[Dirt track racing]]
*[[Drifting (motorsport)|Drifting]]
*[[Truck Racing|Grand Prix Truck Racing]]
*[[Road racing]]
*[[Short track motor racing]]
*[[SoloMotorsport|Solo]]
*[[Street racing]]
*[[Rallycross]]
*[[Folkrace]]
==Use of flags==
''Main article: [[Racing flags]]''
In open-wheel, stock-car and other types of circuit auto races, flags are displayed to indicate the general status of a race and to communicate instructions to competitors in a race. While the flags have changed from the first years (e.g. red used to start a race), these are generally accepted for today.
{|
! Flag
! Displayed from start tower
! Displayed from observation post
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Green.svg|25px|Green flag]]
|The race has started or resumed after a full caution or stop, or the race is proceeding normally.
|End of hazardous section of track.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Yellow.svg|25px|Yellow flag]]
|Full course caution condition for ovals. On road courses, it means a local area of caution. Depending on the type of racing, either two yellow flags will be used for a full course caution or a sign with 'SC' ([[Safety car]]) will be used as the field follows the [[pace car|pace/safety car]] on track and no cars may pass.
|Local caution condition — no cars may pass at the particular corner where being displayed.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Oil.svg|25px|Yellow flag with red stripes]]
|Debris or slippery patches on the track.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Black.svg|25px|Black flag]]
|The car with the indicated number must pit.
|The session is halted; all cars on course must return to pit lane.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Orange Circle.svg|25px|Meatball flag]]
|The car with the indicated number has mechanical trouble.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Black White.svg|25px|Black and white flag]]
|The driver of the car with the indicated number has been penalized for misbehaviour.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing White Cross.svg|25px|White cross flag]]
|The driver of the car with the indicated number is disqualified or will not be scored until they report to the pits.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Blue.svg|25px|Blue flag with yellow stripe]]
|A car must allow another car to pass if the flag is blue only. With an orange or yellow stripe, it simply serves as a warning that faster traffic is behind.
|A car is being
|
ilhelm Bjerknes]], Norwegian physicist (b. [[1862]])
*[[1959]] - [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], American architect (b. [[1867]])
*[[1961]] - King [[Zog of Albania]] (b. [[1895]])
*[[1963]] - [[Eddie Edwards]], American jazz trombonist (b. [[1891]])
*[[1976]] - [[Dagmar Nordstrom]], American composer, pianist, one of The [[Nordstrom Sisters]] (b. [[1903]])
*1976 - [[Phil Ochs]], American singer (b. [[1940]])
*[[1988]] - [[Brook Benton]], American actor (b. [[1931]])
*[[1991]] - [[Martin Hannett]], record producer (b. [[1948]])
*[[1996]] - [[Richard Condon]], American novelist (b. [[1915]])
*1996 - [[James W. Rouse]], American real estate developer, activist, and philanthropist (b. [[1914]])
*[[1997]] - [[Laura Nyro]], American singer and songwriter (b. [[1947]])
*[[1999]] - [[Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara]], Niger politician and general (b. [[1949]])
*[[2001]] - [[Willie Stargell]], baseball player (b. [[1940]])
*[[2002]] - [[Leopold Vietoris]], Austrian mathematician (b. [[1891]])
*[[2005]] - [[Andrea Dworkin]], American feminist and writer (b. [[1946]])
==Holidays and observances==
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Feast of Jalál (Glory) - First day of the second month of the Bahá'í Calendar
*[[Bataan Death March|Bataan Day]] (Day of Valor - ''Araw ng Kagitingan'') in the [[Philippines]]
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/9 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/9 Today in History: April 9]
----
[[April 8]] - [[April 10]] - [[March 9]] - [[May 9]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
{{months}}
[[ceb:Abril 9]]
[[nap:9 'e abbrile]]
[[war:Abril 9]]
[[pam:Abril 9]]
[[af:9 April]]
[[ar:9 أبريل]]
[[an:9 d'abril]]
[[ast:9 d'abril]]
[[bg:9 април]]
[[be:9 красавіка]]
[[bs:9. april]]
[[ca:9 d'abril]]
[[cv:Ака, 9]]
[[co:9 d'aprile]]
[[cs:9. duben]]
[[cy:9 Ebrill]]
[[da:9. april]]
[[de:9. April]]
[[et:9. aprill]]
[[el:9 Απριλίου]]
[[es:9 de abril]]
[[eo:9-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 9]]
[[fo:9. apríl]]
[[fr:9 avril]]
[[fy:9 april]]
[[ga:9 Aibreán]]
[[gl:9 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 9일]]
[[hr:9. travnja]]
[[io:9 di aprilo]]
[[id:9 April]]
[[ia:9 de april]]
[[ie:9 april]]
[[is:9. apríl]]
[[it:9 aprile]]
[[he:9 באפריל]]
[[jv:9 April]]
[[ka:9 აპრილი]]
[[csb:9 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:9'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 9]]
[[lb:9. Abrëll]]
[[li:9 april]]
[[hu:Április 9]]
[[mk:9 април]]
[[ms:9 April]]
[[nl:9 april]]
[[ja:4月9日]]
[[no:9. april]]
[[nn:9. april]]
[[oc:9 d'abril]]
[[pl:9 kwietnia]]
[[pt:9 de Abril]]
[[ro:9 aprilie]]
[[ru:9 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 9.]]
[[sco:9 Aprile]]
[[sq:9 Prill]]
[[scn:9 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 9]]
[[sk:9. apríl]]
[[sl:9. april]]
[[sr:9. април]]
[[fi:9. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:9 april]]
[[tl:Abril 9]]
[[tt:9. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 9]]
[[th:9 เมษายน]]
[[vi:9 tháng 4]]
[[tr:9 Nisan]]
[[uk:9 квітня]]
[[ur:9 اپریل]]
[[wa:9 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月9日]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>ABM</title>
<id>1788</id>
<revision>
<id>40429517</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-20T14:05:56Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>85.34.201.166</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>+ [[Agent based model]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''ABM''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings:
* [[Acoustic black metal]], for example [[Impaled Northern Moonforest]]
* [[Activity-based management]], see [[cost management]]
* [[Anti-ballistic missile]] or the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]]
* [[Anything But Microsoft]], a [[zealot]]ry which espouses that [[Microsoft]] is evil; therefore no one should use their products or technology regardless of technical merit. A particular zealot of this nature is an ABMer. Antonym: NBM
* [[Agent based model]]
* [[Asynchronous Balanced Mode]]
* [[Automatic Banking Machine]], usually referred to by the term [[Automatic teller machine]]
* [[Bamaga Injinoo Airport]] (IATA airport code: ABM) in Bamaga, Queensland, Australia
* [[Uru: Ages Beyond Myst]], a computer game
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:ABM]]
[[nn:ABM]]
[[sv:ABM]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Apuleius</title>
<id>1789</id>
<revision>
<id>39480442</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-13T17:12:26Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Kbdank71</username>
<id>197953</id>
</contributor>
<comment>per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 5|Feb 5]]</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">:''Apuleius should not be confused with [[Lucius Appuleius Saturninus]], a Roman demagogue or with [[Pseudo-Apuleius]], an author.''
'''Lucius Apuleius''' (c. A.D. [[123]]/[[125|5]] - c. A.D. [[180]]), an utterly [[Roman Empire|Romanized]] [[Berber]] who described himself as "half-[[Numidia|Numidian]] half-[[Gaetulia|Gaetulian]]", is remembered most for his bawdy [[Picaresque novel|picaresque]] [[Latin]] [[novel]] ''[[The Golden Ass]]'' or, in Latin, the '''Aureus Asinus''' (where the Latin word ''aureus'' - golden - connoted an element of blessed luckiness).
He was born in [[Madaurus]] (now [[Mdaourouch]], [[Algeria]]), a [[Roman colony]] in Numidia on the North African coast, bordering Gaetulia; this is the same ''[[colonia]]'' where [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] later received part of his early education, and, though located well away from the Romanized coast, is today the site of some pristine Roman ruins. Details regarding his life come mostly from his defense speech (see below) and a work entitled "Florida," which consists of snippets taken from some of his best speeches. There is also a desire on the part of many to take details from his seemingly autobiographical novel and apply them to Apuleius, but this is not a reliable source -- most notably, the novel is misused as evidence that Apuleius was a worshiper of [[Isis]], though there is good reason to think that this was not the case. (Another dubious conclusion is that "Lucius," the first name of the main character of the novel, was also the first name of Apuleius -- wishful thinking for which there is no concrete evidence.)
Apuleius inherited a substantial fortune from his father, a provincial magistrate. Apuleius studied with a master at [[Carthage]] and later at [[Athens]], where he studied [[Platonic philosophy]] among other subjects. He subsequently went to [[Rome]] to study [[Latin]] [[oratory]] and, most likely, to declaim in the law courts for a time before returning to his native North Africa. He also travelled extensively in [[Asia Minor]] and [[Egypt]], studying [[philosophy]] and [[religion]], burning up his inheritance while doing so.
After being accused of using [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]] to gain the attentions (and fortune) of the wealthy widow he married (the mother of a school chum from his days in Athens), he declaimed and then distributed a witty ''tour de force'' in his own defense before the [[proconsul]] and a court of magistrates convened in [[Sabratha]], near [[Tripoli]], the ''Apologia (A Discourse on Magic)''. The work has very little to do with magic, and a lot to do with making mincemeat of his opponents, with hilarity and panache. It is among the funniest works that have come down to us from Antiquity -- it is certainly the most entertaining example of Latin courtroom oratory to survive, though some fans of Cicero might disagree -- and firmly places Apuleius among the great humorists of his day.
His other works include ''On the God of Socrates'', ''Florida'', ''On Plato and his Doctrine'', and possibly ''On the Universe''.
''The Golden Ass'' is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. It is an imaginative, irreverent, and amusing work that relates the ludicrous adventures of one Lucius, who experiments in magic and is accidentally turned into an [[donkey|ass]]. In this guise he hears and sees many unusual things, until escaping from his predicament in a rather unexpected way (see SPOILER below). Within this [[frame story]] are found multiple [[story within a story|digressions]], the longest among them being the well-known tale of [[Cupid and Psyche]].
{{spoiler}}
The ending of "The Golden Ass" is unexpected, and should not be spoiled for those who have not read the book. However, since it is an important aspect of Apuleius's masterpiece, it cannot be omitted from this site -- thus the use of this warning.
"The Golden Ass" ends with the hero, Lucius, being rescued by Isis and transformed back from his donkey form. Lucius subsequently becomes a worshiper of Isis, and Apuleius provides a lengthy account of his initiation into the [[mystery religion|mysteries]] of [[Isis]], which some see as [[autobiography|autobiographical]]. But Apuleius need not have been a worshiper of Isis to know the details he provides, and this work is more likely to belong to a sub-genre of stories involving rescue by Isis. It is even possible that he is mocking such intensely devout worshipers of the goddess.
== External links ==
*{{gutenberg author|id=Apuleius|name=Apuleius}}
*[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/apuleius.html Apulei Opera] (Latin texts of all the surviving works of Apuleius) at [[The Latin Library]]
*[http://www.cwru.edu/UL/preserve/stack/Apologia.html English translation of ''Florida'' by H. E. Butler (PDF)]
*[http://www.chieftainsys.freeserve.co.uk/apuleius_apology01.htm English translation of the ''Apologia'' by H. E. Butler]
*[http://www.cwru.edu/UL/preserve/stack/Apologia.html English translation of the ''Apologia'' by H. E. Butler (PDF)]
*[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/apuleius/index.html Apuleius - Apologia: Seminar] (Latin text of the ''Apologia'' with H. E. Butler's English translation and an English crib with discussion and commentary)
*[http://www.unisi.it/ricerca/ist/anc_hist/online/apuleio/hunink/hunink.htm Apuleius of Madauros, ''Pro Se De Magia (Apologia)'', edited with a commentary by Vincent Hunink] (Long and detailed introduction to the ''Apologia'')
[[Category:Roman era humorists]]
[[Category:Roman e
|
r grumpy friend with a heart of gold, who possesses superhuman strength and durability, but with a monstrous, craggy exterior that looks as if made of orange rock.
Since its introduction — in which the groundbreaking team did not even hew to the convention of superhero costumes its first two issues — the Fantastic Four has been portrayed as a somewhat dysfunctional yet loving family. Uniquely at the time, and also breaking convention with comic-book archetypes, its members would squabble and even hold animosities both deep and petty toward one another at times, though ultimately truly caring for and supporting each other.
The team launched the revival of Marvel Comics in the early 1960s, giving it a pivotal place in the history of [[American comic books]]. The Fantastic Four have have remained more or less popular since, and have been adapted into other [[media]], including three [[animated television series]], an aborted 1990s low-budget [[film]], and a major-studio motion picture, ''[[Fantastic Four (2005 movie)|Fantastic Four]]'' (2005).
The comic-book series, which famously added the hyperbolic tagline "The World's Greatest Comic Magazine!" above the title starting with issue #4, dropped the "The" from the cover logo with #15, becoming simply ''Fantastic Four''.
==Publication history==
[[Image:ff1kirby.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''[[The Fantastic Four]]'' #1 (Nov. 1961). Cover art by [[Jack Kirby]] (penciller) and [[Dick Ayers]] (inker; unconfirmed).]]
Legend has it that in 1961, longtime [[magazine]] and [[comic book]] [[publisher]] [[Martin Goodman (publisher)|Martin Goodman]] was playing golf with rival publisher Jack Liebowitz of [[DC Comics]]. a.k.a. National Periodical Publications.<!--a.k.a. name is mentioned here because Stan Lee says "National Comics" in quote directly below this paragraph--> Liebowitz, according to the story, bragged about DC's success with the superhero team the [[Justice League|Justice League of America]], which had debuted in ''The Brave and the Bold'' #28 (Feb. 1960) before going on to its own hit title (premiere cover-date: Nov. 1960). Whether or not this mythic meeting actually occurred, Goodman, a publishing trend-follower aware of the JLA's strong sales, directed his comics editor, [[Stan Lee]], to begin publishing a comic-book series about a team of superheroes.
"Martin mentioned that he had noticed one of the titles published by National Comics seemed to be selling better than most", recalled Lee in 1974. "It was a book called ''The'' [sic] ''Justice League of America'' and it was composed of a team of superheroes. ... ' If the Justice League is selling ', spake he, ' why don't we put out a comic book that features a team of superheroes?' "{{fn|1}}
Lee, who'd served as editor-in-chief and art director of Marvel and its predecessor companies, [[Timely Comics]] and [[Atlas Comics (1950s)|Atlas Comics]], for two decades, had by now found the medium restrictive. "[My wife] Joan was commenting about the fact that after 20 years of producing comics I was still writing [[television]] material, [[advertising]] copy and [[newspaper]] features in my spare time. She wondered why I didn't put as much effort and creativity into the comics as I seemed to be putting into my other freelance endeavors. ...[H]er little dissertation made me suddenly realize that it was time to start concentrating on what I was doing — to carve a real career for myself in the nowhere world of comic books".{{fn|2}}
<!--See "Discussion", please, re: the following phrase: Intending to leave after completing this assignment (one which, decades later, he claimed he did not take seriously),-->Lee teamed with artist [[Jack Kirby]] to produce a groundbreaking series featuring a family of superheroes who were fallible and more [[naturalism (literature)|naturalistically]] human than virtually anything seen in superhero comics to that time. "For just this once", Lee wrote, "I would do the type of story I myself would enjoy reading.... And the characters would be the kind of characters i could personally relate to: they'd be flesh and blood, they'd have their faults and foibles, they'd be fallible and feisty, and — most important of all — inside their colorful, costumed booties they'd still have feet of clay".{{fn|3}}
[[Image:FF48.jpg|thumb|200px|''FF'' #48 (March 1966): The Watcher warns, in part one of the landmark "Galactus Trilogy". Cover art by Kirby & [[Joe Sinnott]].]]
To forestall possibly upsetting DC{{fact}} (which, in addition to being a competing publisher, was also the distributor of Marvel's limited line of comics), Lee and Kirby deliberately avoided making the new book look like a competing superhero comic; the new characters appeared on the cover without costumes and had no secret identities. Lee's intended swan song became unexpectedly and phenomenally successful; Lee and Kirby stayed together on the book and began launching other titles from which the vaunted "[[Marvel Universe]]" of additional interrelated titles and characters grew.
Through its creators' lengthy run, the series produced many acclaimed stories and characters that have become central to Marvel, including [[Doctor Doom]]; the [[Silver Surfer]]; [[Galactus]]; the [[Watcher (comics)|Watcher]]; the [[Inhumans (comics)|The Inhumans]]; the [[Black Panther (comics)|Black Panther]]; the rival alien [[Kree]] and [[Skrull]] races; and Him, who would become [[Adam Warlock]]. As well, the daring duo of Lee & Kirby, who eventually shared credited as co-plotting collaborators, introduced such concepts as the [[Negative Zone]] and [[unstable molecules]], two core elements of the Marvel mythos. In the book's most groundbreaking yet utterly natural development, ''Fantastic Four'' presented superhero comics' first pregnancy, culminating with the birth of a superhero family's first child, [[Franklin Richards|Franklin Benjamin Richards]], in ''Fantastic Four Annual'' #5 (1968).
After Kirby's departure from Marvel in 1970, ''Fantastic Four'' continued with Lee, [[Roy Thomas]], [[Gerry Conway]], and [[Marv Wolfman]] as its consecutive regular writers, working with artists including [[John Romita, Sr.]], [[John Buscema]], [[Rich Buckler]], and [[George Perez]], with longtime inker [[Joe Sinnott]] helping to provide some visual continuity. [[Jim Steranko]] contributed a handful of covers.
[[Image:FF232.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[John Byrne]] gets "Back to the Basics" in ''FF'' #232, his debut as writer-artist. Cover inks: [[Terry Austin (comic book artist)|Terry Austin]].]]
In the 1980s, [[John Byrne]] created what many critics call the series' best run since Lee & Kirby's. He started on the title with issue #209 (Aug. 1979), doing pencil breakdowns for Sinnott to finish. Byrne then scripted two tales as well (#220-221, July-Aug. 1980) before writer [[Doug Moench]] and penciler [[Bill Sienkiewicz]] took over for 10 issues. Then, with issue #232 (July 1981), the aptly titled "Back to the Basics", Byrne began his triple-threat run as writer, penciller, and (initially under the pseudonym '''Bjorn Heyn''') inker on the celebrated title. His key contribution was the modernization of the Invisible Girl into the Invisible Woman — a self-confident and dynamic character whose newfound control of her abilities made her the most powerful member of the team. Byrne also staked bold directions in the characters' personal lives, having the married Sue and Reed Richards suffer a miscarriage — as well as a separation that seemed headed for divorce.
In February 2004, Marvel launched the series ''[[Ultimate Fantastic Four]]'', a version of the group in the "[[Ultimate Marvel|Ultimate]]" [[alternate universe]]. Additionally, Marvel launched ''[[Marvel Knights 4]]'', a spinoff Fantastic Four series, in April 2004. Other ongoing-title spinoffs have included the 1970s quarterly title ''Giant-Size Fantastic Four'' and the 1990s ''Fantastic Four Unlimited'', and there have been numerous miniseries.
==Character history==
The Fantastic Four acquired superhuman abilities after an experimental [[rocket]] ship designed by scientist Reed Richards passed through a storm of [[cosmic ray]]s on its test flight to outer space. Upon crash landing back on Earth, the four impromptu astronauts found themselves transformed and possessed of bizarre new abilities.
[[Image:FF51.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''FF'' #51 (June 1966): "This Man...This Monster!" — considered one of comics' greatest stories.{{fn|4}} Cover art by Kirby & Sinnott.]]
Richards, who took the name [[Mister Fantastic]], was now able to stretch his body into nearly any shape he could imagine (similar to Timely Comics' Thin Man and [[Quality Comics]]' celebrated [[Plastic Man]]). His fiancée, Susan Storm, gained the ability to become invisible at will and named herself the Invisible Girl (later the [[Invisible Woman]]). She later developed the ability to project force fields, create invisible objects, and turn other objects visible or invisible. Her younger brother, Johnny Storm, possessed the incendiary powers of the [[Human Torch (Johnny Storm)|Human Torch]], enabling him to control fire, project burning bolts of flame from his body, and fly. Finally, pilot Ben Grimm was transformed into a monstrous, craggy, humanoid with orange, rock-like skin, incredible strength. and a nearly invulnerable hide. Filled with anger, self-loathing and self-pity over his new existence, he dubbed himself the [[Thing (comics)|Thing]], the term Susan used in her initial, startled reaction to his transformation.
The four characters were modeled after the four [[classical element|classical Greek elements]]: earth (The Thing), fire (The Human Torch), wind (The Invisible Girl) and water (the pliable and ductile Mr. Fantastic). They also appear to be inspired by co-creator Kir
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a messianic sect (which in fact had occurred among the followers of both [[Shabbatai Zvi]] and [[Jacob Frank]])
[[Image:Vilna Gaon portrait.gif|thumb|The [[Vilna Gaon]], the head of the ''Mitnagdim'' and the most famous opponent of Hasidism]]
Some other important differences between Hasidim and ''Mitnagdim'' included:
* Hasidism believed in miracle workers; they believed that the ''Ba'al Shem Tov'' and some of his disciples literally performed miracles. Stories of their miracles became a part of Hasidic literature. In opposition many Jewish religious rationalists held such views as heretical, based on classical rabbinic works such as [[Saadia Gaon]]'s ''[[Emunoth ve-Deoth]]''.
* The Hasidic way of dress was seen as a way to outwardly appear pious; this was opposed as improper.
* Chassidic philosophy (''Chassidus'') holds as a core belief that God permeates all physical objects in nature, including all living beings. This belief is understood by Hassidim in a [[panentheism|panentheistic]] way that God is the animating force behind the universe. However many of the Hasidic teachings if taken literally and not in the way that those teachings are explained, can be misunderstood as [[pantheism]]. In opposition many Jewish religious rationalists viewed these writings literally, and their [[pantheism|pantheistic]] understanding of them as being a violation against the [[Maimonides|Maimonidean]] principle of faith that God is not physical, and thus was seen as heretical.
* Chassidus teaches that there are sparks of goodness in all things, which can be redeemed to perfect the world. Many held such a view to be false and dangerous.
On a more prosaic level, other ''Mitnagdim'' argued that Jews should follow a more scholarly approach to Judaism. At one point Hasidic Jews were put in ''[[cherem]]'' (a Jewish form of communal excommunication); after years of bitter acrimony, a rapprochement occurred between Hasidic Jews and those who would soon become known as [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jews]]. The reconciliation took place in response to the perceived even greater threat of the ''[[Haskala]]'', or Jewish Enlightenment. Since then [[Orthodox Judaism]], and particularly [[Haredi Judaism]], has subsumed all the sects of Hasidic Judaism.
===Since the Holocaust===
During [[the Holocaust]] [[anti-Semitism]] destroyed the Hasidic centers of Eastern [[Europe]]. Survivors moved to [[Israel]] or to America, notably to [[Brooklyn]] (New York), and established new centers of Hasidic Judaism. Some of the larger and more well-known Hasidic sects still extant include [[Breslov (Hasidic dynasty)|Breslov]], [[Lubavitch]] (Chabad), [[Satmar]], [[Ger (Hasidic dynasty)|Ger]], [[Belz (Hasidic dynasty)|Belz]], [[Vizhnitz]], [[Sanz]], [[Puppa]], [[Munkacz (Hasidic dynasty)|Munkacz]], [[Spinka (Hasidic dynasty)|Spinka]], and [[Bobov]] Hasidim.
For years, two "superpowers" of the Brooklyn Hasidic world existed: Satmar and Chabad &mdash; based in [[Williamsburg, Brooklyn|Williamsburg]] and in [[Crown Heights]] respectively.
A major Hasidic center also exists in [[IVe arrondissement|fourth arrondissement]] of [[Paris]], near the famous Jewish quarter of the rue des rosiers.
==Religious practice and culture==
===Fundamental conceptions===
The teachings of Hasidism are founded on two theoretical conceptions: (1) religious [[panentheism]], or the omnipresence of [[God]], and (2) the idea of ''Devekut'', communion between God and man. "Man," says the ''Besht'', "must always bear in mind that God is omnipresent and is always with him; that God is, so to speak, the most subtle matter everywhere diffused... Let man realize that when he is looking at material things he is in reality gazing at the image of the Deity which is present in all things. With this in mind man will always serve God even in small matters."
''Devekut'' (communion) refers to the belief that an unbroken intercourse takes place between the world of God and the world of humanity. It is true not only that the Deity influences the acts of man, but also that man exerts an influence on the will of the Deity. Every act and word of man produces a corresponding vibration in the upper spheres. From this conception is derived the chief practical principle of Hasidism - communion with God for the purpose of uniting with the source of life and of influencing it. This communion is achieved through the concentration of all thoughts on God, and consulting Him in all the affairs of life.
[[Image:Hasidic Celebration.jpg|thumb|A Hasidic celebration in [[Borough Park]], New York]]
The righteous man is in constant communion with God, even in his worldly affairs, since here also he feels His presence. An especial form of communion with God is prayer. In order to render this communion complete the prayer must be full of fervor, ecstatic; and the soul of him who prays must during his devotions detach itself, so to speak, from its material dwelling. For the attainment of ecstasy recourse may be had to mechanical means, to violent bodily motions, to shouting and singing. According to Besht, the essence of religion is in sentiment and not in reason. Theological learning and halakhic lore are of secondary importance, and are useful only when they serve as a means of producing an exalted religious mood. It is better to read books of moral instruction than to engage in the study of the casuistic [[Talmud]] and the rabbinical literature. In the performance of rites the mood of the believer is of more importance than the externals; for this reason formalism and superfluous ceremonial details are injurious.
===Liturgy and prayer===
[[Image:TosherRebbe.JPG|thumb|The [[Tosh (Hasidic dynasty)|Tosher]] [[Rebbe]] concentrating on prayer]]
Most Hasidim pray according to the ''Nusach Sepharad'' (prayer style), a blend of [[Ashkenazi]] and [[Sephardi]] liturgies, based on the innovations of Rabbi [[Isaac Luria]] (also known as the ''Arizal''). In regard to dialect, the Hasidim pray in very strong [[Ashkenazic Hebrew]] that contains many nuances picked up from [[Yiddish]]. This dialect has nothing to do with Hasidism in its origins, nor was it chosen deliberately: it just happens to be the Yiddish dialect of the places from which most Hasidim originally came. Hasidim who follow dynasties that originated in [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] pray in a different type of Hebrew, because when seculars began to speak the modern [[Hebrew language]] the Galician Hasidic leaders mandated pronouncing the words of the Liturgy differently as to differentiate themselves from the seculars. This has become [[Galician Hebrew]].
Hasidic prayer has a distinctive accompaniment of melodies called ''[[nigun]]im'' (or in America "nigguns") that represent the overall mood of the prayer; even many non-Hasidim attend Hasidic synagogues in order to hear this. Hasidic prayer also has a reputation for taking a very long time (although some groups do pray quickly). Some very pious Hasidim will spend seven seconds of concentration of every single word of the prayer of ''[[Amidah]]''.
Hasidim have a reputation for having a lot of ''kavanah'', mental concentration, during prayer. Overall, Hasidim regard prayer as one of the most paramount activities during the day. In fact, one of the most controversial innovations of Hassidic practice involves the near-abolition of the traditional specified times of day by which prayers must be conducted (''zemanim''), particularly the morning prayer; the preparations for prayer, including partaking of food (also proscribed by strict [[Halakha | halachic]] literalism) take precedence and may extend into the allotted time. The Kotzker Rebbe allegedly originated this practice.
===Dress===
[[Image:Hasidim.jpg||230px|thumb|right|Hasidic Rebbes and Hasidim in traditional dress. Note the shtreimels, black bekishes, and the gartels.]]
Hasidim have a reputation for their distinctive attire. Within the Hasidic world, one can distinguish different groups by subtle differences in appearance.
Hasidic men most commonly wear all black with a white shirt. On the [[Shabbat]] they wear a long black silk or [[satin]] (or similar of a cheaper material, such as polyester) robe called a ''[[bekishe]]'', with which they use a ''[[gartel]]'' (a type of prayer belt). A Hasidic [[Rebbe]] on [[Shabbat]] traditionally wears a white ''bekishe'' rather than a black one, but this practice is no longer followed today, save for some Rebbes of Jerusalem based Hasidic sects such as [[Toldos Aharon]] and [[Lelov (Hasidic dynasty)|Lelov]]. Many Hassidic Rebbs wear a ''bekishe'' that is lined with velvet. In many other Hasidic sects the Rebbe wears a white, gold, or other coloured "tish bekitcha" only during the "[[tish (hasidic)|Tish]]" or during the prayers that come right before or after the "tish". In many others no colored bekishe other than black is worn at all.
Contrary to popular belief, Hasidic dress has little or nothing to do with the way [[szlachta | Polish nobles]] once dressed. The [[Jewish Emancipation | Emancipation]] movement originated this myth in the late 19th century in an attempt to induce younger Jews to abandon the outfit. Interestingly, secular Yiddish writers of old, living in Eastern Europe ([[Sholom Aleichem]], for example) appear to have no knowledge of the "Polish origin" of the dress. Likewise, numerous Slavic sources from the 15th century onwards refer to the "Jewish Kaftan". The Tsarist edict of the mid-19th century banning Jewish outfits mentions the "Jewish Kaftan" and "Jewish hat" - as a result of this edict Hasidim modified their dress in the Russian Empire and generally abandoned [[sidelocks]]. Modern [[Chabad Lubavitch]] dress - where the [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]] [[frock coat | frock-coat]] substitutes for the ''bekishe'' - reflects this change.
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shed with authority and resented the school regimen, believing the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in such an endeavor as strict memorization.
In 1894, following the failure of Hermann's electrochemical business, the Einsteins moved from [[Munich]] to [[Pavia, Italy]] (near [[Milan]]). Einstein's first scientific work was written therein (called "''The Investigation of the State of [[Aether]] in [[Magnetic Field]]s''"). Albert remained behind in Munich lodgings to finish school, completing only one term before leaving the [[gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] in spring 1895 to rejoin his family in Pavia. He quit without telling his parents and a year and a half prior to final examinations, Einstein convinced the school to let him go with a medical note from a friendly doctor, but this meant he had no secondary-school certificate.{{rf|3|Highfield1}} That year, at the age of 16, he performed the [[thought experiment]] known as Albert Einstein's mirror. After gazing into a mirror, he examined what would happen to his image if he were moving at the [[speed of light]]; his conclusion that the speed of light is independent of the observer would later become one of the two [[postulates of special relativity]].
Despite excelling in the mathematics and science portion, his failure of the liberal arts portion of the ''[[ETH Zurich|Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule]]'' (ETH, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, in [[Zurich]]) entrance exam the following year was a setback; his family sent him to [[Aarau]], [[Switzerland]], to finish secondary school, where he studied the seldom-taught [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell's]] [[classical electromagnetism|electromagnetic theory]] and received his diploma in September 1896. During this time he lodged with Professor Jost Winteler's family and became enamoured with Marie, their daughter, his first sweetheart. Albert's sister Maja was to later marry their son Paul, and his friend [[Michele Besso]] married their other daughter Anna.{{rf|4|Highfield2}} Einstein subsequently enrolled at the ''Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule'' in October and moved to Zurich, while Marie moved to [[Olsberg]] for a teaching post. The same year, he renounced his [[Württemberg]] citizenship and became [[stateless person|stateless]].
In the spring of 1896, the [[Serbia]]n [[Mileva Maric|Mileva Marić]] started initially as a medical student at the [[University of Zurich]], but after a term switched to the same section as Einstein as the only woman that year to study for the same diploma. Einstein's relationship with Mileva developed into romance over the next few years.
In 1900, he was granted a teaching diploma by the ''Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule'' ([[ETH Zurich]]). Einstein then wrote his first published paper on the [[capillary action|capillary forces]] of a drinking straw, wherein he tried to unify the [[laws of physics]], an attempt he would continually make throughout his life. (It was titled "''Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen''," which translated is "''Consequences of the observations of capillarity phenomena''," found in "''Annalen der Physik''" volume 4, page 513.) Shortly following, Einstein was accepted as a Swiss citizen in 1901; he kept his Swiss passport for his whole life. Through his friend Michelle Besso, an [[engineer]], he was presented with the works of [[Ernst Mach]] and later would consider him "the best sounding board in Europe" for physical ideas. During this time Einstein discussed his scientific interests with a group of close friends, including Besso and Mileva. The men referred to themselves as the "Olympia Academy." He and Mileva had an illegitimate daughter [[Lieserl Einstein|Lieserl]], born in January 1902.
===Work and doctorate===
[[Image:Einstein patentoffice.jpg|frame|right||Einstein in 1905, when he wrote the "''[[Annus Mirabilis Papers]]''"]]
Upon graduation, Einstein could not find a teaching post, mostly because his brashness as a young man had apparently irritated most of his professors. The father of a classmate helped him obtain employment as a technical assistant [[patent clerk|examiner]] at the Swiss Patent Office{{rf|5|www.ipi.ch.376}} in 1902. There, Einstein judged the worth of [[inventor]]s' [[patent]] applications for devices that required a knowledge of physics to understand — in particular he was chiefly charged to evaluate patents relating to electromagnetic devices.{{rf|6|Galison368}} He also learned how to discern the essence of applications despite sometimes poor descriptions, and was taught by the director how "to express [him]self correctly". He occasionally rectified their design errors while evaluating the practicality of their work.
Einstein married [[Mileva Marić]] on [[January 6]], [[1903]]. Einstein's marriage to Marić, who was a mathematician, was both a personal and intellectual partnership: Einstein referred to Mileva as "a creature who is my equal and who is as strong and independent as I am". [[Ronald W. Clark]], a biographer of Einstein, claimed that Einstein depended on the distance that existed in his and Mileva's marriage in order to have the solitude necessary to accomplish his work; he required intellectual isolation. [[Abram Joffe]], a Soviet physicist who knew Einstein, in an obituary of Einstein, wrote, "The author of [the papers of 1905] was ... a bureaucrat at the Patent Office in Bern, Einstein-Marić" and this has recently been taken as evidence of a collaborative relationship. However, according to Alberto A. Martínez of the Center for Einstein Studies at Boston University, Joffe only ascribed authorship to Einstein, as he believed that it was a Swiss custom at the time to append the spouse's last name to the husband's name.{{rf|7|physicsweb.org.377}} Whatever the truth, the extent of her influence on Einstein's work is a highly controversial and debated question.
On [[May 14]], [[1904]], the couple's first son, [[Hans Albert Einstein]], was born. In 1903, Einstein's position at the [[Swiss Patent Office]] had been made permanent, though he was passed over for promotion until he had "fully mastered machine technology".{{rf|8|Galison370}} He obtained his [[Doctor of Philosophy|doctorate]] after submitting his thesis "''A new determination of molecular dimensions''" ("''Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen''") in 1905.
That same year, he wrote four articles that provided the foundation of modern physics, without much [[scientific literature]] to which he could refer or many scientific colleagues with whom he could discuss the theories. Most physicists agree that three of those papers (on [[Brownian motion]], the [[photoelectric effect]], and [[special relativity]]) deserved [[Nobel Prize]]s. Only the paper on the photoelectric effect would be mentioned by the Nobel committee in the award. This is ironic, not only because Einstein is far better-known for relativity, but also because the photoelectric effect is a quantum phenomenon, and Einstein became somewhat disenchanted with the path [[quantum mechanics|quantum theory]] would take. In each of these papers, Einstein boldly took an idea from theoretical physics to its logical consequences and managed to explain experimental results that had baffled scientists for decades.
[[Image:Max-Planck-und-Albert-Einstein.jpg|thumb|left|222px|[[Max Planck]] and Einstein]]
====Annus Mirabilis Papers====
{{details|Annus Mirabilis Papers}}
Einstein submitted the series of papers to the "''Annalen der Physik''". They are commonly referred to as the "''[[Annus Mirabilis Papers]]''" (from [[List of Latin phrases|''Annus mirabilis'']], [[Latin]] for 'year of wonders'). The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ([[IUPAP]]) commemorated the 100th year of the publication of Einstein's extensive work in 1905 as the '[[World Year of Physics 2005]]'.
The first paper, named "''On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light''", ("''Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt''") proposed that "energy quanta" (which are essentially what we now call [[photon]]s) were real, and showed how they could be used to explain such phenomena as the [[photoelectric effect]]. This paper was specifically cited for his Nobel Prize. [[Max Planck]] had made the formal assumption that energy was quantized in deriving his black-body radiation law, published in 1901, but had considered this to be no more than a mathematical trick. The photoelectric effect thus provided a simple confirmation of Max Planck's hypothesis of quanta.
His second article in 1905, named "''On the Motion—Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat—of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid''", ("''[[Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen]]''") covered his study of [[Brownian motion]], and provided empirical evidence for the existence of atoms. Before this paper, [[atom]]s were recognized as a useful concept, but [[physicist]]s and [[chemist]]s hotly debated whether atoms were real entities. Einstein's statistical discussion of atomic behavior gave [[experimentalist]]s a way to count atoms by looking through an ordinary [[microscope]]. [[Wilhelm Ostwald]], one of the leaders of the anti-atom school, later told [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] that he had been converted to a belief in atoms by Einstein's complete explanation of Brownian motion. At the same time as Einstein, Brownian Motion was also described by [[Smoluchowski]].
Einstein's third paper that year, "''On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies''" ("''Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper''"), was published in September 1
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{{imdb name|id=0001920|name=Isaac Asimov}}
*{{nndb name|id=702/000023633|name=Isaac Asimov}}
* {{ibdof name | id = 68 | name = Isaac Asimov }} {Work in Progress}
**[http://www.ibdof.com/viewforum.php?f=62 Discussion group for Asimov] at [[The Internet Book Database of Fiction]]
*[http://www.asimovonline.com/oldsite/future_of_humanity.html The Future of humanity: What Asimov thinks is the way forward for us]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/wi/mikebru/Alps.html Religion in Asimov's Writings: An essay by Michael Brummond]
*[http://www.asimovians.com www.asimovians.com] (Forum on Asimov, his works and everything else)
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/isaacasimov/ 1987 Audio Interview with Isaac Asimov - RealAudio (24 min. 59 sec.)]
* [http://freesfonline.de/authors/asimov.html Isaac Asimov's online fiction] at [http://freesfonline.de/ Free Speculative Fiction Online]
* [http://books.guardian.co.uk/authors/author/0,5917,-9,00.html Guardian Books "Author Page"], with profile and links to further articles.
* [http://www.geocities.com/Area51/Dimension/1136/pages/eghome.html Encyclopedia Galactica] - an exhaustive reference to Asimov's fictional worlds.
* [http://www.sikander.org/foundation.php Detailed timeline for the Robots and Foundation Universe]
* [http://homepage.mac.com/jhjenkins/Asimov/SCategory.html Lists of Isaac Asimov’s short fiction] (by category)
[[Category:1920 births|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:1992 deaths|Asimov, Isaac]]
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[[Category:Isaac Asimov| ]]
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[[Category:Science writers|Asimov, Isaac]]
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<id>465210</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Izabella scorupco.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Izabella Scorupco as Natalya Simonova in "GoldenEye".]]'''Izabella Dorota Scorupco''' (born [[June 4]] [[1970]]) is an [[actress]] who is most famous for appearing as [[Bond girl]] [[Natalya Simonova]] in the 1995 [[James Bond]] film ''[[GoldenEye]]''.
Scorupco was born in [[Białystok]], [[Poland]] to Lech and Magdalena. When she was only one year old her parents split up and Izabella came to live with her mother. In [[1978]] the two moved to [[Bredäng]] in [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]]. She learned to speak [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[English language|English]] during this time, in addition to her native [[Polish language|Polish]].
She worked as a model and in [[1989]] she was discovered by director [[Staffan Hildebrand]] and starred in the movie ''[[Ingen kan älska som vi]]''.
She was married to [[ice hockey]] player [[Mariusz Czerkawski]] between December [[1996]] and [[2000]]. They have one daughter together, Julia (born September [[1997]]). On [[January 30]], [[2003]] she married [[United States|American]] Jeffrey Raymond. Together they have a young son, Jacob (born [[July 24]], [[2003]]).
==Selected filmography==
*''[[Exorcist: The Beginning]]'' (2004)
*''[[Reign of Fire]]'', (2002)
*''[[Vertical Limit]]'', (2000)
*''[[With Fire and Sword]]'' (''Ogniem i mieczem'', [[1999]]) - Polish movie
*''[[GoldenEye]]'', (1995)
*''[[Ingen kan älska som vi]]'', (1989)
==External links==
*[http://www.izabella-scorupco.com Izabella Scorupco website]
*[http://www.IzabellaScorupco.net Izabella Scorupco Fan Site]
*{{imdb name|id=0001713|name=Izabella Scorupco}}
[[Category:1970 births|Scorupco, Izabella]]
[[Category:Living people|Scorupco, Izabella]]
[[Category:Bond girls|Scorupco, Izabella]]
[[Category:Polish actors|Scorupco, Izabella]]
[[Category:Polish models|Scorupco, Izabella]]
[[Category:Swedish actors|Scorupco, Izabella]]
[[de:Izabella Scorupco]]
[[nl:Izabella Scorupco]]
[[pl:Izabella Scorupco]]
[[sv:Izabella Scorupco]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Irrationalism and Aestheticism</title>
<id>14576</id>
<revision>
<id>40656143</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-22T02:36:43Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>BLUE</username>
<id>801247</id>
</contributor>
<comment>rv</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''Irrationalism and [[aestheticism]]''' were [[philosophical movement]]s which formed as a cultural reaction against [[positivism]] in the early [[20th century]]. These perspectives opposed or de-emphasized the importance of the [[rationality]] of human beings. Instead, they concentrated on [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s "[[noumenon|noumenal realm]]", or the experience of one's own existence.
Part of the movements involved claims that [[science]] was inferior to [[intuition]]. In this project, [[art]] was given an especially high place, as it was considered the gateway to the noumenon. Unfortunately, not all of the public at the time were involved in this movement and only the [[elite]] had access to the [[art]] (ie. a "Mandarin elitism").
Some of the followers of this idea are [[Nietzsche]], [[Dostoevsky]], [[Bergson]], and [[Sorel]]. [[symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] and [[existentialism]] grew out of these schools of thought.
==See also==
*[[Rationalism]]
{{philo-stub}}
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[sk:Iracionalizmus]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Indonesia</title>
<id>14579</id>
<revision>
<id>42108852</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T21:59:05Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Klaam</username>
<id>840384</id>
</contributor>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = Republik Indonesia |
common_name = Indonesia |
image_flag = Flag_of_Indonesia.svg |
image_coat = Coat_of_Indonesia.png |
image_map = LocationIndonesia.png |
national_motto = [[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]<br>([[Javanese language#Old Javanese|Old Javanese]]/[[Kawi language|Kawi]]: Unity in Diversity)<br> [[ideology|National ideology]]: [[Pancasila Indonesia | Pancasila]]|
national_anthem = [[Indonesia Raya]] |
official_languages = [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] (Bahasa Indonesia, a [[standard language|standardized dialect]] of the [[Malay language]]) |
capital = [[Jakarta]] |latd=6|latm=08|latNS=S|longd=106|longm=45|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Jakarta]] |
government_type = [[Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[List of Presidents of Indonesia|President]] |
leader_names = [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] |
area_rank = 15th |
area_magnitude = 1_E10 |
area=1,919,440 |
percent_water = 4.85% |
population_estimate = 241,973,879 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 4th |
population_census=206,264,595|
population_census_year=2000|
population_density = 126 |
population_density_rank = 61 |
GDP_PPP_year=2004 |
GDP_PPP = $827.4 billion |
GDP_PPP_rank = 15th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $3,500 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 109th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.697 |
HDI_rank = 110th |
HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
established_events = - Declared<br> - Recognised |
established_dates = From [[Netherlands]]<br>[[17 August]] [[1945]]<br>[[27 December]] [[1949]] |
currency = [[Rupiah]] |
currency_code = IDR |
time_zone= various |
utc_offset= +7 to +9 |
time_zone_DST= not observed |
utc_offset_DST= +7 to +9|
cctld= [[.id]] |
calling_code = 62 |
footnotes =
}}
The '''Republic of Indonesia''' ([[Bahasa Indonesia]]: ''Republik Indonesia'') is located in the [[Malay Archipelago]], the world's largest [[archipelago]], between [[Indochina]] and [[Australia]], between the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean]]s. It is the most populous [[Muslim]]-majority nation in the world and the fourth [[List of countries by population|most populous]] overall. It has had free elections since the [[Indonesian 1998 Revolution|1998 Revolution]] which led to the resignation of President [[Suharto]], who came to power in 1965.
==History==
{{Main|History of Indonesia}}
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Banda Aceh's Grand Mosque, Indonesia.jpg|left|thumb|240px|Banda Aceh's Grand Mosque was built around the 12th century.]] -->
Under the influences of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], several kingdoms formed on the islands of [[Sumatra]] and [[Java (island)|Java]] from the [[7th century|7th]] to 14th century. The arrival of [[Arab]]s trading in spices later brought [[Islam]], which became the dominant religion in many parts of the archipelago
|
ut instead because Agung surrounded it on land and sea, starving it into submission. With Surabaya brought into the empire, the Mataram kingdom encompassed all of central and eastern Java, and [[Madura]]; only in the west did [[Banten]] and the Dutch settlement in [[Jakarta|Batavia]] remain outside Agung's control. He tried repeatedly in the 1620s and 1630s to drive the Dutch from Batavia, but his armies had met their match, and he was forced to share control over Java.
In [[1645]] he began building [[Imogiri]], his burial place, about fifteen kilometers south of Yogyakarta. Imogiri remains the resting place of most of the royalty of Yogyakarta and Surakarta to this day. Agung died in the spring of [[1646]], with his image of royal invincibility shattered by his losses to the Dutch, but he did leave behind an empire that covered most of Java and stretched to its neighboring islands.
Upon taking the throne, Agung's son Susuhunan [[Amangkurat I of Mataram|Amangkurat I]] tried to bring long-term stability to Mataram's realm, murdering local leaders that were insufficiently deferential to him, and closing ports so he alone had control over trade with the Dutch.
By the mid-1670s dissatisfaction with the king fanned into open revolt, beginning at the margins and creeping inward. [[Raden Trunajaya]], a prince from Madura, lead a revolt fortified by itinerant fighters from faraway [[Makassar]] that captured the king's court at Mataram in mid-[[1677]]. The king escaped to the north coast with his eldest son, the future king [[Amangkurat II of Mataram|Amangkurat II]], leaving his younger son Pangeran Puger in Mataram. Apparently more interested in profit and revenge than in running a struggling empire, the rebel Trunajaya looted the court and withdrew to his stronghold in East Java leaving Puger in control of a weak court.
Amangkurat I died just after his expulsion, making Amangkurat II king in 1677. He too was nearly helpless, though, having fled without an army or treasury to build one. In an attempt to regain his kingdom, he made substantial concessions to the Dutch, who then went to war to reinstate him. For the Dutch, a stable Mataram empire that was deeply indebted to them would help ensure continued trade on favorable terms. They were willing to lend their military might to keep the kingdom together. Dutch forces first captured Trunajaya, then forced Puger to recognize the sovereignty of his elder brother Amangkurat II.
==Colonial era==
Beginning in [[1602]] the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] gradually established themselves as rulers of what is now Indonesia, exploiting the fractionalization of the small kingdoms that had replaced Majapahit. The most notable exception was [[Portuguese Timor]], which remained under [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule until [[1975]] when it was invaded and occupied, becoming the Indonesia province of [[East Timor]]. The Netherlands controlled Indonesia for almost 350 years, excluding a short period of [[British Empire|British]] rule in part of the islands after the [[Anglo-Dutch Java War]] and the period of Japanese occupation during World War II. During their rule the Dutch developed the [[Dutch East Indies]] into one of the world's richest colonial possessions.
===Dutch East-India Company===
[[Image:Voc logo.gif|thumb|right|100px|The logo of the Amsterdam Chamber of the Dutch East-India Company (VOC)]]In the 17th and 18th centuries the Dutch East Indies were not controlled directly by the Dutch government, but by a joint-stock trading company, the [[Dutch East India Company]] (in Dutch: ''Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie'' or VOC). The VOC had been awarded a monopoly on trade and colonial activities in the region by the Dutch parliament in [[1602]], but had no territory of its own in Java. In 1619, the Company conquered the Javanese city of Jayakarta, burned it to the ground and then founded the city of Batavia (present-day [[Jakarta]]), modelling it on Amsterdam.
A primary aim of the VOC was the maintenance of its [[monopoly]] of the [[spice trade]] in the archipelago. It did this through the use and threatened use of violence against the peoples of the spice-producing islands, and against non-Dutch outsiders who attempted to trade with them. For example, when the people of the [[Banda Islands]] continued to sell [[nutmeg]] to English merchants, the Dutch killed or deported virtually the entire population and repopulated the islands with VOC indentured servants and slaves who worked in the nutmeg groves.
The VOC became deeply involved in the internal politics of [[Java (island)|Java]] in this period, and fought in a number of wars involving the leaders of [[Mataram]] and [[Banten]] (Bantam).
===Dutch state rule===
After the VOC went bankrupt at the end of the 18th century and after a short British rule under [[Thomas Stamford Raffles]], the Dutch state took over the VOC possessions in [[1816]]. A Javanese uprising was crushed in the [[Java War]] of [[1825]]-[[1830]]. After 1830 a system of forced cultivations was introduced on Java, the [[Cultivation System]] (in Dutch: ''cultuurstelsel''). This system brought the Dutch and their Indonesian collaborators enormous wealth. The cultivation system was a government monopoly and was abolished in a more liberal period after [[1870]].
In [[1901]] the Dutch adopted what they called the [[Ethical Policy]], which included somewhat increased investment in indigenous education, and modest political reforms. Under governor-general [[J.B. van Heutsz]] the government extended more direct colonial rule throughout the Dutch East Indies, thereby laying the foundations of today's Indonesian state.
===Early nationalist groups===
In [[1908]] the first nationalist movement was formed, [[Budi Utomo]], followed in 1912 by the first nationalist mass movement, [[Sarekat Islam]]. The Dutch responded after the First World War with repressive measures. The nationalist leaders came from a small group of young professionals and students, some of whom had been educated in the Netherlands. Many, including Indonesia's first president, [[Sukarno]] ([[1901]]-[[1970|70]]), were imprisoned for political activities.
In [[1914]] exiled Dutch socialist [[Henk Sneevliet]] founded the [[Indies Social Democratic Association]]. Initially a small forum of Dutch socialists, it would later evolve into the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]].
===World War II===
[[Image:Soekarno Indonesia.jpg |thumb|175px|Sukarno, leader of the Indonesian Nationalists, and first president of Indonesia]]In May [[1940]], early in [[World War II]], the Netherlands was occupied by [[Nazi]] [[Germany]]. The Dutch East Indies declared a state of siege and in July redirected exports for Japan to the US and Britain. Negotiations with the Japanese aimed at securing supplies of aviation fuel collapsed in June 1941, and the Japanese started their conquest of Southeast Asia in December of that year. That same month, factions from Sumatra sought Japanese assistance for a revolt against the Dutch wartime government. The last Dutch forces were defeated by Japan in March 1942.
===Japanese occupation===
In July 1942, [[Sukarno]] accepted Japan's offer to rally the public in support of the Japanese war effort. [[Sukarno]] and [[Mohammad Hatta]] were decorated by the Emperor of Japan in 1943. However, experience of the Japanese occupation of Indonesia varied considerably, depending upon where one lived and one's social position. Many who lived in areas considered important to the war effort experienced [[torture]], [[sex slavery]], arbitrary arrest and execution, and other [[war crimes]]. Thousands taken away from Indonesia as war labourers (romusha) suffered or died as a result of ill-treatment and stravation. People of Dutch and mixed Dutch-Indonesian descent were particular targets of the Japanese occupation.
In March 1945 Japan organized an Indonesian committee (BPUPKI) on independence. At its first meeting in May, Supomo spoke of national integration and against personal individualism; while Muhammad Yamin suggested that the new nation should claim [[Sarawak]], [[Sabah]], [[Malaya]], Portuguese Timor, and all the pre-war territories of the Dutch East Indies. The committee drafted the 1945 Constitution, which remains in force, though now much amended.
On [[9 August]] [[1945]] Sukarno, Hatta, and Radjiman Wediodiningrat were flown to meet [[Marshal Terauchi]] in [[Vietnam]]. They were told that Japan intended to announce Indonesian independence on [[24 August]]. After the Japanese surrender however, Sukarno unilaterally proclaimed independence on [[17 August]].
===Nationalist Revolution===
''For full coverage, see [[Indonesian National Revolution]]''
Informed that Japan no longer had the power to such make decisions on [[16 August]], Sukarno read out a brief unilateral "Proklamasi" (Declaration of Independence) on the following day. Word of the proclamation spread by shortwave and flyers while the Indonesian war-time military (PETA), youths, and others rallied in support of the new republic, fotne mving to take over govenrment offices from the Japanese.
On [[29 August]], [[1945]] the group appointed Sukarno as President and [[Mohammad Hatta]] as [[Vice-President]] using the constitution drafted by the BPUPKI. The BPUPKI was renamed the KNIP (Central Indonesian National Committee) and became a temporary governing body until elections could be held. This group declared the new government on [[31 August]] and determined that the new Republic of Indonesia would cover all the territory of the Dutch East Indies, and would consist of 8 provinces: Sumatra, Borneo, West Java, Central Java, East Java, Sulawesi, Maluku, and Sunda Kecil.
From [[1945]] to [[1949]] the Australian maritime unions in sympathy with an independence effort, enforced a total ban on all Dutch shipping throughout the long conflict, to deny Dutch authorities access to the shipping, supplies and logistical support required to re-estab
|
mately half. This leads to much cheaper launch vehicles. Although the engine produces 92 milliNewtons of thrust at maximum power (about a third of an ounce), the craft achieved high speeds because ion engines thrust continuously for long periods. The engine fired for 678 total days, a record for such engines. The next spacecraft to use NSTAR engines is the [[Dawn Mission]], with three redundant units.
Powering the engine are the SCARLET (Solar Concentrator Array of Refractive Linear Element Technologies) solar arrays. These use linear [[Fresnel lens|Fresnel lenses]] made of [[silicone]] to concentrate sunlight onto solar cells. Combined with more efficient, dual-junction cells, the SCARLET arrays generate 2.5 kilowatts with less size and weight than conventional arrays.
The Autonav system takes images of known bright [[asteroid]]s. The asteroids in the inner Solar System move in relation to other bodies at a noticeable, predictable speed. Thus a spacecraft can determine its relative position by tracking such asteroids across the star background, which appears fixed over such timescales. Two or more asteroids let the spacecraft triangulate its position; two or more positions in time let the spacecraft determine its trajectory. Existing spacecraft are tracked by their interactions with the transmitters of the [[Deep Space Network]] (DSN), in effect an inverse [[GPS]]. However, DSN tracking requires many skilled operators, and the DSN is overburdened by its use as a communications network. The use of Autonav reduces mission cost and DSN demands.
The Autonav system can also be used in reverse, tracking the position of bodies relative to the spacecraft. This is used to acquire targets for the scientific instruments. The spacecraft is programmed with the target's coarse location. After initial acquisition, Autonav keeps the subject in frame, even commandeering the spacecraft's attitude control. The next spacecraft to use Autonav was [[Deep_Impact_(space_mission)|Deep Impact]].
Another method for reducing DSN burdens is the Beacon Monitor experiment. During the long cruise periods of the mission, spacecraft operations are essentially suspended. Instead of data, the craft emits a [[Carrier_wave|carrier]] signal on a predetermined frequency. Without data decoding, the carrier can be detected by much simpler ground antennas and receivers. If the spacecraft detects an anomaly, it changes the carrier between four tones, based on urgency. Ground receivers then signal operators to divert DSN resources. This prevents skilled operators and expensive hardware from babysitting an unburdened mission operating nominally.
The SDST (Small Deep-Space Transponder), as the name implies, is a compact radio communications system. Aside from using miniaturized components, the SDST is capable of communicating over the [[Ka band]]. Because this band is higher in frequency than bands currently in use by deep-space missions, the same amount of data can be sent by smaller equipment in space and on the ground. Conversely, existing DSN antennas can split time among more missions. At the time of launch, the DSN had a small number of Ka receivers installed on an experimental basis; Ka operations and missions are increasing.
Once at a target, DS1 senses the particle environment with the PEPE (Plasma Experiment for Planetary Exploration) instrument. It maps the objects with the MICAS (Miniature Integrated Camera And [[Spectrometer]]) imaging channel, and discerns chemical composition with infrared and ultraviolet channels. All channels share a 10-cm telescope, which uses a [[silicon carbide]] mirror.
Other, secondary technologies are built in, at the component level, and in the spacecraft built by Spectrum Astro.
==Achievements==
The ion propulsion engine initially failed after 4 hours of operation. However, it was later restored to action and performed excellently. This was a phenomenon experienced in previous ion engines (particularly electrostatic types, with parallel grids). Contamination in the engine is dislodged early in the mission, and contacts the closely-spaced grids. This shorts the high voltage needed between operating grids or other engine elements. The contamination was eventually cleared, as the material was eroded by arcs, sublimed by outgassing, or simply allowed to drift out. This process was speeded by repeatedly restarting the engine, arcing across trapped material.
It was thought that the ion exhaust might interfere with other spacecraft systems, such as radio communications or the science instruments. The PEPE detectors had a secondary function to monitor such effects from the engine. No interference was found.
Another failure was the loss of the star tracker. The star tracker determines spacecraft orientation by comparing star fields to its internal charts. The mission was saved when the MICAS camera was reprogrammed to stand in for the star tracker. Although MICAS is more sensitive, its field-of-view is an order of magnitude smaller, creating a higher processing burden. Ironically, the star tracker was an off-the-shelf component, expected to be highly reliable.
Without a working star tracker, ion thrusting was temporarily suspended. The loss of thrust time forced the cancellation of a flyby past Comet Wilson-Harrington.
The Autonav system required a couple of manual corrections, mostly for problems with identifying objects that were not bright enough or were difficult to identify because of the [[interference]] of light. Objects within the field generated spurious reflections into the instrument.
The MICAS instrument was a design success, but the ultraviolet channel failed due to an electrical fault. No useable data was returned.
The flyby of Braille was only a partial success. Deep Space 1 was intended to perform the flyby at 56,000 km/h at only 240 meters from the asteroid. Due to technical difficulties, including a software crash shortly before approach, the craft instead passed Braille at a distance of 26 km. This, plus Braille's lower [[albedo]], meant that the asteroid was not bright enough for the autonav to focus the camera in the right direction, and the picture shoot was delayed by almost an hour. The resulting pictures were disappointingly indistinct.
However, the flyby of Comet Borrelly was a great success and returned extremely detailed images of the comet's surface. Such images were of higher resolution than the only previous pictures, of [[Comet Halley|Halley's Comet]] taken by the [[Giotto mission|Giotto]] spacecraft. The PEPE instrument reported that the comet's fields were offset from the nucleus. This is believed to be due to emission of jets, which were not distributed evenly across the comet's surface.
Despite having no debris shields, the DS1 spacecraft survived the comet passage intact. Once again, the sparse comet jets did not appear to point towards the spacecraft. The spacecraft eventually went dead when it ran out of [[hydrazine]] fuel for its steering thrusters. Without these thrusters, the spacecraft could not maintain the pointing of its solar arrays toward the Sun.
==Statistics==
* the mass of the craft: 486.32 kg (1072 lb 2 oz) (including fuel)
* total cost: $149.7 million
* development cost: $94.8 million
* prime contractor: Spectrum Astro
* launch site: Cape Canaveral Air Station, Florida
* launch vehicle: Boeing [[Delta II]], a 7326-model
* maximum power: 2500 W (of which 2100 W powers the ion thrust engine)
* project manager: Dr. Marc Rayman
See also: [[Unmanned space missions]]
==External links==
* [http://www.astronautix.com/craft/deepace1.htm The Encyclopedia Astronautica]
* [http://nmp.jpl.nasa.gov/ds1/ Deep Space 1 website at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)]
[[Category:NASA probes]]
[[Category:New Millennium program]]
[[de:Deep Space 1]]
[[fr:Deep Space 1]]
[[it:Deep Space 1]]
[[hu:Deep Space-1]]
[[nl:Deep Space 1]]
[[pl:Deep Space 1]]
[[pt:Deep Space 1]]
[[ru:Deep Space 1]]
[[fi:Deep Space 1]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>King David</title>
<id>9071</id>
<revision>
<id>15906991</id>
<timestamp>2002-09-02T03:50:25Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Andre Engels</username>
<id>300</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>moved to David</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[David]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Jacques-Louis David</title>
<id>9072</id>
<revision>
<id>41618233</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-28T15:32:55Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
<id>82835</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>Wikify dates</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
[[Image:JacquesLouisDavid.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Self portrait ([[1794]])]]
'''Jacques-Louis David''' ([[August 30]], [[1748]] &ndash; [[December 29]] [[1825]]) was a highly influential [[France|French]] [[painter]] in the [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] style. In the [[1780s]] his cerebral brand of [[History painting]] marked a change in taste away from [[Rococo]] frivolity towards a classical austerity and severity, chiming with the moral climate of the final years of the ''[[ancien régime]].
David later became an active supporter of the [[French Revolution]] and friend of [[Maximilien de Robespierre]], and was effectively a dictator of the arts under the [[French Republic]]. Imprisoned after Robespierre's fall from power, he aligned himself with yet another political regime upon his release, that of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]]. It was at this time that he developed his 'Empire style', notable for its use of warm [[Venice|Venetian]] colours. David had a huge number of pupils, making him the strongest influence in French art of the [[19th century]], especially academic [[Paris Salon|Salon]] painting.
==Early
|
[Chinese language|Chinese]] Name'''
|-
| width=150 | [[Hanyu Pinyin]]
| width=150 | [[Chan|Chán]]
|-
| width=150 | [[Wade-Giles]]
| width=150 | Ch'an
|-
| width=150 | [[Cantonese language|Cantones]][[International Phonetic Alphabet|e IPA]]
| width=150 | <font size=2 face="arial unicode ms, lucida sans unicode">s&#618;m4</font>
|-
| width=150 | [[Cantonese language|Cantones]][[Jyutping|e Jyutping]]
| width=150 | sim
|-
| [[Hanzi]]
| &#31146;
|-
| [[Jiantizi]]
| &#31109;
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Korean language|Korean]] Name'''
|-
| width=150 | [[Revised Romanization of Korean|Revised Romanization]]
| width=150 | [[Seon]]
|-
| width=150 | [[McCune-Reischauer]]
| width=150 | S&#335;n
|-
| [[Hangul]]
| &#49440;
|-
| width="150" | [[Hanja]]
| width="150" | &#31146;
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Japanese language|Japanese]] Name'''
|-
| [[Romaji]]
| [[Zen]]
|-
| [[Kanji]]
| &#31109;
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] Name'''
|-
| [[Quoc ngu|Quốc ngữ]]
| Thiền
|}
'''''Dhy&#257;na''''' is a term in [[Sanskrit]] which refers to a type or aspect of [[meditation]]. It is a key concept in [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]]. Equivalent terms are ''jh&#257;na'' in [[Pāli|P&#257;li]], ''[[chán]]'' in [[Chinese language|Chinese]], and ''[[zen]]'' in [[Japanese language|Japanese]].
==Dhy&#257;na in Buddhism==
In the [[Pali Canon]] the [[Buddha]] describes eight progressive states of absorption [[meditation]] or Jhana. The first four are connected to the physical realm and the last four only with the mental realm (i.e. there is no experience of the body in the four higher Jhanas). It must be noted that these states are not the final goal that the Buddha taught since they are all still in the field of mind and matter. The final goal of [[Nibbana]] (Sanskrit:[[Nirvana]]) is the experience beyond mind and matter.<br>
In [[East Asia]], several schools of Buddhism were founded that focused on dhyana, under the names [[Chan]], [[Zen]], and [[Seon]]. According to tradition, [[Bodhidharma]] brought Dhyana to the [[Shaolin]] temple in China, through Tibet, where it came to be known first as ''chan'', and then ''zen''.<br>
Jhanas are normally described by the way of the mental factors which are present in these states<br>
1. Initial application [[Vitakka]]<br>
2. Sustained application [[Vicara]]<br>
3. Joy [[Piti]]<br>
4. Happiness [[Sukkha]]<br>
5. One-pointedness [[Ekaggata]]<br>
* First Jhana : [[Vitakka]], [[Vicara]], [[Piti]], [[Sukkha]], [[Ekaggata]]<br>
As the meditator reaches this first Jhana, he can meditate without being disturbed by any thought or desire, though thoughts are still there.<br>
* Second Jhana : [[Piti]], [[Sukkha]],[[Ekaggata]] <br>
All intellectual processes cease. There is only rapture, happiness, and the object.
* Third Jhana : [[Sukkha]], [[Ekaggata]] <br>
Joy disappears.
* Fourth Jhana : [[Upekkha]], [[Ekaggata]] <br>
Even happiness disappears, leading to a state with neither pleasure nor suffering. The [[Buddha]] described the Jhanas as "the footsteps of the [[tathagata]]".<br>
Traditionally, this fourth Jhana is seen as the beginning of attaining psychic powers.<br>
These four are [[rupajhana]]s, material jhanas. An additional four [[arupajhana]]s still consist in the two factors of [[Upekkha]] and [[Ekaggata]].<br>
Arupajhanas are non-material jhanas and are described by their mental object : <br>
* Fifth Jhana : [[infinite]] [[space]] <br>
* Sixth Jhana : [[infinite]] [[consciousness]] <br>
* Seventh Jhana : [[nothingness]] <br>
* Eighth Jhana : neither perception nor non-perception <br>
Usually Jhanas are exposed as part of [[Samatha]]'s practice, as opposed to [[Vipassana]]. But [[Vipassana jhanas]] are also mentioned. When the awareness of the arising and passing of physical sensations is maintained during the first four Jhanas they are Vipassana Jhanas.<br>
==Dhy&#257;na in Hinduism==
According to the Hindu [[Yoga Sutra]] dhyana is one of the eight methods of [[Yoga]], (the other seven methods are [[Yama]], [[Niyama]], [[Asana]], [[Pranayama]], [[Pratyahara]], [[Dharana]], and [[Samadhi]]).
In the [[Ashtanga Yoga]] of [[Patanjali]], the stage of meditation preceding dhy&#257;na is called ''[[dharana]]''. In Dhyana, the meditator is not conscious of the act of meditation (i.e. is not aware that s/he is meditating) but is only aware that s/he exists (consciousness of ''being''), and aware of the object of meditation. Dhyana is distinct from [[Dharana]] in that the meditator becomes one with the object of meditation and is able to maintain this oneness for 144 inhalations and expirations.
The Dhyana Yoga system is specifically described by Sri [[Krishna]] in chapter 6 of the famous [[Bhagavad Gita]], wherein He explains the many different Yoga systems to His friend and [[disciple]], [[Arjuna]].
==See also==
*[[Rupajhana]]
*[[Arupajhana]]
*[[Ashtanga Yoga]]
*[[Samadhi]]
*[[Bhavana]]
==External links==
*[http://www.acmuller.net/cgi-bin/search-ddb4.pl?Terms=&#31146; Digital Dictionary of Buddhism] (log in with userID "guest")
* The Buddha's [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/jhana.html descriptions of the first four states of dhyana] in the [[Pali Canon]] (Anguttara Nikaya V.28)
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/dharana_dhyana_etc.asp Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi, and Meditation] by Swami Nirmalananda Giri
* [http://www.greatwesternvehicle.org/foundations.htm Jhana, the Joyful Home of the Way] by the contemplative recluse monk Sotapanna Jhanananda (Jeffrey S, Brooks)
* [http://www.dhammakaya.or.th Dhammakaya Meditation]
{{buddhism2}}
{{Yoga}}
{{hinduism}}
[[Category:Buddhist meditation]]
[[Category:Meditation]]
[[Category:Yoga]]
[[Category:Zen]]
[[de:Dhyana]]
[[fr:Dhyana]]
[[nl:Dhyana]]
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[[vi:Thiền]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>December 30</title>
<id>8677</id>
<revision>
<id>42014842</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T05:47:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Rklawton</username>
<id>754622</id>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Events */ removed minor event</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 30]]''' is the 364th day of the year (365th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 1 day remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[1460]] - [[Wars of the Roses]]: The [[Richard, Duke of York|Duke of York]] is defeated at the [[Battle of Wakefield]].
*[[1853]] - [[Gadsden Purchase]]: The [[United States]] buys land from [[Mexico]] to facilitate [[railroad]] building in the Southwest.
*[[1853]] - A dinner party ia held inside life-size model of an [[Iguanodon]] created by [[Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins]] and Sir [[Richard Owen]] in south [[London]].
*[[1862]] - [[USS Monitor|USS Monitor]] sinks off [[Cape Hatteras]], [[North Carolina]].
*[[1879]] - ''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]'' is first performed ([[Paignton]], [[Devon]], [[England]]).
*[[1880]] - The [[Transvaal]] becomes a republic and [[Paul Kruger]], its first president.
*[[1896]] - [[José Rizal]] was [[Execution (legal)|executed]] by [[firing squad]] in [[Manila]].
*[[1897]] - [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]] annexes [[Zululand]].
*[[1903]] - A fire at the [[Iroquois Theater]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]] kills 600.
*[[1919]] - [[Lincoln's Inn]] in [[London]] admits its first female bar student.
*[[1922]] - The [[Soviet Union|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] is formed.
*[[1924]] - [[Edwin Hubble]] announces the existence of other [[galaxy|galaxies]].
*[[1927]] - The [[Tokyo Metro Ginza Line|Ginza Line]], the first [[Metro|subway line]] in [[Asia]], opens in [[Tokyo]].
*[[1936]] - The [[United Auto Workers]] [[trade union|union]] stages its first [[sit-down strike]].
*[[1940]] - [[California]] opens its first [[freeway]], the [[Arroyo Seco Parkway]].
*[[1943]] - [[Chandra Bose]] raises the flag of [[India]]n independence at [[Port Blair]].
*[[1944]] - King [[George II of Greece]] declares a regency, leaving his throne vacant.
*[[1947]] - King [[Michael of Romania]] forced to abdicate by the [[Soviet]]-backed Communist government of Romania.
*[[1948]] - The play ''[[Kiss Me, Kate]]'' opens for the first of 1,077 performances.
*[[1953]] - The first [[color television]] sets go on sale for about [[United States dollars|USD]] at $1,175 each.
*[[1965]] - [[Ferdinand Marcos]] becomes [[President of the Philippines|President]] of the [[Philippines]].
*[[1972]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[United States|US]] halts heavy bombing of [[North Vietnam]].
*[[1980]] - After 25 years, the longest-running prime-time [[television|TV]] series ''[[The Wonderful World of Disney]]'' is cancelled by [[NBC]].
*[[1981]] - [[Wayne Gretzky]] scores his 50th goal in 39 games, still a [[National Hockey League]] record.
*[[1993]] - [[Israel]] and the [[Holy See|Vatican]] establish diplomatic relations.
*[[1995]] - The lowest ever [[United Kingdom|UK]] temperature of -27.2°C was recorded at [[Altnaharra]] in the [[Scottish Highlands]]. This equalled the record set at [[Braemar]], [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]] on [[February 11]], [[1895]] and [[January 10]], [[1982]].
*[[1996]] - In the [[India]]n state of [[Assam]], a passenger train is bombed by [[Bodo]] separatists, killing 26.
*1996 - Proposed budget cuts by [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] spark protests from 250,000 workers who shut down services across [[Israel]].
*[[1997]] - In the worst incident in [[Algeria]]'s insurgency, the [[Wilaya of Relizane massacres of December 30, 1997|Wilaya of Relizane massacres]], 400 people are killed from four villages.
*[[2000]] - [[Rizal Day Bombings]]: A series of bombs explode in various places in [[Metro Manila]], [[Philippines]] within a span of a fe
|
ists, believe in [[universalism]] which holds that all will eventually be rewarded regardless of what they have done or believed.
Life after death, however, is in no way a universal belief; for example, Jehovah's Witnesses interpret Ecclesiastes 9:5 as precluding an afterlife:
:''For the living know that they shall die: but the dead know not any thing, neither have they any more a reward;for the memory of them is forgotten.''
They believe that a resurrection in the flesh at some future date will be a reward and that death (non-existence) is a punishment.
== Afterlife as reincarnation ==
Another afterlife concept which is found among [[Hinduism|Hindus]], [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], and [[Wicca|Wiccans]] is [[reincarnation]], whether as humans, [[animal]]s, or as spiritual beings. One consequence of the Hindu and Buddhist beliefs is that our current lives are also an afterlife, and both Hindus and Buddhists interpret events in our current life as being consequences of actions taken in previous lives, or [[Karma]].
Some [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] believe in personal reincarnation, whereas some believe that the energy of one's soul reintegrates with a continuum of such energy which is recycled into other living things as they are born.
== Afterlife and modern science==
Other conceptions of an afterlife do not depend as heavily on [[religion]]. Certain scientific fields developed in the [[20th century|20th]] and [[21st century|21st centuries]], that were previously either unknown or purely theoretical, support interesting speculation and questions regarding the afterlife.
For instance, the [[special theory of relativity]], known to many people at least in part through its most famous [[equation]] ([[Energy|E]]=[[mass|m]][[speed of light|c]]²), implies that neither [[matter]] nor [[energy]] can be created nor destroyed. This implies that the fundamental quantities that our [[brain]]s are comprised of cannot actually be destroyed. However, it is certainly observed that the specific composition of those quantities which produces the [[electromagnetic]] [[Electric current|current]]s and [[field (physics)|fields]] thought to comprise [[consciousness]] and [[cognition]] do change after death to forms that no longer produce these currents and fields, which presents the question: Is consciousness a sole result of the specific configuration of matter of a living brain, or do some forms of consciousness or experience remain present in the matter and energy that used to be a living brain? If the latter is true, even in part, then it is not certain that the subjective experience of a being's consciousness ends at the time of death, which could be strongly interpreted as a form of afterlife.
Also, the nature of consciousness and [[sentience]] itself is a subject of wide debate, and not agreed upon by any means. The emerging field of [[cognitive science]] attempts to study the nature of consciousness, sentience, and cognition. It is now possible to study the brain at moments closer to death than ever before, which may lead to insights regarding the cesstion of cognition, and possibly even insights into the subjective experience of consciousness at those times. Greater understanding of these concepts, and the processes that produce them, might have wide-ranging consequences for conceptions of an afterlife.
In a social-sciences sense, the increasing globalization of the world has exposed many people to new religions and [[philosophy|philosophies]]. While the major monotheistic religions of the world ([[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and their offshoots) almost universally preach some form of [[Cartesian dualism|mind-body dualism]], many "Eastern" religions, such as the many branches of [[Buddhism]] and [[Taoism]] do not contain any such claims, and may in fact preach ideologies that are opposed to it. [[Zen Buddhism]] in particular is famous for [[koan]]s and parables that are meant to teach that the nature of consciousness is transient and/or [[illusion|illusory]], with some schools going so far as to say that even the concept of a "self" is fundamentally flawed. Philosophical conceptions such as these, which reject mind-body dualism and contain ideas of life and existence separate from a "self" or unique [[soul]], remove in large part one of the major criticisms of scientific individuals regarding the afterlife - namely, that an individual must have a soul in order to experience consciousness after death.
The emerging field of [[artificial intelligence]] in [[computing]] presents interesting questions regarding an experience of afterlife, as well: If a [[robot]] is created which possesses cognition and problem-solving comparable to a human, is that robot considered conscious or "alive"? If so, can he, she, or it "die"? The memories of such robots, if they are ever constructed, could theoretically be composed of some form of electronic storage and stored on devices identical in purpose to modern [[hard drive]]s, which can be completely copied in a matter of seconds or hours. If a [[backup]] is made of such a theoretical robot's memory at some point, and that robot's current memory then is damaged, destroyed, or rendered inoperable, and then restored from the backup, in what sense, if any, does the newly restored robot's experience constitute [[resurrection]] - especially if, for instance, a [[wireless network]] is used to back up the robot's memory to the exact moment of destruction? Assuming that artificial intelligence [[research]] continues at the rapid pace it has shown so far, these and related questions may become quite meaningful in the future.
Finally, though it is not a traditional conception of an afterlife by any means, one particular (and controversial) interpretation of [[quantum physics]] actually implies that a conscious soul may be [[immortal]] in a certain sense - see [[quantum immortality]]. (Though, admittely, in this theory, the organism does not strictly ever "die", so the term "afterlife" may be inappropriate.)
==Related studies==
In philosophy, the study of views of the afterlife is a concern of [[Eschatology]], which deals with the soul, the [[resurrection]] of the dead, the messianic era, and the end of the world.
The question of whether there is life after death is closely related to [[the mind-body problem]], and like that problem is one of the classic problems of so-called [[rational psychology]] and hence of one (now largely outdated) notion of the scope of [[metaphysics]].
The later works of [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] present one of the most comprehensive and systematic descriptions of the spiritual world, including [[heaven]] and [[hell]].
==Criticism==
Upon death, [[brain]] activity ceases and a person's body begins to [[decompose]]. This marks the end of the individual's [[mind]] in the physical world. The fundamental belief of an afterlife is that there exists a non-physical means (a soul or spirit) for the mind to survive the brain's destruction and continue to function in a non-physical world.
[[Occam's Razor]] is used by skeptics as a counter to this belief. There are two basic alternatives to be compared:
*When you die, your mind ceases to function and your body decomposes.
*When you die, your mind continues to function despite the physical destruction of your brain, continuing its existence in a non-physical world.
The first belief is simple and well-supported. Much available scientific evidence indicates that the mind is the product of the brain's activity, and that destruction of the brain also destroys the mind. Therefore, some people conclude that believing in an afterlife (at least in a logically-consistent way) requires the additional [[assumption]]s that:
*There exists a non-physical entity associated with a person (the soul or spirit).
*The mind can continue to operate in the absence of the brain, being somehow supported by the soul.
*The soul exists in a non-physical [[Plane (cosmology)|dimension]] that we are unable to perceive in a measurable way.
Despite there being some objective evidence to support these beliefs, skeptics assert that science cannot prove the existence of an afterlife. The fact that these beliefs are nevertheless widely held may be explained by [[wishful thinking]].
Humans instinctively fear death as we know that our eventual deaths are inevitable. Therefore it is unsurprising that a belief system which promises an escape from death would be strongly embraced. People often suspend their better judgment when presented with "too good to be true" promises (consider [[Advance fee fraud|Nigerian scams]] and similar instances of fraud), and an escape from death is considered by some to be the ultimate promise.
The philosophical belief of [[materialism]] holds that only the physical universe exists. Though not all materialists would argue that this precludes belief in an afterlife, a great number of them do hold this viewpoint. [[Atheism]] and materialism are closely related, and most atheists do not believe in any sort of afterlife.
=== Logical arguments ===
If one accepts the afterlife, one also has to accept the concept of a [[soul]], since when someone dies, the physical body [[decompose]]s. Some religions assert that only humans have a soul (although some religions say that some other life forms, such as animals, also do). The question remains as to why would monkeys, which have been shown to be intelligent, not have a soul while humans would. Also, since at the [[subatomic]] level, all things are made of the same elements, why would other animals, plants--or even rocks--not have a soul? If intelligence is the criteria to have a soul, where would the line be drawn as far as mentally challenged people, or very smart animals? (This topic appears often in the work of [[Peter Singer]])
Another argument is that historically, many relig
|
], the [[British Indian Ocean Territory]], or [[British Columbia]] which is now a province of [[Canada]].
==Brutus of Troy==
In keeping with the mediaeval penchant for etymologising country names in terms of eponymous heroes, English historians of the late mediaeval and early modern periods charted the history of the nation from [[Brutus of Troy]], supposedly a hero of the Trojan war who founded Britain just as Aeneaus' descendant Romulus founded Rome, Frankus France, and so forth. The life of Brutus, anglicised as Brute, was recorded in the literary tradition of the [[Prose Brute]]. This was long accepted as the etymology of ''Britain''.
==See also==
* [[List of country name etymologies]]
* [[List of United Kingdom topics]]
* [[British Isles]]
* [[United Kingdom]]
* [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]
* [[Great Britain]]
* [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]
* [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]] merging the Kingdom of England and the [[Principality]] of Wales
* [[Act of Union 1707]] merging Scotland and England to form Great Britain
* [[History of Britain]]
* [[History of Wales]]
* [[History of Scotland]]
* [[History of England]]
==Sources and further reading==
*<cite>[[A History of Britain]]: At the Edge of the World, 3000 BC - 1603 AD</cite> by [[Simon Schama]], BBC/Miramax, 2000 ISBN 0786866756
*<cite>A History of Britain, Volume 2: The Wars of the British 1603-1776</cite> by [[Simon Schama]], BBC/Miramax, 2001 ISBN 0786866756
*<cite>A History of Britain - The Complete Collection</cite> on DVD by [[Simon Schama]], BBC 2002
*<cite>The Isles, A History</cite> by [[Norman Davies]], Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0195134427
*<cite>Shortened History of England</cite> by [[George Macaulay Trevelyan|G. M. Trevelyan]] Penguin Books ISBN 0140233237
* <cite>Origins: A Short [[Etymological Dictionary]] of Modern English</cite> by Eric Partridge, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1966
==External links==
*[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/ British History Online]
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. -->
[[Category:British Isles]]
[[Category:Europe]]
[[Category:History of Britain]]
[[ang:Bryten]]
[[cs:Británie]]
[[de:Britannien]]
[[ga:An Bhreatain]]
[[kw:Breten]]
[[la:Britannia]]
[[nl:Brittanië]]
[[pl:Brytania]]
[[simple:Britain]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Blade Runner</title>
<id>3746</id>
<revision>
<id>42017972</id>
<timestamp>2006-03-03T06:25:08Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<ip>68.117.63.239</ip>
</contributor>
<comment>/* Versions */</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film|
name = Blade Runner|
image = Blade Runner poster.jpg|
tagline = Man Has Made His Match...<br>Now It's His Problem|
director = [[Ridley Scott]]|
producer = [[Michael Deeley]]|
writer = [[Philip K. Dick]] (novel)<br>[[Hampton Fancher]]<br>[[David Peoples]]|
starring = [[Harrison Ford]]<br>[[Rutger Hauer]]<br>[[Sean Young]]<br>[[Edward James Olmos]]<br>[[Daryl Hannah]]|
music = [[Vangelis]]|
distributor = [[Warner Brothers]]|
released = [[June 27]], [[1982]] ([[United States|USA]])|
runtime = 117 min. ''(international cut)''<br> 115 min. ''(director's cut)''|
language = [[English language|English]]|
budget = $28,000,000|
awards = |
imdb_id = 0083658|
}}
'''''Blade Runner''''' is a [[1982 in film|1982]] [[science fiction]] [[film]] directed by [[Ridley Scott]], which depicts a [[dystopia]]n [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] in November 2019.
The [[screenplay]], which was written by [[Hampton Fancher]] and [[David Peoples]], is loosely based on the [[novel]] ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'' by [[Philip K. Dick]]. The film features [[Harrison Ford]], [[Rutger Hauer]], [[Sean Young]], [[Edward James Olmos]], [[M. Emmet Walsh|M Emmet Walsh]], [[Daryl Hannah]], [[William Sanderson]], [[Brion James]], [[Joe Turkel]] and [[Joanna Cassidy]]. The lead art designer was [[Syd Mead]], and the [[soundtrack]] composer was [[Vangelis]].
The film describes a future in which genetically manufactured beings called [[replicant]]s are used for dangerous and degrading work in [[Earth]]'s "[[space colony|off-world colonies]]." Built by the [[Tyrell Corporation]] to be 'more human than human', the ''Nexus-6'' generation appear to be physically identical to humans — although they have superior strength and agility — while lacking comparable emotional responses and [[empathy]]. Replicants became illegal on Earth after a bloody [[mutiny]]. Specialist police units — blade runners — hunt down and "retire" (i.e. kill) escaped replicants on Earth. The film primarily focuses on a particularly brutal and cunning group of replicants hiding in Los Angeles and a semiretired blade runner, named Deckard, who reluctantly agrees to take on one more assignment.
''Blade Runner'' initially received polarized reviews from film critics; some were confused and disappointed that it didn't have the pacing expected from an action film, while others appreciated its thematic complexity. The film performed poorly in [[North America|North American]] theaters while achieving success overseas. Despite poor early ticket sales, it was adored by fans and academia and quickly attained [[cult classic]] status. It gained such great popularity as a video rental, partly due to the film's ability to reward repeated viewing, that it was chosen to be one of the first [[DVD]]s to be released. ''Blade Runner'' has been widely hailed as a modern classic for its immersive special effects and prefiguring important themes and concerns of the 21st century. It has been praised as being one of the most influential films of all time because of its detailed and original setting, serving as a postmodern visual benchmark with its realistic depiction of a decayed future. ''Blade Runner'' brought author [[Philip K. Dick]] to the attention of [[Hollywood]], and numerous films have since been based on his literature.
== Production ==
[[Image:BladeRunner Spinner Billboard.jpg|thumb|right|275px|A police [[Spinner (Blade Runner)|spinner]] flies alongside an advertising-laden [[skyscraper]] in LA.]]
The [[screenplay]] by [[Hampton Fancher]], which was initially titled ''Android'', and then ''Dangerous Days'', attracted producer [[Michael Deeley]], who eventually convinced director [[Ridley Scott]] to create his first American film. Scott had previously passed on the project, but soon after, he bailed out of the slow production of ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]'' and wanted a faster project to take his mind off his brother's recent death. With Ridley onboard on February 21, 1980, the movie studios began lining up to finance the film. On April 9th, [[Filmways, Inc.|Filmways Pictures]] promised $13 million; but after a request by Scott it was bumped up to $15 million.
When Scott noted Deckard's line of work needed a new name, Fancher happened upon a copy of ''Bladerunner, A Movie'', which was a cinema treatment by [[William S. Burroughs]] for [[Alan E. Nourse]]'s novel ''The Bladerunner'' (1974). Scott liked it and Deeley obtained the rights to the titles, but Scott soon considered ''Blade Runner'' a working title for the film and wanted to find something more "commercial". (Note: Some editions of Nourse's novel use the two-word spacing ''Blade Runner''.)
Scott became unhappy with the direction of the script and had [[David Peoples]] rewrite it. This infuriated Fancher who quit on December 20, 1980 (he came back near the end to do some rewrites) because he believed a hack was hired to give Scott what he wanted. But after reading the Peoples script he was surprised how well Scott's ideas were incorporated into the script, and in the end Fancher and Peoples became good friends.
Then disaster struck when Filmways pulled their financial backing weeks away from principal photography and after investing over $2.5 million in pre-production. This forced Deeley to scramble for new financing and in ten days he managed to secure $21.5 million in financing through a three way deal between [[The Ladd Company]] (through [[Warner Brothers]]), the [[Hong Kong]]-based producer Sir [[Run Run Shaw]], and [[Tandem Productions]]. (This would later prove problematic as the release of the film's Special Edition continues to be delayed as a result of legal wrangling over distribution rights.)
Just as things were coming together, [[Philip K. Dick]] became concerned that no one had informed him about the film's production, and it was a snub he didn't appreciate. After some heated phone calls and an article in the Los Angeles ''[[Select TV Guide]]'' critical of an early script, the studio became cooperative by sending Dick the Peoples rewrite &mdash; Dick was relieved to see how the script had evolved. Philip K. Dick died before the film's release, but he did manage to see a forty-minute special effects test reel, which converted him from a skeptic into a full supporter of the film, as it looked just as he had imagined it.
''Blade Runner'' owes much to [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Metropolis (1927 movie)|Metropolis]]''.{{ref|bfi}} Ridley Scott credits [[Edward Hopper]]'s painting ''Nighthawks'' and the proto-[[cyberpunk]] short story comic ''[[The Long Tomorrow]]'' (by [[Dan O'Bannon]], art by [[Jean Giraud|Moebius]]) as stylistic mood sources. In addition, he drew on the industrial night time landscape of his hometown of [[Hartlepool]].{{ref|telegraph}} Scott hired [[Syd Mead]] as conceptual artist, both were influenced by the French science fiction comic magazine ''[[Métal Hurlant]]'' ([[Heavy Metal (magazine)|Heavy Metal]]), to which Moebius contributed.{{ref|brbible1}} Moebius was offered pre-production of ''Blade Runner'', he declined, to work on [[Rene Laloux|René Laloux]]'s animated film ''[[Les Maîtres du temps]]'' — a decision Moebius later regretted.{{ref|moebius}} [
|
mous by the book, and, like other fragments of the book, is a common cliché in modern Spanish.
==== English Translation of Agustin Sánchez's Adaptation (First two paragraphs) ====
''Note: The Sánchez adaptation is a shortened version of the original and allows the student to gain a quicker understanding of the story without being burdened excessively by every detail which appeared in the original. This shortened adaptation still runs to about 150 pages.''
:"In a village in La Mancha, whose name I don't wish to recall, lived, a long long time ago, a gentleman, tall and dry as the flesh which wrapped around his 50 years, and which kept him reputed as being a good man. As the story goes, he was called Alonso Quijano and he lived a modest life without luxuries, although within his house, nobody lacked food or a good piece of velvet with which to light up the holidays. Don Alonso lived with a female servant who had already reached fifty years, and with a niece who had not yet reached twenty, and he was an early riser and fan of hunting which led him to have a narrow friendship with the priest and barber of his village. As a gentleman, he had hardly any responsibilities, and so he dedicated his many hours of free time to reading adventure books. He was so fond of the stories about giants and battles, wandering knights and captive princesses that it led him to sell a good part of his land to pay for books and more books.
*[http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0060188707?p=S01N Cf most recent (2005) translation (by Edith Grossman)]
:By day and by night, don Alonso had nothing to do better than to read. Because of the books he stopped looking after his home and neglected his affairs, so soon, by dint of reading so much, and sleeping so little, his brain dried up, and he became mad. Suddenly he released the grip on the book he was holding between his hands and furiously brandished his old sword and began stabbing at the walls as if he was defending himself from a legion of fierce giants. He had convinced himself that everything he had read in the books was true........"
== Importance ==
[[Image:Quixo-panza.jpg|Don Quixote and Sancho Panza|left|thumb|240px|Don Quixote and Sancho Panza after an unsuccessful attack on a windmill. By [[Gustave Doré]]]]
Don Quixote is often nominated as the world's greatest work of fiction. It stands in a unique position between medieval [[romance (genre)|chivalric romance]] and the [[modern novel]]. The former consist of disconnected stories with little exploration of the inner life of even the main character. The latter are usually focused on the psychological evolution of their characters. In Part I, Quixote imposes himself on his environment. By Part II, he is no longer physically capable, but people know about him, "having read his adventures", and so, he needs to do less to maintain his image. By his deathbed, he has begun to assume a new identity, including a nickname, "the Good".
There are many minor literary "firsts" for European literature&mdash;a woman complaining of her menopause, someone with an eating disorder, and the psychological revealing of their troubles as something inner to themselves.
Subtle touches regarding perspective are everywhere: characters talk about a woman who is the cause of the death of a suitor, portraying her as evil, but when she comes on stage, she gives a different perspective entirely that makes Quixote (and thus the reader) defend her. When Quixote descends into a cave, Cervantes admits that he does not know what went on there.
Quixote's adventures tend to involve situations in which he attempts to apply a knight's sure, simple morality to situations in which much more complex issues are at hand. For example, upon seeing a band of [[galley slave|galley slaves]] being mistreated by their guards, he believes their cries of innocence and attacks the guards. After they are freed, he demands that they honor his lady Dulcinea, but instead they pelt him with stones and leave.
Different ages have tended to read different things into the novel. When it was first published, it was usually interpreted as a [[comic novel]]. After the [[French Revolution]] it was popular in part due to its central ethic that individuals can be right while society is quite wrong and disenchanting&mdash;not comic at all. In the [[19th century]] it was seen as a social commentary, but no one could easily tell "whose side Cervantes was on". By the [[20th century]] it became clear that it was not simply a unique and great moral work, but the first true modern novel, as [[Dominique Aubier]] writes:
''a "systemical and structural masterpiece, inspired by the Zohar, the cornerstone of the spanish Kabalah."''
American author [[Barry Gifford]] described "Don Quixote" as "the first [[Beat Generation|Beat]] novel".
Following the [[Cuban revolution]], the revolutionary government founded a publishing house called Instituto Cubano del Libro (Cuban Book Institute), to publish large runs of great literature for distribution at low prices to the masses. The first book published by the Instituto was ''Don Quixote''.
For the 400th anniversary of the original publication of the novel, the [[Venezuela|Venezuelan]] government printed one million summarized copies for free distribution. Similar initiatives took place in [[Spain]] and other Spanish-speaking countries around the world
==Use in tourism==
[[Image:Quixote monument.jpg|300px|thumb|Monument to Don Quixote and Dulcinea in [[El Toboso]], Castile-La Mancha, Spain.]]
The [[autonomous communities in Spain|autonomous community]] of [[Castile-La Mancha]] has used the fame of Cervantes's novel to promote tourism in the region. A number of sites in [[La Mancha]] are linked to the novel, including windmills and an inn upon which events of the story are thought to have been based. Several trademarks also refer to Don Quixote's characters and events.
[[Image:QuijoteIVCentenario.JPG|250px|left|thumb|IV centenary of Don Quixote of La Mancha (1605-2005)]]
In 2004, a scholarly team lead by Francisco Parra Luna announced that it had identified the "real" hometown of Don Quixote, which is never actually named in the novel (the very first line of the book begins,
“In a village of La Mancha the name of which I have no desire to recall ....”) Based on clues in the novel, along with computations of the time it would have taken a man on horseback to reach the various locations referenced by the author, the team identified the place as Villanueva de los Infantes, a small town some 144 miles south of Madrid.
As reported in press accounts, Mariano Sabina, the mayor of Villanueva de los Infantes, said upon hearing the news: "I’m delighted that my town is the famous place in La Mancha. Now I hope the whole world will know us."
== Literary influence ==
Influences for ''Don Quixote'' include the Valencian novel ''[[Tirant lo Blanc]]'', one of the first chivalric epics, which Cervantes describes in Chapter VI of ''Quixote'' as "the best book in the world."
The scene of the book burning gives us an excellent list of Cervantes's likes and dislikes about literature.
[[image:Dalí_DonQuijotesentado.JPG|250px|right|thumb|Don Quixote by [[Salvador Dalí]].]]
The novel's landmark status in literary history has afforded it a vast and nearly innumerable legacy of influence. To just enumerate a few examples:
*''[[Cardenio]]'', a lost play by Cervantes's contemporary [[William Shakespeare]]. Itself the source of later plays, it is based on one of the interpolated novels in the first part.
*''[[A Confederacy of Dunces]]'' by [[John Kennedy Toole]]. The main character, Ignatius, is considered a modern-day Quixote.
*''[[Joseph Andrews]]'' by [[Henry Fielding]] notes in the preface that it is "written in Imitation of the Manner of Cervantes, Author of Don Quixote"
*''[[Madame Bovary]]'' by [[Gustave Flaubert]] is often attributed as a retelling of Don Quixote
*''[[The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel]]'' by [[Nikos Kazantzakis]] includes a character called Kapetan Enas whose alias is Don Quixote
*"[[Pierre Menard (fictional character)|Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote]]" by [[Jorge Luis Borges]] is an essay about a (fictional) 20th century writer who re-authors ''Don Quixote''. "The text of Cervantes and that of Menard are verbally identical, but the second is almost infinitely richer." Borges' story is also well known as a central metaphor in [[John Barth|John Barth's]] famous essay "[[The Literature of Exhaustion]]"
*''[[The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman|Tristram Shandy]]'' by [[Laurence Sterne]] is rife with references, including Parson Yorick's horse, Rocinante
*''[[Monsignor Quixote]]'' by [[Graham Greene]]. Monsignor Quixote is said to be a descendant of Don Quixote.
*''[[Asterix in Spain]]'' by [[Goscinny]] and [[Uderzo]]. Asterix and Obelix encounter Don Quixote and Sancho Panza on a country road in Spain, with Quixote becoming enraged and charging off into the distance when the topic of windmills arises in conversation.
*''[[City of Glass]]'', one of the stories in ''[[The New York Trilogy]]'' written by [[Paul Auster]], has a main character called Daniel Quinn - the same initials as Don Quixote - and comments on the authorship of the novel.
== Literature ==
* José Ángel Ascunce Arrieta: "Los quijotes del Quijote": Historia de una aventura creativa. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 1997. ISBN 3-931887-14-6
* José Ángel Ascunce Arrieta: "El Quijote como tragedia y la tragedia de don Quijote". Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-937734-00-4
* Cervantes y su mundo I. V.V.A.A., Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2004. ISBN 3-935004-89-3
* Cervantes y su mundo II. V.V.A.A., Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-935004-91-0
* Cervantes y su mundo II
|
, [[Namibia]], [[Nauru]], [[Nepal]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Niue]], [[Norway]], [[Oman]], [[Pakistan]], [[Palau]], [[Panama]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Philippines]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Qatar]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Rwanda]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Samoa]], [[San Marino]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Senegal]], [[Seychelles]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Singapore]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Sudan]], [[Suriname]], [[Swaziland]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Syria]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Tanzania]], [[Togo]], [[Tonga]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Tunisia]], [[Turkey]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uganda]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Uruguay]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Venezuela]], [[Vietnam]], [[Yemen]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]]
''Countries that have signed, but not yet ratified'' - (6) [[Afghanistan]], [[Kuwait]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Thailand]], [[Tuvalu]], [[United States]]
== See also ==
* [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] (TRIPs)
* [[Biopiracy]]
* [[Bioprospecting]]
* [[Biosphere Reserve]]
* [[Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety]]
* [[Ecotourism]]
* [[Endangered species]]
* [[Environmental agreements]]
* [[International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture]]
''This article is partly based on the relevant entry in the [[CIA World Factbook]], [[as of 2003|2003]] edition.''
== External links ==
* [http://www.biodiv.org/convention/default.shtml The Convention on Biological Diversity] on the Biosafety Clearing-House (BCH) web site, an "information exchange mechanism" established by the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
* [http://www.cjly.net/deconstructingdinner/020906.htm Terminator seed technology and the Convention on Biological Diversity - Kootenay Co-op Radio's Deconstructing Dinner]
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:1993 in law]]
[[Category:United Nations]]
[[da:Konvention om biologisk diversitet]]
[[de:Biodiversitäts-Konvention]]
[[ja:生物の多様性に関する条約]]
[[no:Konvensjonen om biologisk mangfold]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas</title>
<id>6199</id>
<revision>
<id>32690174</id>
<timestamp>2005-12-25T16:46:11Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Bryan Derksen</username>
<id>66</id>
</contributor>
<comment>making an intro paragraph out of the objectives paragraph</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas''' is an agreement that was designed to solve through international cooperation the problems involved in the conservation of living resources of the high seas, considering that because of the development of modern technology some of these resources are in danger of being overexploited.
''opened for signature -'' [[April 29|29 April]] [[1958]]
''entered into force -'' [[March 20|20 March]] [[1966]]
''parties -'' (37) [[Australia]], [[Belgium]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cambodia]], [[Colombia]], [[Denmark]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Fiji]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Haiti]], [[Jamaica]], [[Kenya]], [[Lesotho]], [[Madagascar]], [[Malawi]], [[Malaysia]], [[Mauritius]], [[Mexico]], [[Netherlands]], [[Nigeria]], [[Portugal]], [[Senegal]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Switzerland]], [[Thailand]], [[Tonga]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Uganda]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Venezuela]]
''countries that have signed, but not yet ratified -'' (21) [[Afghanistan]], [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Canada]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Cuba]], [[Ghana]], [[Iceland]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Israel]], [[Lebanon]], [[Liberia]], [[Nepal]], [[New Zealand]], [[Pakistan]], [[Panama]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Tunisia]], [[Uruguay]]
'''Source:''' [[CIA World Factbook]], [[as of 2003|2003]] edition
[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:1966 in law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution</title>
<id>6200</id>
<revision>
<id>34370071</id>
<timestamp>2006-01-08T14:55:24Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Vasil</username>
<id>762620</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution''', often abbreviated as '''Air Pollution''', is intended to protect the human environment against [[air pollution]] and to gradually reduce and prevent air pollution, including long-range transboundary air pollution.
''opened for signature -'' [[November 13|13 November]] [[1979]]
''entered into force -'' [[March 16|16 March]] [[1983]]
''parties -'' (48) [[Armenia]], [[Austria]], [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Canada]], [[Croatia]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[European Union]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Latvia]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Malta]], [[Republic of Moldova|Moldova]], [[Monaco]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Turkey]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]]
''countries that have signed, but not yet ratified -'' (2) [[Holy See]], [[San Marino]]
'''Source:''' [[CIA World Factbook]], [[as of 2003|2003]] edition
''see also:'' [[environmental agreements]]
[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:1983 in law]]</text>
</revision>
</page>
<page>
<title>Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna</title>
<id>6201</id>
<revision>
<id>40564904</id>
<timestamp>2006-02-21T13:41:03Z</timestamp>
<contributor>
<username>Palica</username>
<id>188933</id>
</contributor>
<minor />
<comment>robot Adding: sk Modifying: zh</comment>
<text xml:space="preserve">The '''Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora''' ('''CITES''') is an international agreement between Governments, drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in [[1963]] at a meeting of members of the [[World Conservation Union]] (IUCN). Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival and accords varying degrees of protection to more than 30,000 [[species]] of animals and plants.
Not one species protected by CITES has become extinct as a result of trade since the Convention entered into force in 1975.
==The convention==
CITES is one of the largest conservation agreements in existence. Participation is voluntary, and countries that have agreed to be bound by the Convention are known as Parties. Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties, it does not take the place of national laws. Rather it provides a framework to be respected by each Party, which has to adopt its own domestic legislation to make sure that CITES is implemented at the national level.
The text of the Convention was opened for signature at a meeting of representatives of eighty countries in [[Washington, D.C.]], [[United States]], on [[3 March]] [[1973]], and entered into force on [[1 July]] [[1975]]. As of November 2005, 169 Parties had entered the convention.
==The species==
CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain controls. These require that all import, export, re-export and introduction of species covered by the Convention has to be authorized through a licensing system.
Roughly 5,000 species of animals and 28,000 species of plants are protected by CITES against over-exploitation through international trade. The [[endangered species]] are grouped in the Appendices according to how threatened they are by international trade.
* Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction. Trade in specimens of these species is permitted only in exceptional circumstances.
* Appendix II includes species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival.
* Appendix III contains species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade.
Each Party to the Convention must designate one or more Management Authorities in charge of administering the licensing system and one or more Scientific Authorities to advise them on the effects of trade on the status of the species.
'''Source:''' [http://www.cites.org/ CITES Secretariat] (external link to official site)
==Member countries==
See [http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/parties/index.shtml official List of Parties]
==External links==
* [http://www.cites.org/ CITES homepage]
==See also==
* [[Environmental agreements]]
[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:1975 in law]]
[[Category:Endangered species|CITES]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kiông-beh-khu̍t-chéng Iá-seng Tōng-si̍t-bu̍t Kok-chè Bō·-e̍k Kong-iok]]
[[da:Washington-konventionen]]
[[de:Washingtoner Artenschutz-Übereinkommen]]
[[es:CITES]]
[[eo:Vaŝingtona Specioprotekta Kontrakto]]
[[fr:Convention sur le commerce international des espèces de faune et de flore sauvages menacées d'extinction]]
[[it:CITES]]
[[nl:CITES]]
[[j
|
es|Edwardes, p.49|d}} The climate changes, [[Black Death|Black plague]], and increase in [[war|warfare]] and [[famine]] that characterized this century no doubt also served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general.
[[Image:flamel-figures.png|thumb|250px|[[Nicholas Flamel]] had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his [[tomb]] in the Church of the [[Holy Innocents]] in Paris.]]
Alchemy was kept alive by men such as [[Nicolas Flamel]], who was noteworthy only because he was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times. Flamel lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the [[archetype]] for the next phase of alchemy. He was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have found; his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosophers' stone. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt pp.170-181|h}}
Through the [[high middle ages]] (1300-1500) alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate things. Their cryptic allusions and [[symbolism]] led to wide variations in interpretation of the art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the purification of the soul to mean the [[transmutation]] of lead into gold (in which they believed elemental [[mercury (element)|mercury]], or 'quicksilver', played a crucial role). These men were viewed as [[magic (paranormal)|magicians and sorcerers]] by many, and were often persecuted for their practices. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 50-75|e}}{{ref_harvard|Norton|Norton pp lxiii-lxvii|a}}
One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century was named [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa]]. This alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and actually thought himself capable of summoning [[spiritual being|spirit]]s. His influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred to by alchemists of later years. Again like Flamel, he did much to change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an [[occult]]ist magic. He did keep alive the philosophies of the earlier alchemists, including experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic theory, which reinforced the idea of alchemy as an occultist belief. In spite of all this, Agrippa still considered himself a Christian, though his views often came into conflict with the church. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes p.56-9|f}}{{ref_harvard|Wilson|Wilson p.23-9|a}}
===Alchemy in the Modern Age and Renaissance===
European alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the [[Renaissance]]. The era also saw a flourishing of [[con artist]]s who would use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to "demonstrate" the transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret knowledge that — with a "small" initial investment — would surely lead to that goal.
The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus [[Paracelsus]], (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) who cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and scorned those who did. (Williams p.239-45)
Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and wrote "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines." {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.47|g}} His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. {{ref_harvard|Debus|Debus & Multhauf, p.6-12|a}} While his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of view, his basic idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well.
[[Image:Alchemik Sedziwoj Matejko.JPG|thumb|left|400px|Alchemist Michal Sedziwoj|"Alchemik Michał Sędziwój", oil on board by [[Jan Matejko]], 73 x 130 cm, Museum of Arts in [[Łódź]].]]
In [[England]], the topic of alchemy in that time frame is often associated with Doctor [[John Dee]] ([[13 July]] [[1527]] – December, 1608), better known for his role as [[astrologer]], cryptographer, and general "scientific consultant" to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]. Dee was considered an authority on the works of [[Roger Bacon]], and was interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that subject (''Monas Hieroglyphica'', 1564) influenced by the [[Kabbala]]. Dee's associate [[Edward Kelley]] — who claimed to converse with [[angel]]s through a crystal ball and to own a powder that would turn [[mercury (element)|mercury]] into [[gold]] — may have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist-charlatan.
Another lesser known alchemist was [[Michał Sędziwój|Michael Sendivogius]] (''Michał Sędziwój'', 1566 - 1636), a [[Poland|Polish]] alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he distilled [[oxygen]] in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before [[Karl Wilhelm Scheele|Scheele]] and [[Joseph Priestley|Priestley]], by warming nitre ([[saltpetre]]). He thought of the gas given off as "the elixir of life". Shortly after discovering this method, it is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to [[Cornelius Drebbel]]. In 1621, Drebbel practically applied this in a submarine.
[[Tycho Brahe]] (1546–1601), better known for his [[astronomical]] and [[astrological]] investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory built for that purpose at his [[Uraniborg]] observatory/research institute.
===The decline of Western alchemy===
The demise of Western alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its apogee in the 18th century.
[[Robert Boyle]] (1627–1691), better known for his studies of gases (cf. [[Boyle's law]]) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. {{ref_harvard|Pilkington|Pilkington p.11|a}} This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century|19th]] centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]] and [[John Dalton]] — which finally provided a logical, quantitative and reliable framework for understanding matter transmutations, and revealed the futility of longstanding alchemical goals such as the philospher's stone.
Meanwhile, Paracelsian alchemy led to the development of modern medicine. Experimentalists gradually uncovered the workings of the human body, such as blood circulation ([[William Harvey|Harvey]], [[1616]]), and eventually traced many diseases to infections with germs ([[Robert Koch|Koch]] and [[Louis Pasteur|Pasteur]], 19th century) or lack of ''natural'' nutrients and [[vitamin]]s ([[James Lind|Lind]], [[Christiaan Eijkman|Eijkman]], [[Casimir Funk|Funk]], et al.). Supported by parallel developments in organic chemistry, the new science easily displaced alchemy from its medical roles, interpretive and prescriptive, while deflating its hopes of miraculous elixirs and exposing the ineffectiveness or even toxicity of its remedies.
Thus, as science steadily continued to uncover and rationalize the clockwork of the universe, founded on its own materialistic metaphysics, Alchemy was left deprived of its chemical and medical connections — but still incurably burdened by them. Reduced to an arcane philosophical system, poorly connected to the material world, it suffered the common fate of other [[esoteric]] disciplines such as [[astrology]] and [[Kabbalah]]: excluded from [[university]] curricula, shunned by its former patrons, [[damned knowledge|ostracized]] by scientists, and commonly viewed as the epitome of [[charlatan]]ism and [[superstition]].
These developments could be interpreted as part of a broader reaction in European intellectualism against the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] movement of the preceding century. Be as it may, it is sobering to observe how a discipline that held so much intellectual and material prestige, for more than two thousand years, could disappear so easily from the universe of Western thought.
===Modern 'alchemy'===
In modern times, progress has been made toward achieving the goals of alchemy using scientific, rather than alchemic, means. These developme
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