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t does not necessarily address or criticize abiogenesis. ====Crick==== [[Francis Crick]], [[molecular biologist]] and [[neuroscience\|neuroscientist]], most noted for being one of the co-discoverers of the structure of the [[DNA]] molecule, and [[chemist]] [[Leslie Orgel]] co-proposed [[Panspermia#Directed Panspermia\|Directed Panspermia]] as the mechanism through which life started on Earth. ====Hoyle==== [[Fred Hoyle\|Sir Fred Hoyle]], with [[Chandra Wickramasinghe]], was a proponent of [[Panspermia]], first proposed by the [[Ancient Greece\|Greek]] [[philosopher]] [[Anaxagoras]]. Hoyle became a staunch [[Fred_Hoyle#Rejection_of_chemical_evolution\|critic of chemical evolution]] to explain the [[Naturalism (Philosophy)\|naturalistic]] [[origin of life]]. Critics have shown that Hoyle's understanding of evolution is radically out of touch with modern biology. Although the hypothesis of panspermia is not in conflict with the idea of abiogenesis, Hoyle's interpretation of panspermia is in conflict. <!-- Section may be appropriate, but did not contain any actual religious criticism of the theory. Compare version prior to 25-Apr-2005. ===Religious criticism of the theory=== --> ==References== ''Things Come to Life'' by Henry Harris (2002) ISBN 0198515383 Buehler, Lukas K. (2000-2005) ''The physico-chemical basis of life'', http://www.whatislife.com/about.html accessed [[27 October]] [[2005]]. ==External links== [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/abioprob/spontaneous-generation.html Spontaneous Generation and the Origin of Life] &#8212; an article part of the [[Talk.Origins]] [[FAQ]] [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/abioprob/abioprob.html Probability of Abiogenesis Calculations] &#8212; part of the Talk.Origins FAQ [[Category:Origin of life]] [[da:Abiogenese]] [[de:Abiogenese]] [[es:Abiogénesis]] [[eo:Abiogenezo]] [[fr:Abiogenèse]] [[gl:Abioxénese]] [[ko:자연발생설]] [[ia:Abiogenese]] [[lt:Abiogenezė]] [[nl:Abiogenese]] [[ja:自然発生説]] [[pl:Teoria samorództwa]] [[pt:Abiogênese]] [[ru:Абиогенез]] [[sr:Абиогенеза]] [[sv:Abiogenes]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anders Celsius</title> <id>2722</id> <revision> <id>40360014</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:23:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:celsius.jpg\|thumb\|Anders Celsius]] [[Image:UppsalaCelsiusObservatory Busser.jpg\|thumb\|The observatory of Anders Celsius, from a contemporary engraving.]] '''Anders Celsius''' ([[November 27]], [[1701]] &ndash; [[April 25]], [[1744]]) was a [[Sweden\|Swedish]] [[astronomy\|astronomer]]. Celsius was born at [[Uppsala]] in [[Sweden]]. He was professor of astronomy at [[Uppsala University]] from [[1730]] to [[1744]], but traveled from [[1732]] to [[1735]] visiting notable observatories in [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[France]]. At [[Nuremberg]] he published in [[1733]] a collection of 316 observations of the [[aurora borealis]] made by himself and others over the period 1716-1732. In [[Paris]] he advocated the measurement of an arc of the meridian in [[Lapland]], and in [[1736]] took part in the expedition organized for that purpose by the [[French Academy of Sciences]]. Celsius was the founder of the [[Uppsala Astronomical Observatory]] in [[1741]]. He is best known for the [[Celsius]] [[temperature]] scale, first proposed in a paper to the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]] in [[1742]]. He died of [[tuberculosis]] in [[Uppsala]]. The [[Celsius (crater)\|Celsius crater]] on the [[Moon]] is named for him. == Publications == ''Nova Methodus distantiam solis a terra determinandi'' (1730) (New Method for determining the distance from the Sun to the earth) ''De observationibus pro figura telluris determinanda'' (1738) (On observations for determining the shape of the earth) {{astronomer-stub}} {{Sweden-bio-stub}} ==References== {{1911}} ==External links== {{commons\|Anders Celsius}} [http://www.astro.uu.se/history/Celsius_eng.html Biography from Uppsala Astronomical Observatory] [[Category:1701 births\|Celsius, Anders]] [[Category:1744 deaths\|Celsius, Anders]] [[Category:Swedish astronomers\|Celsius, Anders]] [[Category:People from Uppsala\|Celsius, Anders]] [[ca:Anders Celsius]] [[cs:Anders Celsius]] [[da:Anders Celsius]] [[de:Anders Celsius]] [[es:Anders Celsius]] [[eo:Anders CELSIUS]] [[fa:آندرس سلسیوس]] [[fr:Anders Celsius]] [[hr:Anders Celsius]] [[id:Anders Celsius]] [[he:אנדרס צלזיוס]] [[la:Andreas Celsius]] [[hu:Anders Celsius]] [[nl:Anders Celsius]] [[ja:アンデルス・セルシウス]] [[no:Anders Celsius]] [[nn:Anders Celsius]] [[pl:Anders Celsius]] [[pt:Anders Celsius]] [[ru:Цельсий, Андерс]] [[simple:Anders Celsius]] [[sk:Anders Celsius]] [[sl:Anders Celsius]] [[sr:Андерс Целзијус]] [[fi:Anders Celsius]] [[sv:Anders Celsius]] [[th:แอนเดอร์ เซลเซียส]] [[tr:Anders Celsius]] [[uk:Цельсій Андерс]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adam Carolla</title> <id>2723</id> <revision> <id>42006193</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:23:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rookkey</username> <id>46208</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>spacing</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adam Carolla.jpg\|thumb\|Adam Carolla]] '''Adam Carolla''' (born [[May 27]], [[1964]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]) is an [[United States\|American]] [[comedy\|comedic]] [[radio personality]] and [[television personality]], best known for co-hosting the radio show ''[[Loveline]]'' and ''[[The Man Show]]'' on TV. Carolla was born to an [[Italian American]] father and a [[Hungarian American]] mother. He attended [[North Hollywood High School]], where he was voted class clown and was the [[captain (sports)\|captain]] of his [[American football\|football]] team but never received good grades, graduating with a very low 1.75 [[grade point average]]. Carolla began living on his own at the age of 18 and briefly attended [[Los Angeles Valley College]], a [[junior college]], before dropping out to work in a series of jobs, such as a [[carpet]] cleaner, [[carpenter]], and [[boxing]] instructor. In his spare time he worked on his comedy skills, training with [[Acme Comedy Theater]] and attempting [[Stand-up comedy\|stand-up]], but he didn't believe either of these were a good fit for him. In his late twenties he heard an ad on the radio seeking a boxing instructor to train [[Jimmy Kimmel]], who at the time was a radio personality on the [[KROQ]] morning show [[Kevin and Bean]] as Jimmy the Sports Guy. Carolla met Kimmel at the radio station and the two became best friends. Carolla eventually joined the show's repertoire as Mr. Birchum, the [[Vietnam veteran]] shop teacher. Carolla was offered the job of co-hosting ''[[Loveline]]'' with [[physician]] [[Dr. Drew Pinsky]] in 1995, replacing [[Riki Rachtman]]. ''Loveline'' is a [[radio syndication\|syndicated]] radio program produced by [[Westwood One]], and was also for several years a television show for [[MTV]]. On ''Loveline'', Carolla often gave extended commentary about matters having little to do with the official subject matter of the show. Common topics included his dislike of religion, junior college, traffic/parking enforcement, and political extremists and his preference for pie over cake (along with a great many other topics). Carolla brought to the show his ability to naturally add a humorous slant to the callers' problems. Carolla then went on to do ''[[The Man Show]]'' with Kimmel on [[Comedy Central]] from 1999 to 2003. He left ''The Man Show'' at the same time as his good friend Kimmel, even after having been reportedly offered $100,000 per episode to stay on. Carolla has continued his work with Kimmel as a writer and regular guest on ''[[Jimmy Kimmel Live]]''. With partner [[Daniel Kellison]], they are the heads of [[Jackhole Productions]] and created another television show named ''[[Crank Yankers]]'' for Comedy Central, which revived the Mr. Birchum character. Carolla has also done [[voiceover]]s for [[cartoon]]s, including Commander Nebula on the [[Disney Channel\|Disney]] animated series ''[[Buzz Lightyear of Star Command]]'', [[Death (personification)\|Death]] on ''[[Family Guy]]'' (replacing [[Norm MacDonald]]) and Spanky Ham on ''[[Drawn Together]]''. In early [[August 2005]], Carolla began hosting the [[talk show]] ''[[Too Late with Adam Carolla]]'' on Comedy Central. On [[August 4]], [[2005]], Carolla announced that he would leave ''Loveline'' to pursue a position in morning radio, replacing [[Howard Stern]] in a number of morning markets. Adam's last night on ''Loveline'' was [[November 3]], [[2005]], to allow him to have time to prepare for his morning debut at the beginning of 2006. On [[October 25]], [[Infinity Broadcasting]] announced that it would be replacing Stern with Carolla on several radio stations in the [[West Coast of the United States\|western United States]]. On [[January 3]], [[2006]], Carolla began his new morning radio show, ''[[The Adam Carolla Show]]'', on stations in Los Angeles, Phoenix, San Francisco, Portland, San Diego, Seattle, Las Vegas, Fresno and Sacramento. As of [[January 6]], [[2006]], east coast and Dallas affiliates were already in discussions with CBS Radio, to drop [[David Lee Roth]] and substitute Carolla. Circa [[August 15]], [[2005]], Carolla became a member of the advisory board of [[Marijuana Policy Project]] after devoting nearly an entire episode of his Comedy Central show to talking with ''[[Weeds (television)\|Weeds]]'' star [[Kevin Nealon]] about the absurdities of the war on marijuana. [http://www.mpp-vip.org/home/] Carolla's morning show became the subject of controversy within a few weeks of airing when on [[January 24]], [[2006]], Carolla played a segment which spoofed the upcoming [[Asian Excellence Award
e browser or the [[proxy]], if any is used. This information is available for the server to be stored regardless of whether cookies are used. However, these addresses are typically less reliable in identifying a user than cookies because computers and proxies may be shared by several users, and the same computer may be assigned different Internet addresses in different work sessions (this is oftern the case for [[dial-up]] connections.) The reliability of this technique can be improved by using another feature of the HTTP protocol: when a browser request a page because the user has followed a link, the request that is sent to the server contains the URL of the page where the link is located. If the server stores these URLs, the path of page viewed by the user can be tracked more precisely. However, these traces are less reliable than the ones provided by cookies, as several users may access the same page from the same computer or proxy and then follow two different links. Moreover, this technique only allows tracing and cannot replace cookies in their other uses. ===URL (query string)=== A more precise technique is based on embedding information into URLs. The [[query string]] part of the URL is the one that is typically used for this purpose, but other parts can be used as well. The [[PHP]] session mechanism uses this method if cookies are not enabled. This method consists in the Web server appending query strings to the links of a Web page it holds when sending it to a browser. When the user follows a link, the browser returns the attached query string to the server. Query strings used in this way and cookies are very similar, both being arbitrary pieces of information chosen by the server and sent back by the browser. However, there are some differences: since a query string is part of a URL, if that URL is later reused, the same attached piece of information is sent to the server. For example, if the preferences of a user are encoded in the query string of a URL and the user sends this URL to another user by [[email]], those preferences will be used for that other user as well. Moreover, even if if the same user accesses the same page two times, there is no guarantee that the same query string is used in both views. For example, if the same user arrives to the same page but coming from a page internal to the site the first time and from an external [[search engine]] the second time, the relative query strings are typically different while the cookies would be the same. For more details, see [[query string]]. Other drawbacks of query strings are related to security: storing data that identifies a session in a query string enables or simplifies [[session fixation]] attacks, [[referer]] logging attacks and other [[Exploit (computer security)\|security exploits]]. Transferring session identifiers as HTTP cookies is more secure. ===HTTP authentication=== As for authentication, the HTTP protocol includes mechanisms, such as the [[digest access authentication]], that allow access to a Web page only when the user has provided the correct username and password. Once these credentials are given, the browser stores and use them also for accessing subsequent pages, without requiring the user to provide them again. From the point of view of the user, the effect is the same as if cookies were used: username and password are only requested once, and from that point on the user is given access to the site. ===Macromedia Flash Local Stored Objects=== If a browser is enhanced by the [[Macromedia Flash\|Macromedia Flash Player]] [[plugin]], its Local Shared Objects function can be used in a way very similar to cookies. Local Stored Objects may be an attractive choice to web developers because a majority of [[Microsoft Windows]] users have Flash Player installed, the default size limit is 100 kb, and the security controls are distinct from the user controls for cookies, so Local Shared Objects may be enabled when cookies are not. ==History== The term "HTTP cookie" derives from "[[magic cookie]]", a packet of data a program receives but only uses for sending it again, possibly to its origin, unchanged. Magic cookies were already used in computing when [[Lou Montulli]] had the idea of using them in Web communications in June 1994{{ref\|nytimes}}. At the time, he was an employee of [[Netscape Communications]], which was developing an [[e-commerce]] application for a customer. Cookies provided a solution to the problem of reliably implementing a virtual shopping cart{{ref\|ks}}{{ref\|kristol}}. Together with John Giannandrea, Montulli wrote the initial Netscape cookie specification the same year. Version 0.9beta of Netscape, released on September 1994, supported cookies. The first actual use of cookies (out of the labs) was made for checking whether visitors to the Netscape Web site had already visited the site. Montulli and Giannandrea applied for a patent for the cookie technology in 1995; it was granted in 1998. Support for cookies was integrated in Internet Explorer in version 2, released in October 1995{{ref\|ie}}. The introduction of cookies was not widely known to the public, at the time. In particular, cookies were accepted by default, and users were not notified of the presence of cookies. Some people were aware of the existence of cookies as early as the first quarter of 1995{{ref\|clarke}}, but the general public learnt about them after the [[Financial Times]] published an article about them on [[February 12]] [[1996]]. In the same year, cookies received lot of media attention, especially because of potential privacy implications. Cookies were discussed in two [[U.S.]] [[Federal Trade Commission]] hearings in 1996 and 1997. The development of the formal cookie specifications was already undergoing. In particular, the first discussions about a formal specification started in April 1995 on the [[www-talk]] mailing list. A special working group within the [[IETF]] was formed. Two alternative proposals for introducing a state in an HTTP transactions had been proposed by Brian Behlendorf and David Kristol, respectively, but the group, headed by Kristol himself, soon decided to use the Netscape specification as a starting point. On February 1996, the working group identified third-party cookies as a considerable privacy threat. The specification produced by the group was eventually published as RFC 2109 in February 1997. It specifies that third-party cookies were either not allowed at all, or at least not enabled by default. At this time, advertising companies were already using third-party cookies. The recommendation about third-party cookies of <nowiki>RFC 2109</nowiki> was not followed by Netscape and Internet Explorer. <nowiki>RFC 2109</nowiki> was followed by RFC 2965 in October 2000. ==Implementation== ===Setting a cookie=== Transfer of Web pages follows the [[HyperText Transfer Protocol]]. Regardless of cookies, browsers request a page from web servers by sending them a short text called [[HyperText Transfer Protocol\|HTTP request]]; a request may look like: {\| \| \| <div style="border: solid thin; padding: 0em 1em"> <code> <nowiki>GET http://www.w3.org/index.html HTTP/1.1</nowiki><br /> Accept: /<br> &nbsp;<br> </code> </div> \| \|- \| '''browser''' \| <center>&rarr;</center> \| '''server''' \|} The server replies by sending the requested page preceded by a similar packet of text, called [[HyperText Transfer Protocol\|HTTP header]]. This packet may contain lines requesting the browser to store cookies: {\| \| \| <div style="border: solid thin; padding: 0em 1em"> <tt> HTTP/1.1 200 OK<br> <font color=green>Set-Cookie: name=value</font><br> Content-type: text/html<br> &nbsp;<br> (content of page) </tt> </div> \| \|- \| '''browser''' \| <center>&larr;</center> \| '''server''' \|} The line <code>Set-cookie</code> is only sent if the server wishes the browser to store a cookie. Indeed, it is a request for the browser to store the string <code>name=value</code> and send it back in all future requests to the server. If the browser supports cookies and cookies are enabled, every subsequent page request to the same server contains the cookie: {\| \| \| <div style="border: solid thin; padding: 0em 1em;"> <tt> <nowiki>GET http://www.w3.org/spec.html HTTP/1.1</nowiki><br /> <font color=green>Cookie: name=value</font><br /> Accept: /<br /> &nbsp;<br /> </tt> </div> \| \|- \| '''browser''' \| <center>&rarr;</center> \| '''server''' \|} This is a request for another page from the same server, and differs from the first one above because it contains the string that the server has previously sent to the browser. This way, the server knows that this request is related to the previous one. The server answers by sending the requested page, possibly adding other cookies as well. The value of a cookie can be modified by the server by sending a new <code>Set-Cookie: name=newvalue</code> line in response of a page request. The browser then replaces the old value with the new one. The <code>Set-Cookie</code> line is typically not created by the [[HTTP]] server itself but by a [[Common Gateway Interface\|CGI]] program. The [[HTTP]] server only sends the result of the program (a document preceded by the header containing the cookies) to the browser. Cookies can also be set by JavaScript or similar scripts running within the browser. In JavaScript, the object <code>document.cookie</code> is used for this purpose. For example, the instruction <code>document.cookie = "temperature=20"</code> creates a cookie of name <code>temperature</code> and
t;[[Covered bridge]]</center> Image:CurlingBridgeClip.jpg\|<center>[[Curling bridge]]</center> Image:Fort ticonderoga drawbridge to demilune.jpg\|<center>[[Drawbridge]]</center> Image:NoImageYetRectFramed.png\|<center>[[Extradosed bridge]]</center> Image:Hoernbruecke.jpg\|<center>[[Folding bridge]]</center> Image:NoImageYetRectFramed.png\|<center>[[Girder bridge]]</center> Image:IRBSideViewClip.jpg\|<center>[[Inca rope bridge]]</center> Image:JetwayAtVancouverBC.jpg\|<center>[[Jetway]]</center> Image:Guilford vermont bridge covered bridge interior 20040820.jpg\|<center>[[Lattice bridge]]</center> Image:BNSFBridgeClip.jpg\|<center>[[Lift bridge]]</center> Image:Vallorcine footpath bridge 2003-12-13.jpg\|<center>[[Log bridge]]</center> Image:SFTGMoonBridge.jpg\|<center>[[Moon bridge]]</center> Image:PlateGirderUnderTracks.jpg\|<center>[[Plate girder bridge]]</center> Image:ArmyPontoonBr.jpg\|<center>[[Pontoon bridge]]</center> Image:Uppsala Ultunabron02 2005-06-16.jpg\|<center>[[Retractable bridge]]<br>(Thrust bridge)</center> Image:ProposedSFOBBEasternSpan.jpg\|<center>[[Self-anchored suspension bridge]]</center> Image:SegmentalBridgeFtLauderdale.jpg\|<center>[[Segmental bridge]]</center> Image:WinnepegBridge.jpg\|<center>[[Side-spar cable-stayed bridge]]</center> Image:CapilanoBridge.jpg\|<center>[[Simple suspension bridge]]</center> Image:StepStoneBridge.jpg\|<center>[[Step-stone bridge]]</center> Image:BridgeSubmerging4.jpg\|<center>[[Submersible bridge]]</center> Image:suspension.bridge.bristol.arp.750pix.jpg\|<center>[[Suspension bridge]]</center> Image:Railway swing bridge.jpg\|<center>[[Swing bridge]]</center> Image:Millenium_bridge_close.jpg\|<center>[[Tilt bridge]]</center> Image:Paying Toll on passing a Bridge From a Painted Window in the Cathedral of Tournay Fifteenth Century.png\|<center>[[Toll bridge]]</center> Image:Newport.transporter.750pix.jpg\|<center>[[Transporter bridge]]</center> Image:AlhambraTrestle.jpg\|<center>[[Trestle]]</center> Image:Eastbound_over_SCB.jpg\|<center>[[Truss arch bridge]]</center> Image:LittleManateeRiver.jpg\|<center>[[Truss bridge]]</center> Image:Moscow, Bagration Bridge and Tower 2000.jpg\|<center>[[Tubular bridge]]</center> Image:Toronto-bloorviaduct.jpg\|<center>[[Viaduct]]</center> Image:Grammene-vierendeelbridge 20030618.jpg\|<center>[[Vierendeel bridge]]</center> Image:NoImageYetRectFramed.png\|<center>[[Weigh bridge]]</center> </gallery> ==Bridge structural and evolutionary taxonomy== [[Image:BridgeTaxonomyBW.png\|thumb\|right\|400px\|A bridge taxonomy showing evolutionary relationships]] Bridges may be classified by how the four forces of [[tension]], [[physical compression\|compression]], [[bending]] and [[shear]] are distributed through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of the principle forces to some degree, but only a few will predominate. The separation of forces may be quite clear, as in a suspension or cable-stayed span; the elements in tension are distinct in shape and placement. In other cases the forces may be distributed among a large number of members, as in a truss, or not clearly discernible to a casual observer as in a box beam. Bridges can also be classified by their lineage, which is shown as the vertical axis on the diagram to the right. ==Efficiency== A bridge's ''structural efficiency'' may be considered to be the ratio of load carried to bridge weight, given a specific set of material types. In one common challenge young students are to be divided into groups of two or three and then to be given a fixed quantity of wood sticks, a specific distance to span, and a given glue, and then to construct a bridge that will be tested to destruction by the progressive addition of load at the center of the span. The bridge taking the greatest load is by this test the most ''structurally efficient''. A more refined measure for this exercise is to weigh the completed bridge rather than measure against a fixed quantity of materials provided, a test that emphasizes economy of materials and efficient glue joints. A bridge's ''economic efficiency'' will be site and traffic dependent, the ratio of savings by having a bridge (instead of, for example, a ferry, or a longer road route) compared to its cost. For a given site, kind of bridge employed and the materials used determine the total cost, a lifetime cost composed of materials, labor, machinery, engineering, cost of money, maintenance, refurbishment, risk potential, and ultimately, demolition and associated disposal, recycling, and reuse. Bridges employing only compression are relatively inefficient structurally, but may be highly cost efficient where suitable materials are available near the site. For medium spans, trusses or box beams are usually most economical, while in some cases, the appearance of the bridge may be more important than its cost efficiency. The longest spans usually require suspension bridges. ==Notable bridges== [[Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge]] - [[Japan]], with the longest section span of 1.9 [[Kilometre\|km]]. [[Forth Railway Bridge]] - [[Scotland]], one of the most famous [[cantilever bridge\|cantilever bridges]] in the world. [[Golden Gate Bridge]] - [[USA]], arguably the most beautiful of its type. [[The Iron Bridge]] - [[England]], the world's first [[iron]] bridge. [[Confederation Bridge]] - [[Canada]], world's longest bridge over waters that freeze. [[Jamuna Bridge]]- [[Bangladesh]], longest rail-road bridge in south asia , 2nd longest in world. [[Lake Pontchartrain Causeway]] - [[USA]], spanning [[Lake Pontchartrain]] in south [[Louisiana]], it is the longest bridge in the world at 23.87 [[mile]]s (38.41 km). [[Lupu Bridge]]- [[China]], longest single [[steel]] arch. [[Mackinac Bridge]] - [[USA]], Opened to traffic in 1957, connecting the two [[peninsulas]] of [[Michigan]]; held the title of the world's longest two tower [[suspension bridge]] between anchorages until the 1990s. [[Mahatma Gandhi Setu]] - [[India]], the longest river bridge in the world. [[Menai Suspension Bridge]] - [[Wales]], first road [[suspension bridge]] in the world. [[Millau Viaduct]] - [[France]]. [[Oresund Bridge\|Øresundbroen/Öresundsbron]] [[Overtoun Bridge]], - [[Scotland]], [[dog]]s have leaped to their deaths from this bridge, leading to [[urban legend]]s. [[Palace Bridge]] - [[St Petersburg]], [[Russia]], one of iconic images of the city [[Penang Bridge]] - [[Malaysia]], longest bridge in [[Southeast Asia]]. [[Québec Bridge]] - [[Canada]], largest [[cantilever bridge]] in the world. [[San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]] - [[USA]], especially for [[seismic retrofit]] and [[Eastern_span_replacement_of_the_San_Francisco-Oakland_Bay_Bridge\|eastern span replacement]]. [[Sundial Bridge]] - [[USA]], a dramatic single cantilever spar cable stayed span for [[pedestrians]]. [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] - [[Australia]], arguably the best-known suspended-deck compression arch bridge. [[Tacoma Narrows Bridge]] - [[USA]], famous for its collapse due to [[aerodynamic]] effects. [[Tatara Bridge]] - [[Japan]], largest span cable-stayed bridge. [[Tower Bridge]] - [[London]], [[England]], and a symbol of this city. [[Image:U-Bain-Bridge2.JPG\|thumb\|280px\|U Bein Bridge in [[Amarapura]]]] [[Tsing Ma Bridge]] - [[Hong Kong]], the world's longest rail & road suspension bridge [[Tyne Bridge]] - [[England]], one of [[Northern_England\|Northern England's]] most iconic structures. [[Trajan's bridge]] - [[Romania]], [[ancient Rome\|ancient Roman]] bridge over the river [[Danube]], only fragments visible. U Bein Bridge in [[Amarapura]], a 1.2&nbsp;km wooden footbridge, the longest teak bridge in the world. [[Vasco da Gama Bridge]] - [[Portugal]], the longest bridge in [[Europe]] at 17.2&nbsp;km. [[Victoria Falls Bridge]] - linking [[Zimbabwe]] to [[Zambia]], built in 1905 as part of the projected [[Cape-Cairo railway]]. [[Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge]] - [[USA]], built during [[Boston]]'s [[Big Dig]], the widest [[cable-stayed bridge]]. [[Pearl Harbor Memorial Bridge]] - [[USA]], will be the first [[extradosed bridge\|extradosed]] [[cable-stayed bridge]] constructed in the United States. [http://www.yde.co.il] '''Zohar River Bridge''' - [[Israel]], constructed on 1997 near the [[Dead Sea]], known to be the lowest bridge in the world. The bridge is located in a high seismic risk zone. ==Catastrophic collapses== {\| class="wikitable" \|- ! Bridge ! Town ! Country ! Date ! Construction type, use of bridge ! Reason ! Number death/injuries ! Damage ! Remarks \|- \| Bridge of [[Angers]] (France) \| Angers \| France \| [[April 16th]] [[1850]] \| [[Suspension bridge]] over [[Maine]] river \| [[Resonance]] of soldiers led to collapse \| 226/? \| Bridge total damage \| Marching columns now break step when crossing bridges. \|- \| [[Tay Rail Bridge]] \| [[Dundee]] \| UK \| [[December 28th]] [[1879]] \| Continuous girder bridge, steel framework on cast iron columns, railway bridge \| Insufficient consideration of the wind load, inadequate construction, collapsed because of the stresses caused by a [[storm]] \| 75/0 \| Bridge unusable, piers partly reused, train heavily damaged \| Locomotive was saved from the Tay and was still in use 19 years later known as "The Diver". \|- \| [[Quebec-Bridge]] \| [[Quebec]] \| Canada \| [[August 29th]] [[1907]] \| Cantilever bridge, steel framework, railway bridge \| Collapsed during construction \| 74/11 \| Bridge completely destroyed \| &nbsp; \|- \| [[Theodor-Heuss-Rhine River Bridge]] \| [[Ludwigshafen]] \| Germany \| March [[1940]] \| Bridge of concrete, Motorway bridge \| Collapsed during construction \| ?
ed by very complex systems, they are remarkably unaware of the rules that govern their own speech. Thus, linguists must resort to indirect methods to determine what those rules might be. If speech is indeed governed by rules, they appear to be opaque to any conscious consideration. A very fecund way to approach cognitive issues in language is the pragmatics of language, that is, the current use of the language by a real speaker. From a pragmatic analythical perspective it was possible to show that some professions categorically working with language (e.g. journalists) have a behavior non predictable by known theories. Pragmatic approach is also useful to study collective distributed decision making, specially in broadcasted systems (for instance aviation approach control - APP). ===Learning and development=== ''Main articles:'' [[Learning]], [[Developmental psychology]] Learning and development are the processes by which we acquire information over time. Infants are born with little or no knowledge (depending on how knowledge is defined), yet they rapidly acquire the ability to use language, walk, and recognize people and objects. Research in learning and development aim to explain the mechanisms by which these processes might take place. A major question in the study of cognitive development is the extent to which certain abilities are [[innate]] or learned. This is often framed in terms of the nature versus nurture debate. The nativist view emphasizes that certain features are innate to an organism and are determined by its [[genetics\|genetic]] endowment. The empiricist view, on the other hand, emphasizes that certain abilities are learned from the environment. It is clear that intelligent behavior has components that are both innate and learned, but the extent to which particular behaviors are innate is a major research question. In the area of [[language acquisition]], for example, many questions remain about whether or not a special language acquisition device is necessary to facilitate the learning of language, or if humans can learn language through more general learning processes that take advantage of the information available in the environment. ===Memory=== ''Main articles:'' [[Memory]] Memory allows us to store information for later retrieval. Memory is often thought of consisting of both a long-term and short-term store. Long-term memory allows us to store information over prolonged periods (days, weeks, years). We do not yet know the practical limit of long-term memory capacity. Short-term memory allows us to store information over short time scales (seconds or minutes). Memory is also often grouped into declarative and procedural forms. Declarative memory refers to our memory for facts and specific knowledge (e.g., Who was the first president of the U.S.?). Procedural memory allows us to remember actions and motor sequences (e.g. how to ride a bicycle). ===Perception and action=== [[Image:Necker_cube.jpg\|thumb\|150px\|The Necker cube, an example of a visual illusion.]] ''Main article: [[Perception]]'' Perception is the ability to take in information via the [[senses]], and process it in some way. [[Visual perception\|Vision]] and [[Hearing (sense)\|hearing]] are two dominant senses that allow us to perceive the environment. Some questions in the study of visual perception, for example, include: (1) How are we able to recognize objects?, (2) Why do we perceive a continuous visual environment, even though we only see small bits of it at any one time? One tool for studying visual perception is by looking at how people process [[visual illusions]]. The image on the right of a Necker cube is an example of a bistable percept, that is, the cube can be interpreted as being oriented in two different directions. The study of [[haptic]] ([[tactile]]), [[olfactory]], and [[gustatory]] stimuli also fall into the domain of perception. Action is taken to refer to the output of a system. In humans, this is accomplished through motor responses. Spatial planning and movement, speech production, and complex motor movements are all aspects of action. ==Research methods== Many different methodologies are used to study '''cognitive science'''. As the field is highly interdisciplinary, research often cuts across multiple areas of study, and draws on research methods from [[psychology]], [[neuroscience]], and [[computer science]]. ===Behavioral experiments=== In order to have a description of what constitutes intelligent behavior, one must study behavior itself. This type of research is closely tied to that in [[cognitive psychology]] and [[psychophysics]]. By measuring behavioral responses to different stimuli, one can understand something about how those stimuli are processed. * ''Reaction time.'' The time between the presentation of a stimulus and an appropriate response can indicate differences between two cognitive processes, and can indicate some things about their nature. For example, if in a search task the reaction times vary proportionally with the number of elements, then it is evident that this cognitive process of searching involves serial and not parallel processing. * ''Psychophysical responses.'' Psychophysical experiments are an old psychological technique, which have been adopted by cognitive psychology. They typically involve making judgments of some physical property, e.g. the loudness of a sound. Correlation of subjective scales between individuals can show cognitive or sensory biases as compared to actual physical measurements. Some examples include: sameness judgments for colors, tones, textures, etc. threshold differences for colors, tones, textures, etc. * ''[[Eye tracking]].'' This methodology is used to study a variety of cognitive processes, most notably visual perception and language processing. The fixation point of the eyes is linked to an individual's focus of attention. Thus, by monitoring eye movements, we can study what information is being processed at a given time. Eye tracking allows us to study cognitive processes on extremely short time scales. Eye movements reflect online decision making during a task, and they provide us with some insight into the ways in which those decisions may be processed. ===Brain imaging=== [[Image:Hypothalamus.jpg\|thumb\|150px\|\|Image of the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.]] Brain imaging involves analyzing activity within the brain while performing various cognitive tasks. This allows us to link behavior and brain function to help understand how information is processed. Different types of imaging techniques vary in their temporal (time-based) and spatial (location-based) resolution. Brain imaging is often used in [[cognitive neuroscience]]. * ''[[Single photon emission computed tomography]]'' and ''[[Positron emission tomography]].'' SPECT and PET use radioactive isotopes, which are injected into the subject's bloodstream and taken up by the brain. By observing which areas of the brain take up the radioactive isotope, we can see which areas of the brain are more active than other areas. PET has similar spatial resolution to fMRI, but it has extremely poor temporal resolution. * ''[[Electroencephalography\|EEG]].'' Electroencephalography (EEG) measures the electrical fields generated by large populations of neurons in the cortex by placing a series of electrodes on the scalp of the subject. This technique has an extremely high temporal resolution, but a relatively poor spatial resolution. * ''[[functional MRI\|fMRI]].'' fMRI measures the relative amount of oxygenated blood flowing to different parts of the brain. More oxygenated blood in a particular region is correlated with an increase in neural activity in that part of the brain. This allows us to localize particular functions within different brain regions. fMRI has moderate spatial and temporal resolution. * ''[[Optical imaging]].'' This technique uses infrared transmitters and receivers to measure the amount of light reflectance by blood near different areas of the brain. Since oxygenated and deoxygenated blood reflects light by different amounts, we can study which areas are more active (those that have more oxygenated blood). Optical imaging has moderate temporal resolution, but poor spatial resolution. It also has the advantage that it is extremely safe and can be used to study infants' brains. ''[[Magnetoencephalography\|MEG]].'' This technique measures magnetic fields resulting from cortical activity. It is similar to [[Electroencephalography\|EEG]], except that it has improved spatial resolution and the apparatus is a very long device that ends at an interface with the head.<!--I need help!!--> ===Computational modeling=== [[Image:MultiLayerNeuralNetwork_english.png\|thumb\|200px\|Neural network with two layers.]] [[computer model\|Computational models]] are often used to simulate specific aspects of intelligence. These models can help us understand the functional organization of a particular cognitive phenomenon. ''[[Connectionism\|Connectionist/neural network models]].'' Connectionism relies on the idea that the mind/brain is composed of simple nodes and that the power of the system comes primarily from the existence, and manner of connections between the simple nodes. [[Neural nets]] are textbook implementations of this approach. Some critics of this approach feel that while it may be true as a repetition of how the system works it does not have explanative powers, as complicated systems of connections with even simple rules are extremely complex, and often less interpretable than the system they model. * ''Symbolic models.'' * ''[[Dynamical systems]].'' ===Neurobiological methods=== Research methods borrowed directly from [[neuroscience]] and [[neuropsychology]] can also help us understand aspects of intelligence. This methods allow us to understand how intelligent behavior is implemented in a physical system. * ''Sing
' \|\| 113.8 ''(0.31)'' \|- \|align="left"\| Year (local solar days) \|\| 365.3 \|\| 532.0 ''(1.46)'' \|\|rowspan="2"\| [[synchronous rotation\|Synchronous]] (∞)'' \|- \|align="left"\| Solar day ([[hour\|h]]) \|\| 24.00 \|\| 17.53 ''(0.73)'' \|- \|align="left"\| Maximum [[altitude]] (m) \|\| 10,626 \|\| 8,112 ''(0.76)'' \|\| (unspecified) \|- \|align="left"\| [[Horizon]] distance (m) \|\| 5,051 \|\| 5,493 ''(1.09)'' \|\| 3357 ''(0.66)'' \|- \|rowspan="4" align="left"\| Ocean [[tide]] (m) \|\| sun: 0.12 \|\| 0.12 ''(0.94)'' \|\|rowspan="4"\| n/a \|- \| moon 1: 0.27 \|\| 0.18 ''(0.67)'' \|- \| moon 2: n/a \|\| 0.11 ''(n/a)'' \|- \| total: 0.39 \|\| 0.41 ''(1.05)'' \|- \|align="left"\| [[Temperature]] (base+greenhouse) \|\| 253+36 K (15.4 °C) \|\| 261+32 K (19.7 °C) \|\| 438 K (165.3 °C) \|- \|align="left"\| Solar constant (W/m²) \|\| 1,383 \|\| 1,750 ''(1.27)'' \|\| 8,999 ''(6.51)'' \|- !colspan="4" style="background:#addeff;"\| [[Atmosphere]] \|- \|align="left"\| Surface density (kg/m³) \|\| 1.22 \|\| 2.06 ''(1.68)'' \|\|rowspan="2"\| none ''(0.00)'' \|- \|align="left"\| "Flammability" (m[[mole (unit)\|mol]] K/[[joule (unit)\|J]]) \|\| 7.17 \|\| 2.87 ''(0.40)'' \|- !colspan="4" style="background:#addeff;"\| [[Atmospheric pressure]] ([[pascal (unit)\|Pa]]) \|- \|align="left"\| Total \|\| 101,325 \|\| 176,020 ''(1.74)'' \|\|rowspan="5"\| none ''(0.00)'' \|- \|align="left"\| [[Nitrogen]] \|\| 79,125 (78.09%) \|\| 160,000 ''(2.02)'' (90.90%) \|- \|align="left"\| [[Oxygen]] \|\| 21,228 (20.95%) \|\| 15,000 ''(0.71)'' (8.52%) \|- \|align="left"\| [[Argon]] \|\| 942 (0.93%) \|\| 1,000 ''(1.06)'' (0.57%) \|- \|align="left"\| [[Carbon dioxide]] \|\| 30 (0.03%) \|\| 20 ''(0.67)'' (0.01%) \|} {\|{{Prettytable-center}} \|+ [[natural satellite\|Lunar data]] \|- ! &nbsp; \|\|style="background:#ffdead;"\| The [[Moon]] \|\|style="background:#ffdead;"\| Pholus ''(Ratio)'' \|\|style="background:#ffdead;"\| Nessus ''(Ratio)'' \|- \|align="left"\| Mass (kg) \|\| 7.35{{e\|22}} \|\| 5.20{{e\|20}} ''(0.01)'' \|\| 6.50{{e\|21}} ''(0.09)'' \|- \|align="left"\| Radius (m) \|\| 1.74{{e\|6}} \|\| 3.50{{e\|5}} ''(0.20)'' \|\| 8.00{{e\|5}} ''(0.46)'' \|- \|align="left"\| Semi-major axis (m) \|\| 3.84{{e\|8}} \|\| 1.00{{e\|8}} ''(0.26)'' \|\| 2.00{{e\|8}} ''(0.52)'' \|- \|align="left"\| Surface area (m²) \|\| 3.80{{e\|13}} \|\| 1.54{{e\|12}} ''(0.04)'' \|\| 8.04{{e\|12}} ''(0.21)'' \|- \|align="left"\| Gravity (m/s²) \|\| 1.62 \|\| 0.28 ''(0.17)'' \|\| 0.68 ''(0.42)'' \|- \|align="left"\| Density (kg/m³) \|\| 3,342 \|\| 2,895 ''(0.87)'' \|\| 3,031 ''(0.91)'' \|- \|align="left"\| [[Synodic month]] (d) \|\| 29.5 \|\| 2.7 ''(0.09)'' \|\| 7.7 ''(0.26)'' \|- \|align="left"\| Synodic month (local solar days) \|\| 29.5 \|\| 3.7 ''(0.13)'' \|\| 10.6 ''(0.36)'' \|- \|align="left"\| Synodic months per year \|\| 12.4 \|\| 143.76 ''(11.60)'' \|\| 50.2 ''(4.05)'' \|- \|align="left"\| Apparent angular radius (°) \|\| 0.26 \|\| 0.20 ''(0.77)'' \|\| 0.23 ''(0.88)'' \|} ==Further reading== The original story of the journey and splintering of the colonization space ship from Earth to Alpha Centauri was detailed in multiple installments that were released periodically by Michael Ely of Firaxis on the web, immediately prior to the release of the game, as part of a marketing mechanism. During the course of the installments, the names of regular forum members on the official Firaxis forums were incorporated into the story in cameos. For further reading, game story developer [[Michael Ely]] has also written a trilogy of novels based on the game. * ''Centauri Dawn'' - ISBN 0671040774 * ''Dragon Sun'' - ISBN 0671040782 * ''Twilight of the Mind'' - ISBN 0671040790 ==See also== [[List of technologies in Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri]] [[List of computer and video games by name]] ''[[Outpost 2]]'' [[Alpha_Centauri_A#Sky_appearance_from_Alpha_Centauri\|Sky appearance from Alpha Centauri]] [[Space colonization in popular culture]] [[Spacepunk]] ==External links== {{Wikiquote}} * [http://www.firaxis.com/smac/ Official site] * [[Wikibooks:Civ\|Civilization Wikibook]] - Has a section on Alpha Centauri and Alien Crossfire, based on a guide by Velociryx. * [http://www.netjak.com/review.php/785 Netjak Review] * [http://www.generationterrorists.com/quotes/smac.html The Alpha Centauri quotebook] * [http://www.apolyton.net/smac/ Apolyton's Alpha Centauri site] - Has much information on strategy. * [http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/books/alphacentauri/ GURPS Alpha Centauri] - The official site of the RPG supplement. {{Civilization}} [[Category:1999 computer and video games]] [[Category:Firaxis games]] [[Category:Linux games]] [[Category:Apple Macintosh games]] [[Category:Origins award winners]] [[Category:Science fiction computer and video games]] [[Category:Turn-based strategy computer games]] [[Category:Windows games]] [[de:Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri]] [[es:Alpha Centauri (videojuego)]] [[fi:Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri]] [[fr:Alpha Centauri (jeu vidéo)]] [[pl:Alpha Centauri (gra komputerowa)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abu Sayyaf</title> <id>2216</id> <revision> <id>41263135</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T03:45:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>AshishG</username> <id>172488</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links\|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG)''' ([[Arabic language\|Arabic]]: جماعة أبو سياف), or simply '''Abu Sayyaf''', also known as '''Al Harakat Al Islamiyya''', is an [[Islamist]] terrorist separatist group of based in and around the southern islands of the [[Philippines]], primarily [[Jolo]], [[Basilan]], and [[Mindanao]]. [[Image:AbuSayyaf.jpg\|right\|thumb\|Khadaffy Janjalani with his right hand man and ASG spokesperson Abu Sabaya.]] [[Khadaffy Janjalani]] is named as the nominal leader of the group by the Armed Forces of the [[Philippines]]. It is reported that they recently began expanding into neighbouring [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]]. The group has carried out [[bombing]]s, [[assassination]]s, [[kidnapping]]s, and [[extortion]] in their fight for an independent Islamic state in western [[Mindanao]] and the [[Sulu Archipelago]] and create an atmosphere conducive to the creation of a Pan-Islamic superstate in the [[Malay Peninsula\|Malay]] portions of [[South-east Asia]]. The name of the group is [[Arabic language\|Arabic]] for ''Father (Abu) of the Sword (Sayyaf)''. The ASG is the one of the smallest but strongest of the Islamic separatist groups in Mindanao. Some ASG members have allegedly studied or worked in [[Saudi Arabia]] and developed ties to [[mujahadeen]] while fighting and training in the war against the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]]. The [[Philippines\|Philippine]] government has claimed the group has ties to [[Jemaah Islamiyah]] and [[al-Qaeda]]. A blast at a US military base in the Philippines on [[February 18]], [[2006]] was blamed on Abu Sayyaf by Brig. General Alexander Aleo, a [[United States Army]] [[Commanding officer\|officer]].[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4727842.stm] ==History== Members of the ASG were once part of the [[Moro National Liberation Front]], but started on their own in 1991 under the leadership of [[Abdurajik Abubakar Janjalani]]. [[Ramzi Yousef]] and [[Khalid Shaikh Mohammed]], both of whom were involved with [[Operation Bojinka]], allegedly took [[scuba]] trips to [[Puerto Galera]]. The trips may have been a cover for the training of Abu Sayyaf terrorists. After [[Ramzi Yousef]] bombed [[Philippine Airlines]] [[Philippine Airlines Flight 434\|Flight 434]], killing a [[Japan]]ese passenger, a man stated in a telephone call, "We are [the] Abu Sayyaf Group. We explode[d] one plane from [[Cebu]]." The bombing was supposedly a test for [[Operation Bojinka]], which was discovered by [[Manila]] police on [[January 6]], [[1995]]. Abu Sayyaf's first large-scale action was the beachhead assault on the town of [[Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay\|Ipil]] in [[Mindanao]] in April [[1995]]. It is responsible for the kidnapping and murder of more than 30 foreigners and Christian clerics and lay-workers. Abdurajik Janjalani was killed in a clash with the Philippine National Police on [[December 18]], [[1998]]. Khaddafy Janjalani, his younger brother, is said to have succeeded him. The death of Aburajik Abubakar Janjalani, otherwise known as Abu Sayyaf, marked a turning point in ASG operations, shifting from its ideological focus to more general kidnappings, murders and robberies. [[Image:robotx1.jpg\|right\|thumb\|Galib Andang a.k.a Kumander Robot getting treated for injuries sustained after being captured by the Philippine military.]] The ASG primarily operates in the southern Philippines with members occasionally traveling to [[Manila]], but the group expanded its operations to [[Malaysia]] in 2000 when it abducted foreigners from two different resorts. A commander named [[Abu Sabaya]] was killed in 2002 while trying to evade forces.[http://www.ict.org.il/spotlight/det.cfm?id=796]. [[Galib Andang]], aka Commander Robot, was captured in [[Sulu]] in [[December]] [[2003]]. Abu Sayyaf is estimated to have a core membership of 200 with an extended membership of over 2000. The group was originally not thought to receive funding from any government, but intelligence reports from the [[United States]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Australia]] have found intermittent ties to the Indonesian [[Jemaah Islamiyah]] terrorist group. [[Category:Islamist groups]] [[Category:Islamic organizations]] [[Category:Jihadist organizations]] [[ar:مجموعة أبو سياف]] [[de:Abu Sayyaf]] [[es:Abu Sayyaf]] [[fr:Abu Sayyaf]] [[id:Abu Sayyaf]] [[ia:Abu Sayyaf]] [[nl:Abu Sayyaf]] [[pl:Grupa Abu Sajjafa]] [[fi:Abu Sayyaf]] [[zh:阿布
oryguide.org/intellect/hegel.html Hegel page in 'The History Guide'] ==Hegel texts online== * {{gutenberg author\| id=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel \| name=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel}} * [http://www.class.uidaho.edu/mickelsen/texts/Hegel%20-%20Philosophy%20of%20History.htm Philosophy of History Introduction] [http://libcom.org/library/philosophy-right-hegel Hegel's The Philosophy of Right] [http://libcom.org/library/philosophy-history-hegel Hegel's The Philosophy of History] {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:1770 births\|Hegel, Georg]] [[Category:1831 deaths\|Hegel, Georg]] [[Category:19th century philosophers\|Hegel, Georg]] [[Category:Continental philosophers\|Hegel, Georg]] [[Category:Georg Hegel\| ]] [[Category:German philosophers\|Hegel]] [[Category:Hegelian philosophers\|Hegel, Georg]] [[Category:Idealists\|Hegel, Georg]] [[Category:Logicians\|Hegel]] [[Category:Metaphysics writers\|Hegel, Georg]] [[Category:Moral philosophers\|Hegel]] [[Category:Philosophers of law\|Hegel]] [[Category:Philosophers of metaphysics\|Hegel]] [[Category:Philosophers\|Hegel]] [[Category:Political philosophers\|Hegel]] [[Category:Romanticism\|Hegel, Georg]] [[Category:Social philosophers\|Hegel]] [[be:Георг Гегель]] [[bg:Georg Vilhelm Fridrih Hegel]] [[bn:******************* ******************** *********]] [[cs:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[da:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[de:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[eo:Hegelo]] [[es:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[fi:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[fr:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[he:גאורג_וילהלם_פרידריך_הגל]] [[io:Friedrich Hegel]] [[it:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[ja:ゲオルク・ヴィルヘルム・フリードリヒ・ヘーゲル]] [[ko:게오르크 빌헬름 프리드리히 헤겔]] [[ku:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[la:Georgius Wilhemus Fridericus Hegel]] [[lt:Georgas Vilhelmas Frydrichas Hegelis]] [[nb:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[nl:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[pl:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[pt:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[ro:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[ru:Гегель, Георг Вильгельм Фридрих]] [[sk:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[sr:Georg Vilhelm Fridrih Hegel]] [[sv:Friedrich Hegel]] [[tr:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] [[uk:Geg3el' G3eorg3 Viil'gel'm Friidriih]] [[zh:%E9%BB%91%E6%A0%BC%E5%B0%94]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Grid network</title> <id>12600</id> <revision> <id>32302213</id> <timestamp>2005-12-22T00:31:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jake Nelson</username> <id>16897</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''grid network''' is a kind of [[computer network]] consisting of a number of (computer) systems connected in a grid [[Network topology\|topology]]. In a regular grid topology, each node in the network is connected with two neighbors along one or more [[dimensions]]. If the network is one-dimensional, and the chain of nodes is connected to form a circular loop, the resulting topology is known as a ring. Network systems such as [[Fiber distributed data interface\|FDDI]] use two counter-rotating [[token-passing]] rings to achieve high reliability and performance. In general, when an ''n''-dimensional grid network is connected circularly in more than one dimension, the resulting network topology is a [[torus]], and the network is called "toroidal". When the number of nodes along each dimension of a toroidal network is 2, the resulting network is called a [[hypercube]]. == See also == [[Grid plan]] - street network [[Category:Network topology]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Governor-General of Australia</title> <id>12601</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41607508</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:47:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>202.94.75.143</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ac.jeffery.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|[[Michael Jeffery]], Governor-General of Australia]] The '''Governor-General of Australia''' is the representative in [[Australia]] of Australia's head of state, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom\|Queen Elizabeth II]], [[Queen of Australia]], who lives in the [[United Kingdom]]. The function and role of the Governor-General is similar to that of the Queen in the United Kingdom and includes appointing ministers and judges, dissolving Parliament, giving Royal Assent to legislation, issuing writs for elections and bestowing honours. The Governor-General is President of the [[Executive Council of Australia\|Executive Council]] and nominally [[Commander-in-Chief#Democratic_monarchies.2C_Commonwealth\|Commander-in-Chief]] of the Defence Forces. All these things are done and all these posts are held under the authority of the [[Australian Constitution]] and carried out in the name of the Queen. The Constitution provides that a "Governor-General appointed by the [[Queen of Australia\|Queen]] shall be Her Majesty's representative in the [[Commonwealth]] .&nbsp;.&nbsp;." The Constitution grants the Governor-General a wide range of powers, but in practice he or she follows the conventions of the [[Westminster system]] and (with occasional and rare exceptions) acts only on the advice of the [[Prime Minister of Australia]] or other ministers. Even in the appointment of the Prime Minister, the Governor-General rarely exercises any discretion, usually appointing the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in the [[Australian House of Representatives\|House of Representatives]]. Beyond constitutional functions, the Governor-General has an important ceremonial role. He or she travels widely throughout Australia to open conferences, attend services and commemorations and generally "provide encouragement to individuals and groups who are contributing to their [[Community\|communities]]." [http://www.gg.gov.au/textonly/role.html] When travelling abroad, the Governor-General is seen as the representative of Australia (not of the Queen of Australia), and is treated as a head of state. The main official residence of the Governor-General is [[Government House, Canberra]], commonly known as Yarralumla. There is a second official residence, [[Admiralty House (Sydney)\|Admiralty House]] in [[Sydney]]. When visiting the other states, the Governor-General is usually a guest at the Government Houses in the state capitals. The incumbent Governor-General of Australia is [[Michael Jeffery]]. He is supported by a staff headed by the [[Official Secretary to the Governor-General of Australia\|Official Secretary to the Governor-General]], currently [[Malcolm Hazell]], [[Royal Victorian Order\|CVO]]. ==Method of Appointment== [[Image:Australia-GG-Badge.svg\|thumb\|right\|Floral badge of the Governor-General of Australia]] The selection of a Governor-General is a matter for the [[Prime Minister of Australia]], who may or may not consult privately with staff or colleagues, or with the [[Queen of Australia]]. A decision is usually announced several months in advance of the commission's commencement. During these months, the person is referred to as a Governor-General-designate. The Prime Minister, in making the selection, attempts to find a person who can broadly command the respect of the Australian people. Although they may have a public profile, the person is expected to be silent on political issues and, if applicable, resign any [[political party\|party]] membership. The actual appointment is made by the Queen, however this is a formality. In [[1930]], [[James Scullin]] established the right of the Australian Prime Minister to advise the monarch directly and the Queen is obliged to act upon such advice. After receiving his or her Commission, the Governor-General makes an [[Oath of Allegiance]] and an [[Oath of Office]] to the Queen and issues a Proclamation assuming office. ==Titles and Backgrounds of Governors-General== [[Image:ac.isaacs.jpg\|thumb\|225px\|Sir [[Isaac Isaacs]], the first Australian-born Governor General]] The British Governors-General (from [[1901]] to [[1965]]) were either [[peerage\|peers]] or [[knights]]. Of the Australian occupants (from [[1931]] to [[1988]]), Casey was a peer and all the others were knights (although [[William McKell]]'s knighthood was granted during his term of office). All Governors-General down to Stephen (from [[1901]] to [[1989]]) were members of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom]] and thus had the additional title "[[Right Honourable]]." [[Bill Hayden]] was the only Governor-General to have no title at any time. Of the nine Australians appointed since [[1965]] [[Richard Casey\|Casey]], [[Paul Hasluck\|Hasluck]] and [[Bill Hayden\|Hayden]] were former federal [[parliamentarian\|parliamentarians]]; [[John Kerr\|Kerr]] was the Chief Justice of New South Wales; [[Ninian Stephen\|Stephen]] and [[William Deane\|Deane]] were appointed from the bench of the [[High Court of Australia\|High Court]]; [[Zelman Cowen\|Cowen]] was a [[Vice-Chancellor\|vice-chancellor]] and constitutional lawyer; [[Peter Hollingworth\|Hollingworth]] was an [[Anglican Church of Australia\|Anglican]] [[Archbishop]] and [[Michael Jeffery\|Jeffery]] is a retired [[Officer (armed forces)\|military officer]]. Unlike [[Governor-General of Canada\|Canada]] and [[Governor-General of New Zealand\|New Zealand]], all Australian Governors-General have been male. None has had an indigenous background, however Sir [[Isaac Isaacs]], the first Australian-born Governor-General, was Jewish, as was [[Zelman Cowen\|Sir Zelman Cowen]] ==Tenure== The constitution does not set a term of office, so a Governor-General may continue to hold office for any agreed length of time, however a typical term of office is five years. At the end of this period, a commission is occasionally extended by a short period. The salary of Governor-General is regulated by the Constitution, which fixed an annual amount of 10,000
es]]. The Archbishop's main residence is [[Lambeth Palace]] in the [[London Borough of Lambeth]]. He also has lodgings in the Old Palace, [[Canterbury]], located beside [[Canterbury Cathedral]], where his [[cathedra]] sits. As holder of one of the "five great sees" (along with those of [[Archbishop of York\|York]], [[Bishop of London\|London]], [[Bishop of Durham\|Durham]] and [[Bishop of Winchester\|Winchester]]), the Archbishop of Canterbury is ''ex officio'' one of the [[Lords Spiritual]] of the [[House of Lords]]. He is one of the highest-ranking men in England, ranking directly below the Royal Family. Since [[Henry VIII of England\|Henry VIII]] broke with [[Rome]] the Archbishops of Canterbury have been selected by the English (latterly British) monarch. Today the choice is made in the name of the Sovereign by the prime minister, from a shortlist of two selected by an ad-hoc committee called the [[Crown Nominations Commission]]. As the current archbishop, the Right Honourable and Most Reverend '''[[Rowan Williams\|Dr Rowan Douglas Williams]]''', the 104th '''Lord Archbishop of Canterbury and Primate of All England''' was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on [[27 February]] [[2003]]; he signs himself ''Rowan Cantuar''. He was previously [[Archbishop of Wales]] and [[Bishop of Monmouth]]. ==Origins== Records suggest that the Roman Britons had three Archbishops, seated in [[London]], [[York]], and [[Caerleon]], an ancient city of South Wales. However, in the fifth and sixth centuries the country was overrun by the pagan [[Anglo-Saxon]]s. Of the kingdoms they set up there, [[Kingdom of Kent \| Kent]] had the closest ties to European trade and culture. The first Archbishop of Canterbury was Saint [[Augustine of Canterbury\|Augustine]] who arrived in [[Kent]] in [[597]], sent by [[Pope]] [[Gregory the Great]] to mission to the English. He was accepted by King [[Ethelbert of Kent\|Ethelbert]], on his conversion to Christianity, about the year [[598]]. Since then the Archbishops of Canterbury have been referred to as occupying the Chair of St [[Augustine of Canterbury\|Augustine]]. Before the break with Papal authority in the [[16th Century]], the Church of England was an integral part of the worldwide [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The present Church of England, an established national church, still considers itself part of the broader Western Catholic tradition as well as being the "mother church" of the worldwide Anglican Communion. == Province and Diocese== {{Anglicanism}} The Archbishop of Canterbury exercises metropolitical (or supervisory) jurisdiction over the [[Province of Canterbury]], which encompasses thirty of the forty-four dioceses of the Church of England. (The remaining fourteen dioceses, in northern England, fall within the Province of York.) Formerly, the four dioceses of Wales were also under the Province of Canterbury; in [[1920]], however, the Welsh dioceses transferred from the established Church of England to the disestablished [[Church in Wales]]. The Archbishop of Canterbury has a ceremonial provincial ''curia'', or court, consisting of some of the senior bishops of his province. The Bishop of London&mdash;the most senior cleric of the Church with the exception of the two Archbishops&mdash;serves as Canterbury's Provincial Dean, the Bishop of Winchester as Chancellor, the [[Bishop of Lincoln]] as Vice-Chancellor, the [[Bishop of Salisbury]] as Precentor, the [[Bishop of Worcestor]] as Chaplain and the [[Bishop of Rochester]] as Cross-Bearer. The question of whether the Archbishop of Canterbury or the Archbishop of York should take precedence was once a cause of a long struggle. The dispute was temporarily resolved in [[1071]] after [[Lanfranc]], Archbishop of Canterbury, and [[Thomas I of York\|Thomas of Bayeux]], Archbishop of York, submitted the matter to the [[Pope]]. [[Pope Alexander II]] decided that Canterbury was to have precedence, and that future Archbishops of York would have to be consecrated by, and swear allegiance to, the Archbishop of Canterbury. In [[1119]], however, the Archbishop-Elect of York, [[Thurstan]], refused to acknowledge the pre-eminence of Canterbury. As a consequence, the Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Ralph d'Escures]], refused to consecrate him. When Thurstan appealed to Rome, [[Pope Callixtus II]] not only personally consecrated him, but also issued a [[papal bull]] repudiating the supremacy of Canterbury. The matter was finally settled by [[Pope Innocent VI]] during the fourteenth century. Under Pope Innocent's arrangement, which lasts to this day, the Archbishop of Canterbury would be recognised as superior to the Archbishop of York. The former would be acknowledged as "Primate of All England", and the latter as "Primate of England". The pre-eminence of the Archbishop of Canterbury is acknowledged by an Act of Parliament passed during the reign of Henry VIII. The Archbishop of Canterbury also has a precedence of honour over the other archbishops of the Anglican Communion. He is recognised as ''primus inter pares'', or first amongst equals. The Archbishop of Canterbury, however, does not exercise any direct authority in the provinces outside England. The Archbishop at the present time has four suffragan bishops. One of these, the [[Suffragan Bishop of Dover]], is given the additional title of "Bishop in Canterbury" and empowered to act almost as if he were the diocesan bishop of the [[Diocese of Canterbury]], since the Archbishop is so frequently away fulfillfilling national and international duties. The Suffragan Bishop of Maidstone is a second assistant working in the diocese. The suffragan bishops of Ebbsfleet and Richborough, on the other hand, are [[provincial episcopal visitor]]s for the whole Province of Canterbury, licensed by the Archbishop as "flying bishops" to visit parishes throughout the province who are uncomfortable with the ministrations of their local bishop who has participated in the ordination of women. == Style and privileges == Both the Archbishops of Canterbury and York are styled "The Most Reverend"; retired Archbishops as "The Right Reverend". Archbishops are, by convention, appointed to the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom\|Privy Council]], and may therefore also use "[[The Right Honourable]]" for life (unless they are later removed from the Council). In formal documents, the Archbishop of Canterbury is referred to as "The Most Reverend Father in God, [[Forenames]], by Divine Providence Lord Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England and Metropolitan". In debates in the House of Lords, the Archbishop is referred to as "The Most Reverend Primate, the Archbishop of Canterbury". "The Right Honourable" is not used in either instance. He may also be formally addressed as "Your Grace" - or, more often these days, simply as "Archbishop", "Father" or (in the current instance) "Dr Williams". The surname of the Archbishop of Canterbury is not used in formal documents; only the forenames and see are mentioned. The Archbishop is legally permitted to sign his name as "Cantuar" (from the [[Latin]] for Canterbury). He shares the right to use only a title in the signature with the Archbishop of York, other bishops, and Peers of the Realm. In the [[United Kingdom order of precedence\|order of precedence]], the Archbishop of Canterbury is ranked above all individuals in the realm, with the exception of the Sovereign and members of the Royal Family. Immediately below him is the [[Lord Chancellor]], and then the Archbishop of York. The Archbishop of Canterbury's official residence in London is [[Lambeth Palace]]. Until the [[19th century]], the Archbishops also had major residences at [[Croydon Palace]] and [[Addington Palace]]. There are also the ruins of a Palace at [[Otford]]. The following Archbishops have died at Lambeth: Wittlesey, in 1375; Kemp, 1453; Dean, 1504; all buried in Canterbury Cathedral: Cardinal Pole, the last Catholic archbishop, 1558, after lying in state here 40 days was buried at Canterbury; Parker, 1575, buried in Lambeth Chapel; Whitgift, 1604, buried at Croydon; Bancroft, 1610, buried at Lambeth; Juxon, 1663, buried in the chapel of St. John's College, Oxford; Sheldon, 1667, buried at Croydon; Tillotson, 1694, buried in the church of St. Laurence Jewry, London; Tennison, 1715; and Potter, 1747, both buried at Croydon; Seeker, 1768; Cornwallis, 1783, and Moore, 1805, all buried at Lambeth. Of the medi&aelig;val archbishops, in 1381 Simon of Sudbury fell a victim to [[Wat Tyler]] and his followers when they attacked Lambeth Palace. {{Template:Anglican Bishops & Archbishops - Great Britain}} == See also == [[List of Archbishops of Canterbury]] [[Religion in the United Kingdom]] == External links == * [http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/ Official web site] {{Anglican Churches}} [[Category:Church of England]] [[Category:Anglicanism]] [[Category:Anglican archbishops by diocese\|Canterbury]] [[Category:Christian leaders]] [[Category:Religion in Kent]] [[Category:Religion in the United Kingdom]] [[Category:Canterbury]] [[de:Erzbischof von Canterbury]] [[fr:Archevêque de Cantorbéry]] [[gl:Arcebispo de Canterbury]] [[ko:캔터베리 대주교]] [[ja:カンタベリー大主教]] [[no:Canterbury erkebispedømme]] [[pt:Arcebispo de Canterbury]] [[simple:Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[sv:Ärkebiskop av Canterbury]] [[zh:坎特伯里大主教]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Albion, Michigan</title> <id>2346</id> <revision> <id>28267745</id> <timestamp>2005-11-14T04:19:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>147.124.51.136</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albion''' is a city located in [[Calhoun County, Michigan\|Calhoun County]] in the south central region of [[Michigan]]. From the
the rower is generating. ''Ergometer'' comes from the [[Greek language\|Greek]] word's ''ergon'', meaning ''work'' and ''metron'', meaning ''measure''. An ergometer therefore is a device that literally means "work measurer". ==Layout of the machine== Although several simple machines exist for casual home use, there are three major models: [[RowPerfect]], [[WaterRower]] and [[Concept2]]. Of these the Concept2 is the most popular, and is generally considered the standard training option for world-class rowers. Each machine consists of a [[flywheel]] connected to a chain and handle. The rower pushes his body backwards with the legs and pulls on the handle, causing the flywheel to spin. The flywheel has a damping mechanism applied (using either air or water) that is intended to simulate the feel of an oar moving through water. Depending on the machine the rower either moves back and forth as part of the rowing action, or the rower remains stationary and the flywheel mechanism moves. The machines where the rower remains stationary are generally considered to better simulate the feel of a boat. The [[Rowbike]] is an outdoor rowing machine that is a hybrid of the Concept2 and a recumbent bicycle. Concept2 machines features a digital performance monitor that can display the athlete's work output in watts, calories, or notional "meters" that are roughly calibrated to correspond to the speed of a four-man boat on the water. The standard measurement of speed on an ergometer is generally known as the "split," or the amount of time in minutes and seconds required to travel 500 meters at the current pace. For example, a 2:00 split would correspond to a 2:00 time for a 500 meter race, or an 8:00 time for a 2 kilometer race. The split does not necessarily correspond to how many strokes the rower takes (the "rating") since strokes can vary in power. ==Competitions== Concept2 organizes a large number of indoor rowing competitions all over the world, including the world championships (a.k.a. [[CRASH-B Sprints]]) held in [[Boston, Massachusetts\|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[USA]] in February and the [[British Indoor Rowing Championships]] held in [[Birmingham]], [[England]] in November. The usual distance for competition is 2,000 m. The machines used are very consistent and although the resistance may be adjusted, a result on one machine can be fairly compared with results on other machines regardless of resistance level. The prevalence of Concept2 machines creates a standard which facilitates competition. Indoor rowing is an inclusive sport, perhaps because indoor rowing has historically been used for fitness, training and self-improvement rather than as an independent form of competition. Despite increasing competitiveness in recent years, most major competitions include many categories based on age as well as weight. While the fastest times are generally achieved by rowers between 20 and 40 years old, teenagers and rowers over 90 are common at competitions. Inexperienced rowers as well as world class athletes are welcome. The [[Rowing_World_Records#Indoor_Records\|world records]] for 2,000 m are currently (as of [[December 2005]]) 5:37.0 for men and 6:28.4 for women. [http://www.concept2.co.uk/racing/records.php Full Records For All Distances] ==External links== * [http://www.indoor-rowing.blogspot.com Indoor Rowing Blog by Xeno Muller Olympic Gold and Silver Medal Winner] [[Category:Exercise equipment]] [[Category:Rowing]] [[de:Ergometer]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>IPX</title> <id>15078</id> <revision> <id>40987831</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T08:30:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FlaBot</username> <id>228773</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: pt</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Internetwork Packet Exchange''' ('''IPX''') is the [[OSI model\|OSI-model]] [[Network layer\|Network layer ]] [[Protocol_(computing)\|protocol]] in the [[IPX/SPX]] [[protocol stack]]. The IPX/SPX protocol stack is supported by [[Novell, Inc.\|Novell]]'s [[NetWare]] [[network operating system]]. Because of Netware's popularity through the late [[1980s]] into the mid [[1990s]], IPX became a popular [[internetworking]] protocol. Novell derived IPX from [[Xerox_Network_Services]]' IDP protocol. IPX usage is in general decline as the boom of the [[Internet]] has made [[TCP/IP]] nearly universal. Computers and networks can run multiple [[network protocol]]s, so almost all IPX sites will be running TCP/IP as well to allow for Internet connectivity. It is also now possible to run Novell products without IPX, as they have supported both IPX and TCP/IP since NetWare reached version 5. ==IPX addressing== * Logical networks are assigned a unique 32-bit [[hexadecimal]] address in the range of 0x1 - 0xFFFFFFFE. * Hosts have a 48-bit node address which by default is set to the network interface card's [[MAC address]]. The node address is appended to the network address to create a unique identifier for the host on the network. ===Similarities with IP=== The IPX network address is conceptually identical to the network part of the [[IP address]] (the parts with [[netmask]] bits set to 1); the node address then has the same meaning as the bits of IP address with netmask bits set to 0. As the node address is usually identical to the MAC address of the network adapter, the [[Address Resolution Protocol]] is not needed. For [[routing]], the entries in the IPX [[routing table]] are similar to IP routing tables; routing is done by network address, and for each network address a network:node of the next router is specified in a similar fashion an IP address/netmask is specified in IP routing tables. ===IPX over Ethernet=== IPX can be transmitted over Ethernet using one of the following 4 encapsulation types: [[802.3]] (raw) is used in legacy systems and involves IPX data starting immediately after 802.3 frame header. The packet starts with Destination Ethernet Address (6 bytes), Source Ethernet Address (6 bytes), Frame Length (2 bytes) followed by IPX data. Latter always starts with two 0xFF bytes (Checksum field), and this can be used to differentiate this type of IPX encapsulation from next two types. [[802.2]] (Novell) is comprised of 802.3 frame header (destination, source, length) followed by LLC header (3 bytes - 0xE0, 0xE0, 0x03) followed by IPX data. 0xE0 fields of LLC header stand for 'Novell' protocol. [[802.2]] (SNAP) is comprised of 802.3 frame header, LLC header (3 bytes - 0xAA, 0xAA, 0x03), SNAP header (5 bytes - 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x81, 0x37) and IPX data. 0xAA fields of LLC header stand for 'SNAP' protocol. First three bytes of SNAP header are [[Organizationally Unique Identifier\|OUI]] followed by 2 bytes of IPX [[EtherType]]. [[Ethernet_II_framing\|Ethernet II]] is comprised of Ethernet II frame header (Destination, Source, [[EtherType]]) followed by IPX data. {{com-stub}} [[Category:Netware]] [[cv:IPX]] [[de:Internetwork Packet Exchange]] [[es:Internetwork Packet Exchange]] [[fr:Internetwork packet exchange]] [[he:IPX]] [[no:IPX]] [[pl:IPX]] [[pt:IPX]] [[ru:IPX]] [[zh:IPX]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>International human rights instruments</title> <id>15079</id> <revision> <id>32000535</id> <timestamp>2005-12-19T19:42:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kaliz</username> <id>542009</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''International human rights instruments''' can be classified into two categories: '''declarations''', adopted by bodies such as the [[United Nations General Assembly]], which are not legally binding although they may be politically so; and '''conventions''', which are legally binding instruments concluded under international law. International [[human rights]] instruments can be divided further into '''global instruments''', to which any state in the world can be a party, and '''regional instruments''', which are restricted to states in a particular region of the world. Most conventions establish mechanisms to oversee their implementation. In some cases these mechanisms have relatively little power, and are often ignored by member states; in other cases these mechanisms have great political and legal authority, and their decisions are almost always implemented. Examples of the first case include the UN treaty committees, while the best exemplar of the second case is the [[European Court of Human Rights]]. Mechanisms also vary as to the degree of individual access to them. Under some conventions &ndash; e.g. the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] (as it currently exists) &ndash; individuals are permitted automatically to take individual cases to the enforcement mechanisms; under most, however, (e.g. the UN conventions) individual access is contingent on the acceptance of that right by each state party, either by a declaration at the time of ratification or accession, or through ratification of or accession to a protocol to the convention. == Declarations == [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] ([[United Nations\|UN]], [[1948]]) [[American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man]] ([[Organization of American States\|OAS]], [[1948]]) == Conventions == === Global === [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] (ICCPR) [[International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights]] (ICESCR) [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] (CRC) [[United Nations Convention Against Torture\|Convention Against Torture]] (CAT) [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]] (ICERD) [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women]] (CEDAW) [[International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families]] (MWC) [[Convention on the Pre
מוגים]] [[hu:Korall tengeri-szigetek]] [[nl:Koraalzee-eilanden]] [[ja:珊瑚海諸島]] [[pl:Wyspy Morza Koralowego]] [[pt:Ilhas do Mar de Coral]] [[fi:Korallimeren saarten territorio]] [[zh:珊瑚海群岛]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coral Sea Islands/History</title> <id>5542</id> <revision> <id>15903745</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T17:05:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coral Sea Islands/Geography</title> <id>5543</id> <revision> <id>15903746</id> <timestamp>2002-08-31T08:59:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]] -- merged</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coral Sea Islands/People</title> <id>5544</id> <revision> <id>15903747</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T17:05:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coral Sea Islands/Government</title> <id>5545</id> <revision> <id>15903748</id> <timestamp>2002-08-31T08:59:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]] -- merged</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coral Sea Islands/Economy</title> <id>5546</id> <revision> <id>15903749</id> <timestamp>2002-08-30T19:18:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]] -- merged</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coral Sea Islands/Communications</title> <id>5547</id> <revision> <id>15903750</id> <timestamp>2002-08-31T08:59:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]] -- merged</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coral Sea Islands/Transportation</title> <id>5548</id> <revision> <id>15903751</id> <timestamp>2002-08-31T08:59:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]] -- merged</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coral Sea Islands/Military</title> <id>5549</id> <revision> <id>15903752</id> <timestamp>2002-08-31T08:59:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Epopt</username> <id>30</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]] -- merged</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Costa Rica</title> <id>5551</id> <revision> <id>42108890</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:59:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Header - references plural</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country \|native_name = '''República de Costa Rica''' \|common_name = Costa Rica \|image_flag = Flag of Costa Rica.svg \|image_coat = CostaRica_coa.jpg \|image_map = LocationCostaRica.png \|national_motto = <small>¡Pura vida! (unofficial){{ref\|puravida}} <br>(Popular saying translating to "Pure life!" Can be used both as a question or and exclamative answer)''</small> \|national_anthem = [[Noble patria, tu hermosa bandera]] \|official_languages = [[Spanish language\|Spanish]] (Official), ([[English language\|English]] coast) \|capital = [[San José, Costa Rica\|San José]] \|latd=9 \|latm=56 \|latNS=N \|longd=84 \|longm=5 \|longEW=W \|largest_city = [[San José, Costa Rica\|San José]] \|government_type = Democratic Republic \|leader_titles = [[President of Costa Rica\|President]] \|leader_names =[[Abel Pacheco]] \|area_rank = 125th \|area_magnitude = 1 E10 \|area= 51,100 \|areami²= 19,725 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> \|percent_water = 0.7% \|population_estimate = 4,016,173 \|population_estimate_rank = 122nd \|population_estimate_year = 2005 \|population_census = \|population_census_year = \|population_density =81.40 \|population_densitymi² = 210.8 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> \|population_density_rank = 91st \|GDP_PPP = $40.32 billion \|GDP_PPP_rank = 85th \|GDP_PPP_year= 2005 \|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $10,000 \|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 65th \|sovereignty_type = Independence \|established_events = From [[Spain]] \|established_dates = [[September 15]], [[1821]] \|HDI = 0.838 \|HDI_rank = 47th \|HDI_year = 2003 \|HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font> \|currency = [[Colón (currency)\|colón]] \|currency_code = CRC \|country_code = \|time_zone = \|utc_offset = -6 \|time_zone_DST = \|utc_offset_DST = \|cctld = [[.cr]] \|calling_code = 506 \|footnotes = }} The '''Republic of Costa Rica''' ([[Spanish language\|Spanish]]: ''República de Costa Rica'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet\|IPA]]: {{IPA\|[re'puβlika ðe 'kosta 'rika]}}) is a country in [[Central America]], bordered by [[Nicaragua]] to the north, [[Panama]] to the south-southeast, the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the west and south, and the [[Caribbean Sea]] to the east. Costa Rica was the first country in the world to constitutionally [[Military of Costa Rica\|abolish its army]]. ==History of Costa Rica== {{main\|History of Costa Rica}} In [[Pre-Columbian]] times the [[Native American (Americas)\|Native American]]s in what is now [[Costa Rica]] were part of the [[Intermediate Area]] located between the [[Mesoamerican]] and [[Andean]] cultural regions. This has recently been redefined to include the [[Isthmo-Colombian]] area, defined by the presence of groups that spoke [[Chibchan languages]]. These groups are also believed to have created the [[Stone spheres of Costa Rica]], between [[200 BC]] and AD [[1600]]. [[image:NicoyaCeramics.jpg\|thumb\|left\|140px\|Pre-Columbian Ceramics from Nicoya, Costa Rica]]The native people of the [[Mayans]] and [[Aztecs]] were conquered by [[Spain]] in the [[16th century]]. Costa Rica was then the southernmost province in the Spanish territory of [[New Spain]]. The provincial capital was in [[Cartago, Costa Rica\|Cartago]]. After briefly joining the Mexican Empire of [[Agustín de Iturbide]] (''see:'' [[History of Mexico]] and [[Mexican Empire]]), Costa Rica became a state in the [[United Provinces of Central America]] (''see:'' [[History of Central America]]) from [[1823]] to [[1839]]. In [[1824]], the capital moved to [[San José, Costa Rica\|San José]]. From the [[1840s]] on, Costa Rica was an independent nation. Costa Rica has avoided the violence that has plagued Central America; it is seen as an example of political stability in the region, and is referred to as the "[[Switzerland]] of the [[Americas]]". Since the late [[19th century]] only two brief periods of violence have marred its democratic development. In [[1949]], [[José Figueres Ferrer]] abolished the [[army]]; and since then Costa Rica has been one of the few countries to operate within the democratic system without the assistance of a military. Costa Rica (Spanish for "Rich Coast"), although still a largely agricultural country, has achieved a relatively high standard of living. Land ownership is widespread and [[Electronics]] is a rapidly expanding industry. ==Geography== [[Image:Costa Rica fishing boat.jpg\|thumb\|left\|140px\|''Rich Coast:'' fishermen set sail near Quepos, on the Pacific coast.]] Costa Rica is located on the [[Central America]]n [[isthmus]], 10° North of the [[equator]] and 84° West of the [[Prime Meridian]]. It borders both the [[Caribbean Sea]] (to the east) and the [[Pacific Ocean\|North Pacific Ocean]] (to the west), with a total of 1,290 kilometres (802&nbsp;[[mile\|mi]]) of coastline (212&nbsp;km / 132&nbsp;mi on the Caribbean coast and 1,016&nbsp;km / 631&nbsp;mi on the Pacific). Costa Rica also borders [[Nicaragua]] to the north (309&nbsp;km / 192&nbsp;mi of border) and [[Panama]] to the south-southeast (639&nbsp;km / 397&nbsp;mi of border). In total, Costa Rica comprises 51,100 square kilometers (19,730 [[square mile\|sq.&nbsp;mi]]), of which 50,610 square kilometers (19,540&nbsp;sq.&nbsp;mi) is land and 440 square kilometers (170&nbsp;sq.&nbsp;mi) is water, making it slightly smaller than the [[U.S. state]] of [[West Virginia]] and about half the size of [[Ireland]]. The highest point in the country is [[Cerro Chirripo]], with 3,810 [[metre]]s (12,500 [[foot (unit of length)\|ft]]), the second highest peak in Central America, after [[Volcan Tajumulco]] in [[Guatemala]]. The highest volcano in the country is the [[Irazú\|Irazú Volcano]] (3,431&nbsp;m or 11,257&nbsp;ft). Costa Rica also comprises several islands. [[Cocos Island]] stands out because of its distance from continental landmass (24&nbsp;km² or 9.25&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi, 500&nbsp;km or 310&nbsp;mi from [[Puntarenas]] coast), but [[Calero Island]] is the biggest island of the country (151.6&nbsp;km² or 58.5&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi).
[[Canary Islands]] are located in the North Atlantic Ocean; [[Plaza de soberanía\|''plazas de soberanía'' (exclaves)]] are located on the [[Africa]]n mainland.<br> <sup>10</sup> Turkey has [[Transcontinental nation\|territory in Europe]] west and north of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles.<br> ====Dependent territories==== The European territories listed below are recognised as being culturally and geographically defined. Most have a degree of autonomy. In the list below, each territory is followed by its legal status. [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]] ([[UK sovereign base]]s; located in Cyprus) [[Guernsey]] ([[British crown dependency]]) [[Jersey]] (British crown dependency) [[Faroe Islands]] (self-governing territory of Denmark) [[Gibraltar]] ([[British overseas territory]]) [[Isle of Man]] (British crown dependency) [[Svalbard]] (under Norwegian sovereignty through [[Svalbard Treaty]]) Note that this is not a list of all dependencies of all European countries. Dependencies located in other continents are listed elsewhere. ====Autonomous territories==== [[Åland\|Aland Islands]] (autonomous region of Finland) [[Azores]] (semi-autonomous region of Portugal) ====Unilaterally seceded territories==== Following are breakaway regions of independent states. These regions have declared, and ''[[de facto]]'' [[List of unrecognized countries\|achieved]], independence; however, they are not recognised ''[[de jure]]'' by other independent states. [[Abkhazia]] (from Georgia) [[South Ossetia]] (from Georgia) [[Transnistria]] (from Moldova) [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] (from Azerbaijan; recognised only by Armenia) [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (from Cyprus; recognised only by Turkey) ====Territories under [[United Nations]] administration==== *[[Kosovo\|Kosovo and Metohia]] (province of [[Serbia]], administrated by [[UNMIK]] as per [[Security Council]] [[resolution 1244]]) ====Table of territories and regions==== <!--{{editnote \| NOTE: The countries in this table are categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated. If you have arguments or evidence to the contrary, please provide them on the talk page and await until the consensus supports making proposed edits. Thank you!--> {\| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse" \|- bgcolor="#ECECEC" ! Name of territory,<br>with [[flag]] ! [[List of countries by area\|Area]]<br>(km&sup2;) ! [[List of countries by population\|Population]]<br>([[1 July]] [[2002]] est.) ! [[List of countries by population density\|Population density]]<br>(per km&sup2;) ! [[Capital]] \|- \| colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" \| '''[[Eastern Europe]]:'''{{ref\|region}} \|- \| {{flagicon\|Belarus}} [[Belarus]] \| align="right" \| 207,600 \| align="right" \| 10,335,382 \| align="right" \| 49.8 \| [[Minsk]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Bulgaria}} [[Bulgaria]] \| align="right" \| 110,910 \| align="right" \| 7,621,337 \| align="right" \| 68.7 \| [[Sofia]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Czech Republic}} [[Czech Republic]] \| align="right" \| 78,866 \| align="right" \| 10,256,760 \| align="right" \| 130.1 \| [[Prague]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Hungary}} [[Hungary]] \| align="right" \| 93,030 \| align="right" \| 10,075,034 \| align="right" \| 108.3 \| [[Budapest]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Moldova}} [[Moldova]] \| align="right" \| 33,843 \| align="right" \| 4,434,547 \| align="right" \| 131.0 \| [[Chisinau]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Poland}} [[Poland]] \| align="right" \| 312,685 \| align="right" \| 38,625,478 \| align="right" \| 123.5 \| [[Warsaw]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Romania}} [[Romania]] \| align="right" \| 238,391 \| align="right" \| 21,698,181 \| align="right" \| 91.0 \| [[Bucharest]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Russia}} [[Russia]]{{ref\|Russia}} \| align="right" \| 3,960,000 \| align="right" \| 106,037,143 \| align="right" \| 26.8 \| [[Moscow]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Slovakia}} [[Slovakia]] \| align="right" \| 48,845 \| align="right" \| 5,422,366 \| align="right" \| 111.0 \| [[Bratislava]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Ukraine}} [[Ukraine]] \| align="right" \| 603,700 \| align="right" \| 48,396,470 \| align="right" \| 80.2 \| [[Kyiv]] \|- \| colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" \| '''[[Northern Europe]]:''' \|- \| {{flagicon\|Denmark}} [[Denmark]] \| align="right" \| 43,094 \| align="right" \| 5,368,854 \| align="right" \| 124.6 \| [[Copenhagen]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Estonia}} [[Estonia]] \| align="right" \| 45,226 \| align="right" \| 1,415,681 \| align="right" \| 31.3 \| [[Tallinn]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Faroe Islands}} [[Faroe Islands]] ([[Denmark]]) \| align="right" \| 1,399 \| align="right" \| 46,011 \| align="right" \| 32.9 \| [[Tórshavn]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Finland}} [[Finland]] \| align="right" \| 337,030 \| align="right" \| 5,183,545 \| align="right" \| 15.4 \| [[Helsinki]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Guernsey}} [[Guernsey]]{{ref\|Crown}} \| align="right" \| 78 \| align="right" \| 64,587 \| align="right" \| 828.0 \| [[St Peter Port]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Iceland}} [[Iceland]] \| align="right" \| 103,000 \| align="right" \| 279,384 \| align="right" \| 2.7 \| [[Reykjavík]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Ireland}} [[Republic of Ireland\|Ireland]] \| align="right" \| 70,280 \| align="right" \| 3,883,159 \| align="right" \| 55.3 \| [[Dublin]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Isle of Man}} [[Isle of Man]]{{ref\|Crown}} \| align="right" \| 572 \| align="right" \| 73,873 \| align="right" \| 129.1 \| [[Douglas, Isle of Man\|Douglas]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Jersey}} [[Jersey]]{{ref\|Crown}} \| align="right" \| 116 \| align="right" \| 89,775 \| align="right" \| 773.9 \| [[Saint Helier]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Latvia}} [[Latvia]] \| align="right" \| 64,589 \| align="right" \| 2,366,515 \| align="right" \| 36.6 \| [[Riga]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Lithuania}} [[Lithuania]] \| align="right" \| 65,200 \| align="right" \| 3,601,138 \| align="right" \| 55.2 \| [[Vilnius]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Norway}} [[Norway]] \| align="right" \| 324,220 \| align="right" \| 4,525,116 \| align="right" \| 14.0 \| [[Oslo]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Norway}} [[Svalbard and Jan Mayen\|Svalbard and Jan<br>Mayen Islands]] ([[Norway]]) \| align="right" \| 62,049 \| align="right" \| 2,868 \| align="right" \| 0.046 \| [[Longyearbyen]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Sweden}} [[Sweden]] \| align="right" \| 449,964 \| align="right" \| 8,876,744 \| align="right" \| 19.7 \| [[Stockholm]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom]] \| align="right" \| 244,820 \| align="right" \| 59,778,002 \| align="right" \| 244.2 \| [[London]] \|- \| colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" \| '''[[Southern Europe]]:''' \|- \| {{flagicon\|Albania}} [[Albania]] \| align="right" \| 28,748 \| align="right" \| 3,544,841 \| align="right" \| 123.3 \| [[Tirana]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Andorra}} [[Andorra]] \| align="right" \| 468 \| align="right" \| 68,403 \| align="right" \| 146.2 \| [[Andorra la Vella]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Bosnia and Herzegovina}} [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] \| align="right" \| 51,129 \| align="right" \| 3,964,388 \| align="right" \| 77.5 \| [[Sarajevo]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Croatia}} [[Croatia]] \| align="right" \| 56,542 \| align="right" \| 4,390,751 \| align="right" \| 77.7 \| [[Zagreb]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Gibraltar}} [[Gibraltar]] ([[United Kingdom\|UK]]) \| align="right" \| 5.9 \| align="right" \| 27,714 \| align="right" \| 4,697.3 \| [[Gibraltar]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Greece}} [[Greece]] \| align="right" \| 131,940 \| align="right" \| 10,645,343 \| align="right" \| 80.7 \| [[Athens]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Italy}} [[Italy]] \| align="right" \| 301,230 \| align="right" \| 57,715,625 \| align="right" \| 191.6 \| [[Rome]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Macedonia}} [[Republic of Macedonia\|Macedonia]] \| align="right" \| 25,333 \| align="right" \| 2,054,800 \| align="right" \| 81.1 \| [[Skopje]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Malta}} [[Malta]] \| align="right" \| 316 \| align="right" \| 397,499 \| align="right" \| 1,257.9 \| [[Valletta]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Portugal}} [[Portugal]]{{ref\|Portugal}} \| align="right" \| 91,568 \| align="right" \| 10,084,245 \| align="right" \| 110.1 \| [[Lisbon]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|San Marino}} [[San Marino]] \| align="right" \| 61 \| align="right" \| 27,730 \| align="right" \| 454.6 \| [[San Marino, San Marino\|San Marino]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Serbia and Montenegro}} [[Serbia and Montenegro]] \| align="right" \| 102,173 \| align="right" \| 10,280,000 \| align="right" \| 100.6 \| [[Belgrade]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Slovenia}} [[Slovenia]] \| align="right" \| 20,273 \| align="right" \| 1,932,917 \| align="right" \| 95.3 \| [[Ljubljana]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Spain}} [[Spain]]{{ref\|Spain}} \| align="right" \| 498,506 \| align="right" \| 40,077,100 \| align="right" \| 80.4 \| [[Madrid]] \|- \| {{flagicon\|Vatican City}} [[Vatican City]] \| align="right" \| 0.44 \| align="right" \| 900 \| align="right" \| 2,045.5 \| [[Vatican City]] \|- \| colspan=5 style="background:#eee;" \| '''[[Western Europe]]:''' \|- \| {{flagicon\|Austria}} [[Austria]] \| align="
. However, the Scottish counterpart, the [[Act of Security]], merely prohibited a Roman Catholic successor, leaving open the possibility that the crowns would diverge. Rather than risk the possible return of James Francis Edward Stuart, then living in France, the English parliament pressed for full union of the two countries. In [[1707]], despite much opposition in Scotland, the Treaty of Union was concluded. The treaty, which became the [[Act of Union 1707]], confirmed the [[House of Hanover\|Hanoverian]] succession. It abolished both the Parliaments of England and Scotland, and established the Parliament of Great Britain. Scotland was to have 45 seats in the [[House of Commons]], and a representation in the [[House of Lords]]. The act also created a common citizenship, giving Scots free access to English markets. The position of the [[Church of Scotland]] and separate Scottish law and courts was also enshrined. This union was highly controversial among Scots, and increasingly so as the hoped-for economic revival was not immediately forthcoming. When it did come, in the second half of the century, it was Lowland Scotland that received the benefits. [[Jacobitism]], however, was not yet a spent force. Indeed it was revived by the unpopularity of the union. In [[1708]] James Francis Edward Stuart attempted an invasion with a French fleet, but the Royal Navy prevented any from landing. A more serious attempt occurred in [[1715]]. This rising (known as ''The 'Fifteen'') envisaged simultaneous uprisings in [[Wales]], [[Devon]] and Scotland. However, government arrests forestalled the southern ventures. In Scotland, John Erskine, [[Earl of Mar]], nicknamed ''Bobbin' John'', raised the Jacobite clans and led them bravely but indecisively. Mar captured [[Perth, Scotland\|Perth]], but let a smaller government force under the [[John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll\|Duke of Argyll]] hold the [[Stirling]] plain. Part of Mar's army joined up with risings in northern England and southern Scotland, and the Jacobites fought their way into England before being defeated at the [[Battle of Preston (1715)\|Battle of Preston]], surrendering on [[14 November]] [[1715]]. The day before, Mar failed to defeat Argyll at the Battle of Sheriffmuir. At this point, James belatedly landed in Scotland, but was advised that the cause was hopeless. He fled back to France. An attempted Jacobite invasion with Spanish assistance in [[1719]] met with little support from the clans and ended at the [[Battle of Glen Shiel]]. In [[1745]] the Jacobite rising known as ''The 'Forty-Five'' began. [[Charles Edward Stuart]], known to history as ''Bonnie Prince Charlie'' or the ''Young Pretender'', son of the ''Old Pretender'', landed on the island of [[Eriskay]] in the [[Outer Hebrides]]. Several clans unenthusiastically joined him. At the outset he was successful, taking [[Edinburgh]] and then defeating the only government army in Scotland at the [[Battle of Prestonpans]]. They marched into England and got as far as [[Derby]]. Then it became evident that, as unpopular as the Hanoverians were, England would not support a Roman Catholic Stuart monarch. The Jacobite leadership had a crisis of confidence and retreated to Scotland. The [[Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland\|Duke of Cumberland]] crushed the ''"Forty-Five"'' and the hopes of the Jacobites at the [[Battle of Culloden]] on [[April 16th]] [[1746]]. Charles hid in Scotland with the aid of Highlanders until September [[1746]], when he escaped back to France with the help of [[Flora Macdonald]]. France expelled him in accordance with the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]] ([[1748]]). He died a broken man, and his cause died with him. ==Industrial Revolution, Clearance, and Enlightenment== After 1745, British authorities acted to suppress the clan loyalties in the [[Scottish Highlands\|Highlands]]. The wearing of tartan and the playing of bagpipes were both forbidden for a time. The warrior culture of the Highlands was re-diverted as Highlanders were recruited as soldiers to serve in the wider [[British Empire]]. Clan Chiefs were encouraged to consider themselves as owners of the land in their control, in the English manner - it was previously considered common to the clan. As these new landowners converted land to more profitable sheep pasture, many were dispossessed, some even faced forcible removal. In what became known as the "[[Highland Clearances]]", the population fell significantly. Large numbers of Highlanders relocated to the lowland cities, becoming the labour force for the emerging [[industrial revolution]], many emigrated to other parts of the [[British Empire]], particularly [[Nova Scotia]], the Eastern Townships of [[Quebec]], and [[Upper Canada]] (later known as [[Ontario]]). At the same time, the [[Scottish Agricultural Revolution]] changed the face of the [[Scottish Lowlands]] and transformed the traditional system of subsistence farming into a stable and productive agricultural system. This also had effects on population and precipitated a migration of Lowlanders, now recognised as the "[[Lowland Clearances]]". [[Image:Adam Smith.jpg\|thumb\|180px\|left\|Scots contributed to culture and science with such visionaries as the father of modern [[Economics]], [[Adam Smith]].]] Internationally, Scotland's fate was tied to that of the United Kingdom as a whole. Shortly after Culloden, Britain successfully fought the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756 &ndash; 1763), demonstrating its rising significance as a great power. As a partner in the new Britain, Scotland began to flourish in ways that she never had as an independent nation. As the memory of the Jacobite rebellion faded away, the [[1770s]] and [[1780s\|80s]] saw the repeal of much of the draconian laws passed earlier. Most were repealed by [[1792]] as the [[Episcopalian]] and [[Catholic]] clergy no longer refused to pray for the reigning monarch, although [[Unitarian]]s were still affected. Economically, [[Glasgow]] and [[Edinburgh]] began to grow at a tremendous rate at the end of the 18th century. The Scottish Renaissance was one of philosophy and science. The [[Scottish Enlightenment]] involved names such as [[Adam Smith]], [[David Hume]] and [[James Boswell]]. Scientific progress was led by [[James Hutton]] and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]] and [[James Watt]] (instrument maker to the [[University of Glasgow]]). Pre-eminent in contemporary literature were [[Robert Burns]], an Ayrshire poet, and [[Walter Scott\|Sir Walter Scott]], a prolific writer of ballads, poems and the historical novels. His romantic portrayals of Scottish life in centuries past still continue to have a disproportionate effect on the public perception of "authentic Scottish culture," and the pageantry he organised for the [[Visit of King George IV to Scotland]] made [[tartan]] and [[kilt]]s into national symbols. [[George MacDonald]] also influenced views of Scotland in the latter parts of the 19th century. As the 19th century wore on, Lowland Scotland turned more and more towards heavy industry. Glasgow and [[River Clyde]] became a major ship-building centre. Glasgow became one of the largest cities in the world, and known as "the Second City of Empire" after [[London]]. ==20th Century Scotland== [[Image:Wfm glasgow school of art.jpg\|thumb\|right\|240px\|[[Charles Rennie Mackintosh]] gained international [[architecture\|architectural]] fame with his [[1909]] design of the [[Glasgow School of Art]] building.]] Tied as it was to the health of the [[British Empire]], Scotland suffered after the [[World War I\|First World War]] as it had gained beforehand. In the Highlands, which had provided a disproportionate number of recruits for the army, a whole generation of young men were lost, and many villages and communities suffered greatly. In the Lowlands, particularly Glasgow, poor working and living conditions led to industrial and political unrest. [[John MacLean]] became a key political figure in what became known as [[Red Clydeside]], and in January [[1919]], the British Government, fearful of a revolutionary uprising, deployed tanks and soldiers in central Glasgow. During the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]], due to global depression and foreign competition, [[Glasgow]] and [[Clydebank]] experienced high unemployment. In [[World War II\|Second World War]] naval bases and infrastructure in Scotland were primary German targets. Attacks on [[Scapa Flow]] and [[Rosyth]] gave RAF fighters their first successes downing bombers in [[Firth of Forth]] and [[East Lothian]]. The shipyards and heavy engineering factories in [[Glasgow]] and Clydeside played a key part in the war effort, and suffered attacks from the [[Luftwaffe]]. [[Clydebank]] endured great destruction and loss of life. The [[Scottish Highlands\|Highlands]] again provided a large number of troops for the war effort. Commandos and resistance fighters received training in the harsh conditions of the [[Lochaber]] mountains. As transatlantic voyages involved negotiating the north-west, Scotland played a key part in the battle of the [[North Atlantic]]. As in World War I, [[Scapa Flow]] in [[Orkney]] served as an important [[Royal Navy]] base. [[Shetland]]'s relative proximity to occupied [[Norway]], resulted in the [[Shetland Bus]] &mdash; fishing boats helping Norwegians flee the [[Nazis]], and expeditions across the [[North Sea]] to assist resistance. Perhaps Scotland's most bizarre wartime episode occurred in [[1941]] when [[Rudolf Hess]] flew to Renfrewshire, possibly to broker a peace deal through the [[Duke of Hamilton]]. [[Image:Qe2.750pix.jpg\|thumb\|240px\|right\|[[Clydeside]] built ships for [[World War II]] and later pleasure, launching the [[RMS Queen Elizabeth 2\|QE2]] in [[1967]].]] After World War II, Scotland's economic situation became progressively worse due to overseas competition, inefficient industry, and industrial disputes. This
ches over human activity, but with the evil purpose of searching out men's sins and appearing as their accuser. He is, therefore, the celestial prosecutor, who sees only iniquity; for he persists in his evil opinion of Job even after the man of Uz has passed successfully through his first trial by surrendering to the will of God, whereupon Satan demands another test through physical suffering (''Job'' 2:3-5). Satan challenges God by saying that Job's belief is only built upon what material goods he is given, and that his faith will disappear as soon as they are taken from him. And God accepts the challenge. But recall that this entire story about "the adversary" occurs in the (very short) framing story alone, and is never alluded to in the (very long) central poem at all. Many conjecture that the framing prose was written by a different author, and from a different theological point of view, than the central poem. ==External links== [[Judaism\|Jewish]] translations: * [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15772 Iyov - Job (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org [[Christian]] translations: * [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/18_job.htm Job at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version) {{biblegateway\|\|Job}} [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible,_King_James,_Job Job at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version) Other translations: * [http://intermix.org/job The Trial of Job] (translation as drama with hyperlinked notes) ** [http://www.jobthemusical.co.uk The Book Of Job The Musical] (translation as musical) Related articles: [http://jmm.aaa.net.au/articles/4801.htm ''Carl Jung's Answer to Job Essay'':] Carl Jung's Answer to Job Essay [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=331&letter=J ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':] Job; ''Book of Job'' [http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd.html ''Easton's Bible Dictionary,'' 1897]: Job; ''Book of Job'' [http://willamette.edu/~blong/BookJob.html "Short Articles on the Book of Job"]: Bill Long [http://www.bookofjob.org "Putting God on Trial- The Biblical Book of Job"] by Robert Sutherland A complete online commentary. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08413a.htm Job at the Catholic Encyclopedia] [[Category:Ketuvim\|Job, Book of]] [[Category:Old Testament books\|Job]] [[cs:Kniha Jób]] [[de:Ijob (Buch)]] [[eo:Ijob]] [[fr:Livre de Job]] [[he:ספר איוב]] [[id:Kitab Ayub]] [[nl:Job]] [[ja:ヨブ記]] [[pl:Księga Hioba]] [[pt:Livro de Jó]] [[sr:Књига о Јову]] [[fi:Jobin kirja]] [[sv:Job]] [[zh:约伯记]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Browser</title> <id>4387</id> <revision> <id>22745834</id> <timestamp>2005-09-07T03:16:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Reinyday</username> <id>100726</id> </contributor> <comment>link addition</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">''Note: Browse and Browsing redirect here.'' '''Browser''' can refer to: * '''Browser''' - a type of [[herbivore]] whose nutrition generally comes from high growing plants, like trees, rather than a [[graze]]r that eats from the ground. [[Deer]] and [[goat]]s are domesticated browsers, and [[elephant]]s and [[giraffe]]s are wild browsers. * A [[shopping]] browser, someone who is only looking with no definite intent to buy. Such a person could be window shopping, meaning outside of the [[retailer\|shop]], or inside, just "looking around". * [[Code browser]] - an application used to access code units (e.g., [[class (computer science)\|class]]es and [[Method (computer science)\|method]]s) in a [[computer program]] * [[File browser]] - an application used to access information on a [[file system]] * [[Help browser]] - an application used to access help information, typically within an [[operating system]] * [[Web browser]] - an application used to access information on the [[World Wide Web]] {{disambig}} [[de:Browser]] [[nl:Browser]] [[ja:&#12502;&#12521;&#12454;&#12470;]] [[vi:Trình duy&#7879;t web]] [[simple:Browser]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Book of Proverbs</title> <id>4388</id> <revision> <id>42031136</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:14:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fivetrees</username> <id>136093</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}} {{Books of Ketuvim}} The '''Book of Proverbs''' is a book of the [[Tanakh]]/[[Old Testament]]. It is a collection of moral and philosophical [[maxim (saying)\|maxim]]s on a wide range of subjects presented in a poetic form. This book sets forth a philosophy of practical life, and is a compilation and adaptation of common sayings. It is clear that the author of the book gathered and recast many [[proverb]]s which sprang from human experience in preceding ages and were floating past him on the tide of time, and that he also elaborated many new ones from the material of his own experience. And it is very possible that the book of Proverbs developed somewhat over time, with latter editors adding sayings as they went along. This book is usually divided into three parts: #ch. 1 &ndash; 9, which contain an exhibition of [[wisdom]] as the highest good. #ch. 10 &ndash; 24, a collection of "the proverbs of [[Solomon]]" #ch. 25 &ndash; 29, another collection of "proverbs of Solomon which the men of [[Hezekiah]] king of [[Kingdom of Judah\|Judah]] copied" These are followed by three supplements #"The words of Agur" (ch. 30); and #"The words to king Lemuel" (ch. 31,1&ndash;9). #The praise of the good wife, [[Eishes Chayil]] (ch. 31,10&ndash;31) The tradition ascribing some proverbs to Solomon, described as "without valid foundation" in the ''Jewish Encyclopedia,'' 1901-06, continued nevertheless to be uncritically accepted among many Christians, who aver that Solomon is said to have written three thousand proverbs, and those contained in this book may be a selection from these ([[Books of Kings\|1 Kings]] 4:32). [[Jew]]ish tradition attributes the entire book to "the men of Hezekiah", as attested by the word "too" in the verse, "these ''too'' are the proverbs of Solomon which" etc. (25:1). (Source: Babylonian [[Talmud]], tractate Bava Bathra 15a). In the [[New Testament]] there are thirty-five direct quotations from this book or allusions to it. Quotes: `I am Wisdom, I am better than jewels, Nothing you want can compare with me.(8:11) ==External links== [[Judaism\|Jewish]] translations: * [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15771 Mishlei - Proverbs (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org [[Christian]] translations: * [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/20_proverbs.htm Proverbs at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version) ** [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&version=NIV&passage=proverbs Proverbs at Bible Gateway] (Various versions) Related articles: * [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=565&letter=P ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':] Proverbs, with dates of compilation and manuscript traditions * [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp Proverbs from the Biblical Resource Database] ----- {{eastons}} [[Category:Ketuvim\|Proverbs, Book of]] [[Category:Old Testament books\|Proverbs]] [[ang:Cwidbóc]] [[de:Buch der Sprichwörter]] [[fr:Livre des Proverbes]] [[ko:잠언]] [[id:Amsal]] [[it:Libro dei proverbi]] [[he:משלי]] [[jv:Wulang Bebasan]] [[nl:Spreuken]] [[ja:箴言]] [[pl:Księga Przysłów]] [[fi:Sananlaskujen kirja]] [[sv:Ordspråksboken]] [[zh:箴言]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Book of Lamentations</title> <id>4389</id> <revision> <id>39926059</id> <timestamp>2006-02-16T21:45:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>66.92.67.96</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">''For the musical setting of verses from Lamentations, see [[Lamentations (music)]]. '' {{Books of the Old Testament}} {{Books of Ketuvim}} The '''Book of Lamentations''' ([[Hebrew language\|Hebrew]] &#1502;&#1490;&#1497;&#1500;&#1514; &#1488;&#1497;&#1499;&#1492;) is a book of the [[Bible]] [[Old Testament]] and [[Judaism\|Jewish]] [[Tanakh]]. It is called in the Hebrew canon '' 'Ekhah,'' meaning "How," being the formula for the commencement of a song of wailing. It is the first word of the book (see 2 Sam. 1:19-27). The [[Septuagint]] adopted the name rendered "Lamentations" (Greek ''threnoi'' = Hebrew ''qinoth'') now in common use, to denote the character of the book, in which the prophet mourns over the desolations brought on Jerusalem and the Holy Land by the Chaldeans. In the Hebrew Bible it is placed among the [[Ketuvim]], the ''Writings''. According to tradition, authorship is assigned to the [[Prophet]] [[Jeremiah (prophet)\|Jeremiah]], who was a court official during the conquest of [[Jerusalem]] by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon\|Nebuchadnezzar]], when the [[Temple in Jerusalem\|First Temple]] was destroyed and [[Jehoiachin\|King Jehoiachin]] was taken prisoner (cf. Is 38 ff and Is 52). In the [[Septuagint]] and the [[Vulgate]] the Lamentations are placed directly after the Prophet. It is said that he retired to a cavern outside the Damascus gate, where he wrote this book. That cavern is still pointed out. "In the face of a rocky hill, on the western side of the city, the local belief has placed 'the grotto of Jeremiah.' There, in that fixed attitude of grief which Michael Angelo has immortalized, the prophet may well be supposed to have mourned the fall of his country" (Stanley, Jewish Church). However, the strict acrostic style of four of the five poems is not found at all in the [[Book of Jeremiah]] itself, and authorship of the Prop
</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cerebral Spinal Fluid</title> <id>5677</id> <revision> <id>15903876</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cerebrospinal fluid]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christian Democratic Union</title> <id>5678</id> <revision> <id>23473263</id> <timestamp>2005-09-18T18:18:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>The Tom</username> <id>12499</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Christian Social Union of Bavaria</title> <id>5679</id> <revision> <id>41090394</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:02:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sesel</username> <id>51623</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_German_Political_Party \| party_name = Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern \| party_logo = [[Image:CSU-Logo 1998.jpg\|170px\|CSU logo]] \| party_wikicolourid = CSU \| leader = [[Edmund Stoiber]] \| foundation = [[1945]] \| ideology = [[Christian Democracy]], [[Conservatism]] \| international = [[Christian Democrat and People's Parties International]] and [[International Democrat Union]]\| european = [[European People's Party]] and [[European Democrat Union]] \| europarl = [[European People's Party - European Democrats\|EPP-ED]] \| colours = [[Blue]]\| headquarters = Franz Josef Strauß-Haus<br>Nymphenburger Str. 64<br>80335 [[München]] \| website = [http://www.csu.de http://www.csu.de] }} The '''Christian Social Union of Bavaria''' ('''CSU''' &ndash; ''Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern e.V.'') is a [[Political conservatism\|conservative]] [[political party]] in [[Germany]]. It operates exclusively in the state of [[Bavaria]], while its sister party [[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany\|CDU]] operates in the rest of the country. Only in [[1957]] in the state of [[Saarland]] (in the first election after it had rejoined Germany) did the CSU run against CDU candidates, but this section of the CSU later merged with the CDU. On the federal level, the CSU is often perceived as the more socially conservative of the two parties, although recently it has also been seen as more leftist on economic issues than the CDU. At times, especially when the CDU showed weaknesses, there has been considerable tension up to threats to break up the cooperation. Most of the time, however, they work together very closely. The CSU has led the Bavarian state government practically since it came into existence, and without the need for a coalition government for most of the time. This level of dominance is unique in post-war Germany. On the federal level, it forms a common faction in the ''[[Bundestag]]'' (Federal Parliament) with the CDU. [[Edmund Stoiber]] took over the CSU chairmanship early in 1999. He ran for [[chancellor]] in [[2002]], but lost. In [[2003]] the CSU was [[Bavaria state election, 2003\|re-elected]] as the Bavarian government with an overall majority. [[Franz Josef Strauß]] ([[1915]]-[[1988]]) is seen as having set the ideological basis of the party, although he was too young to be a founding leader of the party, which began as a continuation of the Weimar-era [[Bavarian People's Party]]. ==Chairmen of the Christian Social Union, 1946-present== [[Josef Müller]] 1946-1949 [[Hans Ehard]] 1949-1955 [[Hanns Seidel]] 1955-1961 [[Franz Josef Strauß]] 1961-1988 [[Theodor Waigel]] 1988-1999 [[Edmund Stoiber]] 1999- ==See also== [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany]] [[Politics of Germany]] ''[[Bundestag]]'' (Federal Assembly of Germany) ==External links== [http://www.csu.de/ Christlich-Soziale Union] - Official site ([http://www.csu.de/home/Display/Fremdsprachen/englisch English page]) [[Category:Catholic political parties]] [[Category:Political parties in Germany]] [[Category:International Democrat Union]] [[Category:1945 establishments]] [[da:CSU]] [[de:Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern]] [[es:Unión Social Cristiana de Baviera]] [[fr:Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern]] [[id:Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern]] [[nl:Christlich-Soziale Union]] [[ja:キリスト教社会同盟]] [[no:Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern]] [[nn:CSU]] [[pl:Unia Chrześcijańsko-Społeczna (CSU)]] [[pt:Christlich-Soziale Union]] [[ro:Uniunea Creştin-Socială din Bavaria]] [[ru:Христианско-социальный союз]] [[sh:CSU]] [[sv:CSU]] [[zh:拜恩基督教社会联盟]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>CEO</title> <id>5680</id> <revision> <id>15903879</id> <timestamp>2003-05-15T03:20:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[chief executive officer]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Corporate title</title> <id>5681</id> <revision> <id>41038541</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:33:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Aguerriero</username> <id>305478</id> </contributor> <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links\|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom\|Corporate officer}} Publicly and privately held for-profit [[corporation]]s confer '''corporate titles''' or '''business titles''' on company officials as a means of identifying their function in the organization. In addition, many [[non-profit]] organizations, educational institutions, [[partnership]]s, and [[sole proprietorship]]s also confer corporate titles. This is a quick reference summary for many high level titles used by [[United States\|American]] corporations. Other countries often use similar titles for corporate executives. * Chair or [[Chairman]] or Chairman of the Board &ndash; presiding officer of the corporate [[Board of Directors]]; the ''Chairman'' may also concurrently hold the titles of ''CEO'' and/or ''President''. * [[Chief executive officer\|Chief Executive Officer]] or CEO ([[United States]]), or [[Managing director]] ([[United Kingdom]], [[Commonwealth]] and some other English speaking countries) &ndash; highest ranking management officer of a corporation with final authority over the daily operation of the company; reports to (and is often a member of) the Board of Directors. * [[Chief Financial Officer]] or CFO &ndash; high level corporate officer with oversight of corporate finances; reports to the ''CEO''; may concurrently hold the title of ''Treasurer''. * [[Chief Marketing Officer]] or CMO. * [[Chief Business Development Officer]] or CBDO. * [[Chief analytics officer\|Chief Analytics Officer]] or CAO &ndash; high level corporate manager with overall responsibility for the analysis and interpretation of data relevant to a company's activities; generally reports to the ''CEO'', or ''COO''. * [[Chief Information Officer]] or CIO &ndash; high level corporate manager with overall responsibility for the company's information resources and processing environment; generally reports to the ''CEO'', ''CFO'', or ''COO''. * [[Chief Networking Officer]] or CNO &ndash; responsible for the [[social capital]] within the company and between the company and its partners * [[Chief Information Security Officer]] or CISO. * [[Chief operating officer\|Chief Operating Officer]] or COO &ndash; high level corporate officer with responsibility for the daily operation of the company; reports to the ''CEO''. * [[Director of Operations]] or DOO &ndash; less-frequently used synonym for COO. * [[Chief technical officer\|Chief Technical Officer]] or CTO &ndash; (sometimes Chief Technology Officer) high level corporate officer responsibile for the company's technical direction; in non-technology companies usually reports to the ''CIO'' but in technology companies, may report directly to the ''CEO''. * [[Chief Knowledge Officer]] or CKO &ndash; high level corporate officer responsible for ensuring that the organization maximizes the value it achieves through "knowledge". * [[Chief Security Officer]] or CSO. * [[Chief Strategy Officer]] or CSO. * [[Chief Risk Officer]] or CRO. * [[Chief Credit Officer]] or CCO. * Director or Member of the [[Board of Directors]] - a high level official with a fiduciary responsibility of overseeing the operation of a corporation; nominally, ''Directors'', other than the ''Chairman'' are usually not considered to be employees of the company ''per se'', although they generally receive compensation, often including benefits; in publicly-held companies, the ''Board of Directors'' is normally made up of members (''Directors'') who are comprised of a mixture of corporate officials who are also management employees of the company ([[inside director]]s) and members who are not employed by the company in any capacity ([[outside director]]s or [[non-executive director]]s). In privately held companies, the ''Board of Directors'' often only consists of the statuatory corporate officials, and in ''sole proprietorships'' and ''partnerships'', the board is entirely optional, and if it does exist, only operates in an advisory capacity to the owner or ''partner''s. Non-profit corporations are governed by a ''Board of Trustees'' instead of a ''Board of Directors'' * [[Management\|Director]] - manager of managers within an organization who is often responsible for a major business function and often reports to a Vice President. Often used with name of a functional area; ''Finance Director'', ''Director of Finance'', ''Marketing Director'', etc. Not to be confused
e of [[Salinity#Systems of classification of water bodies based upon salinity\|salinity regimes]] and is not considered a precisely defined condition. It is characteristic of many brackish surface waters that their salinity can vary considerably over space and/or time. == Etymology == The term brackish water derives from the [[Middle Low German]] word ''brackwater'' or possibly the [[Dutch language\|Dutch]] word ''brakwater'', which is the water of a '''brack'''. A brack is a small lake created when a [[storm tide]] breaks a [[dike (construction)\|dike]] and floods land behind the dike. == Brackish water aquaria == Keeping brackish water [[aquaria]] is a popular specialization within the fishkeeping hobby. Many species of fish traded as [[freshwater]] species actually do better in brackish water, for example black mollies, Florida flagfish, and some [[cichlid]]s such as orange chromides. There are also several popular species traded purely as brackish water fish, including ''[[Monodactylidae\|Monodactylus]]'' spp, scats, [[archerfish]], and various species of [[pufferfish]], [[goby]], and flatfish. Generally aquarists need to maintain a [[specific gravity]] of around 1.005 to 1.010 depending on the species being kept, but practically all brackish water fish tolerate variations in [[salinity]] well, and some aquarists maintain that regularly fluctuating the salinity in the aquarium actually keeps the fish healthy and free of parasites. ==Brackish bodies of water== [[Baltic sea]] (the world´s largest pool of brackish water) [[Chilka Lake]], in [[Orissa]] state, [[India]] [[Hampton Roads]], [[Virginia]], USA [[Kaliveli Lake]], near [[Pondichery]], [[India]] [[Lingding Yang]], [[Guangdong]], [[China]] [[Pangong Tso]] in [[Ladakh]], [[Jammu and Kashmir]] state, [[India]] Lake [[Lake Pontchartrain\|Pontchartrain]], north of [[New Orleans, Louisiana\|New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]], [[United States\|USA]] [[Pulicat Lake]], north of [[Chennai]], [[India]] The [[Rann of Kutch]], on the border of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] Parts of the [[Rhone]] Delta, [[France]]: An area known as the [[Camargue]]. The [[Thames Estuary]] in east [[London]] [[the Fleet]] [[lagoon]], [[Dorset]], [[England]] The [[Chesapeake Bay]], in [[Maryland]], [[USA]]. Lagos Lagoon in Lagos, Nigeria Lower [[Hudson River]], in [[New York]] and [[New Jersey]], [[USA]] ==See also== [[Baltic Sea]] * [[Biosalinity]] * [[Desalination]] * [[Permian Sea]] (underwater basin and remnant of the ancient Permian Ocean) extending underground from Eastern New Mexico (USA) to West Texas * [[Slough (wetland)\|Slough]] * [[Port Royal Sound]] part of Beaufort County, SC [http://www.lowcountryestuarium.org Lowcountry Estuarium] ==External links== *[http://homepage.mac.com/nmonks/aquaria/brackfaqpart1.html Brackish Water Aquarium FAQ] [[Category:Liquid water]] [[ar:ماء مسوس]] [[da:Brakvand]] [[de:Brackwasser]] [[et:Riimvesi]] [[es:Agua salobre]] [[eo:Saleta akvo]] [[fr:Saumâtre]] [[id:Air payau]] [[is:Ísalt]] [[nl:Brakwater]] [[nds:Brackwater]] [[pl:Woda brachiczna]] [[pt:Salobra]] [[fi:Murtovesi]] [[sv:Bräckt vatten]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Binomial Distribution</title> <id>3337</id> <revision> <id>15901679</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Binomial distribution]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>The Bronx</title> <id>3338</id> <revision> <id>41726314</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:53:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>85.228.71.232</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the American punk rock band see [[The Bronx (band)]]'' {{main\|New York City}} {\| width="300px" align="right" \|- \| [[Image:Bronx Highlight New York City Map Julius Schorzman.png\|thumb\|300px\|right\|The Bronx, highlighted in yellow, is the only borough of New York City on the mainland of the United States.]] \|- \| [[Image:Map of New York highlighting Bronx County.png]] \|} '''The Bronx''' is one of [[The Five Boroughs\|the five borough]]s of [[New York City]] in the [[United States]]. It is coterminous with '''Bronx County''' of the State of [[New York]]. It is the northernmost and only borough of New York City on the [[North American]] mainland, located south of [[Westchester County, New York\|Westchester County]]. It also includes several small islands in the [[East River]] and [[Long Island Sound]]. {{GR\|6}}. The [[Harlem River]] separates The Bronx from the island of [[Manhattan]]. The Bronx takes its name from Bronck's Farms, after an early settler ([[1641]]) in the area, [[Jonas Bronck]], a [[Swedish]]-[[Netherlands\|Dutch]] sea captain, whose 500 [[acre]] (2&nbsp;km&sup2;) farm lay between the Harlem River and the [[Bronx River\|Aquahung]], which now bears his name. The ''borough's'' name is officially '''The Bronx''', but the ''county's'' name is officially just '''Bronx''', without the definite article. According to a [[2003]] [[census]] estimate, the population of Bronx County was approximately 1,363,198. ==History== The territory now contained within Bronx County was originally part of [[Westchester County, New York\|Westchester County]], an original county of New York State. The present Bronx County was contained in four [[town]]s: '''Westchester, Yonkers, Eastchester,''' and '''Pelham.''' In [[1846]], a new town, '''West Farms,''' was created by secession from Westchester; in turn, in [[1855]], the town of [[Morrisania]] seceded from West Farms. In [[1873]], the town of '''Kingsbridge''' (roughly corresponding to the modern Bronx neighborhoods of Kingsbridge, Riverdale, and Woodlawn) seceded from [[Yonkers]]. In [[1874]], the western portion of the present Bronx County, consisting of the towns of Kingsbridge, West Farms, and [[Morrisania]], was transferred to [[New York County, New York\|New York County]], and in [[1895]] the Town of Westchester and portions of Eastchester and Pelham, were transferred to New York County. [[City Island, New York\|City Island]], known as New York City's only nautical community, voted to secede from Westchester County and join New York County in [[1896]]. In 1898 New York City amalgamated, with the Bronx as one of five boroughs (though still within New York County). In [[1914]], those parts of the then New York County which had been annexed from Westchester County were constituted the new Bronx County (while also keeping its status as one of the five boroughs of the city). The Bronx underwent rapid growth after World War I. Extensions of the [[New York City Subway]] contributed to the increase in population as thousands of immigrants flooded the Bronx, resulting in a major boom in residential construction. Among these groups, many Irish settled here. Author [[Willa Cather]], [[Pierre Lorillard]] who made a fortune on tobacco sales, and inventor [[Jordan Mott]] were famous for settling the land. In addition, French, German and Polish immigrants moved into the Borough. The Jewish population also increased notably during this time and many [[synagogues]] are still evident throughout the borough (although a good portion of these have been converted to other uses). In the prohibition days, [[bootleggers]] and [[gangs]] ran rampant in the Bronx. Mostly Polish and Italian immigrants smuggled in the illegal whiskey. By 1926, the Bronx was noted for its high crime rate and its many [[speakeasies]]. Mayor [[Jimmy Walker]] states: :''The Manhattan Polak is very different from the Bronx Polak. The Manhattan Polak would smuggle in the illegal whiskey secretly so as the cops aren't on 'em or don't see 'em a mile away. In the Bronx, the Polaks don't give a lick if they spotted with it. They'd pull out their guns as quick as lighting and the cops who be dead men in less than a second''. After the 1930s, the Polish immigrant population in the Bronx decreased as a result of better living conditions in other states. The German population followed suit in the 1940s and so did many Italians in the 1950s, leaving a thriving [[Hispanic]] and [[African-American]] population which would continue to live and dominate in the Bronx to this day. During the mid [[1960s]] to the mid [[1970s]], the Bronx went into an era of sharp decline in [[quality of life]]. Many factors have been put forward by historians and other social scientists. They include the theory that [[urban renewal]] projects in the borough (such as [[Robert Moses]]' [[Cross Bronx Expressway]]) destroyed existing low-density neighborhoods in favor of roads that produced [[urban sprawl]] as well as high-density [[Public housing in the United States\|housing projects]]. Another factor may have been the shift by insurance companies and banks to stop offering their services to the Bronx and other working-class industrial areas (the "[[Rustbelt]]") in favor of the booming [[suburbs]] in "the [[Sunbelt]]"&mdash; a process known as [[redlining]]. For a period, a wave of [[arson]] overtook the borough's apartment buildings, with competing theories as to why. Some point to the heavy traffic and use of illicit drugs among the area's poor as causing them to be inclined to [[scam]] the city's benefits for burn-out victims as well as the [[Section 8 (housing)\|Section 8]] housing program. Others believe landlords decided to burn their buildings before their insurance policies expired and were not renewed. After the destruction of nearly half of the buildings in the South Bronx, the arsons all but ended during the tenure of Mayor [[Ed Koch]] with aftereffects still felt into the early [[1990s]]. ==Landmarks== [[Image:Yankee stadium.jpg\|right\|frame\|[[Yankee Stadium]] is home to the [[New York Yankees]].]] The Bronx's attractions include [[Ya
entally conscious, politically active and/or music-loving people make the pilgrimage to Davis for this event, for which the UCD quad is filled with hundreds of craft booths, music acts, education booths, and food booths. A continuous stream of bands, speakers and various workshops occurs throughout the weekend on each of WEF's three stages and other specialty areas. The majority of the festival is solar powered. WEF is organized primarily by UC Davis students, in association with the Associated Students of UC Davis (ASUCD) and the university. === UC Davis Arboretum === The [[University of California, Davis, Arboretum]] is a fine [[arboretum]] and [[botanical garden]]. California natives and desert plants are just two of the different plant types grown there. In addition there is a nice redwood grove at one end of the arboretum. There is a small river running through the arboretum and a pond in its center, which is home to many ducks and geese. You can also occasionally see herons, kingfishers, and cormorants. Tours of the arboretum are often held for children who are still in grade school. === Picnic Day === '''Picnic Day''' is an annual event held on the [[University of California, Davis]] during the month of April and is the largest student-run event in the US. Picnic Day starts off with a parade (which starts and ends with the California Aggie Marching Band-Uh. Yes, they march it twice!) that runs through campus and around downtown Davis and ends with the Battle of the Bands, which lasts until the last band stops playing (sometimes until 2 am). There are over 150 free events and over 50,000 attend every year. Other highlights include: the [[Dachshund]] races, aka: the Doxie Derby, held in the Rec Hall, the Davis Rock Challenge, the Chemistry Magic Show (sells out in advance), the sheep dog trials, and of course the wonderful food made by student groups. Picnic Day is also known for the copious amounts of alcohol students consume all day long. === Sports === Like most towns across [[United States\|America]], Davis has baseball. Davis Little League or DLL has 5 divisions of play, tee-ball, farm, AA, AAA, and majors. Afterwards comes competetive leagues and etc. Soccer comes around every fall and passes except for the competetive leagues. Roller Hockey is a great sport in this town. A new rink was just put in called Davis Indoor Sports Center or DISC for the reason. They hold Recreational leagues such as DIHA and DISC. Davis high schools baseball program is one of the top in the area and often win their sections title. ==Education== The [[University of California, Davis]] a campus of the [[University of California]], had an enrollment of 30,065 students as of Fall 2004, and is a major research university. There is also a off-campus branch of [[Sacramento City College]] located in Davis. The city has eight public elementary schools, three public junior high schools, and four high schools. ==City services== The Davis Fire Department, founded in 1930 after a series of devastating fires, has three stations. Two of the existing stations, downtown and in south Davis, were built in 1960; the third, in west Davis, was built in 1980. == Notable Davisites == [[DJ Shadow]] - Musician (born Josh Davis) [[Karen Joy Fowler]] - Author [[Michael Franti]] - Musician [[John Lescroart]] - Author [[Paul Moller]] - Inventor and professor [[Kim Stanley Robinson]] - Author [[Stephen Robinson]] - Astronaut (received [[Bachelor's degree]] from [[UC Davis]], 1978) [[Sean Stewart]] - Author [[Gary Snyder]] - Author [[Gary Lee Yoder]] - musician == External links == [http://www.city.davis.ca.us/ Official Webpage for Davis] [http://www.daviswiki.org/ Davis Wiki] - The Wiki for Davis [http://www.runmuki.com/paul/writing/davis.html Davis Cycling] - Cycling in North America's most bike-friendly city {{Geolinks-US-cityscale\|38.553856\|-121.738095}} [http://www2.dcn.org/orgs/orthophotos/ Aerial photos] - From the city webpage {{Cities of Yolo County, California}} {{California}} [[Category:Cities in California]] [[Category:Yolo County, California]] [[de:Davis (Kalifornien)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Descending chain condition</title> <id>9124</id> <revision> <id>15907036</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ascending_chain_condition]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Descending Chain Condition</title> <id>9125</id> <revision> <id>15907037</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ascending_chain_condition]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Double boiler</title> <id>9127</id> <revision> <id>35351468</id> <timestamp>2006-01-16T03:21:36Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hooperbloob</username> <id>113077</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>+cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''double-boiler''' is a stovetop apparatus used to cook delicate sauces such as [[beurre blanc]], to melt [[chocolate]] without burning, or for any occasion when more indirect heating is desired. It consists of a [[Cooking pan\|saucepot]] of boiling water, on top of which a second pot fits, so that the latter is heated by steam. If one does not own such a device, the same cooking technique can be achieved by placing a metal bowl or glass bottle in a larger pot of boiling water. A similar device is the [[bain-marie]]. Compare to [[double steaming]]. [[Category:Cookware and bakeware]] [[Category:Boilers]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Damon Runyon</title> <id>9128</id> <revision> <id>42068151</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:22:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeffcovey</username> <id>1007558</id> </contributor> <comment>added an example of "more than somewhat" from the story "romance in the roaring 40s".</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DamonRunyon.jpeg\|right\|thumb\|Damon Runyon]] '''Damon Runyon''' ([[October 4]], [[1884]] – [[December 10]], [[1946]]) was a newspaperman and writer. He was best known for his short stories celebrating the world of Broadway in [[New York City]] that grew out of the [[Prohibition]] era. He spun tales of gamblers, petty thieves, actors and gangsters; few of whom go by "square" names, preferring instead to be known as "Nathan Detroit", "Big Jule", "Harry the Horse", "Good Time Charlie", "Dave the Dude", and so on. To New Yorkers of his generation, a "Damon Runyon character" evoked a distinctive social type from the Brooklyn or Midtown demi-monde; this type is also commonly referred to today as "Runyonesque", though not limited to just people. These stories were written in a very distinctive vernacular style: a mixture of formal speech and colorful slang, always in present tense, and always devoid of contractions. Here is an example from the story "Tobias the Terrible", collected in ''More than Somewhat'' (1937): :If I have all the tears that are shed on Broadway by guys in love, I will have enough salt water to start an opposition ocean to the Atlantic and Pacific, with enough left over to run the Great Salt Lake out of business. But I wish to say I never shed any of these tears personally, because I am never in love, and furthermore, barring a bad break, I never expect to be in love, for the way I look at it love is strictly the old phedinkus, and I tell the little guy as much. He also makes use of many slang terms and phrases in his work (but not so many you can't understand a sentence anymore), which add an authentic feel to the story (see example above). Some examples include: ever-loving--almost always prefacing 'wife'; i.e. "his ever-loving wife" more than somewhat--quite a bit, a lot; i.e. "he is more than somewhat married" pineapple--pineapple grenade roscoe/john roscoe--gun *shiv--knife The musical ''[[Guys and Dolls]]'' was based on two Runyon stories, "The Idyll Of Miss Sarah Brown" and "Blood Pressure"; the play ''[[Little Miss Marker]]'' grew from his short story of the same name. ==Biography== He was born '''Alfred Damon Runyan''' in [[Manhattan, Kansas\|Manhattan]], [[Kansas]], and grew up in [[Pueblo, Colorado]], where Runyon Field and Runyon Lake are named after him. He was a third-generation newspaperman, and started in the trade under his father in Pueblo. He worked for various newspapers in the [[Rocky Mountains\|Rocky Mountain]] area; at one of those, the spelling of his last name was changed from "Runyan" to "Runyon", a change he let stand. After a notable failure in trying to organize a [[Colorado]] [[minor league baseball\|minor baseball league]], Runyon moved to [[New York City]] in [[1910]]. For the next ten years he covered the [[San Francisco Giants\|New York Giants]] and professional [[boxing]] for the ''[[New York American]]''. In his first New York byline, the ''American'' editor dropped the "Alfred", and the name "Damon Runyon" appeared for the first time. A heavy drinker as a young man, he seems to have quit the bottle soon after arriving in New York, after his drinking nearly cost him the courtship of the woman who became his first wife, Ellen Egan. He remained a heavy smoker. His best friend was [[mafia]] accountant [[Otto Berman]], and he incorporated Berman into several of his stories under the alias "Regr
="top" \| <math>\sin x + \ln y</math><br> sin''x'' + ln''y'' <!-- no space between roman "sin" and italic "x" --> <math>\mathbf{x} = 0</math><br> '''x''' = 0 Ordinary text should use [[#emph\|wiki markup for emphasis]], and should not use <code>&lt;i&gt;</code> or <code>&lt;b&gt;</code>. However, mathematical formulas often use italics, and sometimes use bold, for reasons unrelated to emphasis. Complex formulas should use [[Help:Formula\|<code>&lt;math&gt;</code> markup]], and simple formulas may use <code>&lt;math&gt;</code>; or <code>&lt;i&gt;</code> and <code>&lt;b&gt;</code>; or <code><nowiki>''</nowiki></code> and <code><nowiki>'''</nowiki></code>. 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You can also mark <del>deleted material</del> and <ins>inserted material</ins> using logical markup rather than visual markup. </nowiki></pre> \|- valign="top" \| '''Diacritical marks:''' <br/> À Á Â Ã Ä Å <br/> Æ Ç È É Ê Ë <br/> Ì Í Î Ï Ñ Ò <br/> Ó Ô Õ Ö Ø Ù <br/> Ú Û Ü ß à á <br/> â ã ä å æ ç <br/> è é ê ë ì í<br/> î ï ñ ò ó ô <br/> &oelig; õ ö ø ù ú <br/> û ü ÿ * See [[meta:Help:Special characters\|special characters]]. \| <br/> <pre><nowiki> &amp;Agrave; &amp;Aacute; &amp;Acirc; &amp;Atilde; &amp;Auml; &amp;Aring; &amp;AElig; &amp;Ccedil; &amp;Egrave; &amp;Eacute; &amp;Ecirc; &amp;Euml; &amp;Igrave; &amp;Iacute; &amp;Icirc; &amp;Iuml; &amp;Ntilde; &amp;Ograve; &amp;Oacute; &amp;Ocirc; &amp;Otilde; &amp;Ouml; &amp;Oslash; &amp;Ugrave; &amp;Uacute; &amp;Ucirc; &amp;Uuml; &amp;szlig; &amp;agrave; &amp;aacute; &amp;acirc; &amp;atilde; &amp;auml; &amp;aring; &amp;aelig; &amp;ccedil; &amp;egrave; &amp;eacute; &amp;ecirc; &amp;euml; &amp;igrave; &amp;iacute; &amp;icirc; &amp;iuml; &amp;ntilde; &amp;ograve; &amp;oacute; &amp;ocirc; &amp;oelig; &amp;otilde; &amp;ouml; &amp;oslash; &amp;ugrave; &amp;uacute; &amp;ucirc; &amp;uuml; &amp;yuml; </nowiki></pre> \|- valign="top" \| '''Punctuation:''' <br/> ¿ ¡ § ¶<br/> &dagger; &Dagger; &bull; &ndash; &mdash;<br/> &lsaquo; &rsaquo; « »<br/> &lsquo; &rsquo; &ldquo; &rdquo; \| <br/> <pre><nowiki> &amp;iquest; &amp;iexcl; &amp;sect; &amp;para; &amp;dagger; &amp;Dagger; &amp;bull; &amp;ndash; &amp;mdash; &amp;lsaquo; &amp;rsaquo; &amp;laquo; &amp;raquo; &amp;lsquo; &amp;rsquo; &amp;ldquo; &amp;rdquo; </nowiki></pre> \|- valign="top" \| '''Commercial symbols:''' <br/> &trade; © ® ¢ &euro; ¥<br/> £ ¤ \| <br/> <pre><nowiki> &amp;trade; &amp;copy; &amp;reg; &amp;cent; &amp;euro; &amp;yen; &amp;pound; &amp;curren; </nowiki></pre> \|- valign="top" \| '''Subscripts:''' <br/> x<sub>1</sub> x<sub>2</sub> x<sub>3</sub> or <br/> x&#8320; x&#8321; x&#8322; x&#8323; x&#8324; <br/> x&#8325; x&#8326; x&#8327; x&#8328; x&#8329; '''Superscripts:''' <br/> x<sup>1</sup> x<sup>2</sup> x<sup>3</sup> or <br/> x&#8304; x&sup1; x&sup2; x&sup3; x&#8308; <br/> x&#8309; x&#8310; x&#8311; x&#8312; x&#8313; The latter methods of sub/superscripting cannot be used in the most general context, as they rely on Unicode support which may not be present on all users' machines. For the 1-2-3 superscripts, it is nevertheless preferred when possible (as with units of measurement) because most browsers have an easier time formatting lines with it. &epsilon;<sub>0</sub> = 8.85 &times; 10<sup>&minus;12</sup> C&sup2; / J m. 1 [[hectare]] = [[1 E4 m&sup2;]] \| <br/> <pre><nowiki> x<sub>1</sub> x<sub>2</sub> x<sub>3</sub> or <br/> x&amp;#8320; x&amp;#8321; x&amp;#8322; x&amp;#8323; x&amp;#8324; <br/> x&amp;#8325; x&amp;#8326; x&amp;#8327; x&amp;#8328; x&amp;#8329; </nowiki></pre> <pre><nowiki> x<sup>1</sup> x<sup>2</sup> x<sup>3</sup> or <br/> x&amp;#8304; x&amp;sup1; x&amp;sup2; x&amp;sup3; x&amp;#8308; <br/> x&amp;#8309; x&amp;#8310; x&amp;#8311; x&amp;#8312; x&amp;#8313; &amp;epsilon;<sub>0</sub> = 8.85 &amp;times; 10<sup>&amp;minus;12</sup> C&amp;sup2; / J m. 1 [[hectare]] = [[1 E4 m&amp;sup2;]] </nowiki></pre> \|- valign="top" \| '''Greek characters:''' <br/> &alpha; &beta; &gamma; &delta; &epsilon; &zeta;<br/> &eta; &theta; &iota; &kappa; &lambda; &mu; &nu;<br/> &xi; &omicron; &pi; &rho; &sigma; &sigmaf;<br/> &tau; &upsilon; &phi; &chi; &psi; &omega;<br/> &Gamma; &Delta; &Theta; &Lambda; &Xi; &Pi;<br/> &Sigma; &Phi; &Psi; &Omega; \| <br/> <pre><nowiki> &amp;alpha; &amp;beta; &amp;gamma; &amp;delta; &amp;epsilon; &amp;zeta; &amp;eta; &amp;theta; &amp;iota; &amp;kappa; &amp;lambda; &amp;mu; &amp;nu; &amp;xi; &amp;omicron; &amp;pi; &amp;rho; &amp;sigma; &amp;sigmaf; &amp;tau; &amp;upsilon; &amp;phi; &amp;chi; &amp;psi; &amp;omega; &amp;Gamma; &amp;Delta; &amp;Theta; &amp;Lambda; &amp;Xi; &amp;Pi; &amp;Sigma; &amp;Phi; &amp;Psi; &amp;Omega; </nowiki></pre> \|- valign="top" \| '''Mathematical characters:''' <br/> &int; &sum; &prod; &radic; &minus; &plusmn; &infin;<br/> &asymp; &prop; &equiv; &ne; &le; &ge;<br/> &times; &middot; &divide; &part; &prime; &Prime;<br/> &nabla; &permil; &deg; &there4; &alefsym; &oslash;<br/> &isin; &notin; &cap; &cup; &sub; &sup; &sube; &supe;<br/> &not; &and; &or; &exist; &forall; &rArr; &hArr;<br/> &rarr; &harr;<br/> See also [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Mathematics\|WikiProject Mathematics]]. \| <br/> <pre><nowiki> &amp;int; &amp;sum; &amp;prod; &amp;radic; &amp;minus; &amp;plusmn; &amp;infin; &amp;asymp; &amp;prop; &amp;equiv; &amp;ne; &amp;le; &amp;ge; &amp;times; &amp;middot; &amp;divide; &amp;part; &amp;prime; &amp;Prime; &amp;nabla; &amp;permil; &amp;deg; &amp;there4; &amp;alefsym; &amp;oslash; &amp;isin; &amp;notin; &amp;cap; &amp;cup; &amp;sub; &amp;sup; &amp;sube; &amp;supe; &amp;not; &amp;and; &amp;or; &amp;exist; &amp;forall; &amp;rArr; &amp;hArr; &amp;rarr; &amp;harr; </nowiki></pre> \|- valign="top" \| '''Spacing in simple math formulas:''' <br/> Obviously, ''x''&sup2;&nbsp;&ge;&nbsp;0 is true. *To space things out without allowing line breaks to interrupt the formula, use non-breaking spaces: <tt>&amp;nbsp;</tt>. \| <br/> <pre><nowiki> Obviously, ''x''&amp;sup2;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ge;&amp;nbsp;0 is true. </nowiki></pre> \|- valign="top" \| '''Complicated formulas:''' <br/> : <math&g
n-row-column FFT is the [[vector-radix FFT algorithm]], which is a generalization of the ordinary Cooley-Tukey algorithm where one divides the transform dimensions by a vector <math>\mathbf{r}=(r_1, r_2, \cdots, r_d)</math> of radices at each step. (This may also have cache benefits.) The simplest case of vector-radix is where all of the radices are equal (e.g. vector-radix-2 divides ''all'' of the dimensions by two), but this is not necessary. Vector radix with only a single non-unit radix at a time, i.e. <math>\mathbf{r}=(1, \cdots, 1, r, 1, \cdots, 1)</math>, is essentially a row-column algorithm. Other, more complicated, methods include polynomial transform algorithms due to Nussbaumer (1977), which view the transform in terms of convolutions and polynomials products. See Duhamel and Vetterli (1990) for more information and references. == References == * James W. Cooley and John W. Tukey, "An algorithm for the machine calculation of complex Fourier series," ''Math. Comput.'' '''19''', 297&ndash;301 (1965). * Carl Friedrich Gauss, "Nachlass: Theoria interpolationis methodo nova tractata," ''Werke'' band '''3''', 265&ndash;327 (Königliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Göttingen, 1866). See also M. T. Heideman, D. H. Johnson, and C. S. Burrus, "Gauss and the history of the fast Fourier transform," ''IEEE ASSP Magazine'' '''1''' (4), 14&ndash;21 (1984). * P. Duhamel and M. Vetterli, "Fast Fourier transforms: a tutorial review and a state of the art," ''Signal Processing'' '''19''', 259&ndash;299 (1990). * W. M. Gentleman and G. Sande, "Fast Fourier transforms&mdash;for fun and profit," ''Proc. AFIPS'' '''29''', 563&ndash;578 (1966). * H. Guo, G. A. Sitton, and C. S. Burrus, "The Quick Discrete Fourier Transform," ''Proc. IEEE Conf. Acoust. Speech and Sig. Processing (ICASSP)'' '''3''', 445&ndash;448 (1994). * H. V. Sorensen, D. L. Jones, M. T. Heideman, and C. S. Burrus, "Real-valued fast Fourier transform algorithms," ''IEEE Trans. Acoust. Speech Sig. Processing'' '''ASSP-35''', 849&ndash;863 (1987). * A. Edelman, P. McCorquodale, and S. Toledo, "The future fast Fourier transform?" ''SIAM J. Sci. Computing'' '''20''', 1094&ndash;1114 (1999). * H. Guo and C. S. Burrus, "Fast approximate Fourier transform via wavelets transform," ''Proc. SPIE Intl. Soc. Opt. Eng.'' '''2825''', 250&ndash;259 (1996). * O. V. Shentov, S. K. Mitra, U. Heute, and A. N. Hossen, "Subband DFT. I. Definition, interpretations and extensions," ''Signal Processing'' '''41''' (3), 261&ndash;277 (1995). * James C. Schatzman, "Accuracy of the discrete Fourier transform and the fast Fourier transform," ''SIAM J. Sci. Comput.'' '''17''' (5), 1150&ndash;1166 (1996). * Peter D. Welch, "A fixed-point fast Fourier transform error analysis," ''IEEE Trans. Audio Electroacoustics'' '''17''' (2), 151&ndash;157 (1969). * Funda Ergün, "Testing multivariate linear functions: Overcoming the generator bottleneck," ''Proc. 27th ACM Symposium on the Theory of Computing'', 407&ndash;416 (1995). * H. J. Nussbaumer, "Digital filtering using polynomial transforms," ''Electronics Lett.'' '''13''' (13), 386-387 (1977). * Matteo Frigo and Steven G. Johnson: ''FFTW'', http://www.fftw.org/. A free ([[GPL]]) C library for computing discrete Fourier transforms in one or more dimensions, of arbitrary size. Also M. Frigo and S. G. Johnson, "[http://fftw.org/fftw-paper-ieee.pdf The Design and Implementation of FFTW3]," ''Proceedings of the IEEE'' '''93''' (2), 216–231 (2005). * N. Brenner and C. Rader, "A New Principle for Fast Fourier Transformation", ''IEEE Acoustics, Speech & Signal Processing'' '''24''' (3), 264-266 (1976). * [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Chapter 30: Polynomials and the FFT, pp.822&ndash;848. == External links == * [http://www.fftw.org/links.html Links to FFT code and information online] * [http://www.jjj.de/fxt/ Online documentation, links, book, and code] * [http://www.dl.ac.uk/TCSC/Subjects/Parallel_Algorithms/FFTreport/ Parallel Application Software on High Performance Computers. Serial and Parallel FFT Routines.] [[Category:FFT algorithms]] [[de:Schnelle Fourier-Transformation]] [[es:Transformada rápida de Fourier]] [[fr:Transformée de Fourier rapide]] [[ko:고속 푸리에 변환]] [[nl:Fast Fourier Transform]] [[ja:高速フーリエ変換]] [[pl:Szybka transformata Fouriera]] [[ru:Быстрое преобразование Фурье]] [[sr:Брза Фуријеова трансформација]] [[sv:FFT]] [[zh:快速傅里叶变换]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fort William, Scotland</title> <id>11513</id> <revision> <id>42045650</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:33:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web\|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser\|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox Scotland place\| \|Place= Fort William \|Population = 9,908 \|GridReference= NN103738 \|Map= \|Council= [[Highland]] \|Lieutenancy= [[Inverness]] \|Traditional= [[Inverness-shire]] \|Westminster= [[Ross, Skye and Lochaber (UK Parliament constituency)\|Ross, Skye and Lochaber]] \|Holyrood= [[Inverness East, Nairn and Lochaber (Scottish Parliament constituency)\|Inverness East, Nairn & Lochaber]] \|PostalTown= FORT WILLIAM \|PostCode= [[PH33]] \|DiallingCode= 01397 \|Police= [[Northern Constabulary]] }} '''Fort William''' ([[Scottish Gaelic language\|Gaelic]]: ''An Gearasdan'', "The Garrison") is the largest town in the [[Scottish Highlands\|west highlands]] of [[Scotland]]. Originally based around the still-extant village of [[Inverlochy]], the town lies at the southern end of the [[Great Glen]], on the shores of [[Loch Linnhe]] and [[Loch Eil]]. It is close to [[Ben Nevis]], the highest mountain in the [[British Isles]], and the beautiful [[Glen Nevis]]. The town is a major [[tourist]] centre with [[Glen Coe]] just to the south, and [[Glenfinnan]] to the west, on the [[Road to the Isles]]. Historically, this area of [[Lochaber]] was strongly [[Clan Cameron\| Cameron]] country, and there were a number of mainly Cameron settlements in the area (such as [[Blarmacfoldach]]). The nearby settlement of Inverlochy was the site of the [[Battle of Inverlochy]]. [[Image:Fortwilliam.jpg\|thumbnail\|left\|Fort William from Loch Linnhe]] However, the town is not of local origin. It grew up as a settlement next to a fort constructed to control the population following [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s invasion during the [[English Civil War]], and then to suppress the [[Jacobitism\|Jacobite]] uprisings of the [[18th century]]. The fort was named ''Fort William'' after [[William III of Orange-Nassau\|William Of Orange]], and the settlement that grew around it was called '''Maryburgh''', after his wife. This settlement was later renamed '''Gordonsburgh''', and then to '''Duncansburgh'''[http://www.scottish.parliament.uk///vli/language/gaelic/pdfs/placenamesF-J.pdf] (see [[burgh]]) before being renamed ''Fort William'', this time after [[Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland\|the "Butcher" of Cumberland]]. Given these origins, there have been various suggestions over the years to rename the town (for example, to ''Invernevis''). These proposals have led to nothing as of yet. Just outside the town is a large [[aluminium]] plant, powered by the [[Lochaber]] [[hydroelectric]] scheme, in its day the biggest tunnelling project in the world. The [[West Highland Line]] passes through Fort William. Owing to the difficult terrain in the area, the line from [[Glasgow]], to the south, enters from the northeast and trains from Glasgow to [[Mallaig]], the terminus of the line, have to reverse at Fort William. The [[Caledonian Canal]] connects the Scottish east coast at [[Inverness]] with the west coast at [[Corpach]] near Fort William. [[Image:Fort William sleeper.jpg\|thumbnail\|right\|Arrival at Fort William (An Gearasdan in [[Scottish Gaelic language\|Gaelic]]) of the overnight [[Caledonian Sleeper\|sleeper]] train from London]] ==References== * {{cite book \| last = MacCulloch \| first = Donald B. \| year = 1971 \| title = Romantic Lochaber \| publisher = Chambers \| id = ISBN 0550503471 }} * {{cite web \| url = http://www.highland.gov.uk/plintra/iandr/cen/pop_towns.htm \| title = Census 2001 \| work = Population figures \| accessdate = August 17 \| accessyear = 2005 }} ==External links== * [http://www.visit-fortwilliam.co.uk/ Visit Fort William] * [http://www.railscot.co.uk/West_Highland_Railway/frame.htm West Highland Railway] * [http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/hickieshomepage/index.html Fort William Weather] * [http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/lochaber-views Around Lochaber] * [http://www.nevisrange.co.uk Nevis Range] *[http://www.nls.uk/digitallibrary/map/military/record.cfm?id=77 Map of Ft William and area, dated 1710] [[Category:Towns in Highland]] [[Category:Lochaber]] [[de:Fort William (Schottland)]] [[fr:Fort William (Écosse)]] [[gd:An Gearasdan]] [[it:Fort William]] [[pl:Fort William]] {{Scotland-geo-stub}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of French phrases used by English speakers</title> <id>11515</id> <revision> <id>42039740</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:13:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dybeck</username> <id>798148</id> </contributor> <comment>Reverted vandalism by unnamed IP.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve
nductor]], because the voltage-current equations of the two devices can be transformed into one another by exchanging the voltage and current terms. Just as two or more inductors can be magnetically coupled to make a [[transformer]], two or more charged conductors can be electrostatically coupled to make a capacitor. The ''mutual capacitance'' of two conductors is defined as the current that flows in one when the voltage across the other changes by unit voltage in unit time. == Applications == {{float_begin\|side=right}} \|- align = "center" \| \| [[Image:Polarized capacitor symbol.png]] \| \|- align = "center" \| \| [[Image:Polarized capacitor symbol 2.png]] \| \|- align = "center" \| \| [[Image:Polarized capacitor symbol 3.png]] \| \|- align = "center" \| [[Image:Capacitor symbol.png]] \| [[Image:Polarized capacitor symbol 4.png]] \| [[Image:Variable capacitor symbol.png]] \|- align = "center" \| Capacitor \| Polarized<br/> Capacitor \| Variable<br/> Capacitor {{float_end\|caption=Capacitor symbols}} Capacitors have very many uses in electronic and electrical systems. === Energy storage === A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used like a temporary [[Battery (electricity)\|battery]]. The recent commercial availability of very large value capacitors, one farad in size and larger, has enabled such components to allow batteries to be changed in electronic devices without the memory being lost, for instance, or for energy storage for delivery during extreme peak demands, as often found in the enormously powerful [[car audio]] systems now seen. === Signal processing === The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent [[information]], either in binary form, as in [[computer]]s, or in analogue form, as in switched-capacitor circuits and bucket-brigade delay lines. Capacitors can be used in [[analog circuit]]s as components of integrators or more complex filters and in [[negative feedback]] loop stabilization. Signal processing circuits also use capacitors to [[integral\|integrate]] a current signal. === Power supply applications === Capacitors are commonly used in [[Power supply\|power supplies]] where they smooth the output of a full or half wave [[rectifier]]. They can also be used in [[charge pump]] circuits as the energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage. Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a "clean" power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. Capacitors are used in [[power factor]] correction. Such capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a [[three phase]] [[load]]. Usually, the values of these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a [[reactive power]] in volt-amperes reactive (VAr). The purpose is to match the inductive loading of machinery which contains motors, to make the load appear to be mostly resistive. Capacitors are also used in parallel to interrupt units of a high-voltage [[circuit breaker]] in order to distribute the voltage between these units. In this case they are called grading capacitors. In schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC charge storage is often drawn vertically in circuit diagrams with the lower, more negative, plate drawn as an arc. The straight plate indicates the positive terminal of the device, if it is polarized (see [[electrolytic capacitor]]). Non-polarized electrolytic capacitors used for signal filtering are typically drawn with two curved plates. Other non-polarized capacitors are drawn with two straight plates. ===Tuned circuits=== Capacitors and [[inductor]]s are applied together in [[RLC circuit\|tuned circuits]] to select information in particular frequency bands. For example, radio receivers rely on variable capacitors to tune the station frequency. Speakers use passive analog crossovers, and analog equalizers use capacitors to select different audio bands. In a [[tuned circuit]] such as a [[radio receiver]], the [[frequency]] selected is a function of the inductance (L) and the capacitance (C) in series, and is given by: :<math>f = \frac{1}{2 \pi \sqrt{LC}}</math> This is the frequency at which [[resonance]] occurs in an [[RLC series circuit]]. === Signal coupling === Because capacitors pass AC but block DC [[Signal (information theory)\|signal]]s (when charged up to the applied dc voltage), they are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal. This method is known as ''AC coupling''. (Sometimes [[transformer]]s are used for the same effect.) Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not be accurately controlled, but whose [[reactance]] is small at the signal frequency, is employed. Capacitors for this purpose designed to be fitted through a metal panel are called feed-through capacitors, and have a slightly different schematic symbol. ===Noise filters, motor starters, and snubbers=== When an inductive circuit is opened, the energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductance collapses quickly, creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the inductance is large enough, the energy will generate a spark, causing the contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, or sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state switch. A [[snubber]] capacitor across the newly opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass the contact points, thereby preserving their life; these were commonly found in [[contact breaker]] [[ignition system]]s, for instance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may not be enough to damage the switch but will still [[Spark-gap_transmitter\|radiate]] undesirable [[radio frequency interference]] (RFI), which a '''filter''' capacitor absorbs. Snubber capacitors are usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy more slowly and minimize RFI. Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package. In an inverse fashion, to initiate current quickly through an inductive circuit requires a greater voltage than required to maintain it; in uses such as large motors, this can cause undesirable startup characteristics, and a '''motor starting capacitor''' is used to store enough energy to give the current the initial push required to start the motor up. === Transducer applications === Although capacitors usually maintian a fixed physical structure and utilization varies the electrical voltage and current, the effects of varying the physical and/or electrical characteristics of the '''dielectric''' with a fixed electrical supply can also be of use. Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielectric can be used to measure humidity in air. Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure. Capacitors are used as the [[transducer]] in [[condenser microphone]]s, where one plate is moved by air pressure, relative to the fixed position fo the other plate. ====Accelerometers==== Some [[accelerometer]]s use [[MEMS]] capacitors etched on a chip to measure the magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector. They are used to detect changes in acceleration, eg. as tilt sensors or to detect free fall, as sensors triggering [[airbag]] deployment, and in many other applications. === Weapons applications === An obscure military application of the capacitor is in an [[EMP]] weapon. A [[plastic explosive]] is used for the dielectric. The capacitor is charged up and the explosive is detonated. The capacitance becomes smaller, but the charge on the plates stays the same. This creates a high-energy electromagnetic shock wave capable of destroying unprotected electronics for miles around. These devices are rumored to have been employed by the US in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], though this is highly unlikely. See [[Explosively pumped flux compression generator]]. Large high-voltage low-[[inductance]] capacitors are used as energy sources for the [[exploding-bridgewire detonator]]s or [[slapper detonator]]s in [[nuclear weapon]]s and other specialty weapons, and are also used as power supplies for electromagnetic guns such as [[railgun]]s or [[coilgun]]s. ==Ideal and nonideal capacitors== In practice, this ideal model of the capacitor often has to be modified to reflect real world capacitor construction and operation. The most obvious example is [[electrolytic capacitor]]s, where the capacitor is [[polarity\|polarized]] such that when the voltage is connected in reversed fashion, the capacitor acts as a resistor. Similar problems of dielectric leakage are a constant complication of all capacitor design however, and have led to constant improvements in capacitor design, as the material used for dielectrics has changed from oiled paper to mylar and from ceramic to Teflon. This also addresses the related problem of dielectric stability; oiled or electrolyte soaked paper dries out over time, reducing the capacitance and increasing leakage, a problem reduced in modern components. On the other hand, the requirements of large plate area for reasonably useful capacitor values as well as reasonable packaging resulted in the universal practice of rolling the plate/dielectric sandwich into a cylinder, which was then encapsulated. However, this process also creates an inductance in series with the capacitance, just as introducing a coiled wire of similar characteristics in series with the flat capacitor would; in sensitive circuits, this inductance must be taken into account
ng their producer, Doug "The Subway Fugitive," "Not a Slave to Fashion," "Bongo Boy" Berman), the brothers list a long series of unusual names. "Paul Murky of Murky Research", assisted by statistician "Marge Innovera" (margin of error), and company chauffeur Pikop Andropov (pick up and drop off) are only a few of a long series of perennial "staffers" in the ''Car Talk'' credits. == External links == [http://www.cartalk.com/ Car Talk website] [http://www.cartalk.com/content/about/credits/credits.html The complete listing of all Car Talk gag credits] *[http://www.cartalk.com/content/about/history/ Car Talk History] {{wikiquote}} [[Category:Automobiles]] [[Category:National Public Radio]] [[Category:United States radio programs]] [[tr:Car Talk]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Council of Chalcedon</title> <id>6962</id> <revision> <id>42096328</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:25:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bota47</username> <id>341052</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: ca Modifying: ro</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Ecumenical council\| council_name=Council of Chalcedon\| council_date=[[451]]\| accepted_by=[[Catholicism]], [[Anglicanism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Lutheranism]]\| previous=[[Council of Ephesus]]\| next=[[Second Council of Constantinople]]\| convoked_by=Emperor [[Marcian]]\| presided_by=[[Paschanius]] (papal legate)\| attendance=500\| topics=[[Eutyches\|Eutychian]] [[monophysitism]], divine and human nature of [[Jesus]], the judgments issued at the so-called "[[Robber Council of Ephesus]]" in [[449]]\| documents=[[Chalcedonian Creed]], condemnations of [[Eutyches]] and [[Dioscorus of Alexandria\|Dioscorus]], 28 canons }} The '''Council of Chalcedon''' was an [[ecumenical council]] that took place from [[October 8]]&ndash;[[November 1]], [[451]] at [[Chalcedon]], a city of [[Bithynia]] in [[Asia Minor]]. It is the fourth of the first seven Ecumenical Councils in [[Christianity]], and is therefore recognized as infallible in its [[dogmatic definition]]s by the [[Roman Catholic Church\|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy\|Eastern Orthodox]] churches. It repudiated the [[Eutyches\|Eutychian]] doctrine of [[monophysitism]], and set forth the [[Chalcedonian Creed]], which describes the full humanity and full divinity of [[Jesus]], the second person of the [[Trinity\|Holy Trinity]]. ==Historical background== ===Relics of Nestorianism=== After the [[Council of Ephesus]] had condemned [[Nestorianism]], there remained a conflict between [[patriarch]]s John of Antioch and [[Cyril of Alexandria]]. Cyril claimed that John remained Nestorian in outlook, while John claimed that Cyril held to the [[Apollinarianism\|Apollinarian]] heresy. The two settled their differences under the mediation of the bishop of Beroea, Acacius, on [[April 12]], [[433]]. In the following year, [[Theodoret]] of [[Cyrrhus]] assented to this formula as well, apparently putting a rest to Nestorianism forever. However, the works of two long dead [[Antioch]]ean theologians, [[Diodorus of Tarsus]] and [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]] were at this time translated into [[Syriac]]. By the intervention of [[Patriarch Proclus of Constantinople]], the two theologians were condemned throughout the East, but this situation would later provide the material for the [[Second Council of Constantinople]] some hundred years later. ===Eutychian controversy=== About two years after [[Cyril of Alexandria]]'s death in [[444]], an aged [[monk]] from Constantinople named [[Eutyches]] began teaching a subtle variation on the traditional [[Christology]] in an attempt (as he described in a letter to [[Pope Leo I]] in [[448]]) to stop a new outbreak of [[Nestorianism]]. He claimed to be a faithful follower of Cyril's teaching, which was declared orthodox in the Union of 432. Cyril had taught that "There is only one ''physis'', since it is the Incarnation, of God the Word." Cyril had apparently understood the [[Greek (language)\|Greek]] word ''physis'' to mean approximately what the [[Latin]] word ''persona'' (person) means, while most Greek theologians would have interpreted that word to mean ''natura'' (nature). Thus, many understood Eutyches to be advocating a sort of reversal of [[Arianism]] -- where Arius had denied the divine nature of [[Jesus]], Eutyches seemed to be denying his human nature. (Cyril's orthodoxy was not called into question, since the Union of 433 had explicitly spoken of two ''physes'' in this context.) Pope Leo I, from Rome, wrote that Eutyches' error seemed to be more from a lack of skill on the matters than from malice. Further, his side of the controversy tended not to enter into arguments with their opponents, which prevented the misunderstanding from being uncovered. Nonetheless, due to the high regard in which Eutyches was held (second only to the Patriarch of Constantinople in the East), his teaching spread rapidly throughout the east. In [[November]] [[447]], during a local [[synod]] in Constantinople, Eutyches was denounced as a heretic by the bishop of [[Dorylaeum]], Eusebius, with the demand that he be removed from his office. [[Flavian of Constantinople]] did not wish to consider the matter, due to the great prestige that Eutyches enjoyed, but finally relented, and Eutyches was condemned as a heretic by the synod. However, the emperor [[Theodosius II]] and the Pope of [[Alexandria]], [[Dioscorus of Alexandria\|Dioscorus]], did not accept the decision of the synod because Eutyches had repented and confessed his orthodoxy. Dioscorus held his own synod reinstating Eutyches, and the emperor called a council to be held in [[Ephesus]] in [[449]], inviting [[Pope Leo I]], who agreed to be represented by three legates. =="Latrocinium" of Ephesus== By this time, the pope had received communications from Flavian, and had himself determined that Eutyches was in the wrong and that the deposition in 447 was just. He wrote to the council, telling them that they must accept his judgment on the matter, but he left the punishment of Eutyches open for discussion. It appears Pope Leo I was unaware of the confession made to Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria. Theodosius' council convened on [[August 8]], [[449]], with some 130 bishops in attendance. Dioscorus presided by command of the emperor. The emperor denied the vote to any bishop who had voted in Eutyches' deposition two years earlier. As a result, there was a near-unanimous support for Eutyches, and Flavian was himself deposed and exiled. He died shortly thereafter. The papal legates left with a letter for the pope from Flavian, and in a second session, without papal representation, several more bishops were deposed, including Ibas of Edessa, Irenaeus of Tyre (a close personal friend of Nestorius), Domnus of Antioch, and Theodoret. The decisions of this council threatened [[schism]] between the East and the West, since they went plainly against the papal declaration, although it was never read. The pope dubbed this council a "synod of robbers" &mdash; [[Latrocinium]] &mdash; and refused to accept its pronouncements. His letter was not read at the council and the papal legates left with it as well and it is for this reason that he called it so. ==Convocation and session== The situation continued to deteriorate, with the pope demanding the convocation of a new council and the emperor refusing to budge, all the while appointing bishops in agreement with Dioscorus. All this changed dramatically with the death of Theodosius II and the elevation of [[Marcian]] to the imperial throne, for Marcian was a defender of the doctrine of Flavian and Leo. Marcian agreed to hold a new council, but not in [[Italy]], as the pope had requested, but rather in the East, but he invited the pope to preside in person. He had the exiled bishops returned to their dioceses, and had the body of Flavian brought to the capital to be buried in honor. The council was called to meet at [[Nicaea]], but was moved at the last moment to [[Chalcedon]], where the council opened on [[October 8]], [[451]]. The papal legate [[Paschanius]] was sent to preside. Leo himself sent a letter to the council, condemning the work of the "latrocinium" and indicating that the correct doctrine about the Incarnation could be found in his previous letter to Flavian. Attendance at this council was very high, some 500 bishops. Paschanius refused to give Dioscorus (who had carried out an [[excommunication]] of the pope in the period leading up to the council) a seat at the council, and as a result, he was moved to the nave of the church. Paschanius further ordered the reinstatement of Theodoret and that he be given a seat, but this move caused such an uproar among the council fathers, that Theodoret also sat in the nave, though he was given a vote in the proceedings, which began with a trial of Dioscorus. Marcian wished to bring proceedings to a more speedy end, and asked the council to make a pronouncement on the doctrine of the Incarnation before continuing the trial. The council fathers, however, felt that no new creed was necessary, and that the doctrine had been laid out clearly in Leo's letter to Flavian, by then called "The Tome"[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-94.htm#P4832_968914]. The second day of the council ended with shouts from the bishops, "It is [[Saint Peter\|Peter]] who says this through Leo. This is what we all of us believe. This is the faith of the Apostles. Leo and Cyril teach the same thing." The council continued with Dioscorus' trial, but he refused to appear before the assembly. As a result, he was condemned unanimously (though the Egyptian bishops seem to have been intimidated in this), and all of his decrees were declared null. Marcian responded by exi
ction of seeing the finished product (in [[Sociology\|sociological]] terms, they felt [[Alienation\|alienated]] from the product of their work), and they were also frustrated with the unsafe, exhausting working conditions. Because workers had to stand in the same place for hours and repeat the same motion hundreds of times per day, they often suffered from what are now called [[Repetitive strain injury\|repetitive stress injuries]]. ==See also== [[Henry Ford]] [[Ransom Eli Olds]] [[Manufacturing]] [[Category:Manufacturing]][[category:Production and manufacturing]] [[de:Fließbandfertigung]] [[he:פס ייצור]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ARY Digital</title> <id>1147</id> <revision> <id>40391488</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T05:55:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Spasage</username> <id>472206</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge\|ARY DIGITAL}} {{Infobox TV channel\| name= ARY Digital\| launch= December 2000\| owner= [[ARY Group]] \| former names= The Pakistani Channel\| web= [http://www.arydigital.tv/ www.arydigital.tv] \| terr avail=Not Available\| sat serv 1=[[Sky Digital]]\| sat chan 1=Channel 812\| sat serv 2=[[Astra]]\| sat chan 2=11.9973 GHz\| sat serv 3=[[Hotbird]]\| sat chan 3=12.476 GHz\| sat serv 4=[[PAS-10]]\| sat chan 4=3864 MHz\| cable serv 1= [[Telewest]]\| cable chan 1= Channel 818\| cable serv 2= [[NTL]]\| cable chan 2= Channel 847\| dummy parameter=\| \|}} [[Image:Sidelogo.jpeg\|thumb\|right\|200px\|The ARY Digital Logo]] '''ARY Digital''' is a popular South Asian [[television]] network based in [[Dubai]], [[United Arab Emirates\|UAE]]. It also has studios in [[London]] and [[Pakistan]]. Most programmes cater to the needs of South Asians, especially the [[Pakistan\|Pakistani]] community. The channel also brings [[Urdu language\|Urdu]] programmes and Urdu songs by Pakistani singers who rock the South Asian subcontinent. == History == The network was formerly known as '''The Pakistani Channel''', which was owned by a charismatic business man, who started it as a medium of social responsibility while bridging the gap between Asians abroad and in Pakistan. Its name was changed when it was purchased by the [[ARY Group]]. ARY Digital specialises in popular live English and Urdu programming, such as VIDEO MIX shown on Sundays and presented by Yassir and Zaina. == External links == [http://www.arydigital.tv/ ARY Digital Official Website] *[http://www.arydigital.tv/corporate.php Corporate Profile] [[Category:ARY Digital]] [[Category:Television stations in Pakistan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Adelaide</title> <id>1148</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>41965329</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:48:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>203.220.36.62</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} <!-- BEGIN INFOBOX --> {{Infobox Australian City\| name = Adelaide \| image_map = Adelaide locator-MJC.png \| name = Adelaide \| latd=34\|latm=55\|latNS=S\|longd=138\|longm=36\|longEW=E\| jurisdiction = [[South Australia]] \| area = 1,826.9 \| time_zone= [[UTC9:30\|ACST]] \| utc_offset= +9:30 \| time_zone_DST= [[UTC10:30\|ACDT]] \| utc_offset_DST= +10:30 \| population_estimate_year = 2004 \| population_estimate = 1,124,315 \| population_estimate_rank = 5th \| population_density = 615 \| }} <!-- END INFOBOX --> '''Adelaide''' is the [[List of Australian capital cities\|capital]] and most populous city of the [[Australia]]n [[States and territories of Australia\|state]] of [[South Australia]], and is the fifth largest city in Australia with a population of over 1.1 million. Adelaide is a coastal city beside the [[Southern Ocean]] and is situated on the [[Adelaide Plains]], north of the [[Fleurieu Peninsula]], between the [[Gulf Saint Vincent\|Gulf St. Vincent]] and the low lying [[Mount Lofty Ranges]]. It is a roughly [[linear city]] 20 km from the coast to the foothills, but stretches 90 km from [[Gawler, South Australia\|Gawler]] at its northern extent to [[Aldinga, South Australia\|Aldinga]] in the south. Named in honour of [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen\|Queen Adelaide]], the [[consort]] of [[William IV of the United Kingdom\|King William IV]], the city was founded in [[1836]] as the [[new town\|planned capital]] for the only freely-settled British [[province]] established in Australia. [[William Light\|Colonel William Light]], one of Adelaide's founding fathers, designed the city and chose its location close to the [[River Torrens]]. Inspired by [[William Penn]] and the [[garden city movement]], Light's design set Adelaide out in a grid layout, interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares, and entirely surrounded by [[Adelaide Parklands\|parkland]]. Early Adelaide was shaped by religious freedom and a commitment to political [[progressivism]] and civil liberties which led to world-first reforms. Adelaidean society remained largely [[puritan]] up until the 1970s, when a set of social reforms under the [[Premier of South Australia\|premiership]] of [[Don Dunstan]] resulted in a cultural revival. Today Adelaide is known for its many [[:Category:Festivals in Adelaide\|festivals]] as well as for its wine, arts and sports. As South Australia's seat of government and commercial centre, Adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions. Most of these are concentrated in the city centre along the cultural boulevard of [[North Terrace, Adelaide\|North Terrace]] and in various districts of the metropolitan area. ==History== {{Main\|History of Adelaide}} Prior to European settlement, the Adelaide area was inhabited by the [[Kaurna]] [[Australian Aborigine\|Aboriginal]] tribe. Acknowledged Kaurna country comprised the Adelaide Plains and surrounding regions - from [[Cape Jervis]] in the south, and to [[Port Wakefield, South Australia\|Port Wakefield]] in the north. Among their unique customs were burn-offs (controlled [[bushfires]]) in the Adelaide Hills which the early Europeans spotted before the Kaurna people were pushed out by settlement. By 1852, the total population (by census count) of the Kaurna was 650 in the Adelaide region and steadily decreasing. During the winter months, they moved into the [[Adelaide hills]] for better shelter and firewood. {{ref\|cathuni}} {{ref\|placenames}} [[Image:Adelaide North Tce 1839.jpg\|thumb\|left\|270px\|Adelaide in [[1839]], looking south-east from [[North Terrace, Adelaide\|North Terrace]]]] South Australia was officially settled as a new [[United Kingdom\|British]] [[province]] on [[December 28]], [[1836]]. This day is now commemorated as a [[public holiday]], [[Proclamation Day]] in South Australia. The site of the colonies capital city was surveyed and laid-out by Colonel [[William Light]], the first Surveyor-General of South Australia. Light chose, not without opposition, a site on rising ground close to the [[River Torrens]], which became the chief early water supply for the fledgling colony. "[[Light's Vision]]", as it has been termed, has meant that the initial design of Adelaide required little modification as the city grew and prospered. Usually in an older city, it would be necessary to accommodate larger roads and add parks, whereas Adelaide had them from the start. Adelaide was established as the centre of a [[New town\|planned colony]] of free immigrants, promising civil liberties and freedom from religious persecution and as such does not share the [[convict]] settlement history of other Australian cities, like [[Sydney]] and [[Hobart]]. Adelaide's early history was wrought by economic uncertainty and incompetent leadership. The first governor of South Australia, [[John Hindmarsh\|Hindmarsh]], clashed frequently with Col Light. The rural area surrounding Adelaide city was surveyed by Light in preparation to sell, a total of over 405 km² of land. Adelaide's early economy started to get on its feet in 1838 with the arrival of livestock from [[New South Wales]] and [[Tasmania]]. The wool industry served as a early basis for the South Australian economy. Light's survey was completed in this period, and land was promptly offered to sale to early colonists. Wheat farms ranged from [[Encounter Bay]] in the south to [[Clare, South Australia\|Clare]] in the north by 1860. [[George Gawler\|Governor Gawler]] took over from Hindmarsh in late 1838 and promptly oversaw construction of a governor's house, [[gaol]], police barracks, hospital, and customs house and a wharf at [[Port Adelaide]]. In addition houses for public officials and missionaries, and outstations for police and surveyors were also constructed during Gawler's governorship. Adelaide had also become economically self-sufficent during this period but at heavy cost: the colony was heavily in [[debt]] and relied on bail-outs from London to stay afloat. Gawler was recalled and replaced by [[George Edward Grey\|Governor Grey]] in 1841. Grey slashed public expenditure against heavy opposition, yet its impact was negligible at this point: Silver was discovered in [[Glen Osmond, South Australia\|Glen Osmond]] that year, agricultural industries were well underway and other mines sprung up all over the state, aiding Adelaide's commercial development. The city exported meat, wool, wine, fruit and wheat by the time Grey left in 1845, contrasting with a low point in 1842 when one-third of Adelaide houses were abandoned. [[Image:Adelaide town hall 1950.jpg\|thumb\|right\|280px\|Adelaide General Post Office in 1950]] Trade links with the rest of the Australian states were established with the navigation of the [[Murray River]] being successfully navigated in 1853 by Francis Cadell, an Adelaide resident. Adelaide saw South Australia become a [[Self-governing colony]] in 1856 with the [[ratification]] of a new [[constitution]] by the British parliament. [[Secret ballot]]s were introduced, and a [[Bicameralism\|bic
ionally omitted. If Emperor Keitai began a new dynasty as some historians believe, then Buretsu is the last emperor of the first recorded dynasty of Japan. {{japan-bio-stub}} {{start box}} {{succession box \| title=[[List of Emperors of Japan\|Emperor of Japan]] \| before=[[Emperor Ninken]] \| after=[[Emperor Keitai]] \| years=498-506<br>''(traditional dates)''}} {{end box}} [[Category:489 births\|Buretsu]] [[Category:507 deaths\|Buretsu]] [[Category:Japanese emperors\|Buretsu]] [[cs:Burecu]] [[de:Buretsu]] [[it:Buretsu imperatore del Giappone]] [[ja:&#27494;&#28872;&#22825;&#30343;]] [[zh:&#27494;&#28872;&#22825;&#30343;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Keitai</title> <id>10466</id> <revision> <id>41439282</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T08:57:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ian Pitchford</username> <id>230605</id> </contributor> <comment>[[WP:AWB\|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''"Keitai" is also the [[Japanese language\|Japanese]] term for [[Japanese cell phone culture\|mobile/cell phones]].'' '''Emperor Keitai''' (継体天皇 ''Keitai Tennō'') was the 26th [[Emperors of Japan\|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He is believed to have ruled the country during the early [[6th century]] CE. == Records on his life == His record is confusing as there are differences of his life according to [[Kojiki]] and [[Nihonshoki]]. Kojiki puts his birth year at [[485]] and to have died on April 9, [[527]].{{an\|Japanese_dates 1}} It writes that he was called Ōdo no Mikoto(袁本杼命). On the other hand, Nihonshoki put his birth year at [[450]] and to have died on February 7, [[531]] or [[534]].{{an\|Japanse_dates 1}} It writes that he was called Ōdo no Kimi(男大迹王) and Hikofuto no Mikoto(彦太尊). == Life and genealogy == He is said to have been not the son of the immediate previous emperor, but the great-great-great-grandson of [[Emperor Ojin\|Emperor Ōjin]]. According to documents he ascended to the throne when [[Emperor Buretsu]] died childless and did not appoint a sucesssor; some historians doubt this genealogy and suppose a change of dynasties. According to ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihonshoki'', his father was Hikonushi no Kimi and his mother was Furihime. He was born in [[Echizen province]]. When Buretsu died, [[Ōtomo no Kanamura\|Kanamura]] recommended Keitai at his age of 58 as a possible heir to the throne. Keitai declared his ascension in Kusuba, in the northern part of [[Kawachi Province]] (present day Shijonawate, Osaka) and married a younger sister of Buretsu, Princess Tashiraga. It is supposed that his succession was not welcomed by everyone, and it took about 20 years for Keitai to enter [[Yamato province]], near Kawachi and the political center of Japan at the time. In Emperor Keitai's later years, [[527]] or [[528]], a rebellion led by Iwai occurred in Tsukushi province, [[Kyushu]]. Keitai went to Kyushu and put down the rebellion. Among his sons, [[Emperor Ankan]], [[Emperor Senka]] and [[Emperor Kimmei]] ascended to the throne. == Notes == #Japanese dates correspond to the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until 1873. {{start box}} {{succession box \| title=[[List of Emperors of Japan\|Emperor of Japan]] \| before=[[Emperor Buretsu]] \| after=[[Emperor Ankan]] \| years=507-531<br>''(traditional dates)''}} {{end box}} [[Category:Japanese emperors\|Keitai]] [[de:Keitai]] [[it:Keitai imperatore del Giappone]] [[ja:継体天皇]] [[zh-cn:继体天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Ankan</title> <id>10467</id> <revision> <id>27486334</id> <timestamp>2005-11-06T00:09:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>144.13.232.245</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Ankan''' (安閑天皇 ''Ankan Tennō'') was the 27th [[Emperors of Japan\|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the early [[6th century]] CE. According to ''[[Kojiki]]'' Ankan was the elder son of [[Emperor Keitai]]. When Ankan was 66 years old, Keitai abdicated in favor of him. Four years later, he died. No significant events were recorded during his reign. {{japan-bio-stub}} {{start box}} {{succession box \| title=[[List of Emperors of Japan\|Emperor of Japan]] \| before=[[Emperor Keitai]] \| after=[[Emperor Senka]] \| years=531-536<br>''(traditional dates)''}} {{end box}} [[Category:6th century deaths\|Ankan]] [[Category:Japanese emperors\|Ankan]] [[de:Ankan]] [[it:Ankan imperatore del Giappone]] [[ja:&#23433;&#38289;&#22825;&#30343;]] [[zh-cn:&#23433;&#38386;&#22825;&#30343;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emperor Senka</title> <id>10468</id> <revision> <id>33959854</id> <timestamp>2006-01-05T10:34:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>193.165.145.158</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Senka''' (宜化天皇 ''Senka Tennō'') was the 28th [[Emperors of Japan\|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the early [[6th century]] CE. {{japan-bio-stub}} {{start box}} {{succession box \| title=[[List of Emperors of Japan\|Emperor of Japan]] \| before=[[Emperor Ankan]] \| after=[[Emperor Kimmei]] \| years=536-539<br>''(traditional dates)''}} {{end box}} [[Category:6th century births\|Senka]] [[Category:6th century deaths\|Senka]] [[Category:Japanese emperors\|Senka]] [[cs:Senka]] [[de:Senka]] [[ja:&#23459;&#21270;&#22825;&#30343;]] [[zh:宣化天皇]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Empress</title> <id>10469</id> <revision> <id>15908280</id> <timestamp>2002-05-27T01:23:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bryan Derksen</username> <id>66</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>changing into a redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[emperor]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eastmoreland, Portland, Oregon</title> <id>10470</id> <revision> <id>40742680</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T18:50:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Derek.cashman</username> <id>343214</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rm blatant linkspam</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eastmoreland, Portland, Oregon''' is an up-market neighborhood in inner south-east [[Portland, Oregon]], located south of [[Reed College]]. The neighborhood is bounded by SE Woodstock Blvd. to the north, SE Crystal Springs Blvd. to the south, SE 39th Ave to the east and approximately SE 28th Ave to the west. {{Oregon-geo-stub}} [[Category:Portland, Oregon neighborhoods]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>EMACS</title> <id>10471</id> <revision> <id>15908282</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Emacs]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Elyssa Davalos</title> <id>10472</id> <revision> <id>37855297</id> <timestamp>2006-02-02T15:55:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>OpenToppedBus</username> <id>252600</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fmt</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Elyssa Davalos''' is a [[television]] and [[film\|movie]] actress. She is the daughter of [[Richard Davalos]], mother of [[Alexa Davalos]], and was married to Jeff Dunas. She is of Greek descent. == Television == * [[MacGyver]], ([[1987]]-[[1988]]) * [[Scarecrow and Mrs. King]], ([[1985]]-[[1986]]) == Movies == * [[Urban Chaos Theory]], ([[2000]]) * [[A House in the Hills]], ([[1993]]) * [[Jericho Fever]], ([[1993]]) * [[Riviera (movie)\|Riviera]], ([[1987]]) * [[Herbie Goes Bananas]], ([[1980]]) * [[Wild and Wooly]], ([[1978]]) ==External links== * {{imdb name\|id=0202497\|name=Elyssa Davalos}} [[Category:American film actors\|Davalos, Elyssa]] [[Category:American television actors\|Davalos, Elyssa]] [[Category:Greek-American actors\|Davalos, Elyssa]] [[fr:Elyssa Davalos]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Emil Theodor Kocher</title> <id>10473</id> <revision> <id>40795606</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T01:49:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Brim</username> <id>102642</id> </contributor> <comment>added Kocher manoeuvre</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Emil_Theodor_Kocher.jpg\|right\|frame\|Emil Theodor Kocher]] '''Emil Theodor Kocher''' ([[August 25]], [[1841]] &ndash; [[July 27]], [[1917]]), [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine\|Nobel Prize]] winner in [[1909]] for "his work on the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland" Born in [[Bern]]. He studied in Zurich, Berlin, London and Vienna, obtaining his doctorate in Bern in [[1865]]. From [[1872]] he succeeded [[Georg Albert Lucke]] as Ordinary Professor of Surgery and Director of the [[University of Berne\|University]] Surgical Clinic at Berne. He published works on a number of subjects other than the thyroid gland including haemostasis, antiseptic treatments, surgical infectious diseases, on gunshot wounds, acute [[osteomyelitis]], the theory of strangulated hernia, and abdominal surgery. His new ideas on the thyroid gland were initially controversial but his successful treatment of [[goitre]] with a steadily decreasing mortality rate soon won him recog
ability differences between many-worlds and the Copenhagen interpretation. In the Copenhagen interpretation, the mathematics of quantum mechanics allows one to predict [[probability\|probabilities]] for the occurrence of various events. In the many-worlds interpretation, all these events occur simultaneously. What meaning should be given to these probability calculations? And why do we observe, in our history, that the events with a higher computed probability seem to have occurred more often? One answer to these questions is to say that there is a [[probability measure]] on the space of all possible universes, where a possible universe is a complete path in the tree of branching universes. This is indeed what the calculations give. Then we should expect to find ourselves in a universe with a relatively high probability rather than a relatively low probability: even though all outcomes of an experiment occur, they do not occur in an equal way. The many-worlds interpretation should not be confused with the [[many-minds interpretation\|''many-minds'']] interpretation which postulates that it is only the observers' minds that split instead of the whole world. == Everett's many-worlds interpretation and axiomatics == The existence of many worlds in superposition is not accomplished by introducing some new [[axiom]] to quantum mechanics, but on the contrary by ''removing'' the axiom of the collapse of the wave packet: All the possible consistent states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus (including the observer) are present in a ''real'' physical (not just formally mathematical, as in other interpretations) [[quantum superposition]]. (Such a superposition of consistent state combinations of different systems is called an [[entangled state]].) Hartle (1968) showed that in Everett's relative-state theory, '''Born's probability law''' :The probability of an [[observable]] <math>A</math> to have the value <math>a</math> in a normalized state <math>\| \psi \rangle</math> is the absolute square of the eigenvalue component of the state corresponding to the eigenvalue a: <math>P(a) = \| \langle a \| \psi \rangle \|^2</math> no longer has to be considered an axiom or postulate. It can rather be derived from the other axioms of quantum mechanics. All that has to be assumed is that if the state <math>\| \psi \rangle</math> is an eigenstate <math> \|a, i \rangle </math> of the observable <math>A</math>, then the result <math>a</math> of the measurement is certain. This means that a ''second'' axiom of quantum mechanics can be removed. Hartle's derivation only works in a theory (like Everett's) that does ''not'' cut away ("collapse") any superposition components of the wave function. In other interpretations it is not comprehensible why the absolute square is used and not some other arbitrary, more complicated expression of the eigenvalue component say, the square root or some polynomial of its norm. The consequence is that Everett's concept is more than just an interpretation, it's rather an alternative formulation of [[quantum theory]] requiring fewer axioms. One might argue that postulating the existence of many worlds is some kind of axiomatic assumption, but the concept of [[quantum superposition]]s is a common indispensable part of all interpretations of [[quantum theory]], as is most clearly illustrated in the [[path integral formulation]] of quantum mechanics. Everett's theory just considers it a real phenomenon in nature and applies it to macroscopic systems in the same way as to microscopic systems. == A simple example == We consider formally the example presented in the introduction. Consider a pair of [[spin (physics)\|spin 1/2]] [[particles]], A and B, in which we only consider the spin observable (in particular with their position information disregarded). As an isolated system, particle A is described by a 2 dimensional [[Hilbert space]] ''H''<sub>A</sub>; similarly particle B is described by a 2 dimensional [[Hilbert space]] ''H''<sub>B</sub>. The composite system is described by the tensor product :<math> H_{\mathrm{A}} \otimes H_{\mathrm{B}} </math> which is 2 x 2 dimensional. If A and B are non-interacting, the set of pure tensors : <math> \|\phi \rangle \otimes \| \psi \rangle </math> is [[invariant]] under time evolution; in fact, since we only consider the spin observables which for isolated particles are invariant, time has no effect prior to interaction. However, after interaction, the state of the composite system is a possibly [[quantum entanglement\|entangled]] state, that is one which is no longer a pure tensor. The most general entangled state is a sum :<math> \Phi = \sum_\ell \| \phi_\ell \rangle \otimes \| \psi_\ell \rangle </math> To this state corresponds a linear operator ''H''<sub>B</sub> &rarr; ''H''<sub>A</sub> which maps pure states to pure states. :<math> T_\Phi = \sum_\ell \| \phi_\ell \rangle \otimes \langle \psi_\ell \|.</math> This mapping (essentially modulo normalization of states) is the '''relative state mapping''' defined by Everett, which associates a pure state of B the corresponding relative (pure) state of A. More precisely, there is a unique [[polar decomposition]] of ''T''<sub>&Phi;</sub> such that : <math> T_\Phi = U S \quad </math> and U is an isometric map defined on some subspace of ''H''<sub>B</sub>. U is actually the relative state mapping. See also [[Schmidt decomposition]]. Note that the density matrix of the composite system is [[pure state\|pure]]. However, it is also possible to consider the [[reduced density matrix]] describing particle A alone by taking the [[partial trace]] over the states of particle B. This reduced density matrix, unlike the original matrix actually describes a [[mixed state]]. This particular example is the basis for the [[EPR paradox]]. The previous example easily generalizes to arbitrary systems A, B without any restriction on the dimension of the corresponding Hilbert spaces. In general, the relative state is an isometric linear mapping defined on a subspace of ''H''<sub>B</sub> with values in ''H''<sub>A</sub>. == Partial trace and relative state == The state transformation of a quantum system resulting from measurement, such as the double slit experiment discussed above, can be easily described mathematically in a way that is consistent with most [[mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics\|mathematical formalisms]]. We will present one such description, also called reduced state, based on the [[partial trace]] concept, which by a process of iteration, leads to a kind of branching many worlds ''formalism''. It is then a short step from this many worlds formalism to a many worlds ''interpretation''. For definiteness, let us assume that system is actually a particle such as an electron. The discussion of reduced state and many worlds is no different in this case than if we considered any other physical system, including an "observer system". In what follows, we need to consider not only [[pure state]]s for the system, but more generally [[density matrix\|mixed states]]; these are certain linear operators on the [[Hilbert space]] ''H'' describing the quantum system. Indeed, as the various measurement scenarios point out, the set of pure states is not closed under measurement. Mathematically, density matrices are statistical mixtures of pure states. [[operational definition\|Operationally]] a mixed state can be identified to a [[statistical ensemble]] resulting from a specific lab preparation process. === Decohered states as relative states === Suppose we have an ensemble of particles, prepared in such a way that its state ''S'' is pure. This means that there is a unit vector &psi; in ''H'' (unique [[up to]] phase) such that ''S'' is the operator given in [[bra-ket]] notation by :<math> S = \| \psi \rangle \langle \psi \| </math> Now consider an experimental setup to determine whether the particle has a particular property: For example the property could be that the location of the particle is in some region ''A'' of space. The experimental setup can be regarded either as a measurement of an observable or as a filter. As a measurement, it measures the observable '''Q''' which takes the value 1 if the particle is found in ''A'' and 0 otherwise. As a filter, it filters in those particles in the ensemble which have the stated property of being in ''A'' and filtering out the others. Mathematically, a property is given by a self-adjoint projection ''E'' on the Hilbert space ''H'': Applying the filter to an ensemble of particles, some of the particles of the ensemble are filtered in, and others are filtered out. Now it can be shown that the operation of the filter "collapses" the pure state in the following sense: it prepares a new mixed state given by the density operator :<math> S_1 = \|E \psi \rangle \langle \psi E \| + \|F \psi \rangle \langle \psi F \| </math> where ''F'' = 1 - ''E''. To see this, note that as a result of the measurement, the state of the particle immediately after the measurement is in an eigenvector of '''Q''', that is one of the two pure states :<math> \frac{1}{\\|E \psi\\|^2} \| E \psi \rangle \quad \mbox{ or } \quad \frac{1}{\\|F \psi\\|^2} \| F \psi \rangle. </math> with respective probabilities :<math> \\|E \psi\\|^2 \quad \mbox{ or } \quad \\|F \psi\\|^2. </math> The mathematical way of presenting this mixed state is by taking the following [[convex combination]] of pure states: :<math> \\|E \psi\\|^2 \times \frac{1}{\\|E \psi\\|^2} \| E \psi \rangle \langle E \psi \| + \\|F \psi\\|^2 \times \f
btext]] is subject to much sharper debate, probably accounting for its popularity across the philosophical spectrum. As a paean to a mythical Englishness the poem has come under criticism: after all, the first verse is a series of questions to which the 'truthful' answer is no, while the second frames a series of demands to which the reply might well be "get them yourself!". Consequently many see it as unsuitable as an alternate National Anthem, and its reference to a foreign capital city as puzzling to other nations. It is unlikely that Blake intended such a literal interpretation. One particular line from the poem, "Bring me my chariot of fire", which inspired the title of the film ''[[Chariots of Fire]]'', most probably draws on the story of 2 Kings 2:11, where the Old Testament prophet [[Elijah (prophet)\|Elijah]] is taken directly to heaven. A church congregation sings "Jerusalem" at close of the film. It is also sung in the film ''[[Calendar Girls]]'' at a meeting of the British Women's Institute. The song was performed by the band [[Emerson, Lake and Palmer]] on their album ''[[Brain Salad Surgery]]'', where it appeared under the title ''Jerusalem''. [[Iron Maiden]] singer [[Bruce Dickinson]] recorded a much transformed version on his solo concept album about Blake, ''The Chemical Wedding''. [[The Fall (band)\|The Fall]] and [[Billy Bragg]] have also recorded versions of the song, and [[the KLF\|the KLF]] (as the Jamms) used it to end "It's Grim Up North". [[Composer]] [[Robert Steadman]] incorporated a version in his [[remembrance]]-themed [[choral]] work ''In Memoriam'' (premiered in [[1995]]). In [[2000]], British novelty-pop group Fat Les recorded another version, entitled ''Jerusalem'' or alternately ''Jerusalem 2000''. This time it was a rousing electronic dance track, and was used as the England football team's theme at [[Euro 2000]]. Jerusalem, along with [[Abide With Me]], is always sung at the [[Rugby League]] Challenge Cup Final and both songs are known as Rugby League anthems. Since 2004 it has been sung at the beginning of [[England]] [[cricket]] matches and is regularly sung by [[Rugby Union]] crowds. The tune has been set to several texts in the United States, where the traditional lyrics would have little relevance, including ''O Love of God, how strong and true'', which was performed in an arrangement by [[Michael McCarthy (choirmaster)\|Michael McCarthy]] at [[Ronald Reagan]]'s funeral at [[Washington National Cathedral]]. == Text == {{Wikisource\|Preface to Milton: a Poem}} :And did those feet in ancient time :Walk upon England's mountains green? :And was the holy [[Lamb of God (religious)\|Lamb of God]] :On England's pleasant pastures seen? :And did the Countenance Divine :Shine forth upon our clouded hills? :And was [[Jerusalem]] builded here :Among these dark Satanic mills? :Bring me my bow of burning gold! :Bring me my arrows of desire! :Bring me my spear! O clouds, unfold! :Bring me my [[Chariots of Fire\|chariot of fire]]! :I will not cease from mental fight :Nor shall my sword sleep in my hand :Till we have built Jerusalem :In England's green and pleasant land Some versions (including Blake's original) have "strife" rather than "fight". ==See also== [[Civil religion]] [[Merry England]] [[UK topics]] [[Industrial Revolution#Romantic Movement\|Romantic Movement and the industrial revolution]] ==External links== [http://david.jamesnet.ca/britannica/Jerusalem.ra RealMedia Audio File] [[Category:British cultural icons]] [[Category:William Blake's poems]] [[Category:Christian hymns]] [[Category:English folklore]] [[Category:Patriotic songs]] [[Category:Songs popular at sporting events]] [[de:And did those feet in ancient time]] [[eo:And did those feet in ancient time]] [[sv:Jerusalem (hymn)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bush Alaska</title> <id>2941</id> <revision> <id>40109631</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T05:00:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.108.155.73</ip> </contributor> <comment>ANSCA link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Bush''' is a cultural as well as geographic division of the state of [[Alaska]] in the [[United States]]. Most Alaskans refer to any place besides [[Anchorage, Alaska\|Anchorage]], [[Fairbanks, Alaska\|Fairbanks]], [[Juneau City and Borough, Alaska\|Juneau]], and the towns of the [[Kenai_Peninsula_Borough, Alaska\|Kenai Peninsula]] and [[Matanuska-Susitna_Borough, Alaska\|Mat-Su]] [[Borough\|boroughs]] as falling within the Bush. The Bush is generally described as any community not "on the road system," making it accessible only by such means of transportation as: Snomobile/snowmachine, plane, boat, etc. Two kinds of Bush communities exist in Alaska: '''The Bush Hub''' and '''The Bush Village'''. == The Bush Hub == These are the hub towns of a few thousand people: [[Barrow, Alaska\|Barrow]], [[Nome, Alaska\|Nome]], [[Kotzebue, Alaska\|Kotzebue]], [[St. Mary's, Alaska\|St. Mary's]], [[Bethel, Alaska\|Bethel]], [[Dillingham, Alaska\|Dillingham]], [[Unalaska, Alaska\|Dutch Harbor]], and [[Cordova, Alaska\|Cordova]]. Bush hub towns tend to share a number of defining characteristics. These generally include: isolated road systems (roads do not connect to any other significant towns or cities). effects of permafrost (exposed sewage/water pipes, raised buildings, buckled roads). busy airports. Hub cities are said to still have a "wild west" feel to them, (complete with many outlaw type characters) serving as they do as "jump off" points for so many communities. A constant flow of comers and goers gives these towns, small by other standards, a bustling and transitional feeling beyond their comparatively diminutive sizes. == The Bush Village == Each hub town services a multitude of [[rural]] settlements and villages. The Bush Village presents a way of life that differs vastly from that of even its closely related parent hub. The Bush Village has a unique and profound kind of isolation that seldom is fully understood or appreciated by non-village dwellers. The following is a description of a particular village in S.W. Alaska, but the isolation of any Bush Village can be characterized by at least part of the following: no roads or cars, but [[boardwalk]]s for four-wheelers and paths for snow machines. no bathrooms with showers or hot running water; [[steam bath]]s are used exclusively for bathing. no restaurants or prepared foods available for sale, except for a few tiny village stores with odd hours. most of the food eaten in the village is caught near the village (or at seasonal "fish camps") by those living in the village. (some very interesting foods are enjoyed, such as [[fermented fish]] and "stink heads") the exception to these is at the school, where lunch, hot water and a flush toilet can be found. There is also a "washeteria" building where clothes can be washed and a shower can be taken for cost. few jobs, no economic base, very high energy costs. more or less daily power outages. delivery of US Mail is regularly delayed, sometimes for more than a week at a time. restrictions on alcohol ("dry," illegal to consume and possess). the native language is spoken during official village functions and is taught at the school exclusively through third grade. a tiny unpaved runway with frequently unflyable conditions. More to Add: Native [[Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act\|ANSCA]] corporations, federal government lands, airstrips. {{Alaska}} [[Category:Geography of Alaska]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>A Little Night Music (the film)</title> <id>2942</id> <revision> <id>41443352</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T09:56:02Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Martianlostinspace</username> <id>742541</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moved [[A Little Night Music]] to [[A Little Night Music (the film)]]: Avoid confusion with Mozart's piece of the same name.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''''A Little Night Music''''' is a [[Musical theater\|musical]] with music and lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]] and book by [[Hugh Wheeler]]. Based on the [[Ingmar Bergman]] film ''[[Smiles of a Summer Night]]'', it tells the story of a lawyer, Fredrik Egerman, who is married to a very young wife, Anne, who, despite the fact that they have been married almost a year, is still a virgin. He sees an old flame, Desiree Armfeldt, who is appearing in a popular play, and his romantic interest in her is rekindled. However, she is having an affair with a jealous, and married, military man, Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm. Complicating matters is Egerman's son, Henrik, a divinity student who is in love with his stepmother. The play culminates in a weekend at the country estate of Desiree's mother, Madame Armfeldt, who is looking after Desiree's daughter, Fredrika, while Desiree is on tour. Much of the music in the show is written in [[waltz]] (3/4) [[time signature\|time]], and the work is often considered an [[operetta]] rather than standard [[musical comedy]]. Despite the oblique Mozart reference in the title (see below), the elegant, [[harmony\|harmonically]]-advanced music in this show pays indirect homage to the compositions of [[Maurice Ravel]], especially his ''[[Valses nobles et sentimentales]]''. The score contains Sondheim's best-known song, "[[Send in the Clowns]]", as well as such songs as "The Glamorous Life," "You Must Meet My Wife," "Every Day a Little Death," "Liaisons," "In Praise of Women," "A Weekend in the Country," and "The Miller's Son." The score makes heavy demands on performers, with heavy use of [[counterpoint]] and most singing parts written with an operatic range. ''
f [[tax]]es without Parliament's consent. He is also the only person to be [[canonized]] by the [[Church of England]] after the [[English Reformation]]. Religious conflicts permeated Charles' reign. He selected his Catholic wife, [[Henrietta Maria]], over the objections of Parliament and public opinion. Charles further allied himself with controversial religious figures, including the ecclesiastic [[Richard Montagu]] and [[William Laud]], whom Charles appointed [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. Laud produced changes in the liturgy of the [[Church of England]] which many of Charles' subjects felt brought the Church of England too close to [[Roman Catholic Church\|Roman Catholicism]]. Charles' later attempts to force religious reforms upon [[Scotland]] led to war that weakened England and helped precipitate his downfall. The last years of Charles' reign were marked by the [[English Civil War]], in which he was opposed by the forces of Parliament&mdash;who challenged his attempts to augment his own power&mdash;and by [[Puritanism\|Puritans]], who were hostile to his religious policies. The war ended in defeat for Charles, who was subsequently [[Criminal procedure\|tried]], [[conviction (law)\|convicted]] and executed for [[high treason]]. The [[British monarchy\|monarchy]] was overthrown, and a [[Commonwealth of England\|commonwealth]] was established. As time passed this regime became increasingly dependent upon the army and became in effect a [[military dictatorship]]. Various political as well as socio-economic factors led to its collapse. Charles's son, [[Charles II of England\|Charles II]], returned to [[English Restoration\|restore the monarchy]] in 1660. ==Early life== Charles, the second son of [[James I of England\|James VI, King of Scots]] and [[Anne of Denmark]], was born at [[Dunfermline Palace]] on [[19 November]] [[1600]]. He was an underdeveloped child (he is listed in the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'' as the nation's shortest King) who was still unable to walk or talk at the age of three. When [[Elizabeth I of England\|Elizabeth I]] died in March 1603 and James VI became King of England as James I, Charles was originally left in Scotland in the care of nurses and servants because it was feared that the journey would damage his fragile health. He did make the journey in July 1604 and was subsequently placed under the charge of Alletta (Hogenhove) Carey, the Dutch-born wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey, who taught him how to walk and talk and insisted that he wear boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles. As an adult Charles was 5 feet 4 inches (162 cm) tall. Charles was not as well-regarded as his elder brother, [[Henry Frederick Stuart\|Henry]], [[Prince of Wales]]; Charles himself adored Henry and tried to emulate him. In 1605, as was then customary in the case of the Sovereign's second son, he was created [[Duke of York]] in England. Two years before, in 1603, he was created [[Duke of Albany]] in Scotland. When his elder brother died of [[typhoid]] in 1612, Charles became [[heir apparent]] and was subsequently created Prince of Wales and [[Earl of Chester]] in November 1616. His sister Elizabeth married in 1613, making Charles virtually an only child. The new Prince of Wales was greatly influenced by his father's favourite courtier, [[George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham]], who took him on an expedition to [[Spain]] in 1623 to look for a suitable bride, and settled on the daughter of the Spanish King [[Philip III of Spain\|Philip III]], Infanta Maria of Spain. No marriage occurred, however, as the Spanish demanded the Prince of Wales' conversion to Roman Catholicism. Upon their return in October, both the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Buckingham demanded that James I declare war on Spain. With the encouragement of his Protestant advisors, James summoned Parliament to request subsidies for his war effort. James also requested that Parliament sanction the marriage between the Prince of Wales and Princess [[Henrietta Maria of France]], whom Charles met in [[Paris]] whilst ''en route'' to Spain. It was a good match since she was a sister of [[Louis XIII of France\|Louis XIII]] (their father, [[Henry IV of France\|Henry IV]], had died during her childhood) . Parliament agreed to the marriage, but was extremely critical of the prior attempt to arrange a marital alliance with Spain. James was growing senile and as a result was finding it extremely difficult to control Parliament&mdash;the same problem would later haunt Charles during his reign. During the last year of his reign, actual power was held not by him but by his eldest son and the Duke of Buckingham. ==Early reign== Charles ascended the throne in March 1625 and on [[1 May]] of that year was married to Henrietta Maria, nine years his junior, by proxy. His first Parliament, which he opened in May, was opposed to his marriage to Henrietta Maria, a Roman Catholic, because it feared that Charles would lift restrictions on Roman Catholics and undermine the official establishment of Protestantism. Although he agreed with Parliament that he would not relax restrictions relating to recusants, he promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with [[Louis XIII]]. The couple were married on [[13 June]] [[1625]], in [[Canterbury, Kent\|Canterbury]]. Charles was crowned on [[2 February]] [[1626]] at [[Westminster Abbey]], but without his wife at his side due to the controversy. They had nine children, with three sons and three daughters surviving infancy. [[Image:Van Dyck Charles I.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|[[Anthony Van Dyck\|Sir Anthony Van Dyck]]: Charles I painted around 1635.]] Distrust of Charles's religious policies was increased by the controversy surrounding the ecclesiastic [[Richard Montagu]]. In a pamphlet, Montagu argued against the teachings of [[John Calvin]], immediately bringing himself into disrepute amongst the Puritans. A Puritan member of the House of Commons, [[John Pym]], attacked Montagu's pamphlet during debate, prompting Montagu to request the aid of Charles I in a pamphlet entitled "Appello Caesarem" ([[Latin]] "I appeal to Caesar", a reference to an appeal against Jewish persecution made by [[Paul of Tarsus\|Saint Paul the Apostle]]). Charles I offered the cleric his protection, leading many Puritans to take a hostile view towards him. Charles's primary concern during his early reign was foreign policy. [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine]], his sister Elizabeth's husband, had lost his hereditary lands in the [[Palatinate]] to the Holy Roman Emperor [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor\|Ferdinand II]], leading to the [[Thirty Years' War]], originally only a war to keep the Catholic [[Habsburg]]s hegemonic as the elected Kings of [[Bohemia]], though which spiralled out of control into a civil and confessional war between Protestants and Catholics in Europe. Charles was committed to help his brother-in-law regain the Palatinate by waging a war with the Catholic Spanish King [[Philip IV of Spain\|Philip IV]], whom he hoped he could force to intercede with the Emperor on his behalf. Parliament preferred an inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World, hoping that the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets could finance the war. Charles, however, preferred more aggressive (and more expensive) action on the Continent. Parliament only voted to grant a subsidy of £140,000; an insufficient sum for Charles. Moreover, the House of Commons agreed to allow the King to collect tonnage and poundage (two varieties of customs duties), but only for a period of one year, although previous Sovereigns since 1414 had been granted the right for life. In this manner, the House of Commons hoped to keep a check on Charles's power by forcing him to seek the renewal of the grant each year. Charles's allies in the House of Lords, led by the Duke of Buckingham, refused to pass the bill. Although no Parliamentary authority for the levy of tonnage and poundage could be obtained, Charles continued to collect the duties anyway. ==The Personal Rule== In January 1629, Charles opened the second session of the Parliament which had been prorogued in June 1628. He hoped that, with the Duke of Buckingham gone, Parliament would finally cooperate with him and grant him further subsidies. Instead, members of the House of Commons began to voice their opposition to the levying of tonnage and poundage without parliamentary consent. When he requested a parliamentary adjournment in March, members held the Speaker down in his chair whilst three resolutions against Charles were read aloud. The last of these resolutions declared that anyone who paid tonnage or poundage not authorised by Parliament would "be reputed a betrayer of the liberties of England, and an enemy to the same". Though the resolution was not formally passed, many members declared their approval. Afterwards, when the Commons passed further measures obnoxious to the King, Charles commanded the dissolution of Parliament. Charles resolved not to be forced to rely on Parliament for further monetary aid. Immediately, he made peace with France and Spain. The following eleven years, during which Charles ruled without a Parliament, have been known as the Eleven Years Tyranny. Historians who do not wish to take sides simply refer to this period as the [[Personal Rule]]. Charles' attempt to rule without Parliament was not unlawful under the precedents at that time: it constituted a valid exercise of the royal prerogative, although it must be noted that what had been considered lawful in previous times may well be seen as tyrannical in contemporary eyes. Such was the case of Charles' Tyranny: though in former ages his rule would indeed be considered just and right by most Englishmen, towards the middle of the 17th century it was held by most of his subjects an exercise of absolute power. Indeed, the [[Thirteen Colonies\|American colonia
ra novelists]] [[Category:Ancient Roman rhetoricians]] [[cs:Lucius Apuleius]] [[de:Apuleius]] [[el:Απουλήιος]] [[es:Apuleyo]] [[fr:Apulée]] [[gl:Apuleio]] [[it:Apuleio]] [[la:Apuleius]] [[hu:Apuleius]] [[nl:Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis]] [[pt:Apuleio]] [[ru:Апулей]] [[sr:Апулеј]] [[fi:Apuleius]] [[sv:Apuleius]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alexander Selkirk</title> <id>1790</id> <revision> <id>40196255</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T22:06:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.185.117.241</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Cast away life /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__ '''Alexander Selkirk''', born '''Alexander Selcraig''', ([[1676]]&ndash;[[13 December]] [[1721]]) was a sailor who spent four years as a [[castaway]] on an uninhabited island; he is supposed to be the prototype of [[Daniel Defoe\|Defoe's]] ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]''. ==Biography== ===Early life=== The son of a shoemaker and [[tanning\|tanner]] in [[Lower Largo]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]], he was born in 1676. In his youth he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition, and having been summoned on [[27 August]] [[1695]] before the kirk-session for his "''undecent carriage''" (indecent behaviour) in church, "''did not compear [appear], having gone away to &thorn;e sea: this bussiness is continued till his return''" ([[quotation]] in original [[spelling]]). At an early period he was engaged in [[buccaneer]] expeditions to the South Seas, and in [[1703]] joined famed [[privateer]] and [[exploration\|explorer]] [[William Dampier]] on the [[galleon]] ''Cinque Ports'' as sailing master. The following year, in [[October]], the ''[[Cinque Ports (1703 ship)\|Cinque Ports]]'' was stopped over at the uninhabited [[archipelago]] of [[Juan Fernández Islands\|Juan Fernández]] for a mid-expedition restock of supplies and fresh water. At this point, Selkirk had grave concerns about the seaworthiness of his vessel (the ''Cinque Ports'', later sank, losing most hands) and opted to stay ashore, banking on an impending visit by another ship. His decision spawned almost immediate regret. He chased and called after his boat to no avail; Selkirk spent a solitary residence of four years and four months on [[Juan Fernández Islands\|Juan Fernández]]. He took with him a [[musket]], [[gunpowder]], [[carpenter\|carpenter's]] tools, a knife, a Bible, and his clothing. ===Cast away life=== Selkirk initially stayed on the beach, fearing strange inland sounds he assumed to be dangerous beasts. During this period, he camped in a small cave, consumed [[shellfish]] for nutrition, surveyed the ocean each day for a possible rescue, and suffered from deep loneliness, depression, and regret. Eventual hordes of [[sea lion]]s, collecting on the beach for their mating and weaning season, drove him to the island's interior. There, life became significantly better. A bevy of new food sources became available: [[Wild Goat\|wild goats]], introduced by earlier sailors, provided [[meat]] and [[milk]]; uncultivated [[turnips]], [[cabbage]], and [[black pepper\|pepper]] berries offered diversity and spice. [[Rat]]s, also not native, were an initial problem -- they made a habit of gnawing on Selkirk during the night. However, by domesticating and living near equally feral [[cat]]s, he was able to sleep soundly. Selkirk made extraordinary use of the equipment he took from the ship and, later, that which he made from island materials. He carpentered two [[hut]]s out of native [[Pimento tree]]s and employed his musket and knife to hunt and clean goats. However, when his gunpowder dwindled, he had to resort to chasing his prey on foot. This resulted in a major injury wherein he tumbled off a cliff and was rendered unconscious for about twenty four hours (his prey had unwittingly intervened, sparing him a broken back).{{ref\|fall}} He also read from the [[Bible]] frequently, finding it beneficial to his emotional state and grasp of English. When Selkirk's clothing wore out, he fashioned new garments from goatskin using a [[nail]] to sew. His father was a tanner, and the lessons he had learned as a child helped him greatly on the island. When his shoes were no longer usable, Selkirk's feet had become so toughened and calloused that he found them unnecessary. He forged a new knife out of iron barrel rings left on the beach. Two vessels arrived and departed before his escape; both were [[Spain\|Spanish]]. As a [[Scotland\|Scotsman]] and [[privateer]], he faced a fate worse than death if captured. Selkirk hid from both crews. The long awaited rescue occurred on [[2 February]] [[1709]] by way of privateer ''Duke'', a ship piloted by the same William Dampier mentioned earlier. Selkirk was discovered off the island by the ''Duke''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s [[Captain]], [[Woodes Rogers]], who called him the Governor of the island. Upon being found, the four year castaway was completely incoherent with joy. The agile Selkirk caught two or three goats a day, helping restore the health of Rogers's men. Rogers eventually made Selkirk his mate and gave him the independent command of one of his prizes. Rogers's ''A cruising voyage round the world: first to the South-Sea, thence to the East-Indies, and homewards by the Cape of Good Hope'' was published in [[1712]], with an account of Selkirk's ordeal. In 1717 Selkirk had returned to Lower Largo, but only stayed a few months. There he met Sophia Bruce, a sixteen year old dairymaid, and they eloped to [[London]]. Within a year he had again gone to sea. On a visit to [[Plymouth]], he married a widowed innkeeper. According to the ship's [[data logging\|log]], he died at 8 p.m. on [[December 13]], [[1721]] while [[lieutenant]] on board the Royal ship ''[[Weymouth]]'', probably succumbing to the [[yellow fever]] which had devastated the voyage. He was buried at sea off the west coast of [[Africa]]. ==The Island== One of the islands in [[Juan Fernández Islands]] has been named Alejandro Selkirk. ==Notes== #{{note\|fall}} Rodgers, Woodes, ''Providence display’d, or a very surprizing account of one'', p. 6. ==References== Selcraig, B. (July 2005). "The Real Robinson Crusoe". ''[[Smithsonian]]'', p.82-90. {{1911}} ==Further reading and information== Diana Souhami, ''Selkirk's Island: The True and Strange Adventures of the Real Robinson Crusoe'', (2001) ISBN 0151005265 == External links == [http://www.ini.unizh.ch/~tobi/alex/alex.html Account of a trip to Selkirk's Island] *[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-1783811,00.html Site of Selkirk's camp indentified], from [[The Times]] (London), [[17 September]] [[2005]]. [[Category:1676 births\|Selkirk, Alexander]] [[Category:1721 deaths\|Selkirk, Alexander]] [[Category:Natives of Fife\|Selkirk, Alexander]] [[Category:Castaways\|Selkirk, Alexander]] [[de:Alexander Selkirk]] [[fr:Alexandre Selkirk]] [[nl:Alexander Selkirk]] [[fi:Alexander Selkirk]] [[sv:Alexander Selkirk]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anti-ballistic missile</title> <id>1791</id> <revision> <id>41381115</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:35:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mahanchian</username> <id>606519</id> </contributor> <comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links\|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''anti-ballistic missile''' (ABM) is a [[missile]] designed to counter [[ballistic missile]]s. A ballistic missile is used to deliver [[nuclear weapon\| nuclear]], [[Chemical warfare\| chemical]], [[Biological warfare\| biological]] or conventional [[warhead]]s in a [[External ballistics\|ballistic]] flight [[trajectory]]. The term "anti-ballistic missile" describes any antimissile system designed to counter ballistic missiles. However the term is more commonly used for ABM systems designed to counter long range, nuclear-armed [[Intercontinental ballistic missile]]s (ICBMs). Only two ABM systems have previously been operational against ICBMs, the U.S. [[Safeguard (nuke)\| Safeguard]] system, and the Russian A-35 system which used the Galosh interceptor. Safeguard was only briefly operational; the Russian system has been improved and is still active, now called A-135 and using two missile types, Gorgon and Gazelle. However the U.S. [[Ground-Based Midcourse Defense]] (GMD, previously called [[National Missile Defense\|NMD]]) system has recently reached initial operational capability. Three shorter range tactical ABM systems are currently operational: the U.S. [[MIM-104 Patriot\| Patriot]], Navy [[Aegis combat system]]/[[Standard missile\| Standard SM-3]], and the Israeli [[Arrow missile\| Arrow]]. The longer-range U.S. [[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]] (THAAD) system is scheduled for deployment in 2011. In general short-range tactical ABMs cannot intercept ICBMs, even if within range. The tactical ABM radar and performance characteristics do not allow it, as an incoming ICBM warhead moves much faster than a tactical missile warhead. However it's possible the higher performance THAAD missile could be upgraded to intercept ICBMs. Latest versions of the U.S. [[MIM-23 Hawk\| Hawk missile]] have a limited capability against tactical ballistic missiles, but is usually not described as an ABM. For current US developments, see [[Missile Defense Agency]]. For other short-range missiles, see [[Sea Wolf missile\|Sea Wolf]], [[MBDA Aster\|Aster 15]] and [[Crotale missile]]. ==Early history of ABMs== === From World War II through the 1950s=== The idea of shooting down rockets before they can hit their target dates from the first use of modern missiles in warfare, the German [[V-1]] and [[V-2]] program of [[World War II]]. British and American fighters attempted to destroy V-1 "buzz bombs" in flight prior to impact, with some success. The V-2, the first true ballistic mis
test ice on Earth''" due to the fact that it is a climate-controlled facility and because of the effects of high altitude on the ice surface. As a result, many world records have been broken there. It was at this place where the likes of [[Catriona LeMay Doan]] and [[Cindy Klassen]] trained for their Olympic and world stardom. Calgary is also the home of "'''The Dungeon'''", the [[pro wrestling]] training camp founded by the late [[Stu Hart]]. Two of Hart's sons trained there and went to be some of the greatest competitors the sport has ever seen: [[Bret Hart]] and the late [[Owen Hart]]. Many [[Canadian]] [[wrestlers]] trained at the Dungeon, including [[Chris Jericho]], [[Chris Benoit]], [[Bad News Allen]], and fellow Calgary native, [[Lance Storm]]. Numerous American wrestlers such as Andrew "Test" Martin, Steve Blackman, Brian Pillman and Jim "The Anvil" Neidhart and British wrestlers "The British Bulldog" Davey Boy Smith and the Dynamite Kid were also trained in "the Dungeon". ===Current professional franchises=== <!-- Table Header --> <tr bgcolor="#ADADAD"> <td width="50px" align="left">'''''Logo'''''</td> <td width="150px">'''''Club'''''</td> <td width="200px" align="left">'''''League'''''</td> <td width="200px" align="left">'''''Venue'''''</td> <td width="50px" align="center">'''''Established'''''</td> <td width="20px" align="center">'''''Championships'''''</td> </tr> <!-- Rows --> <tr bgcolor="#ffffff"> <td align="left">[[Image:Calgary Flames.gif\|50px\|Calgary Falmes logo]]</td> <td>[[Calgary Flames]]</td> <td align="left">[[National Hockey League]]</td> <td align="left">[[Pengrowth Saddledome]] </td> <td align="center">1972</td> <td align="center">1</td> <tr bgcolor="#ffffff'> <td align="left">[[Image:CALGARY STAMPEDERS.jpg\|50px\|Calgary Stampeders logo]]</td> <td>[[Calgary Stampeders]]</td> <td align="left">[[Canadian Football League]]</td> <td align="left">[[McMahon Stadium]]</td> <td align="center">1935</td> <td align="center">5</td> <tr bgcolor="#ffffff"> <td align="left">[[Image:cgyrough.gif\|55px\|Calgary Roughnecks Logo]]</td> <td>[[Calgary Roughnecks]]</td> <td align="left">[[National Lacrosse League]]</td> <td align="left">[[Pengrowth Saddledome]]</td> <td align="center">2001</td> <td align="center">1</td> <tr bgcolor="#ffffff"> <td align="left">[[Image:Nlvipers.gif\|50px\|Calgary Vipers Logo]]</td> <td>[[Calgary Vipers]]</td> <td align="left">[[Northern League (baseball)\|Northern League]] ([[Baseball]])</td> <td align="left">[[Foothills Stadium]]</td> <td align="center">2005</td> <td align="center">0</td> </tr> </table> <small>''() Established as the [[Atlanta Flames]]. Became the [[Calgary Flames]] in 1980.''</small> ===Semi-professional teams=== <!-- Table Header --> <tr bgcolor="#ADADAD"> <td width="50px" align="left">'''''Logo'''''</td> <td width="150px">'''''Club'''''</td> <td width="200px" align="left">'''''League'''''</td> <td width="200px" align="left">'''''Venue'''''</td> <td width="50px" align="center">'''''Established'''''</td> <td width="20px" align="center">'''''Championships'''''</td> </tr> <!-- Rows --> <tr bgcolor="#ffffff"> <td align="left">[[Image:Calgaryhitmen.gif\|55px\|Calgary Hitmen Logo]]</td> <td>[[Calgary Hitmen]]</td> <td align="left">[[Western Hockey League]]</td> <td align="left">[[Pengrowth Saddledome]]</td> <td align="center">1995</td> <td align="center">1</td> </tr> </table> ===Amateur teams=== [[Calgary Dawgs]] (Baseball/[[Western Major Baseball League]]) - Operations suspended for the 2006 season [[Calgary Canucks]] (Hockey/[[Alberta Junior Hockey League]]) [[Calgary Royals]] (Hockey/[[Alberta Junior Hockey League]]) [[Calgary Oval X-treme]] (Hockey/[[Western Women's Hockey League]]) [[Calgary Drillers]] (Basketball/[[American Basketball Association]]) - Operations suspended in February 2005 ===Outdoor recreation=== Calgary is next to some of the most pristine natural scenery in the world. [[Banff National Park]] is about 125 km northwest of Calgary on the [[Trans-Canada Highway]]. 30 km west of the city is the town of [[Bragg Creek, Alberta\|Bragg Creek]]. Another 45 km west of Bragg Creek is the [[Kananaskis, Alberta\|Kananaskis Country]] improvement district featuring hiking, horseback riding and mountain-biking trails, camping sites, rock and ice climbing, and cross country skiing. A Provincial shooting range for firearms is located on the highway to Kananaskis. Many Calgarians and millions of tourists enjoy activities such as biking, hiking, skiing, snowboarding, [[mountainboarding\|mountainboarding]], camping, and fishing in these great parks every year. The town of [[Banff, Alberta\|Banff]] hosts nearly five million visitors annually. Within Calgary itself, people make extensive use of the city's network of bike paths and large urban parks. For more extreme adventure, [[Canada Olympic Park]] offers [http://www.telusplanet.net/public/oaneale/ bobsledding], luge, cross-country skiing, ski jumping, downhill skiing, and snowboarding in the winter. The [[Bow River]] is very popular among fly-fishermen. [[Golf\|Golfing]] is also an extremely popular activity for Calgarians and the region has a very large number of courses. ===Major parks in Calgary and vicinity=== [[Fish Creek Provincial Park]], Canada's only provincial park located within a major city [[Nose Hill Park]] Inglewood Bird Sanctuary Stanley Park Prince's Island Park Prairie Winds Park [[Bowness, Alberta\|Bowness Park]] Prince's Island Park [[Edworthy Park]] Confederation Park [[Kananaskis, Alberta\|Kananaskis Country]] Provincial Improvement District, approximately 60 km to the west and southwest [[Banff National Park]], approximately 130 km to the west, [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] [[Jasper National Park]], [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] [[Yoho National Park]], [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] [[Kootenay National Park]], [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] [[Dinosaur Provincial Park]], [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] [[Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park]] ==Transportation== Calgary is a major Canadian transportation centre and a central cargo hub for freight into and out of north-western North America[http://www.calgaryairport.com/document.cfm?did=700]. The city also sits at the junction between the "[[CANAMEX\|Canamex]]" highway system and the [[Trans-Canada Highway]] ([[Alberta Highway 1\|Highway 1]] in Alberta). The [[Calgary International Airport]] serves the city as well as the international traffic for Alberta and Saskatchewan. The airport saw 9.1 million passenger movements in 2004. In December of that same year, it was the third busiest airport in Canada after [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]] and the [[Vancouver International Airport]], marginally busier than Montreal's [[Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport\|Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport]]. It is one of Canada's busiest cargo airports as well. Calgary is also the largest Canadian city without any intercity passenger rail service, as all [[VIA Rail]] service to the city was terminated in the late 1980s and early 1990s by the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada\|Conservative government]]. Calgary's second airport, [[Calgary/Springbank Airport]], is located in the western suburb of Springbank, handles the majority of private-plane flights, and acts as a reliever for the main airport. [[Image:CT_SD160_2.jpg\|left\|250px\|thumb\|Calgary's [[C-Train]] system.]] Calgary's mass transit system is operated by [[Calgary Transit]]. The light rail transit (LRT) system, known as the [[C-Train]], consists of 42.1 km of track connecting 36 stations and was one of the first such systems in North America. Until very recently, Calgary and [[Edmonton, Alberta\|Edmonton]] were the only two North American cities with populations under 1 million to operate rapid mass transit systems. The Whitehorn-City Centre line serves downtown and the Northeast, while the Dalhousie-Somerset line runs between the Northwest and South Calgary via Downtown. Travel between stations along 7th Avenue in downtown is free-of-charge. Unique to the [[C-Train]] system, its power is completely wind generated and completely free of emissions. Calgary Transit also has an effective system of buses, with routes stretching over the whole city. It has won several prestigious awards for its efficiency and its environmental responsibility. It consists of over 160 bus routes and three [[C-Train]] lines (two routes), stretching over 4,500 km. The City of Calgary maintains an impressive network of paved bicycle paths. The dedicated path network in Calgary is among the most expansive in North America and spans 583 km. There are als
syntax similar to [[C programming language\|C]] or [[Pascal programming language\|Pascal]]. Icon is most similar to Pascal, using <code>:=</code> syntax for assignments, the <code>procedure</code> keyword and similar syntax. On the other hand, Icon uses C-style brackets for structuring execution groups, and programs start by running a procedure called "main". In many ways Icon also shares features with most [[scripting programming language]]s; variables do not have to be declared, types are cast automatically, and numbers can be converted to strings and back automatically. Another feature common to many scripting languages, but not all, is the lack of a line-ending character; in Icon lines not ended by a semicolon get ended by an implied semicolon if it makes sense. Procedures are the basic building blocks of Icon programs, and although they use Pascal naming they work more like C functions and can return values; there is no <code>function</code> keyword in Icon. <code> procedure doSomething(aString) write(aString) end </code> ==Goal-directed execution== One of Icon's key concepts is to change control structures from ones based on boolean logic, to ones based on "success" or "failure". Under this model simple comparisons like <code>if a < b</code> do not mean "if the operations to the right evaluate to true" as the would under most languages, instead it means something more like "if the operations to the right ''succeed"''. In this case the < operator succeeds if the comparison is true, so the end result is identical between Icon and other languages. Things become slighly more interesting when you consider <code>if a < b < c</code>, a common type of comparison that cannot be directly stated in most languages. The utility of this concept becomes much clearer when you consider real-world examples. Since Icon uses success or failure for all flow control, this simple code: <code> if a := read() then write(a) </code> Will copy one line of the standard input to standard output. What's interesting about this example is that the code will work even if the read() causes an error, for instance, if the file does not exist. In that case the statement <code>a := read()</code> will fail, and write will simply not be called. Success and failure are passed "up" through functions, meaning that a failure inside a nested function will cause the functions calling it to fail as well. For instance, we can write a program to copy an entire input file to output in a single line: <code> while write(read()) </code> When the read() command fails, at the end of file for instance, the failure will be passed up the chain and write() will fail as well. The while, being a control structure, stops on failure, meaning it stops when the file is empty. For comparison, consider a similar example written in [[Java programming language\|Java]]-based [[pseudocode]]: <code> try { while ((a = read()) != EOF) { write(a); } } catch (Exception e) { // do nothing, exit the loop } </code> In this case there are two comparisons needed, one for end of file (EOF) and another for all other errors. Since Java does not allow errors to be compared as logic elements, as under Icon, the lengthy <code>try/catch</code> syntax must be used instead. Try blocks also impose a performance penalty for simply using them, even if no error occurs, a [[distributed cost]] that Icon avoids. Icon refers to this concept as ''goal-directed execution'', referring to the way that execution continues until some goal is reached. In the example above the goal is to read the entire file; the read command continues to succeed while there is more information to be read, and fails when there isn't. The goal is thus coded directly in the language, instead of using statements checking return codes or similar constructs. ==Generators== Expressions in Icon often return a single value, for instance, <code>x < 5</code> will evaluate and return success or failure. However several of the examples below rely on the fact that many expressions do not ''immediately'' return success or failure, returning values in the meantime. This drives the examples with <code>every</code> and <code>to</code>; <code>every</code> causes <code>to</code> to continue to return values until it fails. This is a key concept in Icon, known as ''generators''. Generators drive much of the loop functionality in the language, but do so more directly; the programmer does not write a loop and then pull out and compare values, Icon will do all of this for you. Icon includes several generator-builders. The ''alternator'' syntax allows a series of items to be generated in sequence until one fails: <code>1 \| "hello" \| x < 5</code> can generate "1", "hello", and "5" if x is less than than 5. Alternators can be read as "or" in many cases, for instance: <code>if y < (x \| 5) then write("y=", y)</code> will write out the value of y if it is smaller than x ''or'' 5. Internally Icon checks every value from left to right until one succeeds or the list empties and it returns a failure. Remember that functions will not be called unless the calls within do not fail, so this example can be shortened to: <code>write("y=", (x \| 5) > y)</code> Another simple generator is the <code>to</code>, which generates lists of integers; <code>every write(1 to 10)</code> will do exactly what it seems to. The ''bang syntax'' generates every item of a list; <code>every write(!aString)</code> will output each character of aString on a new line. To demonstrate the power of this concept, consider string operations. Most languages include a function known as <code>find</code> or <code>indexOf</code> that returns the location of a string within another. Consider: <code> s = "All the world's a stage. And all the men and women merely players"; i = indexOf("the", s) </code> This code will return 4, the position of the first occurrence of the word "the". To get the next instance of "the" an alternate form must be used, <code>i = indexOf("the", s, 5)</code>, the 5 at the end saying it should look from position 5 on. In order to extract all the occurrences of "the", a loop must be used... <code> s = "All the world's a stage. And all the men and women merely players"; i = indexOf("the", s) while i != -1 { write(i); i = indexOf("the", s, i+1); } </code> Under Icon the <code>find</code> function is a generator, and will return the next instance of the string each time it is resumed before finally failing after it passes the end of the string. The same code under Icon can be written: <code> s := "All the world's a stage. And all the men and women merely players" every write(find("the",s)) </code> Find will return the index of the next instance of "the" each time it is resumed by <code>every</code>, eventually passing the end of the string and failing. As in the prior example, this will cause write to fail, and the (one-line) <code>every</code> loop to exit. Of course there are times where you deliberately want to find a string after some point in input, for instance, you might be scanning a text file containing data in multiple columns. Goal-directed execution works here as well, and can be used this way: <code> write(5 < find("the", s)) </code> The position will only be returned if "the" appears after position 5, the comparison will fail otherwise, passing that failure to write() as before. There is one small "trick" to this code that needs to be considered: comparisons return the right hand result, so it is important to put the find on the right hand side of the comparison. If it was placed on the left, 5 would be written. Icon adds several control structures for looping through generators. The <code>every</code> operator is similar to <code>while</code>, looping through every item returned by a generator and exiting on failure: <code> every k := i to j do doSomething(k) </code> Why use <code>every</code> instead of a while loop in this case? Because <code>while</code> re-evaluates the first result, but <code>every</code> produces all results. The <code>every</code> syntax actually injects values into the function in a fashion similar to blocks under [[Smalltalk]]. For instance, the above loop can be re-written this way: <code>every write(someFunction(i to j))</code> Users can build new generators easily using the <code>suspend</code> keyword: <code> procedure findOnlyOdd(pattern, theString) every i := find(pattern, theString) do if i % 2 = 1 then suspend i end </code> This example loops over ''theString'' using find to look for ''pattern''. When one is found, and the position is even, the location is returned from the function with <code>suspend</code>. Unlike <code>return</code>, <code>suspend</code> writes down where it is in the internal generators as well, allowing it to pick up where it left off on the next iteration. ==Strings== In keeping with its script-like functionality, Icon adds a number of features to make working with strings easier. Most notable among these is the ''scanning'' system, which repeatedly calls functions on a string: <co
[Steve Higgins]], producer of ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' [[Cloris Leachman]], actress The [[McCaughey septuplets]], the first surviving set of septuplets, were born in Des Moines to a couple from nearby [[Carlisle, Iowa\|Carlisle]]. [[Kyle Orton]], [[Chicago Bears]] quarterback (from nearby [[Altoona, Iowa\|Altoona]]) [[Chris Pirillo]], television personality and technology figure [[Brandon Routh]], star of the upcoming film ''[[Superman Returns]]'' (from nearby [[Norwalk, Iowa\|Norwalk]]) All of the members of [[Slipknot (band)\|Slipknot]], especially [[Corey Taylor]], a [[nu metal music\|nu metal band]]. [[Bill Stewart (musician)\|Bill Stewart]], well known jazz drummer with [[Pat Metheny Group]]. [[Stephen Stucker]], actor, best known for his role as the [[air traffic controller]] in the [[1980]] movie, ''[[Airplane!]]'' [[Kevin Tapani]], [[Major League Baseball]] player [[Tionne "T-Boz" Watkins]], member of the singing group, [[TLC]]. == Sister Cities == [[Kofu]], [[Japan]] [[Naucalpan]], [[Mexico]] [[Saint-Etienne]], [[France]] [[Shijiazhuang]], [[China]] [[Stavropol]], [[Russia]] == References == [http://www.ci.des-moines.ia.us/departments/AC/Information/AChistoricalinfo.htm City of Des Moines Action Center Historical Guide] * Henning, Barbara Beving Long, and Patrice K. Beam, ''Des Moines and Polk County: Flag on the Prairie'' (ISBN 1892724340). Sun Valley, California: American Historical Press, 2003. == External links == === Civic and cultural links === [http://www.blankparkzoo.com/ Blank Park Zoo] [http://www.ci.des-moines.ia.us City of Des Moines] [http://www.civiccenter.org/ Civic Center of Greater Des Moines] [http://www.desmoinesartcenter.org/ Des Moines Art Center] [http://www.desmoinesartsfestival.org/ Des Moines Art Festival] [http://www.dmmo.org/ Des Moines Metro Opera] [http://www.desmoineslibrary.com Des Moines Public Library] [http://www.dmps.k12.ia.us Des Moines Public Schools] [http://www.dmsymphony.org/ Des Moines Symphony] [http://www.knowdowntown.com/ Downtown Community Alliance] [http://www.desmoinesmetro.com/ Greater Des Moines Partnership] [http://www.lib.drake.edu/heritage/odm/ Historic Des Moines] Drake University photo collection [http://www.iowastatefair.com/ Iowa State Fair] [http://www.lhf.org/ Living History Farms] [http://www.salisburyhouse.org/ Salisbury House] [http://www.sciowa.org/ Science Center of Iowa] [http://www.desmoinesbigband.com/ The Des Moines Big Band] === Other links === [http://www.absolutedsm.com/ absoluteDSM.com] - Info on the city's construction and development projects [http://www.desmoinesalive.com/ desmoinesalive.com] - Info and reviews on Restaurants, Bars, Clubs, etc {{Mapit-US-cityscale\|41.590939\|-93.620866}} {{Iowa}} {{United_States_state_capitals}} [[Category:All-America City]] [[Category:Des Moines, Iowa\|Des Moines, Iowa]] [[Category:State capitals in the United States]] [[da:Des Moines]] [[de:Des Moines]] [[es:Des Moines (Iowa)]] [[eo:Des Moines (Iovao)]] [[fr:Des Moines]] [[io:Des Moines, Iowa]] [[he:דה מוין]] [[nl:Des Moines (Iowa)]] [[ja:デモイン]] [[pl:Des Moines (Iowa)]] [[pt:Des Moines]] [[ro:Des Moines]] [[ru:Де-Мойн]] [[sk:Des Moines]] [[fi:Des Moines]] [[sv:Des Moines]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Donald Campbell</title> <id>9164</id> <revision> <id>40363066</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other people with the same name, see [[Donald Campbell (disambiguation)]]'' '''Donald Malcolm Campbell''' ([[March 23]], [[1921]] - [[January 4]], [[1967]]) was a British [[automobile\|car]] and [[motorboat]] racer who broke many speed records. Campbell was born in [[Horley]], [[Surrey]], as the son of [[Malcolm Campbell\|Sir Malcolm Campbell]]. Following his father's career, he strove to set speed records on [[Land Speed Record\|land]] and [[Water speed record\|water]]. Campbell began [[land speed record\|speed record]] attempts using his father's old boat ''[[Bluebird K4]]'', but after a 156 mph (250 km/h) crash destroyed the ''K4'' in [[1951]] he developed a new boat. The ''[[Bluebird K7]]'' was a jet-propelled [[hydroplaning\|hydroplane]] type with a [[Metrovick F.2\|Metropolitan-Vickers ''Beryl'']] [[jet engine]] producing 4000 lbf (18 kN) of thrust. Campbell set seven world water-speed records between [[1955]] and [[1964]]. The first was at [[Ullswater]] on [[July 23]], [[1955]], where he set a record of 203 mph (325 km/h). The series of increases peaked in [[December 31]] [[1964]] at [[Dumbleyung Lake, Western Australia]] when he reached 276.33 mph. On land, following a heavy crash at [[Bonneville]] with the ''Bluebird CN7'' car in [[1960]], on [[July 17]], [[1964]], at [[Lake Eyre]], Australia he set a record of 403.10 mph for jet propelled four-wheeled vehicles (Class A). He became the first person to set both water and land records in the same year. But his land record was short-lived, because rule changes meant that [[Craig Breedlove]]'s ''[[Spirit of America]]'' soon set new records. Three years later, on [[January 4]], [[1967]], Campbell was killed when the re-engined ''Bluebird K7'' flipped and disintegrated at a speed in excess of 300 mph on [[Coniston Water]] in England. The cause of the crash has been variously attributed to Campbell not waiting to refuel after doing a first run of 297 mph, and hence the boat being lighter; the waves caused by his wash; and, most likely, a cut-out of the jet engine. The wreckage of his craft and the body of Campbell were not recovered until [[May 28]], [[2001]] when diver [[Bill Smith (diver)\|Bill Smith]] was inspired to look for the wreck after hearing the [[Marillion]] song "Out Of This World" (from the album ''[[Afraid of Sunlight (album)\|Afraid of Sunlight]]''), which was written about Campbell and the Bluebird. The body of Campbell was recovered soon after and was laid to rest in Coniston cemetery. The story of his last attempt at the water speed record on Coniston Water was told in the [[BBC]] television drama ''[[Across the Lake]]'' in [[1988]], with [[Anthony Hopkins]] as Campbell. Between them, Donald and his father had set eleven speed records on water and ten on land. ==External links== http://website.lineone.net/~donaldcampbell/ * [http://www.marillion.com/news/2001/20010308.htm Steve Hogarth's account of the raising of the Bluebird] * [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=6001973 Find-A-Grave Donald Campbell] [[Category:1921 births\|Campbell, Donald M.]] [[Category:1967 deaths\|Campbell, Donald M.]] [[Category:Land speed record\|Campbell, Donald M.]] [[Category:Water speed record\|Campbell, Donald M.]] [[Category:Natives of Surrey\|Campbell, Donald M.]] [[Category:Freemasons\|Campbell, Donald]] [[Category:British racecar drivers\|Campbell, Donald]] [[Category:Old Uppinghamians\|Campbell, Donald]] [[de:Donald Campbell]] [[sr:Доналд Кемпбел]] [[sv:Donald Campbell]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Directed set</title> <id>9165</id> <revision> <id>38748362</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T10:31:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>193.205.23.1</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink\|"Directed" redirects here. For those that direct, see [[Director]].}} In [[mathematics]], a '''directed set''' is a ''right filtering [[preorder]]'', i.e. a [[set]] ''A'' together with a [[reflexive relation\|reflexive]] and [[transitive relation\|transitive]] [[binary relation]] &le; having the additional property that for any two elements ''a'' and ''b'' in ''A'', there exists a third element ''c'' in ''A'' with ''a'' &le; ''c'' and ''b'' &le; ''c'' (directedness). Given two points ''a'' and ''b'' one can move from ''a'' in the direction of ''b'' by finding another point ''c'' "beyond" both ''a'' and ''b''. Continuing inductively, one can find a [[sequence]] ''a'' &le; ''b'' &le; ''c'' &le; ''d'' &le; ... of points. == Applications == Directed sets are generalizations of [[total order\|totally ordered sets]]. In [[topology]] they are used to define [[net (topology)\|nets]] that generalize [[sequence]]s and unite the various notions of [[limit (mathematics)\|limit]] used in [[mathematical analysis\|analysis]]. == Examples == Examples of directed sets include: * The set of [[natural number\|natural numbers]] '''N''' with the ordinary order &le; is a directed set (and so is every [[total order\|totally ordered set]]). * If ''x''<sub>0</sub> is a [[real number]], we can turn the set '''R''' &minus; {''x''<sub>0</sub>} into a directed set by writing ''a'' &le; ''b'' if and only if <br>\|''a'' &minus; ''x''<sub>0</sub>\| &ge; \|''b'' &minus; ''x''<sub>0</sub>\|. We then say that the reals have been ''directed towards x<sub>0</sub>''. This is not a partial order. * If ''T'' is a [[topological space]] and ''x''<sub>0</sub> is a point in ''T'', we turn the set of all [[topological neighbourhood\|neighbourhoods]] of ''x''<sub>0</sub> into a directed set by writing ''U'' &le; ''V'' if and only if ''U'' contains ''V''. For every ''U'': ''U'' &le; ''U''; since ''U'' contains itself. For every ''U'',''V'',''W'': if ''U'' &le; ''V'' and ''V'' &le; ''W'', then ''U'' &le; ''W''; since if ''U'' contains ''V'' and ''V'' contains ''W'' then ''U'' contains ''W''. ** For every ''U'', ''V'': there exists the set ''U'' &cap;''V'' such that ''U'' &le; ''U'' &cap;''V'' and ''V'' &le; ''U'' &cap;''V''; since both ''U'' and ''V'' contain ''U'' &cap;''V''. * In a [[poset]] ''P'', every subset of the form {''a''\| ''a'' in
view holds that the epistle was written very soon after Paul's second visit to Galatia (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2018:23;&version=31; 18:23]). The visit to [[Jerusalem]], mentioned in Gal 2:1&ndash;10, seems identical with that of Acts 15, and it is spoken of as a thing of the past. Consequently, the epistle seems to have been written subsequently to the [[Council of Jerusalem]]. The similarity between this epistle and that to the Romans has led to the conclusion that they were both written at the same time, namely, in the winter of AD 57&ndash;58, during Paul's stay in [[Corinth]] (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2020:2-3;&version=31; 20:2&ndash;3]). This to the Galatians is written on the urgency of the occasion, tidings having reached him of the state of matters; and that to the Romans in a more deliberate and systematic way, in exposition of the same fundamental doctrines of the gospel. The South Galatian view holds that Paul wrote Galatians before or shortly after the First Jerusalem Council, probably on his way to it, and that it was written to churches he had presumably planted during either his time in Tarsus (he would have travelled a short distance, since Tarsus is in Cilicia) after his first visit to Jerusalem as a Christian (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%209:30;&version=31; 9:30]), or during his first missionary journey, when he travelled throughout southern Galatia. ==Contents== This epistle addresses the question, was the Jewish law binding on Christians? The epistle is designed to counter the Jews' position that men cannot be justified by faith without the works of the law of [[Moses]]. After an introductory address (Gal [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%201:1-10;&version=31; 1:1&ndash;10]), the apostle discusses the subjects which had occasioned the epistle. In Chapter [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=55&chapter=1&version=31 1] he defends his apostolic authority ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%201:11-19;&version=31; 1:11&ndash;19]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%202:1-14;&version=31; 2:1&ndash;14]). Chapters [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=55&chapter=2&version=31 2], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=55&chapter=3&version=31 3], and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=55&chapter=4&version=31 4] show the influence of the [[Judaizers]] in destroying the very essence of the gospel. Chapter 3 exhorts the Galatian believers to stand fast in the faith as it is in Jesus, and to abound in the fruit of the Spirit. Chapter 4 then concludes with a summary of the topics discussed and with the benediction, followed by [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%205,6:1-10;&version=31; 5; 6:1&ndash;10] teaching about the right use of their Christian freedom. The Epistle to the Galatians and that to the Romans taken together "form a complete proof that [[justification]] is not to be obtained meritoriously either by works of morality or by rites and ceremonies, though of divine appointment; but that it is a free gift, proceeding entirely from the mercy of [[God]], to those who receive it by faith in [[Jesus]] our Lord" (Easton). In the conclusion of the epistle ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%206:11;&version=31; 6:11]), Paul writes, "Ye see how large a letter I have written with mine own hand." It is implied that this was different from his ordinary usage, which was simply to write the concluding salutation with his own hand, indicating that the rest of the epistle was written by another hand. Regarding this conclusion, [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot\|Lightfoot]], in his Commentary on the epistle, says: "At this point the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name ([[2 Thessalonians\|2 Thess]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%202:2;&version=31; 2:2]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%203:17;&version=31; 3:17]) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. ''pelikois grammasin''), that his hand-writing may reflect the energy and determination of his soul." An interesting literary interpretation of this period of [[Christianity]] and the character of Paul can be found in [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s short story "The Church that was at Antioch". A [[Roman Empire\|Roman]] soldier and follower of [[Mithraism]] discovers the faith on his death bed, after having tried to diffuse tension between the [[Gentile]] and Jewish [[Christians]] over issues of [[Judaism]] such as [[circumcision]] and the preparation of food. == External links == {{biblegateway\|\|Galatians}}: online translations of the ''Epistle to Galatians' [http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd/T0001400.html#T0001413 ''Easton's Bible Dictionary,'' 1897:] Epistle to the Galatians, commencing "The genuineness of this epistle is not called in question. Its Pauline origin is universally acknowledged." [http://www.depts.drew.edu/jhc/eysingsp.html G. A. van den Bergh van Eysinga, "The Spuriousness of so-called Pauline epistles exemplified by the ''Epistle to the Galatians''," 1912]: a review of the critical analysis that identified ''Galatians'' among the "four Epistles" considered by critical readers to be post-Pauline. <center> <br> {\| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse" \|- bgcolor="darkgray" \|colspan=3\|<center>'''Books of the Bible''' \|- bgcolor="gainsboro" \|<Center>Preceded by:<br><Center>[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians\|Second Corinthians]] \|'''[[Epistles]]''' \|Followed by:<br><Center>[[Epistle to the Ephesians\|Ephesians]] \|} </center> [[Category:New Testament books\|Galatians]] [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[de:Brief des Paulus an die Galater]] [[fr:Épître aux Galates]] [[ko:갈라디아인들에게 보낸 편지]] [[id:Surat Paulus kepada Jemaat di Galatia]] [[jv:Layang Paulus Galatia]] [[nl:Brief van Paulus aan de Galaten]] [[ja:ガラテヤ人への手紙]] [[pl:List do Galatów]] [[pt:Epístola aos Gálatas]] [[ru:Послание к Галатам]] [[fi:Kirje galatalaisille]] [[sv:Galaterbrevet]] [[zh:加拉太書]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Epistle to the Philippians</title> <id>9950</id> <revision> <id>38997084</id> <timestamp>2006-02-10T00:50:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.187.159.68</ip> </contributor> <comment>/ Authorship */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}} ''[[Philippians]] redirects here. See "[[Filippians]]" for a sect of Russian [[Old Believers]].'' ----The '''Epistle to Philippians''' (or just '''Philippians''') is a [[book]] included in the [[New Testament]] of the [[Christianity\|Christian]] [[Bible]]. It is a letter from [[Paul of Tarsus\|St. Paul]] to the [[church]] of [[Philippi]]. == Authorship == Pauline authorship of Philippians is "universally accepted" (Beare, p. 1) by virtually all Bible scholars, ancient and modern, with the exception of the [[kenosis]] passage in Philippians 2:5-11. According to liberal theologians this may have been an early Christian [[hymn]] that Paul quoted, rather than an original Pauline composition. Paul is traditionally believed to have written Philippians during the two years when he was "in bonds" in [[Rome]] (Philippians 1:7-13), probably in late [[61]] or early [[62]] AD. ==Background== The letter was written to the church at Philippi, one of the earliest churches to be founded in Europe. They were very attached to Paul, just as he was very fond of them. They alone of all the churches helped him by their contributions, which he gratefully acknowledges ([[Acts of the Apostles\|Acts 20:33-35]]; [[2 Corinthians\|2 Cor. 11:7-12]]; [[2 Thessalonians\|2 Thess. 3:8]]). The generosity of the Philippians comes out very conspicuously (Phil. 4:15). "This was a characteristic of the Macedonian missions, as 2 Cor. 8 and 9 amply and beautifully prove. It is remarkable that the Macedonian converts were, as a class, very poor (2 Cor. 8:2); and the parallel facts, their poverty and their open-handed support of the great missionary and his work, are deeply harmonious. At the present day the missionary liberality of poor Christians is, in proportion, really greater than that of the rich" (Moule). ==Historical background== The Philippians had sent Epaphroditus, their messenger, with contributions to meet the needs of Paul; and on his return Paul sent back with him this letter. With this precious communication Epaphroditus sets out on his homeward journey. "The joy caused by his return, and the effect of this wonderful letter when first read in the church of Philippi, are hidden from us. And we may almost say that with this letter the church itself passes from our view. To-day, in silent meadows, quiet cattle browse among the ruins which mark the site of what was once the flourishing Roman colony of Philippi, the home of the most attractive church of the apostolic age. But the name and fame and spiritual influence of that church will never pass. To myriads of men and women in every age and nation the letter written in a dungeon at Rome, and carried along the Egnatian Way by an obscure Christian messenger, has been a light divine and a cheerful guide along the most rugged paths of life&
losophy of mathematics)\|intuitionism]] and [[Platonism]] in the [[philosophy of mathematics]]. According to intuitionists (anti-realists with respect to mathematical objects), the [[truth]] of a mathematical statement consists in our ability to prove it. According to platonists ([[philosophical realism\|realists]]), the truth of a statement consists in its correspondence to [[objective]] reality. Thus, intuitionists are ready to accept a statement of the form "P or Q" as true only if we can prove P or if we can prove Q: this is called the [[disjunction property]]. In particular, we cannot in general claim that "P or not P" is true (the [[law of the excluded middle]]), since in some cases we may not be able either to prove nor disprove the statement P. Similarly, intuitionistists object to the failure of the [[existence property]] for classical logic, where one can prove <math>\exists x.\phi(x)</math>, without being able to produce any term <math>t</math> of which <math>\phi</math> holds. Dummett argues that the intuitionistic notion of truth lies at the bottom of various classical forms of '''anti-realism'''. He uses this notion to re-interpret [[phenomenalism]], claiming that it need not take the form of a [[reductionism]] (often considered untenable). In [[philosophy of science]], anti-realism applies chiefly to claims about the non-reality of "unobservable" [[entity\|entities]] such as [[electron]]s, which are not detectable with our normal human senses but which many nonetheless claim are real. For a brief discussion comparing such anti-realism to its opposite, realism, see (Okasha 2002, ch. 4). Ian Hacking (1999, p. 84) also uses the same definition. The anti-realist position in the philosophy of science is often called [[Instrumentalism]], which takes a purely functionalist view of the existence of unobservable (or only indirectly observable) entities: X exists only to the same extent that it works within a theory Y, and nothing more useful may be said about it ontologically. In discussions of [[art]] (including [[Visual arts and design\|visual art]], writing, [[music]], and [[lyrics]]), '''anti-realism''' and '''anti-realist''' may be used in one of the philosophical senses described above, or may simply be used in contrast to [[realism (arts)\|realism]], in whatever sense the latter is meant. Thus [[surrealism]] in visual art is an "anti-realist" tendency, and the [[psychedelic]] bands common in the United States in the [[1960s]] were "anti-realist," etc. These terms may not be as precise when applied to art as when applied to philosophical matters. '''Anti-reality''' is occasionally used in this sense, although it may be used in other senses. == See also == * [[Crispin Wright]] * [[Intuitionistic logic]] * [[Irrealism]] * [[Maya (illusion)]] == References == * Michael Dummett (1963). ''Realism,'' reprinted in: Truth and Other Enigmas, Harvard University Press: 1978, pp. 145-165. * Michael Dummett (1967). ''Platonism,'' reprinted in: Truth and Other Enigmas, Harvard University Press: 1978, pp. 202-214. * Ian Hacking (1999). ''The Social Construction of What?''. Harvard University Press: 2001. * Samir Okasha (2002). ''Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction''. Oxford University Press. [[Category:Realism]] [[Category:Epistemology]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Arsenal F.C.</title> <id>2174</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42028202</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:35:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Qwghlm</username> <id>122121</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* History */ reword joining of football league</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox \| clubname = Arsenal \| image = [[Image:Arsenal FC.png\|140px]] \| fullname = Arsenal Football Club\| nickname = The Gunners\| founded = 1886 as ''Dial Square''\| ground = [[Arsenal Stadium]],<br />[[Highbury]], [[London]] \| capacity = 38,500 \| chairman = [[Image:Flag of England.svg\|20px\|English]] [[Peter Hill-Wood]] \| manager = [[Image:Flag_of_France.svg\|20px\|French]] [[Arsène Wenger]] \| league = [[FA Premier League]] \| season = [[FA Premier League 2004-05\|2004-05]] \| position = Premier League, 2nd \| pattern_la1=\|pattern_b1=\|pattern_ra1=\| leftarm1=7B1421\|body1=7B1421\|rightarm1=7B1421\|shorts1=FFFFFF\|socks1=7B1421\| pattern_la2=\|pattern_b2=\|pattern_ra2=\| leftarm2=FFDE00\|body2=FFDE00\|rightarm2=FFDE00\|shorts2=565656\|socks2=565656\| }} '''Arsenal Football Club''' (also known as '''Arsenal''', '''The Arsenal''' or '''The Gunners''') are an [[England\|English]] professional [[football (soccer)\|football]] club based in north [[London]]. They play in the [[FA Premier League]] and are one of the most successful clubs in [[Football in England\|England]]. Arsenal have won thirteen [[Football League First Division\|First Division]] and Premier League titles, and the [[FA Cup]] ten times, although the team have yet to achieve similar success in the [[UEFA Champions League]]. Arsenal were founded in south-east London in [[1886 in sports\|1886]], but moved to their current home ground, the [[Arsenal Stadium]], [[Highbury]], in [[1913 in sports\|1913]]. In August [[2006 in sports\|2006]] the club will move to the new 60,000-seat [[Emirates Stadium]] in nearby Ashburton Grove. Arsenal have a long-standing and fierce rivalry with [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.\|Tottenham Hotspur]], from nearby [[Tottenham]], whom they play in the [[North London derby]]. ==History== {{details\|History of Arsenal F.C.}} <!-- This section is meant to be just a summary. Please do not add too much detail - the [[History of Arsenal F.C.]] article is intended for detailed additions. --> Arsenal were founded as '''Dial Square''' in 1886 by workers at the [[Royal Arsenal]] in [[Woolwich]], but were renamed to '''Royal Arsenal''' shortly afterwards. They renamed themselves again to '''Woolwich Arsenal''' after turning professional in 1891. The club joined the [[Football League]] in 1893, starting out in the [[Football League Second Division\|Second Division]], and won promotion to the [[Football League First Division\|First Division]] in 1904. However, the club's geographic isolation, and the resulting low attendances, led to the club becoming mired in financial problems. In 1913, soon after relegation back to the Second Division, they moved across the [[River Thames\|Thames]] to the new [[Arsenal Stadium]] in [[Highbury]], north London. They dropped "Woolwich" from their name the following year. Arsenal only finished in fifth place in 1919, but nevertheless were elected to rejoin the First Division at the expense of local rivals [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.\|Tottenham Hotspur]], by reportedly dubious means.{{ref\|henrynorris}} In 1925, Arsenal appointed the highly successful [[Herbert Chapman]] as manager. Chapman had won the league with [[Huddersfield Town A.F.C.\|Huddersfield Town]] in 1924 and 1925, and he brought Arsenal their first period of major success. His revolutionary tactics and training, along with star players such as [[Alex James (footballer)\|Alex James]] and [[Cliff Bastin]], laid the foundations of the club's domination of English football in the 1930s. Between 1930 and 1938, Arsenal won the First Division five times and the [[FA Cup]] twice, although Chapman did not live to see all of these achievements, as he died of [[pneumonia]] in 1934. In addition, Chapman was reportedly behind the 1932 renaming of the local [[London Underground]] station from "Gillespie Road" to "[[Arsenal tube station\|Arsenal]]", making it the only Tube station to be named after a football club. Following the suspension of English professional football during [[World War II]], Arsenal won the league in 1948 and 1953 and the FA Cup in 1950. However, their fortunes began to wane; unable to attract players of the same calibre as they had in the '30s, the club spent most of the 1950s and 1960s in trophyless mediocrity. Even former [[England national football team\|England]] captain [[Billy Wright (footballer)\|Billy Wright]] could not bring the club any success as manager. Arsenal's second successful era began with the surprise appointment of club [[physiotherapy\|physiotherapist]] [[Bertie Mee]] as manager in 1966. After losing two [[League Cup]] finals, they won the [[Inter-Cities Fairs Cup]], their first European trophy, in 1970. This was followed by an even greater triumph: their first League and FA Cup [[the Double\|double]] in 1971. However, the following decade was characterised by a series of near misses. Arsenal finished as First Division runners-up in 1973, lost three FA Cup finals (1972, 1978 and 1980) and lost the 1980 [[Cup Winners' Cup]] final on [[penalty shootout (football)\|penalties]]. The club's only success during this time was an FA Cup win in 1979, with a last-minute 3–2 victory over [[Manchester United F.C.\|Manchester United]] that is widely regarded as a classic. [[Image:Arsenal open top bus parade 2004.jpg\|thumb\|275px\|right\|Arsenal's players and fans celebrate their 2004 title win with an open-top bus parade]] The return of former player [[George Graham (footballer)\|George Graham]] as manager in 1986 brought a third period of glory. Arsenal won the League Cup in 1987, Graham's first season in charge. This was followed by a League title win in 1989, won with a last-minute goal in the final game of the season against fellow title challengers [[Liverpool F.C.\|Liverpool]]. Graham's Arsenal won another title in 1991, losing only one match, the FA Cup and League Cup double in 1993 and a second European trophy, the [[Cup Winners' Cup]], in 1994. However, Graham's reputation was tarnished when it was revealed that he had taken kickbacks from agent [[Rune Hauge]] for signing certain players,{{ref\|ge
one-dimensional :<math>\mbox{P1 }:\begin{cases} u''=f \mbox{ in } (0,1), \\ u(0)=u(1)=0, \end{cases}</math> where <math>f</math> is given and <math>u</math> is an unknown function of <math>x</math>, and <math>u''</math> is the second derivative of <math>u</math> with respect to <math>x</math>. The two-dimensional sample problem is the [[Dirichlet problem]] :<math>\mbox{P2 }:\begin{cases} u_{xx}+u_{yy}=f & \mbox{ in } \Omega, \\ u=0 & \mbox{ on } \partial \Omega, \end{cases}</math> where <math>\Omega</math> is a connected open region in the <math>(x,y)</math> plane whose boundary <math>\partial \Omega</math> is "nice" (e.g., a [[smooth manifold]] or a [[polygon]]), and <math>u_{xx}</math> and <math>u_{yy}</math> denote the second derivatives with respect to <math>x</math> and <math>y</math>, respectively. The problem P1 can be solved "directly" by computing antiderivatives. However, this method of solving the [[boundary value problem]] works only when there is only one spatial dimension and does not generalize to higher-dimensional problems or to problems like <math>u+u''=f</math>. For this reason, we will develop the finite element method for P1 and outline its generalization to P2. Our explanation will proceed in two steps, which mirror two essential steps one must take to solve a boundary value problem (BVP) using the FEM. In the first step, one rephrases the original BVP in its weak, or [[variational]] form. Little to no computation is usually required for this step, the transformation is done by hand on paper. The second step is the discretization, where the weak form is discretized in a finite dimensional space. After this second step, we have concrete formulae for a large but finite dimensional linear problem whose solution will approximately solve the original BVP. This finite dimensional problem is then implemented on a [[computer]] using a [[programming language]] such as [[C programming language\|C]], [[Fortran]] or [[Matlab]]. == Variational formulation == The first step is to convert P1 and P2 into their [[variational]] equivalents. If <math>u</math> solves P1, then for any smooth function <math>v</math> we have (1) <math>\int_0^1 f(t)v(t) \, dt = \int_0^1 u''(t)v(t) \, dt.</math> Conversely, if for a given <math>u</math>, (1) holds for every smooth function <math>v(t)</math> then one may show that this <math>u</math> will solve P1. (The proof is nontrivial and uses [[Sobolev space]]s.) By using integration by parts on the right-hand-side of (1), we obtain (2)<math>\begin{matrix}\int_0^1 f(t)v(t) \, dt & = & \int_0^1 u''(t)v(t) \, dt \\ & = & u'(t)v(t)\|_0^1-\int_0^1 u'(t)v'(t) \, dt \\ & = & -\int_0^1 u'(t)v'(t) \, dt = -\phi (u,v).\end{matrix}</math> where we have made the additional assumption that <math>v(0)=v(1)=0</math>. === A proof outline of existence and uniqueness of the solution === We can define <math>H_0^1(0,1)</math> to be the functions of <math>(0,1)</math> of [[bounded variation]] that are <math>0</math> at <math>x=0</math> and <math>x=1</math>. Such function are "once differentiable" and it turns out that the symmetric [[bilinear map]] <math>\phi</math> then defines an [[inner product]] which turns <math>H_0^1(0,1)</math> into a [[Hilbert space]] (a detailed proof is nontrivial.) On the other hand, the left-hand-side <math>\int_0^1 f(t)v(t)</math> is also an inner product, this time on the [[Lp space]] <math>L^2(0,1)</math>. An application of the [[Riesz representation theorem]] for Hilbert spaces shows that there is a unique <math>u</math> solving (2) and therefore P1. === The variational form of P2 === If we integrate by parts using a form of [[Green's theorem]], we see that if <math>u</math> solves P2, then for any <math>v</math>: :<math>\int_{\Omega} fv\,ds = -\int_{\Omega} \nabla u \cdot \nabla v \, ds = -\phi(u,v),</math> where <math>\nabla</math> denotes the [[gradient]] and <math>\cdot</math> denotes the [[dot product]] in the two-dimensional plane. Once more <math>\phi</math> can be turned into an inner product on a suitable space <math>H_0^1(\Omega)</math> of "once differentiable" functions of <math>\Omega</math> that are zero on <math>\partial \Omega</math>. We have also assumed that <math>v \in H_0^1(\Omega)</math>. The space <math>H_0^1(\Omega)</math> can no longer be defined in terms of functions of bounded variation, but see [[Sobolev space]]s. Existence and uniqueness of the solution can also be shown. == Discretization == [[Image:Finite element method 1D illustration1.png\|right\|thumb\|A function in ''H''<sup>1</sup><sub>0</sub>, with zero values at the endpoints (blue), and a piecewise linear approximation (red).]] [[Image:finite_element_triangulation.gif\|right\|thumbnail\|180px\|A piecewise linear function in two dimensions.]] The basic idea is to replace the infinite dimensional linear problem :<math>\begin{cases}\mbox{Find } u \mbox{ in } H_0^1 \mbox{ such that} \\ -\phi(u,v)=\int fv \;\;\; \forall v \in H_0^1, \end{cases}</math> with a finite dimensional version: (3)<math>\begin{cases}\mbox{Find } u \mbox{ in } V \mbox{ such that} \\ -\phi(u,v)=\int fv \;\;\; \forall v \in V, \end{cases}</math> where <math>V</math> is a finite dimensional [[Linear_subspace\|subspace]] of <math>H_0^1</math>. There are many possible choices for <math>V</math> (one possibility leads to the [[spectral method]]). However, for the finite element method we take <math>V</math> to be a space of piecewise linear functions. For problem P1, we take the interval <math>(0,1)</math>, choose <math>n</math> <math>x</math> values <math>0<x_1<...<x_n<1</math> and we define <math>V</math> by :<math>\begin{matrix} V=\{u:[0,1] \rightarrow \Bbb R\;\mbox{ is continuous }\|\;u\|_{[x_k,x_{k+1}]} \mbox{ is linear, } \\ k=0,...,n \mbox{ and } u(0)=u(1)=0 \} \end{matrix}</math> [[Image:Finite element method 1D illustration2.png\|right\|thumb\|Basis functions ''v''<sub>''k''</sub> (blue) and a linear combination of them, which is piecewise linear (red).]] where we define <math>x_0=0</math> and <math>x_{n+1}=1</math>. Observe that functions in <math>V</math> are not differentiable according to the elementary definition of calculus. Indeed, if <math>v \in V</math> then the derivative is typically not defined at any <math>x=x_k</math>, <math>k=1,...,n</math>. However, the derivative exists at every other value of <math>x</math> and one can use this derivative for the purpose of [[integration by parts]]. For problem P2, we need <math>V</math> to be a set of functions of <math>\Omega</math>. In the figure on the right, we have illustrated a triangulation of a 15 sided polygonal region <math>\Omega</math> in the plane (below), and a piecewise linear function (above, in color) of this polygon which is linear on each triangle of the triangulation; the space <math>V</math> would consist of functions that are linear on each triangle of the chosen triangulation. One often reads <math>V_h</math> instead of <math>V</math> in the literature. The reason is that one hopes that as the underlying triangular grid becomes finer and finer, the solution of the discrete problem (3) will in some sense converge to the solution of the original boundary value problem P2. The triangulation is then indexed by a real valued parameter <math>h>0</math> which one takes to be very small. This parameter will be related to the size of the largest or average triangle in the triangulation. As we refine the triangulation, the space of piecewise linear functions <math>V</math> must also change with <math>h</math>, hence the notation <math>V_h</math>. Since we do not perform such an analysis, we will not use this notation. === Choosing a basis === To complete the discretization, we must select a [[Basis (linear algebra)\|basis]] of <math>V</math>. In the one-dimensional case, for each control point <math>x_k</math> we will choose the piecewise linear function <math>v_k</math> in <math>V</math> whose value is <math>1</math> at <math>x_k</math> and zero at every <math>x_j,\;j \neq k</math>, i.e., :<math>v_{k}(x)=\begin{cases} {x-x_{k-1} \over x_k-x_{k-1}} & \mbox{ if } x \in [x_{k-1},x_k], \\ {x_{k+1}-x \over x_{k+1}-x_k} & \mbox{ if } x \in [x_k,x_{k+1}], \\ 0 & \mbox{ otherwise},\end{cases}</math> for <math>k=1,...,n</math>. For the two-dimensional case, we choose again one basis function <math>v_k</math> per vertex <math>x_k</math> of the triangulation of the planar region <math>\Omega</math>. The function <math>v_k</math> is the unique function of <math>V</math> whose value is <math>1</math> at <math>x_k</math> and zero at every <math>x_j,\;j \neq k</math>. Depending on the author, the word "element" in "finite element method" refers either to the triangles in the domain, the piecewise linear bas
theorem\|contractive mapping fixed point theorem]] applied to the complete metric space of non-empty compact subsets of '''R'''<sup>''n''</sup> with the [[Hausdorff distance]]. To determine the dimension of the self-similar set ''A'' (in certain cases), we need a technical condition called the ''open set condition'' on the sequence of contractions &psi;<sub>''i''</sub> which is stated as follows: There is a relatively compact open set ''V'' such that :<math> \bigcup_{i=1}^m\psi_i (V) \subseteq V </math> where the sets in union on the left are pairwise [[disjoint]]. '''Theorem'''. Suppose the open set condition holds and each &psi;<sub>''i''</sub> is a similitude, that is a composition of an [[isometry]] and a [[dilation]] around some point. Then the unique fixed point of &psi; is a set whose Hausdorff dimension is ''s'' where ''s'' is the unique solution of :<math> \sum_{i=1}^m r_i^s = 1. </math> Note that the contraction coefficient of a similitude is the magnitude of the dilation. We can use this theorem to compute the Hausdorff dimension of the Sierpinski triangle (or sometimes called Sierpinski gasket). Consider three [[non-collinear points]] ''a''<sub>1</sub>, ''a''<sub>2</sub>, ''a''<sub>3</sub> in the plane '''R'''<sup>2</sup> and let &psi;<sub>''i''</sub> be the dilation of ratio 1/2 around ''a''<sub>''i''</sub>. The unique non-empty fixed point of the corresponding mapping &psi; is a Sierpinski gasket and the dimension ''s'' is the unique solution of :<math> \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^s+\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^s+\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^s = 3 \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^s =1. </math> Taking natural logarithms of both sides of the above equation, we can solve for ''s'', that is: :<math> s = \frac{\ln 3}{\ln 2}. </math> The Sierpinski gasket is self-similar. In general a set ''E'' which is a fixed point of a mapping : <math> A \mapsto \psi(A) = \bigcup_{i=1}^m \psi_i(A) </math> is self-similar iff the intersections :<math> H^s\left(\psi_i(E) \cap \psi_j(E)\right) =0 </math> where ''s'' is the Hausdorff dimension of ''E''. This is clear in the case of the Sierpinski gasket (the intersections are just points), but is also true more generally: '''Theorem'''. Under the same conditions as the previous theorem, the unique fixed point of &psi; is self-similar. ==Historical references== * A. S. Besicovitch, ''On Linear Sets of Points of Fractional Dimensions'', [[Mathematische Annalen]] '''101''' (1929). * A. S. Besicovitch and H. D. Ursell, ''Sets of Fractional Dimensions'', Journal of the London Mathematical Society, v12 (1937). Several selections from this volume are reprinted in ''Classics on Fractals'',ed. Gerald A. Edgar, Addison-Wesley (1993) ISBN 0-201-58701-7 See chapters 9,10,11. * F. Hausdorff, ''Dimension und äusseres Mass'', Mathematische Annalen '''79''' (1919). == References == * M. Maurice Dodson and Simon Kristensen, [http://arxiv.org/abs/math/0305399 ''Hausdorff Dimension and Diophantine Approximation''] ([[June 12]], [[2003]]). * L. Evans and R. Gariepy, ''Measure Theory and Fine Properties of Functions'', CRC Press, 1992 * K. J. Falconer, ''The Geometry of Fractal Sets'', Cambridge University Press, 1985 * H. Federer, ''Geometric Measure Theory'', Springer-Verlag, 1969. * [[Witold Hurewicz\|W. Hurewicz]] and H. Wallman, ''Dimension Theory'', Princeton University Press, 1948. * Frank Morgan, ''Geometric Measure Theory'', Academic Press, 1988. Good introductory presentation with lots of illustrations. * [[Edward Marczewski\|E. Szpilrajn]], ''La dimension et la mesure'', Fundamenta Mathematica 28, 1937, pp 81-89. [[Category:Fractals]] [[Category:Measure theory]] [[Category:Metric geometry]] [[Category:Dimension theory]] [[de:Hausdorff-Dimension]] [[he:&#1502;&#1502;&#1491; &#1492;&#1488;&#1493;&#1505;&#1491;&#1493;&#1512;&#1507;]] [[pl:Wymiar Hausdorffa]] [[sl:Hausdorff-Bezikovi&#269;eva razse&#382;nost]] [[fi:Hausdorffin mitta]] [[sv:Hausdorffdimension]] [[zh:豪斯多夫維]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heckler & Koch</title> <id>14296</id> <revision> <id>42037665</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:45:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>BSI</username> <id>931658</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hk logo.gif\|thumb\|right\|200px\|Heckler & Koch Logo]] '''Heckler & Koch GmbH''' ('''H&K''') is a [[Germany\|German]] [[weapon]]s manufacturing [[corporation\|company]] famous for various series of small [[firearm]]s, notably the [[Heckler & Koch MP5\|MP5]] [[submachine gun]], the [[Heckler & Koch MP7\|MP7]] [[personal defense weapon]], the extremely precise [[sniper rifle]] [[Heckler & Koch PSG1\|PSG1]], and the [[Heckler & Koch G3\|G3]] and [[Heckler & Koch G36\|G36]] [[assault rifle]]s. Heckler & Koch are famous for the precision, durability, reliability and accuracy of their firearms. All firearms made by H&K are named by the prefix HK and the official designation. Heckler & Koch has a history of innovations in small arms, such as the use of [[polymer]]s. Not all of its technologically ambitious designs have resulted in successful products (for instance, the advanced but now abandoned [[Heckler & Koch G11\|G11]] [[assault rifle]]). HK produces the whole range of [[small arms]], from [[pistol]]s to [[Hand grenade\|grenade]], and [[machine gun]]s. In its extensive product range, HK has used most of the operating systems for small arms: [[Blowback (arms)\|blowback]], [[short-recoil]], [[roller-delayed blowback]], [[gas-delayed blowback]], and [[gas-operated]]. HK was founded by Edmund Heckler, Theodor Koch, and Alex Seidel in [[1949]] from the remnants of [[Mauser]], and the company was registered in [[1950]]. In the beginning, the company produced [[sewing machine]]s and other fine mechanics, but this was changed in [[1956]] when the company constructed a [[rifle]] for the German [[Bundeswehr]]. In [[1991]], H&K was bought by [[British Aerospace]]/[[Royal Ordnance]] (now [[BAE Systems]]) who resold it to a German group that was created for this purpose in [[2002]]. The company is located in [[Oberndorf am Neckar\|Oberndorf]] in the [[States of Germany\|Bundesland]] of [[Baden-Württemberg]], but also has a subsidiary in the [[United States]]. Their slogan is: "In a world of compromise, some don't!" (There is some confusion about the pronunciation of the word "Koch". Some non-German speakers incorrectly say "Kotch" or "Coke", but it rhymes with [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/loch loch].) HK has been contracted by the [[United States Army\|U.S. Army]] to produce the [[kinetic energy]] subsystem (see: [[Projectile#Kinetic projectiles\|kinetic projectiles]] or [[kinetic energy penetrator]]) of the [[XM29 OICW\|Objective Individual Combat Weapon]], a planned replacement for the [[M16 (rifle)\|M16]]/[[M203]] grenade launcher combination. OICW will fire both 5.56mm bullets and 25mm grenades. The kinetic component was also developed seperately as the [[XM8 rifle\|XM8]], though both the OICW and XM8 are indefinitely suspended. HK is also contracted to refurbish the [[SA80]] range of weapons for the [[British Army]]. See also: [[List of modern armament manufacturers]] Selected notable designs or families: [[Pistol]]s: [[Heckler & Koch USP\|HK USP]] (variants:[[P8]], [[Heckler & Koch P2000\|P2000]], [[Heckler & Koch MK23\|Mark 23]]), [[Heckler & Koch UCP\|HK UCP]], [[HK P7]] [[PDW\|Personal Defense Weapon]]s: [[Heckler & Koch MP7\|MP7]], [[Heckler & Koch MP5K\|MP5K]] [[Submachine gun\|Submachine guns]]: [[Heckler & Koch MP5\|MP5]], [[Heckler & Koch UMP\|UMP]] [[Assault rifle]]s: [[Heckler & Koch G3\|G3]], [[Heckler & Koch G36\|G36]], [[HK 53]] [[Sniper rifle]]s: [[HK MSG-90]], [[Heckler & Koch PSG1\|HK PSG-1]] [[Machine guns]]: [[HK 21E]], [[HK MG4]] [[Grenade]] launchers: [[AG36]], [[HK GMG]] Other: [[Heckler & Koch G11\|HK G11]]: experimental rifle [[HK P11]]: underwater pistol see also [[List of Heckler & Koch products]] ==Short List of Heckler & Koch abbreviations== Format: Abbreviation = German Text (English Text) UMP = Universal-Maschinenpistole (Universal Submachine Gun) UCP = Ultimate Combat Pistol USP = Universal-Selbstladepistole (Universal Selfloading Pistol) GMG = Granatmaschinengewehr (Grenade Machine Gun) GMW = Granatmaschinenwaffe (Grenade Automatic Weapon) SD = Schalldämpfer (Silencer) K = kurz (short) ==See also== [[List of Heckler & Koch products]] [[Image:Hkg41cover.jpg\|thumb\|right\|[[Heckler & Koch G41]]]] ==External links== * http://www.heckler-koch.de/ - Official homepage (International) * http://www.hk-usa.com/ - Official homepage (US) * http://www.hkpro.com/ - very comprehensive fan page * [http://www.remtek.com/arms/hk/index.htm Remtek - HK Small Arms] [[Category:Defence companies of Germany]] [[Category:Firearms manufacturers]] [[de:Heckler & Koch]] [[fr:Heckler & Koch]] [[ja:ヘッケラー&コッホ]] [[ko:헤클러&코흐]] [[nl:Heckler & Koch]] [[no:Heckler und Koch]] [[sl:Heckler & Koch]] [[sv:Heckler & Koch]] [[tr:Heckler & Koch]] [[zh:黑克勒和科赫]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Heckler & Koch MP5</title> <id>14297</id> <revision> <id>42097632</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:36:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>D.E. Watters</username> <id>162146</id> </contributor> <comment>/* MP5 models */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Firearm\| name=MP5 \|image=[[Image:MP5A4.JPG\|300px]] \|caption=An MP5A4 (fixed stock and 3-round burst trigger group) \|nation=[[Germany]] \|typ
n [[1917]], the [[United States]] purchased the [[Danish West Indies]], renaming them the [[United States Virgin Islands]]. Subsequently, the British renamed the Islands as the British Virgin Islands. The Islands were administered variously as part of the [[Leeward Islands\|Leeward Islands Colony]] or with [[St. Kitts and Nevis]], with an Administrator representing the British Government on the Islands. Separate colony status was gained for the Islands in [[1960]] and the Islands became autonomous in [[1967]]. Since the [[1960s]], the Islands have diversified away from their traditionally agriculture based economy towards tourism and financial services, becoming one of the richest areas in the Caribbean. ==Politics== {{main\|Politics of the British Virgin Islands}} Executive authority in British Virgin Islands is invested in [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom\|The Queen]] and is exercised on her behalf by the [[Governor of the British Virgin Islands]]. The Governor is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the [[British Government]]. Defence and Foreign Affairs remain the responsibility of the United Kingdom. The Constitution of the Islands was introduced in [[1971]]. The Head of Government is the [[Chief Minister of the British Virgin Islands\|Chief Minister]], who is elected in a general election along with the other members of the ruling government as well as the members of the opposition. An Executive Council is nominated by the Chief Minister and appointed by the Governor. There is a [[unicameral]] [[Legislative Council]] made up of 13 seats. The current Governor is [[Tom Macan]] (since 2002). The current Chief Minister is [[Orlando Smith]] (since June 17, 2003) ==Geography== :''Main article: [[Geography of the British Virgin Islands]]'' The British Virgin Islands comprise about 50 small Caribbean islands; around 15 are inhabited. They are located a few miles east of the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]]. The [[Atlantic Ocean\|North Atlantic Ocean]] lies to the north of the islands, and the [[Caribbean Sea]] lies to the south. The largest islands of the group are [[Tortola]], [[Virgin Gorda]], [[Anegada]], and [[Jost Van Dyke]]. [[Road Town]], the capital and largest town, is situated on Tortola. [[Image:British Virgin Islands.png\|300px\|thumb\|right\|Map of British Virgin Islands]] ==Economy== :''Main article: [[Economy of the British Virgin Islands]]'' The economy of the British Virgin Islands is one of the more prosperous ones of any of the Caribbean states, with a [[Gross Domestic Product\|GDP]] per capita of around $15,000. The British Virgin Islands is highly dependent on [[tourism]], which accounts for 45% of national income. The islands are a popular destination for U.S. citizens, with around 350,000 tourists visiting annually ([[1997]] figures). Tourists frequently go to the numerous white sand [[beach]]es, visit The Baths on Virgin Gorda, [[snorkel]] the [[coral reef]]s near Anegada, experience the well-known bars on Jost Van Dyke, or charter [[yacht]]s to explore the less accessible islands. Substantial revenues are also generated by the registration of [[offshoring\|offshore]] companies. As of [[1997]], 250,000 companies were so registered. The economy is closely linked with that of the larger U.S. Virgin Islands to the west, and the islands' currency, since [[1959]], is the [[United States dollar\|US dollar]]. ==Demographics== {{main\|Demographics of the British Virgin Islands}} The population of the Islands is around 21,730 at [[2003]]. The majority of the population (over 80%) are [[Afro-Caribbean]], descended from the slaves brought to the Islands by the British. Other large ethnic groups include those of British and European origin. The largest religion is [[Christianity]], of which 33% are [[Methodist]], 17% [[Anglican]] and 10% [[Roman Catholic Church\|Catholic]]. ==Transport== :''Main article: [[Transportation on the British Virgin Islands]]'' Being a small group of islands, [[transportation]] is limited. There are 113km of roads. The main airport is located on Beef Island, near Tortola. Virgin Gorda and Anegada have their own smaller airports. The main harbour is in [[Road Town]]. ==See also== ''From the [[CIA World Factbook]].'': * [[Communications on the British Virgin Islands]] * [[Demographics of the British Virgin Islands]] * [[Military of the British Virgin Islands]] * [[Music of the Virgin Islands]] * [[Politics of the British Virgin Islands]] ==References== * {{Anb \| UN_decolonisation }} {{cite web \| url = http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/trust3.htm \| title = Non-Self-Governing Territories listed by General Assembly in 2002 \| work = United Nations Special Committee of 24 on Decolonization \| accessyear = 2005 \| accessdate = March 10 }} ==Caribbean Vacations== ''Complete travel information for the Caribbean: hotel reservation, local tours, restaurants, maps, weather, and more. [http://www.all-caribbean.com Caribbean Hotels and Vacation Packages]'' ==External links== ''Maps of The British Virgin Islands from [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com Caribbean-On-Line.com]'' * [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/bv/bvimap.shtml Map of The British Virgin Islands] * [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/bv/ttmap.shtml Map of Tortola] * [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/bv/rtmap.shtml Map of Road Town] * [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/bv/jvmap.shtml Map of Jost Van Dyke] * [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/bv/vgmap.shtml Map of Virgin Gorda] * [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/bv/agmap.shtml Map of Anegada] * [http://www.offshoreincorporation101.com/british-virgin-islands-banks.html British Virgin Island Bank Directory] {{West Indies}} {{Caricom}} {{British dependencies}} [[Category:British Virgin Islands\|British Virgin Islands]] [[Category:Caribbean islands]] [[Category:Current British colonies]] [[Category:Special territories of the European Union]] [[ca:Illes Verges Britàniques]] [[de:Britische Jungferninseln]] [[eo:Britaj Virgulininsuloj]] [[es:Islas Vírgenes Británicas]] [[et:Briti Neitsisaared]] [[fi:Brittiläiset Neitsytsaaret]] [[fr:Îles Vierges britanniques]] [[gl:Illas Virxes Británicas - British Virgin Islands]] [[he:איי הבתולה הבריטיים]] [[hr:Britanski Djevičanski otoci]] [[hu:Brit Virgin-szigetek]] [[id:Kepulauan Virgin Britania Raya]] [[io:Virgin-Insuli Britana]] [[is:Bresku Jómfrúreyjar]] [[it:Isole Vergini Britanniche]] [[ja:イギリス領ヴァージン諸島]] [[ko:영국령 버진아일랜드]] [[lt:Didžiosios Britanijos Mergelių salos]] [[lv:Britu Virdžīnu salas]] [[nl:Britse Maagdeneilanden]] [[nn:Dei britiske Jomfruøyane]] [[no:De britiske jomfruøyene]] [[pl:Brytyjskie Wyspy Dziewicze]] [[pt:Ilhas Virgens Britânicas]] [[ro:Insulele Virgine Britanice]] [[ru:Британские Виргинские острова]] [[simple:British Virgin Islands]] [[sl:Britanski Deviški otoki]] [[sr:Британска Девичанска острва]] [[sv:Brittiska Jungfruöarna]] [[tr:İngiliz Virgin Adaları]] [[zh:英屬維爾京群島]] [[zh-min-nan:Britain Virgin Kûn-tó]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burkina Faso</title> <id>3470</id> <revision> <id>41952997</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:20:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tsca.bot</username> <id>601940</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot modifying: io</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country \| <!-- Please update [[Template:Country infobox data Burkina Faso]] if editing infobox --> native_name = Burkina Faso \| common_name = Burkina Faso \| image_flag = Flag of Burkina Faso.svg \| image_coat = Burkinafaso coa.png \| national_motto = Unité, Progrès, Justice ([[French language\|French]]: Unity, Progress, Justice) \| image_map = LocationBurkinaFaso.png \| national_anthem = [[Une Seule Nuit]] (One Single Night) \| official_languages = [[French language\|French]] \| capital = [[Ouagadougou]] \| latd=13\|latm=00\|latNS=N\|longd=2\|longm=00\|longEW=W\| government_type = [[Parliamentary system]] \| leader_titles = [[President of Burkina Faso\|President]] <br> [[Prime Minister of Burkina Faso\|Prime Minister]] \| leader_names = [[Blaise Compaoré]] <br> [[Paramanga Ernest Yonli]] \| largest_city = [[Ouagadougou]] \| area = 274,200 \| areami² = 105,869 \| <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> area_rank = 72nd \| area_magnitude = 1 E11 \| percent_water = 0.1% \| population_estimate = 13,925,313 \| population_estimate_year = 2005 \| population_estimate_rank = 63rd \| population_census = 13,228,460 \| population_census_year = 2003 \| population_density = 51 \| population_densitymi² = 132 \| <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> population_density_rank = 119 \| GDP_PPP_year = 2005 \| GDP_PPP = 16,916<sup>1</sup> \| GDP_PPP_rank = 115 \| GDP_PPP_per_capita = 1,326 \| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 170 \| HDI_year = 2003 \| HDI = 0.317 \| HDI_rank = 175th \| HDI_category = <font color="#E0584E">low</font> \| sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] \| established_events = &nbsp;- Date \| established_dates = From [[France]]<br>[[August 5]], [[1960]] \| currency = [[CFA franc]] \| currency_code = XOF \| time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time\|GMT]] \| utc_offset = \| time_zone_DST = not observed \| utc_offset_DST = \| cctld = [[.bf]] \| calling_code = 226 \| footnotes = <sup>1</sup> The data here is an estimation for the year 2005 produced by the International Monetary Fund in April 2005. }} '''Burkina Faso''' is a [[landlocked]] nation in [[West Africa]]. It
om a summary located in [[Chronica Jutensis]], of ca. [[1342]], called [[Compendium Saxonis]]. It is also in this summary the name ''Gesta Danorum'' is found. We do not know the title Saxo himself used. [[Christiern Pedersen]] finally found a copy with Archbishop [[Birger Gunnersen]] of [[Lund]], which he gladly lent him. With the help of [[Josse Bades]], they refined and printed it, so that the first printed press publication and the oldest known version of Saxo’s works, is Christiern Pedersen's [[Latin]] version, printed and published by [[Jodocus Badius Ascensius]], Paris, March 15, [[1514]]. The colophon is: ...'' impressit in inclyta Parrhisorum academia Iodocus Badius Ascensius Idibus Martiis. MDXIIII. Supputatione Romana.'' [[Ides of March]]. ===Translations=== The source of all existing translations and new versions today can be found in [[Christiern Pedersen]]'s Latin version [[Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae]]. There exist a number different translations today, some whole some partly. ====Latin versions==== [[Christiern Pedersen]], published 1514, title: [[Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae]] [[Johannes Oporinus]], published 1534, title: ''Saxonis Grammatici Danorum Historiae Libri XVI'' [[Philip Lonicer]], published 1576, title: ''Danica Historia Libris XVI'' [[Stephan Hansen Stephanius]], published 1645, title: ''Saxonis Grammatici Historiæ Danicæ Libri XVI'' [[Christian Adolph Klotz]], published 1771, title: ? [[Peter Erasmus Müller]], published 1839, title: ''Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danica'' [[Alfred Holder]], published 1886, title: ''Saxonis Grammatici Gesta Danorum '' [[Jørgen Olrik]] & [[Hans Ræder]], published 1931, title: ''Saxonis Gesta Danorum'' [[Karsten Friis-Jensen]], published 2005, title: ''Gesta Danorum'' ISBN 978-87-12-04025-5 (ISBN-13) ISBN 87-12-04025-8 ====Danish translations==== [[Christiern Pedersen]], never published ca. 1540, Lost [[Jon Tursons]], never published ca. 1555, Lost [[Anders Sørensen Vedel]], published 1575, title: ''Den Danske Krønicke'' [[Sejer Schousbölle]], published 1752, title: ''Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danica'' [[Nicolai Grundtvig]], published 1818-1822, title: ''Danmarks Krønike af Saxo Grammaticus'' [[Frederik Winkel Horn]], published 1898, title: ''Saxo Grammaticus: Danmarks Krønike'' [[Jørgen Olrik]], published 1908-1912, title: ''Sakses Danesaga'' [[Peter Zeeberg]], published 2000, title: ''Saxos Danmarkshistorie'' ISBN 87-12-03496-7 (complete) ISBN 87-12-03534-3 (vol 1) ISBN 87-12-03535-1 (vol 2) ====English translations==== [[Oliver Elton]], published 1894, title: ''The First Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus'' [[Peter Fisher]], published 1979-1980, title: ''Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes'' [[Eric Christiansen]], published 1980-1981, title: ''Saxo Grammaticus: Danorum regum heroumque historia, books X-XVI'' [[William F. Hansen]], published 1983, title: ''Saxo Grammaticus and the life of Hamlet'' ====German, Spanish, Italian, and Japanese translations==== [[Hermann Jantzen]], published 1900, title: ''Saxo Grammaticus. Die ersten neun Bücher der dänischen Geschichte'' [[Ludovica Koch]] & [[Maria Adele Cipolla]], published 1993, title: ''Sassone Grammatico: Gesta dei re e degli eroi danesi'' [[Yukio Taniguchi]], published 1993, title: ''Sakuso Guramatikusu: Denmakujin no jiseki'' [[Santiago Ibáñez Lluch]], published 1999, title: ''Saxo Gramático: Historia Danesa'' It is also translated partly to other [[English language\|English]], [[French language\|French]] and [[German language\|German]] releases. ==Influences== Certain aspects of ''Gesta Danorum'' formed the basis for [[William Shakespeare]]'s play, ''[[Hamlet]]''. It is thought that Shakespeare never read ''Gesta Danorum'', and instead had access to an auxiliary version of the tale describing the downfall of the Prince of Denmark, whose real name - [[Amleth]] - was used in [[anagram]] by Shakespeare for Hamlet. Saxo’s version, told of in Book 3 and 4, is very similar to that of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. In Saxo's version, two brothers, Orvendil and Fengi are given the rule over [[Jutland]] by King [[Rorik]] of the Danes. Soon after, Orvendil marries King Rorik’s daughter, Geruth (Gertrude in Hamlet). Amleth is their first and only child. Fengi becomes resentful of his brother’s marriage, and also wants sole leadership of Jutland, so therefore murders Orvendil. After a very brief period of mourning, Fengi marries Geruth, and declares himself sole leader of Jutland. Eventually, Amleth avenges his father’s murder and plans the murder of his uncle, making him the new and rightful king of Jutland. ==References== Hilda Ellis Davidson, Peter Fisher (trans), ''Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, Books I-IX : I. English Text; II. Commentary'', modern English translation, 2002, ISBN 0859915026 * Saxo Grammaticus, [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/DanishHistory/ ''Gesta Danorum''], Books I-IX, translated to English by Oliver Elton 1905. * Saxo Grammaticus, [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/ ''Gesta Danorum''], from the Royal Library in Copenhagen, Danish and Latin. * Helle Stangerup, ''Saxo Hans værk – Hans verden'', Høst & Søn forlag 2004, ISBN 87-14-29949-6 * ''Apoteker Sibbernsens Saxobog'', C. A. Reitzels Forlag, Copenhagen, 1927 * [[Frederik Winkel Horn]], ''Saxo Grammaticus: Danmarks Krønike'', Chr. Flors Boghandel, Copenhangen 1911. * [[Jørgen Olrik]] & H Ræder, ''Saxonis Gesta Danorum'', Levin & Munkesgaard, Copenhagen, 1931 * [[Anders Sørensen Vedel]], ''Den Danske Krønicke Saxo-oversættelse 1575 udgivet i facimile af Det danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab'', G. E. C Gad, Copenhagen, 1967 * [[Curt Weibull]], ''Saxo. Kritiska undersökningar i Danmarks historia från Sven Estridsens död till Knut VI.'', Lund, Blekingska boktryckeriet, 1915 (in ''Historisk tidskrift för Skåneland, band 6, häfte 1-3) [[Category:Medieval literature]] [[Category:Danish chronicles]] [[Category:Viking Age]] [[da:Gesta Danorum]] [[pl:Gesta Danorum]] [[sv:Gesta Danorum]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gerald Ford</title> <id>12742</id> <revision> <id>42141667</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:24:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>208.248.11.18</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President \| name=President Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr. \| nationality=american \| image=Jerryford.jpg \| order='''38th''' [[President of the United States]] \| term_start=[[August 9]], [[1974]] \| term_end=[[January 20]], [[1977]] \| predecessor=[[Richard Nixon]] \| successor=[[Jimmy Carter]] \| birth_date=[[July 14]], [[1913]] \| birth_place=[[Omaha, Nebraska]] \| spouse=[[Betty Ford\|Betty Warren Ford]] \| party=[[United States Republican Party\|Republican]] \| vicePresident=none (Aug&ndash;Dec 1974), [[Nelson Rockefeller\|Nelson A. Rockefeller]] (1974&ndash;1977) }} '''Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr.''' (born [[July 14]], [[1913]]) was the 40th (1973&ndash;1974) [[Vice President of the United States\|Vice President]] and the 38th (1974&ndash;1977) [[President of the United States]]. He was the nation's first President who was [[election\|elected]] to neither the Presidency nor Vice Presidency. Instead, following the resignation of [[Spiro Agnew]] in 1973, he was appointed as Vice President by [[Richard Nixon]] following confirmation by Congress, and when Nixon later resigned, on [[August 9]], [[1974]], Ford assumed the Presidency. Along with his own Vice President, [[Nelson Rockefeller]], he is one of only two people to have been appointed Vice President rather than elected. ==Early life== Ford was born to Leslie Lynch King and Dorothy Ayer Gardner in [[Omaha, Nebraska]]. He was born '''Leslie Lynch King, Jr.''', but would be renamed after his mother's remarriage. His parents divorced two years after he was born, and two years later his mother remarried Gerald Ford, after whom he was renamed despite never being formally [[adoption\|adopted]] by his step-father. Ford grew up in [[East Grand Rapids, Michigan]] and starred as a [[center (football)\|center]] playing [[American football]] for the [[University of Michigan]]. A three-year [[letterman]], Ford helped the Wolverines to undefeated seasons in 1932 and 1933 and was voted the team's most valuable player in 1934. (His number 48 jersey has since been retired by the school.) At Michigan he joined [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] fraternity and earned money for expenses by washing dishes at the fraternity house. After graduating the following spring while majoring in economics and political science, he turned down contract offers from the [[Detroit Lions]] and [[Green Bay Packers]] of the [[National Football League]]. While at the [[Yale Law School]], Ford joined a group of students led by [[R. Douglas Stuart, Jr.]] as they signed a petition to enforce the 1939 [[Neutrality Act]]. This petition was circulated nationally and was the inspiration for [[America First]], a group determined to keep America out of [[World War II]]. Ford graduated from law school in 1941, having coached football and [[boxing]] part time to pay for school. Ford joined the [[Boy Scouts of America\|Boy Scouts]] as a child and attained the highest rank of [[Eagle Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)\|Eagle Scout]]. He always regarded this as one of his proudest accomplishments even after attaining the White House. He is quoted for saying, "I am the first Eagle Scout President!" Ford is also a recipient of the [[Distinguished Eagle Scout Award]] from the Boy Scouts of America. The West Michigan Shores Council of the Boy Scouts of America was renamed to the [[Gerald R. Ford Council]]. ==World War II== [[Image:Lt_Cmdr_Gerald_Ford_uniform_1945.jpg\|left\|thumb\|Ford in uniform, 1945]] In April 1942 Ford joined the [[U.S. Naval Reserve]] receiving a commission as an [[Ensign (rank)\|ensign]]. After an orientation program at [[Annapo
utting down what they considered to be the "rebellious" Red Sticks, and some [[Cherokee]] Indians, who also sided with the Americans. Although 800 Northern Creek Band "Red Sticks" Indians were killed in the battle, Jackson spared Weatherford's life from any acts of vengeance. [[Sam Houston]] and [[David Crockett]], later to become famous themselves in Texas, served under Jackson at this time. Following the victory, Jackson imposed the [[Treaty of Fort Jackson]] upon both his Northern Creek enemy and Southern Creek allies, wresting 20 million acres (81,000 km&sup2;) from all Creeks, for white settlement. Jackson's service in the [[War of 1812]] was conspicuous for its bravery and success. He was a strict officer, but was popular with his troops, and was said to have been "tough as old hickory" wood on the battlefield, which gave him his nickname. The war, and particularly his command at the [[Battle of New Orleans]] on [[January 8]], [[1815]], made his national reputation; and he advanced in rank to Major General. In the battle, Jackson's 6,000 militiamen behind barricades of cotton bales opposed 12,000 British regulars marching across an open field, led by General [[Edward Pakenham]]. The battle was a total American victory. The British had over 2,000 casualties to Jackson's 13 killed and 58 wounded or missing. [http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/P/aj7/about/bio/jack07.htm] [[Image:Bustofandrewjackson.jpg\|right\|thumb\|200px\|A bust of Andrew Jackson at the Plaza Ferdinand VII in [[Pensacola, Florida]], where Jackson was sworn in as territorial governor.]] ===First Seminole War=== {{main\|Seminole Wars}} Jackson saw military service again in the [[Seminole Wars\|First Seminole War]], when he was ordered by President [[James Monroe]] in December 1817 [http://www.gilderlehrman.org/collection/document.php?id=391] to lead a campaign in [[Georgia (U.S. state)\|Georgia]] against the [[Seminole (tribe)\|Seminole]] and [[Creek people\|Creek]] Indians, and to prevent [[Spanish Florida]] from becoming a "refuge for runaway slaves". It was later said that Jackson exceeded his orders in Florida actions, but Monroe and the public wanted Florida. Before going, Jackson wrote to Monroe, "Let it be signified to me through any channel (say Mr. John Rhea [a mutual confidant]) that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished." Monroe gave Jackson orders that were purposely ambiguous, sufficient for international denials. Jackson's Tennessee volunteers were attacked by Seminoles, but this left their villages vulnerable, and Jackson burned them and their crops. In his investigation, he found letters that indicated that the Spanish and British were "secretly" assisting the Indians. Jackson believed that the United States would not be "secure" as long as Spain and Great Britain encouraged American Indians to fight, and argued that his actions were undertaken in "self-defense". Jackson captured Pensacola with little more than some warning shots, and deposed the Spanish governor. He captured, tried, and executed two British subjects who had been supplying and advising the Indians. Jackson's action also struck fear into the Seminole tribes, as word of his ruthlessness in battle spread. This also created an international incident, and many in the [[James Monroe\|Monroe]] administration called for Jackson to be censured. However, Jackson's actions were defended by his [[United States Secretary of State\|Secretary of State]], [[John Quincy Adams]]. When the Spanish minister demanded a "suitable punishment" for Jackson, Adams wrote back "Spain must immediately [decide] either to place a force in Florida adequate at once to the protection of her territory, ... or cede to the United States a province, of which she retains nothing but the nominal possession, but which is, in fact, ... a post of annoyance to them." Adams used Jackson's conquest, and Spain's own "weaknesses", to convince the Spanish (in the [[Adams-Onís Treaty]]) to cede Florida to the United States. Jackson was subsequently appointed territorial governor there. ==Election of 1824== {{main\|U.S. presidential election, 1824}} During his first run for the Presidency in [[U.S._presidential_election,_1824\|1824]], Jackson received a [[plurality]] of both the popular and [[electoral]] votes. Since no candidate received a majority, the election was thrown into the [[United States House of Representatives\|House of Representatives]], which chose John Quincy Adams instead. Jackson denounced it as a "[[corrupt bargain]]" because [[Henry Clay]] threw his votes to Adams, who then made Clay Secretary of State. Jackson later called for abolishing the [[U.S. Electoral College\|Electoral College]]. Jackson's defeat burnished his political credentials, however; since many voters believed the "man of the people" had been robbed by the "corrupt aristocrats of the East". Jackson had enemies. [[Albert Gallatin]], who for a while in 1824 was a vice presidential candidate, saw Jackson as "an honest man and the idol of the worshippers of military glory, but from incapacity, military habits, and habitual disregard of laws and constitutional. provisions, altogether unfit for the office." [Adams 599] Thomas Jefferson in retirement said of Jackson in 1824: <blockquote> "I feel much alarmed at the prospect of seeing General Jackson President. He is one of the most unfit men I know of for such a place. He has had very little respect for laws or constitutions, and is, in fact, an able military chief. His passions are terrible. When I was President of the Senate he was a Senator; and he could never speak on account of the rashness of his feelings. I have seen him attempt it repeatedly, and as often choke with rage. His passions are no doubt cooler now; he has been much tried since I knew him, but he is a dangerous man." {{ref\|Jefferson}} </blockquote> ==Election of 1828== {{main\|United States presidential election, 1828}} ==Presidency 1829-1837== ===Spoils system=== Jackson is accused of introducing the "[[spoils system]]", or "patronage", to American politics. The term "spoils system" was attributed to Senator [[William L. Marcy]] of New York, who was quoted as saying, "To the victor belong the spoils." Upon Jackson's election as President, a sizable number of federal officers found that they had suddenly been replaced by supporters and friends of Jackson. Jackson saw this system as promoting the growth of democracy, rewarding people who were involved in his party and thus encouraging others to get involved. ===Opposition to the National Bank=== {{main\|Second Bank of the United States}} [[image:AJ~bank.JPG\|thumb\|400px\|Democratic cartoon shows Jackson fighting the monster Bank]] As president, Jackson worked to take away the federal charter of the [[Second Bank of the United States]] (it would continue to exist as a state bank). The original [[First Bank of the United States\|Bank of the United States]] had been introduced in 1791 by [[Alexander Hamilton]], as a way of organizing the federal government's finances. This first Bank's charter lapsed in 1811. It was followed by the second Bank, authorized during [[James Madison]]'s tenure in offce in 1816 for a 20 year period, to "alleviate the economic problems caused by the War of 1812". Both Banks were instrumental in the growth of the U.S. economy; but Jackson opposed the concept on ideological grounds. In Jackson's opinion, the Bank needed to be abolished because: * it was unconstitutional * it concentrated an excessive amount of the nation's financial strength into one single institution * it exposed the government to control by "foreign interests" * it exercised too much control over members of the Congress * it favored Northeastern states over Southern and Western (now Mid-western) states * Jackson had a strong personal and political dislike for the Bank's president, [[Nicholas Biddle (banker)\|Nicholas Biddle]] Jackson followed Jefferson as a supporter of the ideal of an "agricultural republic", and felt the Bank improved the fortunes of an "elite circle" of commercial and industrial entrepreneurs, at the expense of farmers and laborers. After a titanic struggle, Jackson succeeded in destroying the Bank, by vetoing its 1832 re-charter by Congress, and by withdrawing U.S. funds in 1833. The Bank's money-lending functions were taken over by the legions of local and state banks that sprang up feeding an expansion of credit and speculation; the commercial progress of the nation's economy was noticeably dented. The [[United States Senate\|U.S. Senate]] censured Jackson on March 27, 1834 for his actions in defunding the Bank of the United States; the censure was later expunged when the Jacksonians had a majority in the Senate. ===Nullification crisis=== {{main\|Nullification crisis}} [[Image:andrew_jackson_20bill.jpg\|thumb\|left\|Andrew Jackson is depicted on the U.S. $20 bill.]] Another notable crisis during Jackson's period of office was the "[[nullification crisis]]", or "secession crisis", of 1828&ndash;1832, which merged issues of sectional strife with disagreements over trade [[tariff]]s. Critics alleged that high tariffs (the "[[Tariff of Abominations]]") on imports of common manufactured goods made European goods more expensive than ones from the northern US, and raised the prices paid by planters in the southern US. Southern politicians thus had an argument, to the effect that tariffs benefitted northern industrialists at the expense of southern farmers. The issue came to a head when Vice President [[John C. Calhoun]], in the [[South Carolina Exposition and Protest]] of 1828, supported the clai
hose articles. * Approach websites that might want free content, and help them to get their hands on Wikipedia's; this is something Bomis programmers and volunteers could work on. Maybe after we're running Magnus' PHP code? * Post announcements on mailing lists. But of what sort? Obviously, we want to avoid spam. Start ''and continue'' discussions about Wikipedia articles (for this, the help of Wikipedians will be necessary) Simply announce the existence of Wikipedia, soliciting help. I think this is actually plausible. ** Recruit fans for specific areas of Wikipedia. For example, someone could drop by a [[Star Trek]] newsgroup and mention that our pages need work. I bet we'd have a huge Star Trek section in no time... * Possible solicitation letters: [[/Sample solicitation]] [[/Another sample solicitation]] [[/Sample solicitation 3]] [[/Skeptical solicitation]] * Post announcements on newsgroups. But try to be careful to go slowly through them--make sure the post is specially-tailored to whatever group you post to. A good strategy is to pick a Wikipedia article, point out a few problems with it, and post a link to the article, inviting people to make changes. If you have posted an announcement to a newsgroup, will you please list it here: [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Newsgroups\|Newsgroups]]. If you don't know much about newsgroups, go to http://groups.google.com. * Contact webmasters who have content-rich sites. Get them excited about Wikipedia, and invite them to make their content part of something great. * Increase production of pages that are of interest to the search engines. '''Look at [http://50.lycos.com/ the Lycos 50] and the [http://www.google.com/press/zeitgeist.html Google Zeitgeist] and make sure that there are articles on all those topics.''' I would say that writing some simple short biographies of famous people would help. It will help when we have reliable and regularly updated stats on what is popular. One interesting thing about this is that other people may follow suit so that there is a "trend" on the site. * Increase the standing of Wikipedia with Bomis. (There is a bug in the system which means that Wikipedia articles are not returned as often as they could be. We're working on this.) * Work to get additional press coverage, following up on the NYT article as best we can. [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Ideas for articles about Wikipedia and other press events\|Ideas for articles about Wikipedia and other press events]]. * Write a scholarly article about "Empirical studies in social epistemology" and get it published. * Write to authors of good books on subjects we need help on and invite them to write an article on Wikipedia. * Schools. Speak to any teachers you know and have them set up an exercise where their students write on various topics that are untouched. Students get school credit for their work, obviously and also get excited about participating. I've told my mother (who teaches grade 4), and her students are planning to do articles about australian mammals, some as-yet-untouched countries, etc. * Promote free content: Whenever you make a post on other content sites, include a statement that your content is GFDL, public domain, or whatever... * Get slashdotted once in a while. For example submit article to Slashdot when we reach 150,000 articles, 200,000, etc... [[User:Dgrant\|dave]] 15:48 18 Jul 2003 (UTC) * Add an [[RSS (protocol)\|RSS]] feed to syndicate the content. See [[meta:RDF spool]] * Would it be possible to make a subscription to an "Article of the Day" email. So someone subscribes and then every day they get a different entry in their mailbox. This is something that websters.com and dictionary.com do for "word of the day" definitions. It would probably need someone to take charge of it and select which entries go out (the random link too often goes to a stub or a disabmiguation page) I'll ([[user:MrWeeble]]) volunteer. It shouldn't be too hard to do - there's plenty of free (as in speech as well as in beer) software for this kind of thing Just tell people about Wikipedia- like one-on-one Suggest publications that came with CD or DVD to include converted static dump of Wikipedia (including viewer applications, if required) in their CD or DVD. Even better, suggest them to write an article about Wikipedia too. (The above is just a start! Please add to the list!) ---- Moved from [[Wikipedia:Village pump]] on [[Tuesday]], [[November 26]]th, [[2002]]: == Wikipedia Evangelism == Hi, I've mentioned this before and thought I'd mention it again. As I'm browsing the pedia I find articles that might interest friends/coworkers. I pop them a link in a quick hello message and ask them if they confirm the accuracy of the content...the response so far has been first one of wonder, then awe, then enthusiasm! And it's been a nice way to relate to some folks I'm not often in contact with. Anyway, I searched for [[evangelism]] and came up with nada around the 'pedia. Is there a place for sharing an evangelical/ 'help us' message of [[wikipedia]]? --[[User:DennisDaniels\|dgd]] There's some stuff at [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership]]. (Hint which wouldn't help here but may in general: after searching, go to the "Power search" box at the bottom of the screen and check the box for the 'Wikipedia' namespace. You'll get various about, help, documentation, etc pages that aren't supposed to show up when you're searching for encyclopedia articles.) Also check the [[m:Main Page\|Meta-wikipedia]] where we keep general project discussion and misc stuff. --[[User:Brion VIBBER\|Brion]] 20:42 Oct 22, 2002 (UTC) How about doing what a lot of news web pages do? They have a box at the bottom, "Send this article to a friend" with some kind of java mailer to ship it off and a box for you to add a signed message. [[User:Ortolan88\|Ortolan88]] :I like that idea too. Especially, and I know this would require more overhead, but a way to keep my list of folks in memory so I don't have to open my email client (which may not be available esp, as I'm a student and working on diff. machines). :How about mailto:root@localhost?Subject=Main%20Page&Body=Look%20at%20http%3A//www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page] ? The text needs to be changed, but it takes no more work than the Edit this page link to add at the bottom. Use a form with input text or a [[JavaScript]] inputbox() to an e-mail, then add subject=<title>&body=Look%20at%20<url-to-title> to the mailto. [[User:Geoffrey\|Geoffrey]] 23:27 Mar 21, 2003 (UTC) * Add Wikipedia pages to ODP and Yahoo directories * Add Wikipedia to your Yahoo profile's favorite sites [[User:Hemanshu\|Hemanshu]] 22:48, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC) * Develop software like Google toolbar to reach Wikipedia articles and browse Wikipedia [[User:Hemanshu\|Hemanshu]] 23:31, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC) Wikimedia should run a Wikipedia advertisement competition. As far as I can tell, WikiPedia has no advertisements. I am on a college campus and one group I am associated with advertises for lots of free software (Firefox and OpenOffice mostly) that is useful to college students. We would definitely put up some Wikipedia posters if there were a couple simple advertisements we could print out. This should be done similarly to how the logo contests were. If the contests are run, the purpose should be to get at least four advertisements: fliers for letter/A4 paper in both black & white and color and posters for tabloid/A3 paper in both black & white and color, so that it is easy for people to print them off and put them up on bulletin boards and the like. (If advertisements are available and I cannot find them, they should be made much more obvious.) --[[User:Jamethknorth\|Jamethknorth]] 02:25, 20 Mar 2005 (UTC) == Invitations == requesting permission to re-use somebody else's content in Wikipedia: * [[Wikipedia:Boilerplate request for permission]] * [[m:Standard email texts]] * Use Social Networks as a way to communicate. Moved from [[Wikipedia:Village pump]] on [[Wednesday]], [[June 9]]th, [[2004]]: ==Invitation Letter== Last weekend, I went to a number of places where there were guided tours, and that got me thinking...''it would be nice if this person could contribute their knowledge of this place to Wikipedia...'' I think there should be a standard letter to invite people to share their knowledge with Wikipedia, for when you come across someone who knows a lot about something. Or does a simlar thing already exist? What do you think? [[User:RealGrouchy\|RealGrouchy]] 00:03, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC) : I think it's a great idea. There's some sample solicitation letters linked from [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership]]. [[User:Matt Crypto\|&mdash; Matt]] 02:02, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC) Okay, so obviously I checked it out. Can someone draft a copy that can be printed out and handed to people (maybe like two to a page?). If nobody does, then I'll probably make one in time. [[User:RealGrouchy\|RealGrouchy]] 17:39, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC) ==Don't lose new and existing members!== There are a lot of great ideas for bringing in new members here. But don't forget that, once they're here, we want to keep them! [[America Online]] is a great case study of how focusing too much on new members and not enough on serving existing members can actually ''lose'' overall membership. Wikipedia must be an useful, easy, and pleasurable experience for new users. The droves of contributors ensure that "useful" is not a problem, at least as far as content goes. To make it "easy", more attention needs to be paid the initial interface learning curve for newbies. Both "pleasurable" and "useful" are significantly impacted by outrageously long response times and frequent server down time, so we must be careful not to bring in new people faster
rs=== [[Image:Houston streetcar.jpg\|250px\|thumb\|left\|Houston streetcar no. 49, circa 1890]] Early settlers used [[lumber]] to build frame houses, [[ditch]]es for drainage, and pigs to clean the streets. Lawlessness, epidemics and financial problems prompted the people of the community to attempt to improve their living conditions, including establishing a [[Chamber of Commerce]]. Spurred by that desire, state Senator Robert Wilson introduced a bill in the Congress of the Republic on [[November 26]], [[1838]], to charter the Houston Chamber of Commerce. Because many of the first settlers were from the [[Southern United States\|South]], they endorsed the [[slavery]]-[[plantation]] system. [[Slavery\|Slaves]] lived scattered through the neighborhoods,though there were few free blacks in the city. [[Yellow fever]] struck periodically, but in 1839 the disease devastated the fledgling city, killing about 12 percent of its population. In [[1840]], the city was divided into four [[ward (politics)\|ward]]s, each with different community functions. The wards are no longer [[political division]]s today, though their names are still used to refer to geographic areas. The Allen brothers began to promote Houston as a place to live at the same time the Republic of Texas started promoting colonization of Texas. By [[1860]] Houston began to emerge as a commercial and railroad hub for the export of cotton. Railroad spurs from the Texas inland converged in Houston, where they met rail lines to the ports of Galveston and [[Beaumont, Texas\|Beaumont]]. During the [[American Civil War\|Civil War]], Houston served as a headquarters for General [[John Bankhead Magruder]], which he used as his organizing point for the [[Battle of Galveston]]. Houston saloon keeper [[Dick Dowling]] became the city's first famous personality after his victory at the battle of [[Sabine Pass]] in [[1863]]. After the Civil War, Houston businessmen initiated efforts to widen the city's extensive system of [[bayou]]s so the city could accept more commerce between downtown and the nearby Port of Galveston. After several privately-financed dredging projects in the 1860's and 1870's, the United States government took over the Houston Ship Channel project in [[1881]]. By 1914, the Houston Ship Channel was dredged to give Houston a deep-water port, replacing Galveston's port which was destroyed in the Great Hurricane of 1900. ===20th century=== [[Image:Shuttleoverjsc.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|The space shuttle, atop its [[Boeing 747]], flying over NASA's Johnson Space Center in suburban Houston.]] In [[1900]], Houston's population was about 45,000, making it the 85th largest city in the United States. In [[1948]], several [[suburb]]s were incorporated into the [[city limits]], and Houston proper began to spread across the [[prairie]]. Shipbuilding during [[World War II]] spurred Houston's growth, as well as the establishment in [[1961]] of NASA's "Manned Spacecraft Center" (renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in [[1973]]), which created the city's [[aerospace]] industry. The [[Reliant Astrodome\|Astrodome]], an indoor domed sports stadium, the first of its kind in the world opened in 1965 as the Harris County Domed Stadium and was nicknamed the ''"Eighth Wonder of the World."'' Houston benefited from high oil prices in the 1970s, but its reliance on petroleum as the base of its industry led to its downfall when oil prices collapsed in the 1980s. Since then, Houston has made efforts to diversify its economy, focusing on aerospace and biotechnology, and reducing its dependence on petroleum. In [[1981]], [[Kathryn J. Whitmire]] became the city's first female mayor and held that position for 10 years. [[Hurricane Alicia]] hit the Houston area in [[1983]] as a Category 3 storm. Houston's first [[African American]] mayor, [[Lee P. Brown]], was elected in [[1997]]. ===The new millennium=== [[Image:Tropical Storm Allison.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|left\|The "500-year" flood from [[Tropical Storm Allison\|Tropical&nbsp;Storm&nbsp;Allison]].]] In [[2001]], [[Tropical Storm Allison]] dumped feet of rain on the city, causing billions of dollars in damages and taking 43 lives. To date, the flooding caused by Allison was the worst in the city's history. Many neighborhoods have changed since the storm; older houses in some affected neighborhoods have been torn down and replaced with larger houses with larger foundations. In the wake of [[Hurricane Katrina]] ([[August]] [[2005]]), Houston provided shelter to more than 25,000 refugees from [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]] in various facilities around the city, including the infrequently-used [[Reliant Astrodome]] stadium. This unprecedented situation has lasted several months, and involves Houston area public school systems, which is providing education for child refugees. According to [[CNN]], around 230,000 people from the [[New Orleans]] metropolitan area are now living in the Houston area, whether in shelters or elsewhere. Hurricane Katrina refugees have swelled the city proper's population past 2.5 million. It is unclear how that [[variable]] will fluctuate in the coming months. Some have speculated that, because of a variety of social and economic factors, the enormous population shift could &mdash; at least in part &mdash; be permanent. [[Image:Rita_evacuees_from_Houston_Texas_September_21_2005.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|Hurricane Rita evacuation in September 2005]] Approximately 2.5 million (out of 5.2 million) [[Greater Houston]] area residents evacuated when [[Hurricane Rita]] approached the Gulf Coast. Rita left little damage in the Houston metropolitan area. Dead stop traffic and gas shortages were rampant during the evacuation. This event marked the largest evacuation in the history of the United States. <!-- need something here about the terrible evacuation --> The city's baseball team, the [[Houston Astros]], advanced to the [[World Series]] for the first time in the team's history on [[October 19]], [[2005]], when the team won game six of the National League Championship series against their traditional rival the [[St. Louis Cardinals]], but the Astros subsequently lost the World Series to the [[Chicago White Sox]], who swept the series four to zero. ::''See also: [[Historical events of Houston, Texas\|Historical events of Houston]]'' ==Geography and climate== ===Geography=== [[Image:Large Houston Landsat.jpg\|thumb\|right\|400px\|Image taken on [[NASA]]'s [[Landsat 7]] satellite]] According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 1,558.4 [[square kilometre\|km²]] (601.7 [[square mile\|mi²]]). 1,500.7 km² (579.4 mi²) of it is land and 57.7 km² (22.3 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 3.7 percent water. Houston has four major [[bayou]]s passing through the city: [[Buffalo Bayou]], which runs into downtown; Brays Bayou, which runs along the [[Texas Medical Center]]; White Oak Bayou, which runs through the Heights and near the northwest area; and Sims Bayou, which runs through the south of Houston and downtown Houston, merging into the ship channel. The ship channel goes past [[Galveston, Texas\|Galveston]] and into the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. Much of Houston is very flat, making flooding a recurring problem for its residents. The city stands about 50 feet (15 m) above sea level; the [[Houston Heights\|Houston&nbsp;Heights]] area has the highest elevation in the city. The city once relied on [[groundwater]] for its water needs, but land subsidence forced the city to turn to ground-level water sources such as [[Lake Houston\|Lake&nbsp;Houston]]. ===Geology=== Underpinning Houston's land surface are unconsolidated [[clay]]s, clay [[shale]]s, and poorly-cemented [[sand]]s extending to depths of several miles. The region's [[geology]] developed from stream deposits from the erosion of the [[Rocky Mountains]]. These [[sediment]]s consist of a series of sands and clays deposited on decaying organic matter that, over time, was transformed into oil and natural gas. Beneath these tiers is a water-deposited layer of [[halite]], a rock salt. The porous layers were compressed over time and forced upward. As it pushed upward, the salt dragged surrounding sediments into dome shapes, often trapping oil and gas that seeped from the surrounding porous sands. The Houston region is generally [[earthquake]]-free. While the city of Houston contains 86 mapped and historically active surface [[geologic fault\|faults]] with an aggregate length of 149 miles, the clay below the surface precludes the buildup of friction that produces ground shaking in earthquakes. These faults generally move at a smooth rate in what is termed "fault creep." ===Climate=== Houston's climate is classified as being [[humid subtropical climate\|humid&nbsp;subtropical]]. The city is located in the gulf coastal plains [[biome]], and its vegetation is classified as temperate grassland. Much of Houston was built on [[forest\|forested land]], [[marsh]]es, [[swamp]], or [[prairie]], all of which can still be seen in surrounding areas. Average yearly precipitation levels range from 36 to 48 inches (910 to 1220 mm). Prevailing winds are from the south and southeast during most of the year, bringing heat from the deserts of [[Mexico]] and moisture from the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. In the [[summer]], daily high temperatures are in the 95 °F to 102 °F (35 °C to 39 °C) range throughout much of July and August.[http://www.weather.com/activities/other/other/weather/climo-monthly-graph.html?locid=USTX0617] The air tends to feel still and the humidity (often 90 to 100 percent [[relative humidity]]) results in a [[heat index]] higher than the actual temperature. To cope with the heat, people use [[air conditioning]] in nearly every car and building in the city. Summer [[thunderstorm]]s sometimes bring [[tornado]]es to the area. Afternoon rains are not uncommon, and most days Houston met
ganism recovered from cultures is the [[bacterium]] ''[[Streptococcus]]''. However, a wide variety of other bacteria (''[[Proteus (bacterium)\|Proteus]]'', ''[[Pseudomonas]]'', ''[[Pneumococcus]]'', ''[[Meningococcus]]'', ''[[Haemophilus]]''), [[fungus\|fungi]] and [[parasite]]s may also cause the disease. Fungi and parasites are especially associated with immunocompromised patients. Organisms that are most frequently-associated with brain abscess in patients with [[AIDS]] are [[Toxoplasma gondii]] and [[Cryptococcus neoformans]], though in infection with the latter organism, symptoms of [[meningitis]] generally predominate. ==Diagnosis== The diagnosis is established by a [[computed tomography]] (CT) (with contrast) examination. At the initial phase of the inflammation (which is referred to as cerebritis), the immature lesion does not have a capsule and it may be difficult to distinguish it from other space-occupying lessions or infarcts of the brain. Within 4-5 days the inflammation and the concomitant dead brain tissue are surrounded with a capsule, which gives the lesion the famous ring-enhancing appearance on CT examination with contrast (since intravenously applied contrast material can not pass through the capsule, it is collected around the lesion and looks as a ring surrounding the relatively dark lesion). [[Lumbar puncture]] procedure, which is performed in many infectious disorders of the central nervous system is contraindicated in this condition (as it is in all space-occupying lesions of the brain) because removing a certain portion of the [[Cerebral Spinal Fluid\|cerebrospinal fluid]] may alter the concrete intracranial pressure balances and cause a part of the brain tissue to move out of the skull ([[brain herniation]]). Ring enhancement may also be observed in cerebral hemorrhages (bleeding) and some brain [[tumor]]s. However, in the presence of the rapidly progressive course with fever, focal neurologic findings (hemiparesis, aphasia etc) and signs of increased intracranial pressure, the most likely diagnosis should be the brain abscess. ==Treatment== The treatment includes lowering the increased intracranial pressure and starting intravenous [[antibiotic]]s (and meanwhile identifying the causative organism mainly by blood culture studies). Surgical aspiration or removal of brain abscess are performed for patients that are resistant to medical treatments. [[Category:Neurological disorders]] [[ja:&#33075;&#33215;&#30221;]] [[fi:Aivopaise]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bud Spencer</title> <id>3841</id> <revision> <id>37315236</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T04:45:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>D6</username> <id>75561</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bud Spencer''' (born [[October 31]], [[1929]] in [[Naples]]), born as '''Carlo Pedersoli''', is a famous [[Italy\|Italian]] [[actor]]. Spencer holds a doctorate in [[law]], as well as several [[patent]]s; he also was a successful swimmer and [[water polo]] player, participating in the [[Olympic Games]] in [[1952]], [[1956]] and [[1960]] and also winning several titles. His first movie appearance was as an emperor's guard in ''[[Quo Vadis (1951 movie)\|Quo Vadis]]'' in [[1951]]; he later on met [[Terence Hill]], with whom he did a large number of [[Italian Western]]s, including ''[[God forgives, I don't (1968 movie)\|God forgives, I don't]]'' ([[1968]]), ''[[They_Call_Me_Trinity\|They call me Trinity]]'' ([[1971]]) and ''[[Trinity is Still My Name]]'' ([[1972]]). Spencer has a large fanbase, particularly in [[Europe]]; he also wrote [[screenplay]]s and texts for some of his movies. Spencer married [[Maria Amato]] in [[1960]]; the couple has three children, Giuseppe ([[1961]]), Christine ([[1962]]) and Diamante ([[1972]]). His name was chosen as an homage to [[Spencer Tracy]] in [[1967]] as well as his favourite [[United States\|American]] beer. Other sources report that he found it funny to call himself "bud" despite his weight and body size. In [[2005]] Spencer entered [[politics]], standing as regional councillor in [[Lazio]] for the [[Forza Italia]] party. He was, however, not elected. == External links == * {{imdb name\|id=0817881\|name=Bud Spencer}} * [http://www.budterence.tk Budterence.tk] - Bud Spencer &amp; Terence Hill Style * [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/02/16/witaly16.xml&sSheet=/news/2005/02/16/ixworld.html Berlusconi picks film cowboy as his sidekick], [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ telegraph.co.uk], 16th February 2005, Bruce Johnston [[Category:1929 births\|Spencer, Bud]] [[Category:Living people\|Spencer, Bud]] [[Category:Italian actors\|Spencer, Bud]] [[Category:Spaghetti Western actors\|Spencer, Bud]] {{italy-actor-stub}} [[cs:Bud Spencer]] [[de:Bud Spencer]] [[eo:Bud SPENCER]] [[es:Bud Spencer]] [[fr:Bud Spencer]] [[hu:Bud Spencer]] [[it:Bud Spencer]] [[sv:Bud Spencer]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Bisexuality</title> <id>3843</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42110893</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:13:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>129.118.121.209</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Bisexuality in modern Western entertainment */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Sexual orientation}} {{Redirect\|Bisexual}} '''Bisexuality''' in human sexual behavior refers to the [[aesthetic]], [[romance\|romantic]], and [[sexual]] desire for people of both [[gender\|genders]] and/or for people of both [[sex\|sexes]]. For some writers, the term is parallel to [[homosexuality]] and [[heterosexuality]], while for others the term expresses a blend of the two. Although observed in a variety of forms in most societies throughout recorded history, bisexuality has only been the subject of serious study since the second half of the [[20th century]], and some disagreement remains about its prevalence and nature. ==Description== Bisexual orientation can fall anywhere between the two extremes of [[homosexuality]] and [[heterosexuality]]; a bisexual person is not necessarily attracted equally to both genders, and many tend to prefer one or the other. Moreoever, a bisexual person may be attracted to both genders but not both sexes, or vice versa. Another view of bisexuality is that homosexuality and heterosexuality are two [[monosexual]] orientations, whereas bisexuality encompasses them both. However, some argue that bisexuality is a legitimate [[sexual orientation]] in its own right. Individuals attracted to both males and females, like people of any other orientation, may live a variety of sexual lifestyles. These include: lifelong [[monogamy]], [[serial monogamy]], [[polyamory]], [[polyfidelity]], [[promiscuity\|casual sexual activity]] with individual partners, casual [[group sex]], and [[celibacy]]. For those with more than one sexual partner, these may or may not all be of the same gender. Some people who might be classified by others as bisexual on the basis of their sexual behavior self-identify as [[gay]] or [[lesbian]] -- for example, a bisexual woman who considers herself a lesbian may do so on the basis that a lesbian might be defined as any woman who is attracted to women (even one who is also attracted to men), or a woman who is primarily attracted to other women. Some lesbian and gay people object, asserting that exclusivity is part of the definition. Other bisexuals consider themselves distinct from homosexuals but part of the larger [[LGBT]] or [[queer]] community. Some people who engage in bisexual behavior may be supportive of lesbian and gay people, but still self-identify as [[straight]], and still others consider any labels irrelevant to their situations. ==Bisexuality in history== Historical and literary records from most literate societies indicate that male bisexuality was common and indeed expected. These relationships were generally age-structured (as in the practice of [[pederasty]] in the [[Mediterranean Basin]] of [[Classical antiquity\|antiquity]], or the practice of [[shudo]] in pre-modern Japan) or gender-structured (as in the [[Two-Spirit]] North American tradition or the [[Central Asia]]n [[bacchá]] practices). Male heterosexuality and homosexuality, while also documented, appear mostly as exceptions, unless we are examining cultures influenced by the [[Abrahamic religion]]s, where heterosexuality was privileged, and bisexuality and homosexuality forcefully suppressed. In fact, most of the commonly cited examples of male "homosexuality" in previous cultures would more properly be categorized as bisexuality. Determining the history of female bisexuality is more problematic, in that women in most of the studied societies were under the domination of the males, and on one hand had less self-determination and freedom of movement and expression, and on the other were not the ones writing or keeping the literary record. In [[Ancient Greece]] it is believed that males generally went through a homosexual stage in adolescence, followed by a bisexual stage characterized by [[pederasty\|pederastic relationships]] in young adulthood, followed by a (mostly) heterosexual stage later in life, when they married and had children. Ancient [[Rome]], Arab countries up to and including the present, [[China]], and [[Japan]], all exhibit patterns of analogous bisexual behavior. In Japan in particular, due to its practice of [[shudo]] and the extensive art and literature associated with it, the record of a primarily bisexual lifestyle is both detailed and quite recent, dating back as recently as the [[19th century]]. Perhaps the most famous example is [[Alexander the Great]] who had many wives, but also at least two male lovers, [[Hephaestion]] being his life-long friend. The same could be said of mos
/contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Afghanistan]] :''See also :'' [[Afghanistan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Afghanistan/Transnational Issues</title> <id>821</id> <revision> <id>15899335</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]] :''See also :'' [[Afghanistan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Afghanistan (1911 Encyclopedia)</title> <id>822</id> <revision> <id>15899336</id> <timestamp>2004-01-06T22:27:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Angela</username> <id>8551</id> </contributor> <comment>#redirect [[Afghanistan]] - see talk page</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Afghanistan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Altaic languages</title> <id>824</id> <revision> <id>42001331</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:39:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>71.131.202.249</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* See also /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Altaic''' is a proposed [[Language families and languages\|language family]] which includes 60 [[language]]s spoken by about 250 million people, mostly in and around [[Central Asia]] and the [[Far East]]. The relationships among these languages remain a matter of debate among historical linguists. Some scholars consider the obvious similarity between these languages as genetically inherited; others propose the idea of the [[Sprachbund]]. Its proponents traditionally considered it to include [[Korean language\|Korean]], the [[Turkic languages]], the [[Mongolic languages]], the [[Tungusic languages]] (or Manchu-Tungus), and [[Japanese language\|Japanese]]. [[Ainu language\|Ainu]] has occasionally been suggested as a member of Altaic, but that hypothesis is generally rejected. Castrén (1862) put forward a similar view, but classified Turkic with what we would now call [[Uralic languages\|Uralic]]. In 1857 [[Anton Boller]] suggested adding Korean and Japanese; for Korean, G. J. Ramstedt and E. D. Polivanov put forward more etymologies in the 1920's. Korean has commonly been linked to [[Japonic_languages\|Japonic]], and in [[1971]], [[Roy Miller]] suggested relating it to both Korean and Altaic. These suggestions have been taken up and developed by various historical linguists such as [[John Whitman]], [[Sergei Starostin]], and [[Alexander Vovin]] (who now rejects a genetic connection between Korean and Japanese). There have been some attempts to extend the Altaic family borders by including Ainu (e.g., Street 1962, Patrie 1982), [[Tamil language\|Tamil]], [[Nivkh language\|Nivkh]], or [[Hungarian language\|Hungarian]], but these proposals have been rejected by the majority of scholars. ==Controversy== There are two main schools of thought about the Altaic theory. One is that the proposed constituent language families (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic in the basic theory, with the addition of Korean and Japanese in extended versions) are genetically or "divergently" related by descent from a common ancestor, "Proto-Altaic." The other school rejects this theory (so it is often called the "Anti-Altaic" school) and argues that the member languages are related by convergence (mainly loan influence). The Altaic theory is claimed by its opponents to be based mainly on typological similarities, such as [[vowel harmony]], lack of [[grammatical gender]], an [[agglutinative]] typology, and [[loanword]]s. In fact, its proponents have put together a large variety of grammatical, lexical, and syntactic regular correspondences between the sub-groups of Altaic (e.g., Ramstedt, [[Nicholas Poppe\|Poppe]], Martin, Starostin). However, its opponents explain these as [[loanword]]s, mutual influence, or [[convergence]], arguing that, although the Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic families do have similarities, they are the result of intensive borrowing and long contact among speakers. The Altaic theory is highly controversial. While some support it, others (e.g., Doerfer 1963) do not regard Altaic as a valid group and see it as three (or more) separate language families. Other linguists, such as [[Bernard Comrie]] (1992, 2003), argue that Altaic may be part of a larger grouping, such as [[Nostratic]] or [[Eurasiatic languages\|Eurasiatic]]. In contrast, [[J. Marshall Unger]] (1990) believes that languages such as Korean and Japanese may be part of a "macro-Tungusic" family. Vovin rejected the claim for a Koreo-Japonic branch of Altaic on the basis that they have no [[comparative_method\|shared innovation]]s. ==See also== [[Altay language]] * [[Language families and languages]] * [[Nostratic]] ==External links== [http://starling.rinet.ru/ Starling Etymological Databases] [http://altaica.narod.ru/Engl.htm/ Monumenta Altaica - Altaic Linguistics] [[Category:Altai]] [[Category:Altaic languages\| ]] [[ar:ألطية]] [[ast:Familia altaica]] [[bg:Алтайски езици]] [[be:Алтайскія мовы]] [[de:Altaisprachen]] [[es:Lenguas altaicas]] [[fa:زبان‌های آلتایی]] [[fr:Langues altaïques]] [[ko:알타이어족]] [[io:Altaika linguaro]] [[id:Bahasa Altai]] [[lt:Altajaus kalbos]] [[hu:Altáji nyelvcsalád]] [[nl:Altaïsche talen]] [[ja:アルタイ諸語]] [[pl:Języki ałtajskie]] [[pt:Línguas altaicas]] [[ro:Limbi altaice]] [[ru:Алтайские языки]] [[sl:Altajski jeziki]] [[fi:Altailaiset kielet]] [[sv:Altaiska språk]] [[vi:Hệ ngôn ngữ Altai]] [[uk:Алтайські мови]] [[zh:阿尔泰语系]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Austrian German</title> <id>825</id> <revision> <id>41866943</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:09:48Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Svenska84</username> <id>214985</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Influence of popular culture / Linguistic research has consistently shown the media don't cause dialect death. Also, if ialects are dying out in most other places in Europe that needs citation</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Austrian German''' is any variety of the [[German language]] spoken in [[Austria]]. There is no unitary Austrian [[language]], but a variety of [[High Germanic languages\|High German]] [[dialect]]s are spoken. Besides the Germanic languages discussed here, [[minority language]]s such as [[Slovenian language\|Slovenian]], [[Croatian language\|Croatian]], and [[Hungarian language\|Hungarian]] are spoken in parts of the country. ==Overview== [[Standard German]], called ''"High German"'' (German: ''standardsprache'' (by philologists), generally (incorrectly) referred to as ''Hochdeutsch'') in Austria. * [[Vorarlbergerisch]], spoken in [[Vorarlberg]], is an [[Alemannic German\|Alemannic]] dialect similar to [[Swiss German]]. * All other dialects belong to the [[Austro-Bavarian]] group, which is a common language throughout much of the country. ==Subgroups== Ordinarily, the latter dialects are considered to belong either to the [[Central Austro-Bavarian]] or [[Southern Austro-Bavarian]] subgroups, with the latter encompassing the languages of the [[Tyrol]], [[Carinthia (state)\|Carinthia]], and [[Styria (state)\|Styria]] and the former including the dialects of [[Vienna]], [[Upper Austria]], and [[Lower Austria]]. The dialect spoken in Vorarlberg is more closely related to [[Swiss German]] than it is to other Austrian dialects, so Austrians from outside Vorarlberg normally cannot understand it. ==Intercomprehensiblity and regional accents== While strong forms of the various dialects are not normally comprehensible to Northern [[Germany\|Germans]], there is virtually no communication barrier to speakers from [[Bavaria]]. The [[Central Austro-Bavarian]] dialects are more intelligible to speakers of Standard German than the [[Southern Austro-Bavarian]] dialects of [[Tyrol (state)\|Tirol]]. [[Viennese language\|Viennese]], the Austro-Bavarian dialect of [[Vienna]], is most frequently used in [[Germany]] for impersonations of the typical inhabitant of Austria. The people of [[Graz]], the capital of [[Styria (state)\|Styria]], speak yet another dialect which is not very Styrian and more easily understood by people from other parts of Austria than other Styrian dialects, for example from western [[Styria (state)\|Styria]]. Simple words in the various dialects are very similar, but pronunciation is distinct for each and it is very easy for an Austrian after a few spoken words to judge which Austrian dialect someone speaks. However, if it goes into the dialects of the deeper valleys of [[Tyrol]], sometimes even other Tyroleans are helpless to understand the dialect. Speakers from the different [[States of Austria\|states]] of Austria can usually easily be distinguished from each other by their particular accents (probably more so than Bavarians), with those of [[Carinthia (state)\|Carinthia]], [[Styria (state)\|Styria]], [[Vienna]], [[Upper Austria]], and the Tyrol being very characteristic. Speakers from those regions, even those speaking [[Standard German]], can usually be easily identified by their accent, even by an untrained listener. Several of the dialects have been influenced by contact with non-Germanic linguistic groups, such as the dialect of Carinthia, where in the past many speakers were bilingual with [[Slovenian language\|Slovenian]], and the dialect of Vienna, which has been influenced by immigration during the [[Austria-Hungary\|Austro-Hungarian]] period, particularly from what is today the [[Czech Republic]]. Interestingly, the geographic borderlines between the different accents coincide strongly with the borders of the states and also with the border to [[Bavaria]]
eadiating longwave radiation back to the surface of the Earth. It has nothing to do with glasshouses, which trap warm air at the surface''). * Idso, S.B.: Carbon Dioxide: friend or foe, 1982 (quote: ''...the phraseology is somewhat in appropriate, since CO2 does not warm the planet in a manner analogous to the way in which a greenhouse keeps its interior warm''). * Kiehl, J.T., and Trenberth, K. (1997). Earth's annual mean global energy budget, ''Bulletin of the [[American Meteorological Society]]'' '''78''' (2), 197&ndash;208. * Piexoto, JP and Oort, AH: Physics of Climate, American Institute of Physics, 1992 (quote: ''...the name water vapor-greenhouse effect is actually a misnomer since heating in the usual greenhouse is due to the reduction of convection'') * Wood, R.W. (1909). Note on the Theory of the Greenhouse, ''Philosophical Magazine'' '''17''', p319&ndash;320. For the text of this online, see http://www.wmconnolley.org.uk/sci/wood_rw.1909.html * IPCC assessment reports, see http://www.ipcc.ch/ [[Category:Atmospheric radiation]] [[Category:Climate change]] [[Category:Climate forcing]] [[Category:Atmosphere]] [[ar:انحباس حراري]] [[zh-min-nan:Un-sek hāu-èng]] [[ca:Efecte hivernacle]] [[cs:Skleníkový efekt]] [[da:Drivhuseffekt]] [[de:Treibhauseffekt]] [[es:Efecto invernadero]] [[fa:پدیده گلخانه‌ای]] [[fr:Effet de serre]] [[gl:Efecto invernadoiro]] [[ko:온실 효과]] [[id:Efek rumah kaca]] [[ia:Effecto de Calefaction Atmospheric]] [[it:Effetto serra]] [[he:אפקט החממה]] [[nl:Broeikaseffect]] [[ja:温室効果]] [[no:Drivhuseffekt]] [[nn:Drivhuseffekt]] [[pl:Efekt cieplarniany]] [[pt:Efeito estufa]] [[ru:Парниковый эффект]] [[sl:Pojav tople grede]] [[fi:Kasvihuoneilmiö]] [[sv:Växthuseffekten]] [[th:ปรากฏการณ์เรือนกระจก]] [[vi:Hiệu ứng nhà kính]] [[uk:Парниковий ефект]] [[zh:温室效应]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Group homomorphism</title> <id>12396</id> <revision> <id>30960351</id> <timestamp>2005-12-11T20:16:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Luqui</username> <id>84294</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Examples /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], given two [[group (mathematics)\|groups]] (''G'', ) and (''H'', ·), a '''group homomorphism''' from (''G'', ) to (''H'', ·) is a [[function (mathematics)\|function]] ''h'' : ''G'' <tt>-></tt> ''H'' such that for all ''u'' and ''v'' in ''G'' it holds that : ''h''(''u'' ''v'') = ''h''(''u'') · ''h''(''v'') From this property, one can deduce that ''h'' maps the identity element ''e<sub>G</sub>'' of ''G'' to the identity element ''e<sub>H</sub>'' of ''H'', and it also maps inverses to inverses in the sense that ''h''(''u''<sup>-1</sup>) = ''h''(''u'')<sup>-1</sup>. Hence one can say that ''h'' "is compatible with the group structure". Older notations for the homomorphism ''h''(''x'') may be ''x''<sub>''h''</sub>, though this may be confused as an index or a general subscript. A more recent trend is to write group homomorphisms on the right of their arguments, omitting brackets, so that ''h''(''x'') becomes simply ''x h''. This approach is especially prevalent in areas of group theory where [[automata]] play a role, since it accords better with the convention that automata read words from left to right. In areas of mathematics where one considers groups endowed with additional structure, a ''homomorphism'' sometimes means a map which respects not only the group structure (as above) but also the extra structure. For example, a homomorphism of [[topological group\|topological groups]] is often required to be continuous. == Image and kernel == We define the ''kernel of h'' to be :ker(''h'') = { ''u'' in ''G'' : ''h''(''u'') = ''e<sub>H</sub>'' } and the ''image of h'' to be :im(''h'') = { ''h''(''u'') : ''u'' in ''G'' }. The kernel is a [[normal subgroup]] of ''G'' (in fact, ''h''(''g''<sup>-1</sup> ''u'' ''g'') = ''h''(''g'')<sup>-1</sup> ''h''(''u'') ''h''(''g'') = ''h''(''g'')<sup>-1</sup> ''e<sub>H</sub>'' ''h''(''g'') = ''h''(''g'')<sup>-1</sup> ''h''(''g'') = ''e<sub>H</sub>'') and the image is a [[subgroup]] of ''H''. The homomorphism ''h'' is [[injective]] (and called a ''group monomorphism'') if and only if ker(''h'') = {''e''<sub>''G''</sub>}. == Examples == * Consider the [[cyclic group]] '''Z'''/3'''Z''' = {0, 1, 2} and the group of integers '''Z''' with addition. The map ''h'' : '''Z''' <tt>-></tt> '''Z'''/3'''Z''' with ''h''(''u'') = ''u'' [[modular arithmetic\|mod]] 3 is a group homomorphism. It is [[surjective]] and its kernel consists of all integers which are divisible by 3. * The [[exponential function\|exponential map]] yields a group homomorphism from the group of [[real number]]s '''R''' with addition to the group of non-zero real numbers '''R'''<sup></sup> with multiplication. The kernel is {0} and the image consists of the positive real numbers. The exponential map also yields a group homomorphism from the group of [[complex number]]s '''C''' with addition to the group of non-zero complex numbers '''C'''<sup></sup> with multiplication. This map is surjective and has the kernel { 2&pi;''ki'' : ''k'' in '''Z''' }, as can be seen from [[Eulers formula in complex analysis\|Euler's formula]]. Given any two groups ''G'' and ''H'', the map ''h'' : ''G'' <tt>-></tt> ''H'' which sends every element of ''G'' to the identity element of ''H'' is a homomorphism; its kernel is all of ''G''. * Given any group ''G'', the identity map id : ''G'' <tt>-></tt> ''G'' with id(''u'') = ''u'' for all ''u'' in ''G'' is a group homomorphism. == The category of groups == If ''h'' : ''G'' <tt>-></tt> ''H'' and ''k'' : ''H'' <tt>-></tt> ''K'' are group homomorphisms, then so is ''k'' o ''h'' : ''G'' <tt>-></tt> ''K''. This shows that the [[class (set theory)\|class]] of all groups, together with group homomorphisms as morphisms, forms a [[category theory\|category]]. == Isomorphisms, endomorphisms and automorphisms == If the homomorphism ''h'' is a [[bijection]], then one can show that its inverse is also a group homomorphism, and ''h'' is called a ''[[group isomorphism]]''; in this case, the groups ''G'' and ''H'' are called ''isomorphic'': they differ only in the notation of their elements and are identical for all practical purposes. If ''h'': ''G'' <tt>-></tt> ''G'' is a group homomorphism, we call it an ''endomorphism'' of ''G''. If furthermore it is bijective and hence an isomorphism, it is called an ''[[automorphism]]''. The set of all automorphisms of a group ''G'', with functional composition as operation, forms itself a group, the ''automorphism group'' of ''G''. It is denoted by Aut(''G''). As an example, the automorphism group of ('''Z''', +) contains only two elements, the identity and multiplication with -1; it is isomorphic to '''Z'''/2'''Z'''. == Homomorphisms of abelian groups == If ''G'' and ''H'' are [[abelian group\|abelian]] (i.e. commutative) groups, then the set Hom(''G'', ''H'') of all group homomorphisms from ''G'' to ''H'' is itself an abelian group: the sum ''h'' + ''k'' of two homomorphisms is defined by :(''h'' + ''k'')(''u'') = ''h''(''u'') + ''k''(''u'')&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; for all ''u'' in ''G''. The commutativity of ''H'' is needed to prove that ''h'' + ''k'' is again a group homomorphism. The addition of homomorphisms is compatible with the composition of homomorphisms in the following sense: if ''f'' is in Hom(''K'', ''G''), ''h'', ''k'' are elements of Hom(''G'', ''H''), and ''g'' is in Hom(''H'',''L''), then :(''h'' + ''k'') o ''f'' = (''h'' o ''f'') + (''k'' o ''f'')&nbsp;&nbsp; and &nbsp;&nbsp; ''g'' o (''h'' + ''k'') = (''g'' o ''h'') + (''g'' o ''k''). This shows that the set End(''G'') of all endomorphisms of an abelian group forms a [[ring (algebra)\|ring]], the ''endomorphism ring'' of ''G''. For example, the endomorphism ring of the abelian group consisting of the [[direct sum]] of two copies of '''Z'''/2'''Z''' (the [[Klein four-group]]) is isomorphic to the ring of 2-by-2 [[matrix_(mathematics)\|matrices]] with entries in '''Z'''/2'''Z'''. The above compatibility also shows that the category of all abelian groups with group homomorphisms forms a [[preadditive category]]; the existence of direct sums and well-behaved kernels makes this category the prototypical example of an [[abelian category]]. [[Category:Group theory]] [[de:Gruppenhomomorphismus]] [[fr:Homomorphisme de groupe]] [[it:Omomorfismo di gruppi]] [[sl:Homomorfizem grupe]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Group isomorphism</title> <id>12397</id> <revision> <id>36865523</id> <timestamp>2006-01-26T23:48:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Almit39</username> <id>64904</id> </contributor> <comment>it:</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], a '''group isomorphism''' is a [[function (mathematics)\|function]] between two [[group (mathematics)\|group]]s that sets up a one-to-one correspondence between the elements of the groups in a way that respects the given group operations. If there exists an isomorphism between two groups, then the groups are called '''isomorphic'''. From the standpoint of group theory, isomorphic groups have the same properties and need not be distinguished. == Definition and notation== Given two groups (''G'', ) and (''H'', @), a ''group isomorphism'' from (''G'', ) to (''H'', @) is a [[bijection\|bijective]] [[group homomorphism]] from ''G'' to ''H''. Spelled out, this means that a group isomorphism is a bijective function ''f'' : ''G'' <tt>-></tt> ''H'' such that for
n to signed written agreements not supported by consideration: the seal (even if not a literal wax seal but only a notional one referred to by the execution formula, "Signed, sealed and delivered," or even merely "Executed as a deed") is deemed to be the consideration necessary to support the contract between the parties to the deed. ''Poll'' is an [[Archaism\|archaic]] legal term referring to documents with straight edges; these distinguished a deed binding only one person from one affecting more than a single person (an ''indenture'', so named during the time when such agreements would be written out repeatedly on a single sheet for each party, then irregularly torn or "indented" so that each party had a document with a unique tear, to discourage [[forgery]]). {{law-stub}} [[Category:Legal terms]] [[Category:Contract law]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Driving license</title> <id>8087</id> <revision> <id>15906110</id> <timestamp>2002-04-06T10:27:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Enchanter</username> <id>1104</id> </contributor> <comment>Redirecting to title with correct spelling (at least to our US friends ;-) )</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Driver's license]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Documentary film</title> <id>8088</id> <revision> <id>41990338</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:01:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>WAS</username> <id>309365</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* External links */ Disney racism documentary link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Documentary film''' is a broad category of cinematic expression united by the intent to remain factual or [[non-fiction]]al. ==History== ===Pre-1900=== The French used the term to refer to any non-fiction including travelogues and instructional videos. The earliest "moving pictures" were by definition documentary. They were single shots, moments captured on film, whether of a train entering a station, a boat docking, or a factory of people getting off work. Early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event. These short films were called actuality films. Very little storytelling took place before the turn of the century, due mostly to technological limitations: cameras could hold only very small amounts of film; many of the first films are a minute or less in length. ===Romanticism=== [[Image:Nanook of the north.jpg\|thumb\|''Nanook of the North'' movie poster.]] With [[Robert J. Flaherty]]'s ''[[Nanook of the North]]'' in [[1922]], documentary film embraced [[romanticism]]; Flaherty went on to film a number of heavily staged romantic films, usually showing how his subjects would have lived 100 years earlier and not how they lived right then (for instance, in ''Nanook of the North'' Flaherty does not allow his subjects to shoot a walrus with a nearby shotgun, but has them use a harpoon instead, putting themselves in considerable danger). Some of Flaherty's staging, such as building a roofless [[igloo]] for interior shots, was done to accommodate the filming technology of the time. ===Newsreel tradition=== The [[newsreel]] tradition is an important tradition in documentary film; newsreels were also sometimes staged but were usually reenactments of events that had already happened, not attempts to steer events as they were in the process of happening. For instance, much of the battle footage from the early [[20th century]] was staged -- the cameramen would usually arrive on site after a major battle and reenact scenes to film them. [[Dziga Vertov]] was involved with the Russian ''[[Kino-Pravda]]'' newsreel series ("Kino-Pravda" means literally, "film-truth," a term that was later translated literally into the French [[cinéma vérité]]). [[Frank Capra]]'s ''[[Why We Fight]]'' series was a newsreel series in the [[United States]], commissioned by the government to convince the U.S. public that it was time to go to war. ===Realist tradition=== The continental, or realist, tradition focused on man within man-made environments, and included the so-called "city symphony" films such as ''[[Berlin, Symphony of a City]]'', ''[[Rien que les Heures]]'', and ''[[Man with the Movie Camera]]''. These films tended to feature people as products of their environment, and leaned towards the impersonal or avant-garde. ===Propagandist tradition=== [[Image:Triumph018.jpg\|thumb\|[[Leni Reifenstahl]] filming ''[[Triumph of the Will]]'' in [[Nuremburg]] in [[1934]].]] The propagandist tradition consisted of films made with the explicit purpose of persuading an audience of a point. One of the most notorious [[propaganda film]]s is [[Leni Riefenstahl]]'s film ''[[Triumph of the Will]]''. ''Why We Fight'' was explicitly contracted as a propaganda newsreel series in response to this, covering different aspects of [[World War II]], and had the daunting task of persuading the US public to go to war. The series has been selected for preservation in the United States' [[National Film Registry]]. In Britain, [[Humphrey Jennings]] succeeded in blending propaganda with a poetic approach to documentary. ===J. Grierson and D. Vertov=== In the [[1930s]], documentarian and film critic [[John Grierson]] argued in his essay ''First Principles of Documentary'' that Robert Flaherty's film ''[[Moana]]'' had "documentary value," and put forward a number of principles of documentary. These principles were that cinema's potential for observing life could be exploited in a new art form; that the "original" actor and "original" scene are better guides than their fiction counterparts to interpreting the modern world; and that materials "thus taken from the raw" can be more real than the acted article. In this regard, Grierson's views align with Dziga Vertov's contempt for dramatic fiction as "bourgeois excess," though with considerably more subtlety. Grierson's definition of documentary as "creative treatment of actuality" has gained some acceptance, though it presents philosophical questions about documentaries containing stagings and reenactments. In his essays, Vertov argued for presenting "life as it is" (that is, life filmed surreptitiously) and "life caught unawares" (life provoked or surprised by the camera). Cinema verite borrows from both [[Italian neorealism]]'s penchant for shooting non-actors on location, and the [[French New Wave]]'s use of largely unscripted action and improvised dialogue; the filmmakers took advantage of advances in technology allowing smaller, handheld cameras and synchronized sound to film events on location as they unfold. ===Cinéma vérité=== The films ''[[Harlan County, USA]]'' (directed by [[Barbara Kopple]]), ''[[Dont Look Back]]'' ([[D. A. Pennebaker]]), ''[[Lonely Boy]]'' ([[Wolf Koenig]] and [[Roman Kroitor]]) and ''[[Chronicle of a Summer]]'' ([[Jean Rouch]]) are all considered [[cinéma vérité]]. Although sometimes used interchangeably, there are important differences between cinéma vérité ([[Jean Rouch]]) and the North American "[[Direct Cinema]]", pioneered among others by French Canadian [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Brault Michel Brault], [[Pierre Perrault]], [[Richard Leacock]], [[Frederick Wiseman]] and [[Albert and David Maysles]]. The directors of the movement take different viewpoints on their degree of involvement, Kopple and Pennebaker, for instance, choosing non-involvement, and Rouch, Koenig, and Kroitor favoring direct involvement or even provocation when they deem it necessary. The fundamentals of the style include following a person during a crisis with a moving camera (not a tripod) to capture more personal reactions. There are no sit-down interviews, and the shooting ratio (the amount of film shot to the finished product) is very high, often reaching 80:1. From there, editors find and sculpt the work into a film. The editors of the movement, Charlotte Zwerin, Muffie Myers, Susan Froemke, and Ellen Hovde are often overlooked, but their input to the film so vital that they were often given co-director credits. Famous cinéma vérité/direct cinema films include ''Showman'', ''Salesman'', ''The Children Were Watching'', ''Primary'', ''Behind a Presidential Crisis'', and ''Grey Gardens''. ===The '60s and '70s=== In the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] documentary film was often conceived as a political weapon against [[neocolonialism]] and [[capitalism]] in general, especially in [[Latin America]], but also in the then turbulent [[Quebec]] society. ''La Hora de los hornos'' (''[[The Hour of the Furnaces]]'', from 1968), directed by [[Octavio Getino]] and [[Fernando E. Solanas]], influenced a whole generation of filmmakers. ===Compilation films=== The creation of compilation films is not a recent development in the field of documentary. It was pioneered in 1927 by [[Esfir Schub]] with'' The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty''. More recent examples include ''Point of Order'' (1964),directed by [[Emile de Antonio]] about the McCarthy hearings and ''[[The Atomic Cafe]]'' which is made entirely out of found footage which various agencies of the U.S. government made about the safety of nuclear radiation (e.g., telling troops at one point that it's safe to be irradiated as long as they keep their eyes and mouths shut). Meanwhile ''[[The Last Cigarette]]'' combines the testimony of various [[tobacco]] company executives before the U.S. Congress with archival propaganda extolling the virtues of smoking. Non-fiction film can also be used to produce the more subjective reflective attitude characteristic of essays. Important essay film makers include [[Chris Marker]], [[Guy Debord]], [[Raoul Peck]] and [[Harun Farocki]]. ===Modern documentaries=== [[Ima
k'' (1966) ''Getaway from Getawehi'' (1969) ''The Black Hole of Negrav'' (1975) Collected together in ''The Unorthodox Engineers'' (1979) ====Others ==== ''Survival Problem'' (1959) ''Breaking Point'' (1959) ''Lambda I'' (1962) ''The Night-Flame'' (1964) ''Hunger Over Sweet Waters'' (1965) ''The Imagination Trap'' (1967) ''Ambassador to Verdammt'' (1967) ''I Bring You Hands'' (1968) ''The Cloudbuilders'' (1968) ''The Teacher'' (1969) ''Gottlos'' (1969) ''Letter from an Unknown Genius'' (1971) ''Which Way Do I Go For Jericho?'' (1972) ''What the Thunder Said'' (1972) ''The Old King's Answers'' (1973) ''Crimescan'' (1973) ''War of the Wastelife'' (1974) ''Mephisto and the Ion Explorer'' (1974) ''Cassius and the Mind-Jaunt'' (1975) ''Something in the City'' (1984) ''An Alternative to Salt'' (1986) ==External links== [http://web.archive.org/web/19991009162905/www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/7106/kapp.htm Biography] (archived) [http://jarl.errors.no/sf/kapp/ Bibliography] kept by [[Jarl Totland]] {{isfdb name\|id=Colin_Kapp\|name=Colin Kapp}} [http://www.scifan.com/writers/kk/KappColin.asp Bibliography] at [[SciFan]] [[Category:1928 births\|Kapp, Colin]] [[Category:Living people\|Kapp, Colin]] [[Category:Science fiction writers\|Kapp, Colin]] [[pl:Colin Kapp]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Catherine of Aragon</title> <id>6942</id> <revision> <id>41694814</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:48:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.108.221.15</ip> </contributor> <comment>/ Princess of Aragon and Castille */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CatherineAragon.jpg\|thumb\|The recently-widowed young Catherine of Aragon, by [[Henry VII of England\|Henry VII]]'s court painter, Michael Sittow, c. 1502]] '''Catherine of Aragon''' ([[December 16]], [[1485]] &ndash; [[January 7]], [[1536]]; [[Spanish language\|Spanish]]: '''Catalina de Aragón''') was [[queen consort]] of [[England]] as [[Henry VIII of England]]'s first [[Wives of Henry VIII\|wife]]. Henry [[Annulment\|annulled]] his twenty-four year marriage to her after only one of their six children, [[Mary I of England\|Mary I]], survived infancy. ==Princess of Aragon and Castille== Born in [[Alcalá de Henares]], Catherine was the youngest surviving child of [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and [[Isabella of Castille\|Isabella I of Castile]] and, as a third-great-granddaughter of [[Edward III of England]], a fourth cousin of both [[Henry VII of England\|Henry VII]] and his wife [[Elizabeth of York]]. ==Princess of Wales== Catherine first married [[Arthur, Prince of Wales\|Prince Arthur]], the oldest son of [[Henry VII of England]], in [[1501]]. As [[Prince of Wales]], Arthur was sent to [[Ludlow Castle]] on the borders of [[Wales]], to preside over the Council of Wales, and Catherine accompanied him. A few months later, both of them fell prey to an infection which was sweeping the area. Catherine herself nearly died; she recovered to find herself a [[widow]]. Catherine testified that, because of the couple's youth, the marriage had not been [[consummate]]d; [[Pope Julius II]] then issued a dispensation, so that Catherine could become betrothed to Arthur's younger brother, the future [[Henry VIII of England\|Henry VIII]]. ==Queen consort of England== {{Henryviiiwives}} The marriage did not take place until after Henry VIII ascended the throne in [[1509]], the marriage on [[June 11]], followed by the coronation on [[June 24]], [[1509]]. Both as Princess of Wales and as Queen, Catherine was extremely popular with the people. She governed the nation as [[Regent]] while Henry invaded France in [[1513]]. Henry VIII supposedly married Catherine of Aragon at his father's dying wish and was happily-enough married to her, although not faithful, for 18 years, until he became seriously worried about getting a male heir to his throne as she approached [[menopause]]. Her first child was [[stillborn]] in [[1510]]. Prince [[Henry, Duke of Cornwall]] was born in [[1511]] but died after 52 days. Catherine then had a [[miscarriage]], followed by another short-lived son. On [[February 18]], [[1516]] at the [[Palace of Placentia]] in [[Greenwich, London]], she gave birth to a daughter named Mary (later Queen [[Mary I of England]]). There was another miscarriage in [[1518]]. A male [[heir]] was essential to Henry. The [[Tudor dynasty]] was new, and its legitimacy might still be tested. No queen had ever ruled England successfully in her own right. The disasters of [[civil war]] were still fresh in living memory from the [[Wars of the Roses]] ([[1455]] &ndash; [[1487]]). [[Image:oldcath.JPG\|left\|frame\|Catherine at the time Henry began his affair with Anne Boleyn]] In [[1520]], Catherine's nephew [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor\|Charles V]] paid a state visit to England, and the Queen urged the policy of gaining his alliance rather than that of [[France]]. Immediately after his departure, [[May 31]], [[1520]], she accompanied the king to France on the celebrated visit to [[Francis I of France\|Francis I]], remembered (from the splendors of the occasion) as the [[Field of the Cloth of Gold]]. Within two years, however, war was declared against France and the Emperor once again made welcome in England, where plans were afoot to betroth him to Henry and Catherine's daughter Princess Mary. Henry was keeping a succession of [[mistress]]es. Catherine was not in physical condition to undergo further [[human pregnancy\|pregnancies]]. The marriage was further soured by trouble made by Catherine's father, Ferdinand, over payments of her [[dowry]] and by a shift of allegiance on the part of Ferdinand, who signed a treaty with the French, to Henry's fury. Because of the lack of heirs, Henry began to believe that his marriage was cursed and sought confirmation from two verses of the biblical Book of [[Leviticus]], which said that, if a man marries his brother's wife, the couple will be childless. He chose to believe that Catherine had lied when she said her marriage to Arthur had not been consummated, therefore making their marriage wrong in the eyes of God. He therefore asked [[Pope Clement VII]] to annul his marriage in [[1527]]. The Pope stalled on the issue for seven years without making a final judgement, partially because allowing an annulment would be admitting that the Church had been in error for allowing a special dispensation for marriage in the first place, and partially because he was a virtual prisoner of Catherine's nephew Charles V, who had conquered [[Rome]]. Henry separated from Catherine in [[July]] [[1531]], and secretly married one of Catherine's former [[lady-in-waiting\|ladies-in-waiting]] (and sister of his former mistress [[Lady Mary Boleyn]]), [[Anne Boleyn]] in January [[1533]], a [[bigamy\|bigamous]] marriage. Henry finally had [[Thomas Cranmer]], [[archbishop of Canterbury]], annul the marriage himself on [[May 23]], 1533. To forestall an appeal to [[Roman Catholic Church\|Rome]], which Catherine would have almost certainly won, he had Parliament pass the [[Act of Supremacy]], repudiating Papal jurisdiction in England, making the king the head of the English church, and beginning the [[English Reformation]]. ==Later years== Catherine refused to acknowledge the divorce and took the issue to the law, but she lost and was forced to leave [[noble court\|Court]]. She was separated from her daughter (who was declared [[illegitimate]]) and was sent to live in remote castles and in humble conditions, in the hope that she would surrender to the inevitable; but she never accepted the divorce and signed her last letter, "Catherine the Queen". By this time, she was aware that Henry's marriage to Anne was turning sour, and she had not ceased to hope that he might one day return to her. Catherine died of a form of [[cancer]], at [[Kimbolton Castle]], on January 7, [[1536]] and was buried in [[Peterborough Cathedral]] with the ceremony due to a [[Princess of Wales\|Princess Dowager of Wales]], not a Queen. Henry and Anne Boleyn celebrated her death - Henry did not attend the funeral, nor did he allow Princess Mary to do so. Visitors to Peterborough Cathedral can still visit Catherine's tomb, which is frequently decorated with flowers and bears the title 'Katherine the Queen'. ==Film, TV and fiction== Catherine was first portrayed on the silver screen in 1911 by [[Violet Vanburgh]] in a production of William Shakespeare's play ''Henry VIII.'' Nine years later, the German actress [[Hedwig Pauly-Winterstein]] played Catherine in the film ''Anna Boleyn.'' Later, actress [[Rosalie Crutchley]] played Catherine in ''The Sword and the Rose'' an acount of [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)\|Mary Tudor]]'s romance with the duke of Suffolk in 1515. Crutchley later played Henry's sixth queen [[Catherine Parr]] in ''[[The Six Wives of Henry VIII]].'' It was not until 1969, in [[Hal B. Wallis]]'s acclaimed movie ''[[Anne of the Thousand Days]]'' that Catherine appeared again. This time she was played by the Greek actress [[Irene Papas]]. A year later, in a 90-minute television drama produced by the [[BBC]], British actress [[Annette Crosbie]] played the most historically-accurate version of Catherine in a piece simply entitled ''Catherine of Aragon'' as part one in the channel's series ''[[The Six Wives of Henry VIII]]''. The drama began on the night Catherine arrived in England and followed through until her early marriage to Henry VIII. It re-commenced almost a decade later, with Henry's manoeuvres to get a divorce in order to marry Anne Boleyn. The play, which co-starred the Australian actor [[Keith Michell]] as Henry VIII, Dame [[Dorothy Tutin]] as Anne Boleyn and [[Patrick Troughton]] as the duke of Norfolk, then chronicled Catherine's life until her death in January 1536. Two years later [[Claire Bloom]] played Catherine in another adaptation of Shakespeare
3-2 4 or 10 9-5 2-1 The '''Big 6''' and '''Big 8''' wagers are considered by craps players as '''sucker bets''' because they pay even money while a player can bet on the same proposition (a 6 will be rolled before a 7) by placing the 6 or the 8, which pays 7-6 (true odds are 6-5). No veteran craps player will ever touch those 2 bets. ===Examples of basic play=== * Example 1: Let's say you put $10 on the pass line. On your come-out roll you get an 11, so you win $10. The game now starts over, with a new come-out roll. You roll a 9, which becomes the point. You decide to bet $10 on the come line before your next roll. On your next roll you get a 6, which is now the point you need to hit in order to win your $10 come bet. Your next roll is a 9, which is the point you needed to hit to win your pass line bet, meaning you just won another $10. You bet $10 on the pass line again, and your new come-out roll is a 7. You win $10 for your pass line bet, but lost the $10 you had previously bet on the come line. * Example 2: This time you decide to bet on the don't pass line. You roll a 4, which becomes the point. You bet $10 on the don't come line, and your next roll is a 7. You lose your don't come bet, and win your don't pass bet, so you just broke even. Since you just sevened-out, the player to your left becomes the new shooter. ==Etiquette== Besides the rules of the actual game, certain unwritten rules of etiquette exist while playing craps and are expected to be followed. Many consider these guidelines as important as the actual rules themselves. New players should familiarize themselves with them before approaching a craps table. === Rules related to casino security === * Players are not supposed to handle the dice with more than one hand nor take the dice past the edge of the table. * When throwing the dice, the player is expected to hit the farthest wall at the opposite end of the table. The dice may not be slid across the table and must be tossed. They may not be thrown higher than the eye level of the dealers. * The dice must not land in the boxman's bank or on any of the dealer's working stacks of money. * When either of the dice land on chips or markers not in the boxmans bank or the dealers working stacks, the number that would be on top if the object the die is leaning on were removed, is the number that is used to make the call. * If a die hits a player or dealer and rolls back onto the table, the roll counts as long as the person being hit did not interfere with the die. * In most cases the shooter may "set" the dice to a particular configuration, but if they do, they must be quick about it so as not to delay the game. Some casinos have "no setting" rules, and the player must throw the dice as given to him. * Do not try to place money in the dealer's hand or expect the dealers to hand you chips. Dealers are not allowed to touch the players at any time. Players are expected to place cash on the layout and announce "change only" or a specific bet and amount. The dealer will then place chips on the layout or in front of the players. === Commonly observed etiquette === * When offered the dice to shoot, a player may pass the dice to the next player without fear of offending anyone; however, keep in mind that at least one player must always be a "shooter" betting on either the pass line or don't pass line for the game to continue. * Players are expected to tip the dealers, especially if they are winning. Most of the dealer's income is generated from tips. The most common way to tip is simply to toss chips onto the table and say "for the boys". Another method is to place a bet next to your bet and call out "dealers". A "two-way" bet is one that is half and half for the players and dealers. * After the come-out roll, it is considered extremely rude to say the word "seven", as that is considered bad luck. This is a guaranteed way of offending other players. A common "nickname" for this number is "Big Red". * It is considered bad luck to change dice in the middle of a roll. * Center bets are made by tossing chips to the center of the table and calling out the intended bet; the stickman will then place the chips correctly for you. * It is not considered rude to correct a dealer that you feel has made an error. Mistakes happen and disputes are often resolved to the player's benefit, mainly in the interest of keeping their business. * It is considered rude to "late bet", or make wagers while the dice are no longer in the middle of the table. While entirely permissible, excessive late betting will generally garner a warning. * Food, drinks, and other items should remain off the chip rail. == Odds == The rules vary slightly from one casino to another, but the [[expected value]] of most [[gambling\|bet]]s is only slightly negative (the most favorable bets with the most favorable rules offer a house advantage of as little as 0.18%). All bets have a negative expectation except for the "free odds" bet that the player is allowed to make after a point is established on a flat (line) bet (this bet has a long-term expected value of 0). Since there is no correlation between die rolls, there is no possible long-term winning strategy. While experienced [[blackjack]] players who learn to count cards can gain a small mathematical advantage over extended playing sessions by diligent study, there is no comparable strategy for craps. Occasionally, players win several bets in a row; such players are said to be "on a roll." Those who increase their bets during a winning series can rapidly win substantial sums. On the other hand, money can be lost back just as quickly, as there is no statistical likelihood of a "hot streak" continuing for any given duration. To counter this, experienced players take full advantage of "free odds" -- bets on which there is zero house advantage. Maximizing the size of your odds bet in relation to your line bet will minimize but never eliminate the house edge. Many casinos have limitation on how large the odds bet can be in relation to the flat bet, with single, double, and five times odds common. Some casinos offer 3-4-5 odds, referring to the maximum multiple of the line bet a player can place in odds for the points of 4 and 10, 5 and 9, and 6 and 8, respectively. During promotional periods, a casino may even offer 100x odds bets, which renders the house edge to almost nothing but dramatically increases volatility. [[Horseshoe Casino]] founder [[Benny Binion]] once quipped that if every player took the 100x odds, the house "wouldn't be able to keep the lights on," referring to the overhead required to run casino games. The only casino currently in Las Vegas to offer 100x odds is the [[Casino_Royale_Las_Vegas\|Casino Royale]] located next to [[Harrah's]] on the strip. The [[Stratosphere]] offers 10x odds and most of the other casinos such as MGM and Bellagio offer 3x4x5. Some casinos such as the Riviera, Orleans and Gold Coast offer 2x odds which is considered an anathema to craps players, in equal footing with 6:5 payouts on single-deck blackjack. Most downtown casinos offer 5x ([[Binions]]) or 10x odds ([[Plaza]] and [[Main Street Station]], with the [[Golden Nugget]] offering the unusual 6x8x10 odds), while a handful of downtown casinos offer the horrible 2x odds (Sam Boyd's Fremont). == Systems == No betting system can consistently beat casino games of pure chance such as craps, but that does not stop hopeful gamblers in believing in them. One of the best known systems is the [[Martingale]] in which the player starts by betting $1 and doubles his bet whenever he loses. Upon winning, he starts over at $1. The idea is to realize a net win of $1 after every eventual win. This system fails because the player will either run out of money after having to double his bet several times in a row after a streak of losing bets, or he will be unable to bet the amount dictated by the system because it would exceed the maximum bet allowed by the casino. Other systems depend on the [[gambler's fallacy]], which in craps terms is the belief that past die rolls influence the probabilities of future die rolls. For example, the gambler's fallacy indicates that a craps player should bet on 11 if an 11 has not appeared in the last 20 rolls. In reality, each roll of the dice is an [[statistical independence\|independent]] event, so the probability of rolling an 11 is exactly 1/18 on every roll, even if 11 has not come up in the last 100 rolls. The parity hedge system is a [[hoax]] promulgated by [http://www.quatloos.com Quatloos]. Despite the fact that no such system exists (indeed, it is a mathematical impossibility), several gambling-related web sites have retold the 'parity hedge' story without attribution. == Dice Setting == Another approach is to "set" the dice, by throwing them in such a way that one or both will be more likely to show certain numbers. Unlike other systems, this one is not mathematically absurd, because if it were possible to alter the probabilities of each outcome, then winning systems could be devised. Nevertheless, the casinos take steps to prevent this. The dice are supposed to hit the back wall of the table, which disrupts the controlled spin. Some people offer to teach dice-setting skills, for a substantial fee, but there are no independent verifications that such methods can be successfully applied in a real casino. [[Frank Scoblete]] and [[Stanford Wong]], authors of books that feature dice control techniques, believe that it is possible to alter the odds in the player's favor by dice control. == Dice Control == In fact, there is a small but dedicated community of controlled shooters that maintain records and claim proof of dice influencing in casino conditions.
Catwoman, Michelle Pfeiffer said that her Catwoman costume was vacuum sealed once she was fitted into it for scenes, so she actually had only a short amount of time to perform before she would have to have it opened or she could become light headed and pass out. She also admitted that when she first was learning to use the whip she accidentally cut her trainer's face with it, at which he acted as a complete gentleman and continued with their training. * The production wanted to use King Penguins but the only tame ones in captivity were at a bird sanctuary in the Cotswolds deep in the English countryside. So the birds were flown over to the States in the refrigerated hold of a plane, they were given their own refrigerated trailer, their own swimming pool with half a ton of fresh ice every day, and had fresh fish delivered daily straight from the docks. Even though the temperature outside frequently topped 100 degrees (Fahrenheit), the entire set was refrigerated down to 35 degrees(Fahrenheit). The birds also had a round-the-clock bodyguard. Clearly the birds enjoyed the experience as, following their stint in Hollywood, most of them had mated and produced eggs - the sure sign of contented penguins. * In the crowd waiting outside of the cemetary, there is a man wearing a Go-Go jacket. Go-Go was a character on the Warner Brothers cartoon ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' (1990). * WILHELM SCREAM: Before Batman straps the dynamite to the fat clown, he hurls a goon over a bridge. As the goon flies through the air, he screams the famous [[Wilhelm scream]]. * [[Dan Waters]]' original script originally had the Bat-Signal blinking on and off at the end of the film as a sign that Selena's electrocution of Max had disrupted the power supply of the city. Tim Burton instead opted to end the film with Catwoman looking out at the signal over a snowy sky, hinting at her survival and possible appearance in a future film. * The final shot of the film, in which Catwoman is seen looking at the Bat-signal, was added as an afterthought, literally weeks before the film opened. The shot had to be filmed on a weekend, less than a day after conception, with a double for Michelle Pfeiffer. That single shot cost $250,000. ==See also== [[Batman Returns (video game)]] ==External links== {{wikiquote}} [http://www.filmtracks.com/titles/batman_returns.html Batman Returns score by Danny Elfman] {{imdb title\|id=0103776\|title=Batman Returns}} [http://www.bullz-eye.com/mguide/reviews_1992/batman_returns.htm Batman Returns review, Batman Returns DVD review] * [http://www.batmanytb.com/movies/batmanreturns/index.php Batman Returns @ BYTB: Batman Yesterday, Today and Beyond] {{Batmanmovies}} {{Tim Burton Films}} [[Category:1992 films]] [[Category:Films directed by Tim Burton]] [[Category:Warner Bros. films]] [[Category:American films]] [[Category:Sequel films]] [[de:Batmans Rückkehr]] [[es:Batman Returns]] [[fr:Batman, le défi]] [[pt:Batman Returns]] [[ru:Возвращение Бэтмена (фильм)]] [[sk:Batman sa vracia]] [[fi:Batman – paluu]] [[sv:Batman 2 - återkomsten]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Batman and Robin (1997 film)</title> <id>4729</id> <revision> <id>42145231</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:57:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.58.123.201</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the 1949 serial ''Batman and Robin'', see [[Batman serials]].'' ''The correct title of this article is '''Batman & Robin (1997 film)'''. It appears here with an "and" in replacement due to the ampersand not being compatible with [[Uniform Resource Locator\|Internet URLs]].'' {{Infobox Film \| name = Batman & Robin \| image = Movie_dvd_cover_batman_and_robin.jpg \| writer = [[Akiva Goldsman]] \| starring = [[George Clooney]]<BR>[[Chris O'Donnell]]<BR>[[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]<br>[[Uma Thurman]]<BR>[[Alicia Silverstone]]<BR>[[Elle Macpherson]] \| director = [[Joel Schumacher]] \| producer = [[Peter MacGregor-Scott]] \| movie_music = [[Elliot Goldenthal]] \| distributor = [[Warner Bros.]] \| released = [[June 20]], [[1997]] ([[United States\|USA]]) \| runtime = 125 min. \| language = [[English language\|English]] \| budget = $125 million \| music = \| awards = \| imdb_id = 0118688 \| }} '''''Batman & Robin''''', directed by [[Joel Schumacher]], is the fourth installment in the [[comic book]]-inspired [[film]] series initiated by [[Tim Burton]]. Released in [[1997 in film\|1997]], it starred [[George Clooney]] in his only appearance as [[Batman]] and [[Chris O'Donnell]] returning as [[Robin (comics)\|Robin]], and introduced [[Batgirl]] ([[Alicia Silverstone]]), a niece of Bruce Wayne's butler [[Alfred Pennyworth\|Alfred]] ([[Michael Gough]]). The villains in this movie are [[Poison Ivy (comics)\|Poison Ivy]], played by [[Uma Thurman]], and [[Mr. Freeze]], played by [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] (who received top billing for this film). ==Cast== ''Batman / Bruce Wayne'': [[George Clooney]] ''Mr. Freeze / Dr. Victor Fries'': [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] ''Robin / Dick Grayson'': [[Chris O'Donnell]] ''Poison Ivy / Dr. Pamela Isley'': [[Uma Thurman]] ''[[Batgirl]] / Barbara Wilson'': [[Alicia Silverstone]] ''[[Alfred Pennyworth]]'': [[Michael Gough]] ''[[James Gordon (comics)\|Commissioner Gordon]]'': [[Pat Hingle]] ''[[Bane (comics)\|Bane]]'': [[Robert Swenson\|Jeep Swenson]] ''[[Julie Madison]]'': [[Elle MacPherson]] ''[[Nora Fries]]'': [[Vendela Kirsebom]] (as Vendela K. Thommessen) ==Response== The film was neither a [[film criticism\|critical]], {{ref\|ReviewsFromCritics}} nor a [[box office]] success. In his [[review]] of the film, critic [[Leonard Maltin]] found that "the 'story' often makes no sense" and that the "action and effects are loud, gargantuan, and ultimately numbing." This film is often billed as the worst superhero movie of all time. The director [[Joel Schumacher]] also reputedly admits to not being proud of this film, despite earlier statements to the contrary. The film was mocked for a poor script, over-extending the [[Camp (style)\|campy]] attitude of the previous installment ''[[Batman Forever]]'', the poor casting of other "big-name" stars [[Uma Thurman]] and [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], and the addition of a poorly portrayed Batgirl, played by [[Alicia Silverstone]]. Published financial figures indicate that the movie was made on a budget of [[United States dollar\|US$]]125 million {{ref\|ProductionBudget}}, collecting $107 million domestically — less than any other Batman film — and $131 million abroad {{ref\|WorldwideBoxOffice}}. Studios usually expect summer movies — particularly those in a highly successful series — to earn more profit than that, and [[Warner Bros.]] temporarily suspended the series after four live-action films. The film was derisively dubbed ''Batman on Ice'' by some critics (for a scene in which the titular heroes both inexplicably have retractable skate blades hidden inside their boots) {{ref\|BatmanOnIce-1}} {{ref\|BatmanOnIce-2}} {{ref\|BatmanOnIce-3}}. [[George Clooney]] was himself severely embarrassed by the film, and has repudiated it publicly a number of times. Like his predecessor [[Val Kilmer]], he was criticized for being too stiff to play a comic-book character. [[Alicia Silverstone]] ([[Batgirl]]) was called more of a forced extra than a real character, placed in to counter the conservative criticisms about its predecessor's subtle homosexual references (mostly Batman's "homoerotic" suit with nipples). The Batgirl solution also previously used in the comic books and the [[Batman (TV series)\|TV series]], which had previously caused the [[1960s]] show to lose quality. More negativity was put on [[Uma Thurman]], who plays [[Poison Ivy (comics)\|Poison Ivy]], for portraying a character that was viewed to be even more cartoonish than the [[Riddler]] and [[Two-Face]], the main villains from the previous film (and some even complained about her supposedly [[blasphemy\|blasphemous]] quotes: "Let's see if I can do better [than God]"). The return of the universally derided Bat-nipples (again, save the special "finale" suit) and also those in Robin's, as well as the humorous close-ups on all three heroes continued to stir controversy. Many fans were also upset at the inclusion and depiction of [[Bane (comics)\|Bane]] in this movie (played by the late wrestler [[Robert Swenson\|Jeep Swenson]]), on the grounds that he was a minor character depicted as a brainless bodyguard for the main villains (as opposed to the calculating, educated and manipulative genius of the comics). Many fans agree that given Bane's importance in the books as a villain, he should have appeared as the main villain in a Batman movie. [[Image:Jeep Bane.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|left\|[[Bane (comics)\|Bane]] in '''''Batman and Robin''''']] ==Legacy== The impact of this film was multifold. With the possible exception of [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], all the principal performers involved lost credibility for some time as serious actors. [[George Clooney]] has gone so far as to say that he will refund the money of any fan he meets who paid to see the movie. [[Joel Schumacher]] found his already tenuous artistic reputation all but ruined, and Warner Bros. was the focus of much derision for producing the film. [[Alicia Silverstone]], already battered by widespread media circulation about her increased body weight, disappeared temporarily from the limelight and gained a reputation, for a while, as a "has been." Fans of the successful [[animated television series]], ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]],'' voiced suspicions that the reason that the [[direct-to-video]] feature ''[[Batman & Mr. Freeze: SubZero]]'' ([[1998 in fi
quot;Arabic numerals" used with the [[Latin alphabet]], in the table below labelled "European", descended from the "West Arabic numerals" which were developed in [[al-Andalus]] and the [[Maghreb]] (There are two [[typographic]] styles for rendering European numerals, known as lining figures and [[text figures]]). the "Arabic-Indic" or "'''[[Eastern Arabic numerals]]'''" used with the [[Arabic alphabet]], developed primarily in what is now [[Iraq]]. A variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals used in Persian and Urdu languages as shown as "East Arabic-Indic". the "Devanagari numerals" used with [[Devanagari]] and related variants grouped as '''[[Indian numerals]]'''. [[Image:Arabic numerals-en.svg\|500px\|Table of numerals]] ==History== ===Origins=== {{main\|History of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system}} [[Buddhist]] inscriptions from around 300 BCE use the symbols which became 1, 4 and 6. One century later, their use of the symbols which became 2, 4, 6, 7 and 9 was recorded. [[Image:Indian numerals 100AD.gif\|frame\|left\|[[Brahmi numeral]]s in [[India]] in the first century CE]] The system was adopted by the Arabs in the [[8th century]]. The first certain positional use of zero dates to the [[9th century]], in an inscription at [[Gwalior]] dated to [[870]], and in the work of [[Al-Khwarizmi]]. [[Image:EgyptphoneKeypad.jpg\|right\|thumb\|Modern day Arab telephone keypad with Hindu-Arabic numerals and corresponding Arabic-language numerals]] The numeral system came to be known to both the [[Persians\|Persian]] mathematician [[Al-Khwarizmi]], whose book ''On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals'' written about [[825]], and the [[Arab]] mathematician [[Al-Kindi]], who wrote four volumes, "On the Use of the Indian Numerals" (Ketab fi Isti'mal al-'Adad al-Hindi) about [[830]], are principally responsible for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the [[Middle-East]] and the West [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html]. In the [[10th century]], [[Middle-East]]ern mathematicians extended the decimal numeral system to include fractions, as recorded in a treatise by [[Syrian]] mathematician [[Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi]] in [[952]]-[[953]]. In the Arab World&mdash;until modern times&mdash;the Arabic numeral system was used only by mathematicians. Muslim scientists used the [[Babylonian_numerals\|Babylonian numeral system]], and merchants used the [[Abjad numerals]]. Therefore, it was not until [[Fibonacci]] that the Arabic numeral system was used by a large population. ===West Arabic numerals=== A distinctive "West Arabic" variant of the symbols begins to emerge in ca. the [[10th century]] in the [[Maghreb]] and [[Al-Andalus]], called the ''ghubar'' ("sand-table" or "dust-table") numerals. The first mentions of the numerals in the West are found in the Codex Vigilanus of [[976]] [http://www.mathorigins.com/V.htm]. From the [[980s]], [[Pope Silvester II\|Gerbert of Aurillac]] began to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe. Gerbert studied in [[Barcelona]] in his youth, and he is known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the [[astrolabe]] from [[Lupitus of Barcelona]] after he had returned to France. ===Adoption in Europe=== [[Image:Talhoffer_Thott_140r.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|German manuscript page teaching use of Arabic numerals ([[Hans Talhoffer\|Talhoffer]] Thott, [[1459]]). At this time, knowledge of the numerals was still widely seen as esoteric, and Talhoffer teaches them together with the [[Hebrew alphabet]] and [[astrology]].]] [[Image:Petrus Astronomus Astronomical clock in Uppsala Cathedral.jpg\|thumb\|300px\|Woodcut showing the 16th century [[astronomical clock]] of [[Uppsala]] cathedral, with two clockfaces, one with Arabic and one with Roman numerals.]] [[Image:Horloge-republicaine1.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|Late 18th century French revolutionary "decimal" clockface.]] [[Al-Khwarizmi]]'s [[825]] treatise ''On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals'' was translated into Latin in the [[12th century]], as ''Algoritmi de numero Indorum'' (''Algoritmi'' being the translator's rendition of the author's name, ''{{Unicode\|al-ḫwārizmī}}'', ultimately leading to the term [[algorithm]]). [[Leonardo of Pisa\|Fibonacci]], an [[Italy\|Italian]] mathematician who had studied in [[Bejaia]] ([[Bougie]]), [[Algeria]], promoted the Arabic numeral system in [[Europe]] with his book ''[[Liber Abaci]]'', which was published in [[1202]], still describing the numerals as "Indian" rather than "Arabic". :"When my father, who had been appointed by his country as public notary in the customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there, was in charge, he summoned me to him while I was still a child, and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience, desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting. There, when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians' nine symbols through remarkable teaching, knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it.." The numerals are arranged with their lowest value digit to the right, with higher value positions added to the left. This arrangement was adopted identically into the numerals as used in Europe. The Latin alphabet running from left to right, unlike the Arabic alphabet, this resulted in an inverse arrangement of the place-values relative to the direction of reading. The European acceptance of the numerals was accelerated by the invention of the [[printing press]], and they became commonly known during the [[15th century]]. The first known use in [[England]] was on a 1487 inscription (the date being written in Arabic numerals) at [[Piddletrenthide]] church, [[Dorset]]. By the mid [[16th century]], they were in common use in most of Europe.[http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/52545.html.] Roman numerals remained in use mostly for the notation of years of the [[Common Era]], and for numbers on clockfaces. Sometimes, Roman numerals are still used for enumeration of lists (as an alternative to alphabetical enumeration), and numbering pages in prefatory material in books. ==Encodings== The Arabic numerals are encoded in [[ASCII]] (and [[Unicode]]) at positions 48 to 57: {\| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" \|- !style="width: 5.5em"\|Binary !style="width: 2.5em"\|Dec !style="width: 2.5em"\|Hex !Glyph \|- \|0011&nbsp;0000 \|48 \|30 \|0 \|- \|0011&nbsp;0001 \|49 \|31 \|1 \|- \|0011&nbsp;0010 \|50 \|32 \|2 \|- \|0011&nbsp;0011 \|51 \|33 \|3 \|- \|0011&nbsp;0100 \|52 \|34 \|4 \|- \|0011&nbsp;0101 \|53 \|35 \|5 \|- \|0011&nbsp;0110 \|54 \|36 \|6 \|- \|0011&nbsp;0111 \|55 \|37 \|7 \|- \|0011&nbsp;1000 \|56 \|38 \|8 \|- \|0011&nbsp;1001 \|57 \|39 \|9 \|} ==See also == {{Table Numeral Systems}} [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]] ==References== [http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab34 History of Counting Systems and Numerals]. Retrieved [[11 December]] [[2005]]. [http://www.laputanlogic.com/articles/2003/06/01-95210802.html The Evolution of Numbers]. [[16 April]] [[2005]]. O'Connor, J. J. and Robertson, E. F. [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html Indian numerals]. November 2000. ==External links== History of the Numerals [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Arabic_numerals.html Arabic numerals]: [http://www.scit.wlv.ac.uk/university/scit/modules/mm2217/han.htm Hindu-Arabic numerals]: [[Category:Numeration]] [[da:Arabiske talsystem]] [[de:Arabische Ziffern]] [[sr:Арапски бројеви]] [[es:Numeración arábiga]] [[eo:Eŭropaj ciferoj]] [[fr:Chiffre arabe]] [[gu:હિન્દુ-અરેબીક અંકો]] [[ko:아라비아 수 체계]] [[hr:Arapski brojevi]] [[la:Numeri arabici]] [[nl:Arabische cijfers]] [[ja:アラビア数字]] [[pl:Cyfry arabskie]] [[ru:Арабские цифры]] [[sl:Arabske številke]] [[fi:Arabialaiset numerot]] [[vi:Chữ số Ả Rập]] [[uk:Арабська система цифр]] [[zh:阿拉伯数字]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>April 9</title> <id>1787</id> <revision> <id>41990933</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:06:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LtPowers</username> <id>749490</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>rm redlinked person who died 15 years before he was born.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve"><!-- Language links at bottom --> {\| style="float:right;" \|- \|{{AprilCalendar}} \|- \|{{ThisDateInRecentYears\|Month=April\|Day=9}} \|} '''[[April 9]]''' is the [[99 (number)\|99th]] day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (100th in [[leap year]]s). There are 266 days remaining. ==Events== [[193]] - [[Septimius Severus]] is proclaimed [[Roman Emperor]] by the army in [[Illyricum]] (in the [[Balkans]]). [[1241]] - [[Battle of Legnica\|Battle of Liegnitz]]: [[Mongol]] forces defeats the [[Poland\|Polish]] and [[Germany\|German]] armies. [[1667]]: First public art exhibition opens in Paris [[1682]] - [[René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle\|Robert Cavelier de La Salle]] discovers the mouth of the [[Mississippi River]], claims it for [[France]] and names it [[Louisiana]]. [[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Mansfield]] - [[United States\|Union]] General [[Nathaniel Banks]]' [[Red River Campaign]] is thwarted by [[Confederate States of America\|Confederate]] General [[Richard Taylor (general)\|Richard Taylor]]'s forces at [[Mansfield, Louisiana]]. [[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Robert E. Lee]] surrenders the [[Army of Northern Virginia]] (26,765 troops) to [[Ulysses S. Grant]] at [[Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia]], effectively ending the [[war]]. [[1867]] - [[Alaska purchase]]: Passing by a single vote, the [[United States Senate]] ratifies a [[treaty]] with [[Russia]] for the purchase of [[Alaska]]. *[[1909]] -
eligion, is one of the earliest attested members of the [[Indo-European language]] family, its most archaic text being the [[Rig Veda]]. ===Mantra=== {{main\|Mantra}} Reciting [[mantra]]s or incantations is a general practice in Hindu rituals. Many mantras are from the Vedas. Much of ''mantra yoga'', as it is called, is done through ''japa'' (repetition, usually through a [[rosary]]). Mantras are chanted, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the [[sadhaka]] (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of [[Bhakti yoga]] akin to the understanding of the [[murti]]. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s dying words were a two-word [[mantra]] to the Lord [[Rama]]: ''"Hé Ram!"'. The most revered mantra in Hinduism is the famed [[Gayatri Mantra]] of the [[Rig Veda]] 3.62.10 (see [[Sanskrit]] for pronunciation): :[[Devanagari]]: {{lang-sa\|ॐ भूर्भुवः स्वः। तत् सवितुर्वरेण्यम्। भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि। धियो यो नः प्रचोदयात्।}} :Transliteration ([[IAST]]): {{Unicode\|Om bhūrbhuvasvaḥ ; tat saviturvareyam ; bhargo devasya dhīmahi ; dhiyo yo naḥ pracodayāt .}} :Pronunciation ([[IPA]]): / {{IPA\|oːm bʰuːr bʰuvə svəh ; tət səvitur vəreːɳjəm ; bʰərgoː deːvəsjə dʰiːməɦi ; dʰijoː joː nəh prəcoːdəjɑːt .}}/ :Translation: "Om! May we attain that excellent glory of Savitar the Lord / so may He stimulate our prayers." It is considered one of the most sacred of all Hindu mantras, invoking the universal [[Brahman]] as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun. Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 3,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the [[Ganga]]/[[Ganges]]) while chanting this mantra. == Criticism == Hinduism is criticized based on current or past regressive social customs such as [[Dowry]], [[Sati]] and [[Caste\|casteism]]. Hinduism has also been viewed as polytheistic and promoting idol worship. It is to be noted that the term, "Hinduism" itself is an amorphous concept. Only an Advaitan or a follower of [[Advaita]] philosophy, such as [[Smartas]] believe that multiple forms of God are equivalent. For example, a [[Vaishnavite]] considers [[Vishnu]] to be the supreme God and [[Saivites]] consider [[Siva]] respectively as the supreme God. The Hindu counter argument is that Hinduism, specifically Smarta or Advaitan Hinduism is not [[polytheistic]], though it may present an appearance of being so to external observers not familiar with its philosophy. [[monism\|Monism]] or [[monistic theism\|Monistic Theism]] is generally more apt definition of the Hindu worldview, with the exception of [[Dvaita]], or dualism. The existence of numerous ''human forms'' and ''idols'' of God is an implied principle in Hindu thought. Each ''human form'' or ''idol'' is associated with an important fable, and these representations help people remember and contemplate over them more easily. Rather, criticized idol worship is in actuality veneration of an icon, where an icon is used to focus on God, rather than being the object of worship itself. Hinduism, specifically, Smarta/Advaitan Hinduism has been viewed as a tolerant religion because it does not subscribe to similar ideas of false God or idolatry because this branch of Hinduism is not fixed on one concept of God. However, the other branches of Hinduism, although they are fixed on one concept of God, (i.e., [[Vaishnavism]],) for example, they adhere to the Vedic principle: "Truth is one, the wise call by different names." Many outsiders view the Hindu "gods and goddesses" and mythology as only sexuality and violence — which consequently makes the Hindu deities appear immoral. Hindus strongly condemn such interpretations, most of which, according to them, is not only a shallow analysis of the Hindu religion but also willfull and gross misinterpretation of Hindu iconography and mythology. == References== # Mascaró, Juan (trans.). 2003. ''The Bhagavad Gita''. Penguin Classics. 160-page revised edition (originally published in 1962), with preface by author and introduction by Dr. Simon Brodbeck. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140449183] # Chaudhuri, Nirad C. 1979. ''Hinduism: A Religion to Live By''. Chatto & Windus, London. ISBN 0-7011-2225-0 # Easwaran, Eknath (trans.). 1988. ''The Upanishads''. Penguin Arkana. # [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=402241 Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia] # [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online] # {{note\|re}} [http://www.iskcon.com/galleries/bg1983/1/index.htm# Bhagavad Gita] ==See also== {{Hindu scriptures}} ===Hinduism=== * [[Contemporary Hindu movements]] * [[Hinduism by country]] * [[Hindu calendar]] * [[Hindu deities]] * [[Hindu idealism]] * [[Hindu temples]] * [[List of Hindu temples\|List of famous Hindu temples]] * [[List of Hindu denominations]] * [[List of Hindus]] * [[List of Hinduism-related articles]] * [[Sanskrit]] * [[Vedic science]] * [[Puja]] * [[Hinduism and other religions]] * [[Criticism of Hinduism]] * [[Apostasy in Hinduism]] * [[Evolution of Shaivism]] ===Related systems and religions=== * [[Eastern philosophy]] * [[Buddhism]] * [[Jainism]] * [[Ayyavazhi]] * [[Sikhism]] * [[Taoism]] * [[Zoroastrianism]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks\|Hinduism}} <!--See [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Hinduism#External_Links] for guidelines to adding links here. PLEASE DISCUSS IN TALK BEFORE ADDING NEW ONES--> * [http://www.atmajyoti.org/spirwrit_hinduism.asp Atma Jyoti Ashram] Articles on aspects of Hindu spirituality. * [http://www.atributetohinduism.com/ ''A Tribute To Hinduism''] - This site catalogs thoughts of world-renowned intellectuals regarding Hinduism, recommends books for further reading, and provides useful links for further research. * [http://www.Hinduism.co.za/ Hinduism.co.za] [http://www.telisphere.com/~starbird/mandala.html The Archetypal Mandala of India of the Star of David] [http://www.encyclopediaofauthentichinduism.org/ ''Authentic Hinduism'' Encyclopedia] * [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/index.shtml BBC Religion and Ethics on Hinduism] * [http://www.dharmacentral.com/faq.htm Dharma Central's facts about Hinduism] * [http://hinduism.iskcon.com/ Heart of Hinduism] - Based on the widely used UK schools text. * [http://www.hindu.org/ Hindu.org] * [http://www.hindunet.org/ Hindunet.org] * [http://hinduwebsite.com/ Hinduism and Hinduism resources] * [http://www.iskcon.com/ International Society for Krishna Consciousness] - From the Vaisnava Tradition of Hinduism. * [http://www.theuniversalwisdom.org/hinduism/paper-on-hinduism-vivekananda/ Paper on Hinduism by Swami Vivekananda] * [http://news.hinduworld.com Sarve Samachar] - Hindu news [http://www.hinduism-today.com/archives/2004/4-6/37-52_ten_questions.shtml Ten common questions by outsiders and pertinent answers.] [http://veda.harekrsna.cz/ VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online] * [http://www.godrealized.com/Hinduism.html Hinduism articles Bhagavad Gita Sanatana Dharma] * [http://www.rudrakshanepal.com/festivals.php Hindu Festivals] {{Spoken Wikipedia-4\|2006-03-03\|En-Hinduism_part_1.ogg\|En-Hinduism_part_2.ogg\|En-Hinduism_part_3.ogg\|En-Hinduism_part_4.ogg}} <!-- interwiki --> {{Hinduism}} {{HinduFestivals}} {{featured article}} [[Category:Hinduism]] [[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]] [[Category:Vegetarianism]] [[af:Hindoeïsme]] [[ar:???????]] [[ca:Hinduisme]] [[cs:Hinduismus]] [[da:Hinduisme]] [[de:Hinduismus]] [[et:Hinduism]] [[el:??d???sµ??]] [[es:Hinduismo]] [[eo:Hinduismo]] [[fa:?????????]] [[fr:Hindouisme]] [[ko:???]] [[hi:?????? ????]] [[ml:??????????]] [[hr:Hinduizam]] [[io:Hinduismo]] [[id:Hindu]] [[ilo:Hinduismo]] [[is:Hindúismi]] [[it:Induismo]] [[he:?????????]] [[kw:Hindoueth]] [[lv:Hinduisms]] [[lt:Induizmas]] [[li:Hindoeïsme]] [[hu:Hinduizmus]] [[mr:हिंदुइझम]] [[nl:Hindoeïsme]] [[ne:?????? ????]] [[ja:ヒンドゥー教]] [[nb:Hinduisme]] [[nn:Hinduismen]] [[pl:Hinduizm]] [[pt:Hinduísmo]] [[ru:???????]] [[sl:Hinduizem]] [[fi:Hindulaisuus]] [[sk:Hinduizmus]] [[sv:Hinduism]] [[yi:?????????]] [[vi:?n Ð? giáo]] [[tr:Hinduizm]] [[zh:???]] {{Link FA\|fr}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Help desk</title> <id>13544</id> <revision> <id>41442174</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T09:38:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gurch</username> <id>241822</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>aslo -> also</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the help desk for Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:Help Desk]] and [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk]].'' :''For the webcomic, see "[[Help Desk]]".'' A '''help desk''' is an information and assistance resource that [[troubleshoot]]s problems with [[computers]] and similar products. [[Corporations]] often provide help desk support to their customers via a [[toll-free number]], [[website]] and/or [[e-mail]]. There are also in-house help desks geared toward providing the same kind of help for [[employees]] only. In the [[ITIL]] framework, a Help Desk may be part of a larger [[ITIL#Service_Desk\|Service Desk]]. ==Functions== A typical help desk has several functions. It provides the users a central point to receive help on various computer issues. The help desk typically manages its requests via help desk [[software]] such as Serena's TeamTrack, HelpSTAR, HEAT, Sunrise, Sostenuto, Remedy, Peregrine ServiceCenter, RT, ServiceDesk Plus, Track-It! or Micro Outsource that allows them to track [[User (computing)\|user]] requests with a unique [[ticket]] number. This is can also be called a "Local Bug Tracker" or [[LBT]] The help desk soft
urders in Houston peaked at 702 back in 1981. Though many blame the violence on some of the estimated 150,000 to 200,000 former residents of New Orleans who now live in Houston — doubtless with at least a few criminals among them — police records show that crime was on an upward trend in the city even before Hurricane Katrina, though the trend was much more pronounced after the arrival of the refugees; a sudden surge in the population without a concurrent expansion of critical city services like police obviously compounded the problem as well. Despite the rise in homicides, overall crime in Houston dropped by 2% in 2005 compared to 2004. * Houston crime statistics can be downloaded [http://www.houstontx.gov/police/stats2.htm here]. * Some articles about the post-Katrina surge in violence can be viewed [http://www.city-journal.org/html/eon2006-01-04ng.html here] and [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/05/AR2006020500884.html here]. ==People and culture== [[Image:Houston Tranquility Park.jpg\|275px\|thumb\|left\|Tranquility Park in Downtown]] Officially, Houston is [[nickname]]d the ''"Space&nbsp;City"'' as it is home to [[NASA]]'s [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]], where [[Mission Control Center]] is located. Because of this, "Houston" was the first word spoken on the [[moon]]. Many locals, however, prefer to call it the ''"Bayou City."'' Other nicknames include ''"H-Town,"'' ''"Screwston,"'' ''"Clutch&nbsp;City,"'' and ''"Magnolia&nbsp;City."'' Because the [[Greater Houston]] area and the [[Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex\|Dallas/Fort&nbsp;Worth&nbsp;Metroplex]] are the major economic centers of Texas, the two areas enjoy a friendly rivalry. Houstonians often consider themselves more "down to earth" than their neighbors to the north, and some Houstonians complain that Dallas seems to get more attention nationally, even though Houston has a larger population. This rivalry often leads to comparison of the assets of one city to the assets of the other. For example, Dallas has more restaurants per person than even [[New York City]] while Houstonians eat out more often than residents of any other city in the United States. Houston has the lowest cost of living and the lowest median housing costs among 27 major U.S. metropolitan areas with populations of more than 1.7 million. The Houston Theater District is located in the heart of downtown Houston and is home to nine of Houston's [[performing arts]] organizations, six performance halls, as well as the 130,000 square-foot Bayou Place entertainment complex and several public plazas and parks. Houston is one of only five cities in the United States with permanent professional resident companies in all of the major performing arts disciplines&mdash;[[opera]], [[ballet]], [[music]], and [[theatre]]. Of the many popular events held in the city by far the largest is the annual [[Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo]] that is held over twenty days from late February through early March. The event begins with trailrides that originate from several points throughout the state, which convene at [[Reliant Park]] for a barbeque cook-off. The HLSR events include rodeo events, concert performances, carnival rides as well as livestock contests and auctions. Several Houston-based restaurants—most notably Ninfa Laurenzo's [[Mama Ninfa's]] [[Mexican cuisine\|Mexican]] restaurant chain, Johnny Carrabba's Carrabba's, and Kim Su Tran La's [[Kim Son\|Kim Sơn]] [[Vietnamese cuisine\|Vietnamese]] restaurant chain have become well&nbsp;known in Texas and throughout the country. Houston is also home to Landry's Restaurants, Inc. which owns and operates hundreds of restaurants throughout the United States under 28 different concepts. The design for the first [[Compaq]] computer was sketched on a napkin at House&nbsp;of&nbsp;Pies, a well-known diner in the [[Upper Kirby]] district. Houston was named "the fattest city in America" by [[Men's Fitness]] magazine for three years in a row before losing to [[Detroit, Michigan]] in [[2004]].[http://chicago.about.com/od/aboutchicago/a/010605_fat.htm][http://www.cnn.com/2004/US/01/02/fattest.city.ap/] After the magazines's announcement in 2005, Houston Mayor [[Bill White]] created the citywide "Get Moving Houston" [http://gmh.infovine.com/default.asp?id=1] program to increase fitness and wellness among Houstonians. ::''See also: [[List of famous people raised in Houston]]'' ===A cosmopolitan city=== [[Image:Williams Waterwall Houston.jpg\|275px\|thumb\|right\|Williams Waterwall in [[Uptown, Houston, Texas\|Uptown Houston]].]] Houston is a diverse and international city, in part because of its many academic institutions and strong biomedical, energy, manufacturing and aerospace industries. A [[port city]], Houston also has large populations of [[immigrant]]s from [[China]], [[Indonesia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Republic of China\|Taiwan]], [[South Korea]], [[Japan]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Vietnam]]. This influx of immigrants is partially responsible for Houston having a population younger than the national average. [[Image:HOU095.JPG\|265KB\|thumb\|right\|The fountain at night.]] Houston has two [[Chinatown, Houston\|Chinatowns]], as well as the third largest [[Vietnamese American]] population in the United States. Recent redevelopment of Midtown from run-down to upscale has increased property values and property taxes, but has also forced some Vietnamese Americans into other areas of the city. The older Downtown Chinatown is also disappearing. About 90 languages are frequently spoken in the area. Some neighborhoods with high populations of Vietnamese and Chinese residents have [[Chinese language\|Chinese]] and [[Vietnamese language\|Vietnamese]] street signs in addition to English ones. Houston has the second highest [[South Africa\|South African]] population in the United States, after [[Miami, Florida]]. The city is also noted for its large [[Nigeria\|Nigerian]] population, counting about 100,000 native Nigerians as residents<sup>[http://usembassy.state.gov/nigeria/wwwhxjan03g.html]</sup>. The Hispanic population in Houston is increasing as more and more people from countries of Latin America try to find work in Houston &mdash; Houston has the third largest Hispanic population in the United States. Houston has the largest concentration of [[gay]] and [[lesbian]] (or [[LGBT]]) population in Texas&mdash;one of the largest in the country. The annual gay [[pride parade]]&mdash;one of the largest events in Houston&mdash;is held in June commemorating the struggle for gay liberation, [[gay rights]], [[gay pride]], and the [[Stonewall riots]] of the late [[1960]]s in New York City. The event is held along Westheimer Road in the [[Montrose, Houston, Texas\|Montrose]] area. This area is also home to many gay establishments, such as restaurants, bars, [[nightclub]]s, and [[coffeehouse\|coffeehouses]]. Aided by the popularity of the late hip-hop artist [[DJ Screw]], Houston is known among youth, primarily in [[the South]], as having its own distinctive style of hip-hop commonly known as [[Chopped and screwed\|screw music]] (referred to locally as simply "screw.") Many young Houstonians of all ethnicities and socioeconomic backgrounds in touch with local hip-hop culture may remember the advent of this form of Southern rap which began to take place around 1993, helping the city earn an appropriate nickname given by artists and fans: 'Screwston'. ::''See also: [[List of events in Houston, Texas\|List of events in Houston]]'' ==Cultural institutions== [[Image:HCPA Houston.jpg\|275px\|thumb\|left\|Hobby Center for the Performing Arts]] Known for the vibrancy of its [[visual arts\|visual]] and [[performing arts]], Houston's [[Houston Theater District\|Theater District]] is ranked second in the country (behind [[New York City]]) in the amount of theatre seats in a concentrated downtown area with 12,948 seats for live performances and 1,480 movie seats. Houston has world-class visual and [[performing art]]s organizations, along with a dose of homegrown [[folk art]] such as [[Art Car Museum\|Art Cars]]<sup>[http://houston.citysearch.com/profile/9844108/houston_tx/art_car_museum.html]</sup>. Houston is also one of only five cities in the United States with permanent professional resident companies in all of the major performing arts disciplines (the [[Houston Grand Opera]], the [[Houston Symphony Orchestra]], the [[Houston Ballet]], and [[The Alley Theatre]])<sup>[http://www.visithoustontexas.com/arts_and_culture.asp?pageid=232]</sup>. Houston widely recognized as the nation's third most important city for contemporary [[visual arts]]. The city is a prime stop for touring companies from Broadway; concerts and shows, from [[The Rolling Stones]] to [[Cirque du Soleil]]; and exhibitions for a variety of interests, ranging from the nation's largest quilting show to auto, boat and home shows. Adjacent to the Texas Medical Center is the [[Houston Museum District\|Museum District]], which is home to most of the city's major museums such as the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston, the Cullen Sculpture Garden, the [[Houston Museum of Natural Science]], the [[Holocaust Museum Houston]], the Children's Museum of Houston, Lawndale Art Center, the [[Houston Zoo]], the John P. McGovern Museum of Health & Medical Science, and [[Menil Collection\|The&nbsp;Menil&nbsp;Collection]]. Approximately 4 million people visit institutions in the Museum District every year. Houston is also home to several multicultural arts organizations including: [http://www.meca-houston.org MECA] (Multicultural Education and Counseling through the Arts), Kuumba House Dance Theatre, and Nuestra Palabra: Latino Writers Having Their Say. ==Local attractions
{{Africa in topic\|Politics of}} [[Category:Politics of Egypt\|Politics of Egypt]] [[pt:Política do Egipto]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of Egypt</title> <id>9351</id> <revision> <id>40980853</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T06:57:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>202.133.64.52</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Agriculture */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Life in Egypt}} ==Overview== A series of [[International Monetary Fund]] arrangements, coupled with massive external debt relief resulting from [[Egypt\|Egypt's]] participation in the [[Gulf War]] coalition, helped Egypt improve its macroeconomic performance during the [[1990s]]. Through sound fiscal and monetary policies, [[Cairo]] tamed inflation, slashed budget deficits, and built up foreign reserves. Although the pace of structural reforms, such as privatization and new business legislation, has been slower than the IMF envisioned, Egypt's steps toward a more market-oriented economy have prompted increased foreign investment. Lower combined hard currency inflows - from tourism, worker remittances, oil revenues, and Suez Canal tolls - in 1998 and the first half of 1999 resulted in pressure on the Egyptian pound and sporadic dollar shortages, but external payments were not in crisis. Despite ample reserves, the Central Bank did not provide sufficient hard currency to commercial banks and Cairo restricted imports for a short period; these developments confirmed to some investors and currency traders that government financial operations lack sufficient coordination and openness. Monetary pressures have since eased, however, with the continued oil price recovery starting in mid-1999 and a moderate rebound in tourism. Increased gas exports are a major plus factor in future growth. ==Economy: in greater detail== Under comprehensive [[economic reform]]s initiated in 1991, Egypt has relaxed many [[price control]]s, reduced subsidies, and partially liberalized trade and [[investment]]. [[Manufacturing]] is still dominated by the [[public sector]], which controls virtually all heavy industry. A process of public sector reform and privatization has begun, however, which could enhance opportunities for the [[private sector]]. [[Agriculture]], mainly in private hands, has been largely deregulated, with the exception of cotton and sugar production. Construction, non-financial services, and domestic marketing are largely private. This has promoted a steady increase of [[gross national product\|GNP]] and the annual [[growth rate]]. Among Arab countries, Egypt's GDP is second only to [[Saudi Arabia]]'s. However, the Egyptian economy relies heavily on tourist revenues. The [[tourism]] sector suffered tremendously following a terrorist attack on tourists in [[Luxor]] in October 1997, and the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] against the United States, affecting the economy as a whole. ===Agriculture=== Approximately one-third of Egyptian labor is engaged directly in [[farming]], and many others work in the processing or trading of agricultural products. Practically all Egyptian agriculture takes place in some 25,000 km&sup2; (6 million acres) of fertile soil in the Nile Valley and Delta. Some desert lands are being developed for agriculture, including the ambitious [[Toshka project]] in [[Upper Egypt]], but some other fertile lands in the [[Nile Valley]] and Delta are being lost to urbanization and erosion. Warm weather and plentiful water permit several crops a year. Further improvement is possible, but land is worked intensively and yields are high. [[Cotton]], [[rice]], [[wheat]], [[maize\|corn]], [[sugarcane]], [[sugar beet]]s, [[onion]]s, and [[bean]]s are the principal crops. Increasingly, a few modern operations are producing fruits, vegetables and flowers, in addition to cotton, for export. While the desert hosts some large, modern farms, more common traditional farms occupy one acre (4,000 m&sup2;) each, typically in a canal-irrigated area along the banks of the Nile. Many small farmers also have [[cow]]s, [[water buffalo]]es, and [[chicken]], although larger modern farms are becoming more important. The [[United States]] is a major supplier of [[wheat]], [[maize\|corn]], and [[soybean]] products to Egypt, almost all through commercial sales. Egypt is, in fact, the U.S.'s largest market for wheat sales. U.S. agricultural sales to Egypt total $1 billion annually. U.S. food assistance programs to Egypt ended in 1992 as Egypt became more prosperous. Egypt continues to receive modest food assistance through the [[World Food Programme\|World Food Program]] and from [[France]]. "Egypt," wrote the Greek historian [[Herodotus]] 25 centuries ago, "is the gift of the Nile." The land's seemingly inexhaustible resources of water and soil carried by this mighty river created in the Nile Valley and Delta the world's most extensive oasis. Without the Nile, Egypt would be little more than a desert wasteland. The river carves a narrow, cultivated [[floodplain]], never more than 20 kilometers wide, as it travels northward toward [[Cairo]] from [[Lake Nasser]] on the [[Sudan]]ese border, behind the [[Aswan High Dam]]. Just north of Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary that has been filled by riverine deposits to form a fertile delta about 250 kilometers wide (150 mi.) at the seaward base and about 160 kilometers (96 mi) from south to north. Before the construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam (started in 1952, completed in 1970), the fertility of the Nile Valley was sustained by the water flow and the silt deposited by the annual flood. Sediment is now obstructed by the Aswan High Dam and retained in Lake Nasser. The interruption of yearly, natural fertilization and the increasing salinity of the soil has been a manageable problem resulting from the dam. The benefits remain impressive: more intensive farming on thousands of square kilometres of land made possible by improved irrigation, prevention of flood damage, and the generation of millions of gigajoules of electricity at low cost. The [[Western Desert]] accounts for about two-thirds of the country's land area. For the most part, it is a massive sandy plateau marked by seven major depressions. One of these, Fayoum, was connected about 3,600 years ago to the Nile by canals. Today, it is an important irrigated agricultural area. ===Natural Resources=== In addition to the agricultural capacity of the Nile Valley and Delta, Egypt's natural resources include [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[phosphate]]s, and [[iron ore]]. Crude oil is found primarily in the [[Gulf of Suez]] and in the Western Desert. Natural gas is found mainly in the [[Nile Delta, off the Mediterranean sea shore, and in the Western Desert]]. Oil and gas accounted for approximately 7% of [[gross domestic product\|GDP]] of fiscal year 2000-01. Export of petroleum and related products amounted to $2.6 billion in the year 2000. In late 2001, Egypt's benchmark "Suez Blend" was about $16.73 per barrel ($105/m&sup3;), the lowest price since 1999. [[Crude oil]] production has been in decline for several years, from 45,200,000 t in 1993/1994 to 37,000,000 t in 1999/2000. Oil production in late 2001 was about 118,000 m&sup3; (740,000 barrels) per day. To minimize the growing domestic demand of petroleum products (approximately 23 million [[metric ton]]s [mmt]) Egypt is encouraging the production of natural gas. Natural gas output continues to increase and reached 18 mmt of oil equivalent in 2001. Over the last 20 years, more than 217 oil exploration agreements have been signed and multinational oil companies spent more than $27 billion in exploration companions. These activities let to the findings of about 18 crude oil fields and 16 natural gas fields. As a result of these findings, crude oil reserves as of September 2001 are estimated at 445 million m&sup3; (2.8 billion barrels), and proven natural gas reserves are 1,600 km&sup3; (55 trillion ft&sup3;) with a likely additional 1,800 km&sup3; (65 trillion ft&sup3;). Texas-based [[Apache Oil Company]] is the largest American investor in Egypt, with a total investment of more than $1.6 billion since 1996. Egypt's excess of natural gas will more than meet its domestic demand for many years to come. The [[Ministry of Petroleum]] has established expanding the Egyptian petrochemical industry and increasing exports of natural gas as its most significant strategic objectives. Egypt and [[Jordan]] are cooperating to establish the [[Eastern Gas Company]] to export natural gas to Jordan; the expected date of completion is by mid-2003. It is estimated that Egypt will be able to export to Jordan 1.1 to 3 km&sup3; of gas per year. Total investment in this project is about $220 million. ==Statistics== '''GDP:''' purchasing power parity - $295.2 billion (2003 est.) '''GDP - real growth rate:''' 3.1% (2003 est.) '''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $4,000 (2003 est.) '''GDP - composition by sector:''' <br>''agriculture:'' 17% <br>''industry:'' 32% <br>''services:'' 51% (1999) '''Population below poverty line:''' 16.7% (2000) '''Household income or consumption by percentage share:''' <br>''lowest 10%:'' 3.9% <br>''highest 10%:'' 26.7% (1991) '''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' 3.7% (1999) '''Labor force:''' 19 million (1999 est.) '''Labor force - by occupation:''' agriculture 40%, services 38%, industry 22% (1990 est.) '''Unemployment rate:''' 9.9% (2003 est.) '''Budget:''' <br>''revenues:'' $20.7 billion <br>''expenditures:'' $22.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY98/99) '''Industries:''' textiles, food processing, tourism, chemicals, petroleum, construction, cement, metals '''Industrial production growth rate:''' 5% (1999 est.) '''Electricity
e\|Aalto Vase]] == External links == {{Commons\|Alvar Aalto}} === Archives === * [http://www.alvaraalto.fi/ Alvar Aalto Foundation] Custodian of Aalto's architectural drawings and writings. * [http://janus.uoregon.edu/search/a?searchtype=X&searcharg=alvar+aalto University of Oregon Aalto collection] * [http://architect.architecture.sk/alvar-aalto-architect/alvar-aalto-architect.php Alvar Aalto : architect biography] === Catalogs === * [http://www.artek.fi artek] Aalto furniture; company founded by Aalto. * [http://www.iittala.com/designor/web/iittalawww.nsf/pages/8F0DB998A9F836DDC2256BE40031B835!OpenDocument&Expand=8&PRODSUB Alvar Aalto glassware] iittala * [http://www.moma.org/exhibitions/1998/aalto/ Between Humanism and Materialism] New York Museum of Modern Art exhibit site. Contains an especially useful timeline of his life and career. === Buildings === * [http://www.mtangel.edu/library/photos/photos.htm Mt. Angel Abbey Library] * [http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/aalto/aalto.html Baker House] * [http://www.nordjyllandskunstmuseum.dk/bygning/bygningen_main_eng.htm North Jutland Museum] * [http://www.nordice.is/english/markmid.shtml Nordic House Iceland] == References == === Göran Schildt === Göran Schildt has written and edited many books on Aalto. * Aalto, Alvar. ''The Architectural Drawings of Alvar Aalto, 1917-1939, in eleven volumes''. Prepared by the Alvar Aalto Archive in collaboration with the Museum of Finnish Architecture, Helsinki, and the Alvar Aalto Museum, Jyväskylä; with introduction and project descriptions by Göran Schildt. New York, Garland Pub., [[1994]]. * Aalto, Alvar. ''Alvar Aalto in His Own Words''. Schildt, Göran, (Ed.) Rizzoli, New York, [[1998]]. * Schildt, Göran. ''Alvar Aalto: the complete catalogue of architecture, design, and art''. Timothy Binham, English translator. Rizzoli, New York, [[1994]]. === Other authors === * Reed, Peter (Ed.) ''Alvar Aalto: between humanism and materialism''. Museum of Modern Art/H.N. Abrams. New York, 1998. === Research notes === * Aalto is famous and books have been written on many of his designs. They are also documented in the various architectural magazines. * One of the most extensive collections of references on Alvar Aalto in the USA can be found at the University of Oregon. <!-- Copyright restrictions forbid reproduction of architectural drawings and photographs of most recent architecture in Wikipedia. Failing that, only text summaries, diagrams, links, and printed references can be included in Wikipedia articles. --> [[Category:Architects\|Aalto, Alver]] [[Category:Furniture designers\|Aalto, Alver]] [[Category:Finnish architects\|Aalto, Alvar]] [[Category:Finnish designers\|Aalto, Alvar]] [[Category:1898 births\|Aalto, Alvar]] [[Category:1976 deaths\|Aalto, Alvar]] [[Category:Modernist architects\|Aalto, Alvar]] [[Category:Natives of Southern Ostrobothnia]] {{finland-bio-stub}} {{architect-stub}} {{furniture-stub}} [[ca:Alvar Aalto]] [[cs:Alvar Aalto]] [[da:Alvar Aalto]] [[de:Alvar Aalto]] [[et:Alvar Aalto]] [[es:Alvar Aalto]] [[eu:Alvar Aalto]] [[fr:Alvar Aalto]] [[gl:Alvar Aalto]] [[it:Alvar Aalto]] [[ka:აალტო, ალვარ]] [[hu:Alvar Aalto]] [[nl:Alvar Aalto]] [[nds:Alvar Aalto]] [[ja:アルヴァ・アールト]] [[nn:Alvar Aalto]] [[pl:Alvar Aalto]] [[pt:Alvar Aalto]] [[ro:Alvar Aalto]] [[ru:Аалто, Алвар Хуго Хенрик]] [[fi:Alvar Aalto]] [[sv:Alvar Aalto]] [[uk:Аалто Алвар Гуґо]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>American and International English Differences</title> <id>2010</id> <revision> <id>24331552</id> <timestamp>2005-09-29T17:24:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Reedy Boy</username> <id>449918</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>updated redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[American and British English differences]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>American and British English differences</title> <id>2011</id> <revision> <id>41821140</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:33:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>151.196.35.81</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Different prepositions in certain contexts /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve"><!--Please be aware that the usage of a mixture of American and Commonwealth English in this article is deliberate.--> This article outlines the differences between '''[[American English]]''', the [[variety (linguistics)\|form]] of the [[English language]] spoken in the [[United States]], and '''[[Commonwealth English]]''' (often called '''[[British English]]'''). For the purposes of this article: '''American English''' is the form of English used by people in the United States and, as a lingua franca or second language, by people in many parts of the world. American English does not include [[Canadian English]]; although Canadian pronunciation and vocabulary is very similar to that of the United States, Canadian spelling often takes the Commonwealth form. Regions and countries that tend to use American English in teaching and publishing include much of the [[East Asia]] (especially [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], [[Taiwan]], and the [[Philippines]]; although largely excluding the former British colonies of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Singapore]]), the [[Americas]] (excluding other former British colonies such as [[Canada]], [[Jamaica]], and the [[Bahamas]]) and, in Africa, [[Liberia]]. The [[World Bank]], and the [[Organization of American States]], among other organizations, also use American English. * '''Commonwealth English''' is the form of English used across the [[United Kingdom]] and most of its former colonies in the [[British Empire]], most notably in much of [[Africa]] (including [[South Africa]] and [[Egypt]]), the [[Indian subcontinent]] ([[Pakistan]], [[India]], and [[Bangladesh]]), [[Malta]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], and portions of [[Southeast Asia]] ([[Myanmar]], [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Thailand]]), as well as [[Hong Kong]]. It is the first language of the vast majority of the inhabitants of [[Ireland]]. Like American English, it is used in many parts of the world as a lingua franca. This form of English, mostly interchangeable with British English, is sometimes called Commonwealth English because most of its speakers live in nations that are members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. Other nations and groups that use British English include the [[European Union]] and, often, the [[United Nations]]. Many international organizations, like the [[International Olympic Committee]], [[NATO]], the [[World Trade Organization]] and [[International Organization for Standardization\|ISO]] also use British English. All Middle Eastern Countries, except Israel, use British English. * The forms of English spoken in [[Canadian English\|Canada]] exhibit features of both British and American dialects; while spelling is closer to British English, pronunciation and vocabulary are much closer to American English. Many words and phrases thought of as "[[Americanism (general)\|Americanisms]]" are also used by Canadians. * Although '''British English''' is a term used when describing formal ''written'' English used in the United Kingdom, the forms of ''spoken'' English used in the United Kingdom vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world in which English is spoken, even more than in the United States, despite the vastly larger population and land area of the U.S. Dialects and accents vary not only between regions of the UK — for example, in [[Scottish English\|Scotland]], [[Mid-Ulster English\|Northern Ireland]], and [[Wales]] — but also within England, with differences occurring within the space of a few miles in some cases. [[Northern Ireland]] has the most numerous accents for such a small area, and different accents can even be detected from different areas of certain towns. The written form of the language universally taught in schools is Commonwealth English with a slight emphasis on a few words which might be more common in the specific areas than others. For example, although the words "wee" and "small" are interchangeable, one is more likely to see "wee" written by a Scot than by a Londoner. Although spoken American and British English are generally mutually intelligible, there are enough differences to occasionally cause awkward misunderstandings or even a complete failure to communicate. [[George Bernard Shaw]] once said that the United States and United Kingdom are "two countries divided by a common language"; a similar comment is ascribed to [[Winston Churchill]]. [[Henry Sweet]] predicted in 1877 that within a century, American English, Australian English and British English would be mutually unintelligible, but it may be the case that increased world-wide communication through [[radio]], [[television]], the [[Internet]], and [[globalization]] has reduced the tendency to regional variation. This can result either in some variations becoming extinct (as, for instance, ''[[Truck (disambiguation)\|truck]]'' has been gradually replacing ''[[lorry]]'' in much of the world) or in the acceptance of wide variations as "perfectly good English" everywhere. In addition to its use in [[List of countries by English speaking population\|English-speaking countries]], English plays an important role as a technical language around the world, in medicine, computer science, air traffic control, and many other areas of concentrated expertise and formal communication among international professionals. ==Pronunciation== :''See: [[American and British English pronunciation differences]]'' ==Grammar== ===Singular and plural for nouns=== * In British English, singular nouns that describe multiple people are often treated as plural, particularly where one is concerned with the people constituting the team, rather than with the t
with 50,000 foot soldiers and 9,000 horsemen. Hannibal recognized that he still needed to cross the [[Pyrenees]], the Alps, and many significant rivers. Additionally, he would have to contend with opposition from the [[Gaul]]s, whose territory he passed through. Starting in the spring of [[218 BC]], he easily fought his way through the northern tribes to the [[Pyrenees]] and, by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs along his passage, reached the [[Rhône River\|Rhône]] before the Romans could take any measures to bar his advance. Arriving at the Rhône in September, Hannibal's army numbered 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and thirty-seven [[war elephants]]. After outmaneuvering the natives, who had endeavored to prevent his crossing, Hannibal evaded a Roman force sent to operate against him in Gaul. He then proceeded up the valley of one of the tributaries of the river [[Rhone]] (probably the [[Isère River\|Isere]]) and by autumn arrived at the foot of the [[Alps]]. His passage over the mountain chain (probably in the vicinity of the Col de Mont Cenis) is one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in [[ancient warfare]]. Hannibal successfully crossed the Alps, while surmounting the difficulties of climate and terrain, the [[guerrilla tactics]] of the native tribes, and the challenge of commanding an army diverse in race and language. After completing his overland journey, Hannibal descended from the foothills into northern Italy. He had arrived, however, accompanied by only half the forces he had to started with, and only a few elephants. In total, Hannibal had lost as many as 20,000 out of 46,000 men. Hannibal from the start seems to have calculated that he would have to operate without aid from Hispania. It should be noted the figures for the amount of troops he had when he left Hispania are less reliable. Nonetheless, historian [[Adrian Goldsworthy]] has written that due to the opposition of the natives and the difficulties of landslides and cold altitudes, the costs of Hannibal's march were considerable. ===Battle of Trebia=== {{Main\|Battle of Trebia}} Hannibal's perilous march brought him into Roman territory and frustrated the attempts of the enemy to fight out the main issue on foreign ground. His sudden appearance among the Gauls of the Po valley, moreover, enabled him to detach those tribes from their new allegiance to the Romans before the latter could take steps to check the [[rebellion]]. [[Image:Battleofthetrebiamap.JPG\|thumb\|right\|300px\|[[Battle of Trebbia]]]] Publius Cornelius Scipio, the consul who commanded the Roman force sent to intercept Hannibal, had by no means expected Hannibal to make an attempt to traverse the Alps, since the Romans were prepared to fight the war in Spain. With a small detachment still positioned in Gaul, Scipio made an attempt to intercept Hannibal. Through prompt decision and speedy movement, he succeeded in transporting his army to Italy by sea, in time to meet Hannibal. After allowing his soldiers a brief rest to recover from their exertions, Hannibal first secured his rear by subduing the hostile tribe of the [[Taurini]] (modern [[Turin]]). While Moving down the [[Po]] valley, the opposing forces were engaged in a small confrontation at [[Battle of Ticinus\|Ticinus]]. Here, Hannibal forced the Romans, by virtue of his superior [[cavalry]], to evacuate the plain of [[Lombardy]]. This victory, though essentially a minor engagement, did much to weaken Roman control over the Gauls. As a result, of the Rome’s defeat at Ticinus, the Gauls were encouraged to join the Carthaginian cause. Soon the entirety of northern Italy was unofficially allied, both Gallic and Ligurian troops soon bolstering his army back to 40,000 men. Hannibal’s army, significantly supplemented, now stood poised to invade Italy. Scipio, severely injured in the battle, retreated across the River Trebia with his army still intact, and encamped at the town of Placentia to await reinforcements. The other Roman [[consul]]ar army was rushed to the Po Valley. Even before news of the defeat at Ticinus had reached Rome, the senate had ordered the consul Sempronius Longus to bring his army back from Sicily to meet Scipio and face Hannibal. Fortunately, Hannibal, by skillful maneuvers, was in position to head him off, for he lay on the direct road between Placentia and Arminum, by which Sempronius would have to march in order to reinforce Scipio. He then captured Clastidium, from which he drew large amounts of rations for his men. But this gain was not without its loss, as Sempronius avoided Hannibal watchfulness, slipped around his flank, and joined his colleague in his camp near the [[Trebbia River]] near [[Piacenza\|Placentia]]. There, in December of the same year, Hannibal had an opportunity to show his superior military skill at [[Battle of Trebia\|Trebia]]; after wearing down the excellent Roman [[infantry]] he cut it to pieces by a surprise attack from an [[ambush]] in the flank. ===Battle of Lake Trasimene=== {{Main\|Battle of Lake Trasimene}} Having secured his position in northern Italy by this victory, Hannibal quartered his troops for the winter with the Gauls, whose zeal in his cause thereupon began to abate. Accordingly, in spring [[217 BC]] Hannibal decided to find a more trustworthy base of operations farther south. On the other hand, the Romans, greatly alarmed and dismayed by Sempronius’s defeat at Trebia, immediately made plans to counter the new threat from the north. The Roman senate resolved to elect new consuls the following year in 217 B.C. The two new consuls elected were Cnaeus Servilius and [[Gaius Flaminius]]. As both anticipated Hannibal’s continued advance, the new consuls took their armies—one under Servilius to [[Arminum]] on the [[Adriatic]], the other, under Flaminius, to [[Arretium]] situated near the [[Apennine]] mountain passes—thereby commanding the eastern and western routes by which Hannibal could advance towards Rome. [[Image:Battle of lake trasimene.gif\|240px\|right\|thumb\|[[Battle of Lake Trasimene]], -217.<br>From the Department of History, United States Military Academy]] The only alternate route to central Italy laid at the mouth of the [[Arno]]. This route was practically one huge marsh, and happened to be during this particular season, more overflowed than usual; a state of which would subject his men to the same suffering as they had endured on the Alps. Hannibal knew that this route was full of difficulties, but it remained the surest and certainly the quickest route to Central Italy. As Polybius claims ''“he [Hannibal] ascertained that the other roads leading into Etruria were long and well know to the enemy, but that one which led through the marshes was short, and would bring them upon Flaminius by surprise. This was what suited his peculiar genius, and he therefore decided to take this route.”'' For four days and three nights, Hannibal’s men marched ''“through a route which was under water”'' suffering terribly from fatigue and enforced want of sleep. He crossed the [[Apennines]] and the seemingly impassable Arno without opposition, but in the marshy lowlands of the Arno, he lost a large part of his force, including, it would seem, his remaining elephants. Arriving in Eturua in the spring of 217 BC, Hannibal decided to lure the main Roman army under Flaminius into a pitched battle, by devastating under his very own eyes the area he had been sent to protect. As Polybius tells us, ''“he [Hannibal] calculated that, if he passed the camp and made a descent into the district beyond, Flaminius (partly for fear of popular reproach and partly of personal irritation) would be unable to endure watching passively the devastation of the country but would spontaneously follow him . . . and give him opportunities for attack.”'' {{ref\|Hart}}. At the same time, he tried to sever the allegiance of Rome’s allies, by proving that she was powerless to protect them. Despite of this, Hannibal found Flaminius still passively encamped at Arretium. Unable to draw Flaminius into battle by mere devastation, Hannibal marched boldly around his opponent’s left flank and effectively cut Flaminius off from Rome (thus executing the first conscious [[turning movement]] in military history). Advancing through the uplands of [[Etruria]], Hannibal provoked Flaminius to a hasty pursuit and, catching him in a defile on the shore of [[Lake Trasimeno\|Lake Trasimenus]], destroyed his army in the waters or on the adjoining slopes while killing Flaminius as well (see [[Battle of Lake Trasimene]]). He had now disposed of the only field force which could check his advance upon Rome, but, realizing that without [[siege engine]]s he could not hope to take the capital, he preferred to exploit his victory by passing into central and southern Italy and exciting a general revolt against the sovereign power. After Lake Trasimene, Hannibal stated, ''“I have not come to fight Italians, but on behalf of the Italians against Rome.”'' ===Fabius ''Cunctactor''=== {{seealso\|Fabian strategy\|Fabius Maximus}} Rome, reeling from her disastrous defeat at Lake Trasmimene, was put into an immense state of panic. According to Polybius ''“On the news of the defeat reaching Rome, the chiefs of the state were unable to conceal or soften down the facts, owing to the magnitude of the calamity, and were obliged to summon a meeting of the commons and announce it. When the Praetor [the head of the Roman Senate] . . .said, ‘We have been defeated in a great battle”, it produced such consternation that to those who were present on both occasions, the disaster seemed much greater now than during the actual battle.”'' {{ref\|Cotrell}} In times of such crisis, there was but one thing to do; and that was to appoint a [[Roman dictator\|dictator]]. Dictatorial power permitted a single man to develop his own strategies, make appointments in the civil government, and prepare armies without the usual political wran
(such as starvation) as well as damage to the cell's DNA resulting from toxicity or exposure to ultraviolet or ionizing radiation, such as γ- or X-rays, can induce a cell to begin an apoptotic process. A fascinating example, resulting from damage to the genome in the cell nucleus, is apoptosis triggered by the nuclear enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1, or PARP-1. This enzyme plays a crucial role in maintaining genomic integrity, and massive activation of PARP-1 can deplete the cell of energy-providing molecules, an event that sends signals from the nucleus for the mitochondria to start the Apoptotic process. === Homeostasis === In the adult organism, the number of cells within an [[organ (anatomy)\|organ]] or tissue has to be constant within a certain range. Blood and skin cells, for instance, are constantly renewed by their respective progenitor cells; but proliferation has to be compensated by cell death. This balancing process is part of the ''[[homeostasis]]'' required by living organisms to maintain their internal states within certain limits. Some authors and researchers like Steven Rose and [[Antonio Damasio]] have suggested ''homeodynamics'' as a more accurate and eloquent term ([[Apoptosis#References\|Damasio 1999]], p. 141). From 50 billion to 70 billion cells die each day due to apoptosis in the average human adult. In a year, this amounts to the proliferation and subsequent destruction of a mass of cells equal to an individual's body weight. Homeostasis is achieved when the rate of [[mitosis]] (cell proliferation) in the tissue is balanced by cell death. If this equilibrium is disturbed, either of two things happen: * The cells are dividing faster than they die, effectively developing a [[tumor]]. * The cells are dividing slower than they die, which results in a disorder of cell loss. Both states can be fatal or highly damaging. For instance, misregulation of Hedgehog (Hgg) protein signalling (see [[Apoptosis#Development\|Development]], below) has been implicated in several forms of cancer. Hgg, which conveys an anti-apoptotic signal, has been found to be overexpressed in [[pancreas\|pancreatic]] adenocarcinoma tissues. === Development === Programmed cell death is an integral part of both plant and [[metazoa]]n (multicellular animals) [[biological tissue\|tissue]] [[developmental biology\|development]]. It does not resemble the sort of reaction that comes as a result of tissue damage due to accident or [[pathogen]]ic infection (cell death by [[necrosis]]). Instead of swelling and bursting - hence spilling their possibly damaging internal contents into extracellular space - apoptotic cells and their [[cell nucleus\|nuclei]] shrink, and often fragment. In this way, they can be efficiently [[phagocytose]]d (and, as a consequence of this, their components reused) by [[macrophage]]s or by neighboring cells. Research on chick embryos - specifically on chick [[neural tube]] development - has suggested how selective cell proliferation, combined with selective apoptosis, sculpts developing tissues in vertebrates. During vertebrate embryo development, structures called the [[notochord]] and the floor plate secrete a gradient of the signaling molecule [[Sonic hedgehog]] (Shh), and it is this gradient that directs cells to form patterns in the embryonic neural tube: Cells that receive Shh in a receptor in their membranes called Patched1 (Ptc1) survive and proliferate; but, in the absence of Shh, one of the ends of this same Ptc1 receptor (the carboxyl-terminal, inside the membrane) is cleaved by caspase-3, an action that exposes an apoptosis-producing domain (see the Perspective by Isabel Guerrero and Ariel Ruiz i Altaba [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12907783] and the research report by Chantal Thibert ''et al.''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12907805]). Research like the one carried out by Thibert and her colleagues has begun to clarify some of the fundamental aspects of [[morphogenesis]], or the development of organisms from fertilized eggs to fully-developed animals and plants. It has also suggested specific answers to why normal cells carry out apoptosis when they end up outside the places they should be in body tissues. === Immune cell regulation === [[B cell]]s and [[T cell]]s are sophisticated &ndash;and very effective&ndash; front-line players in the body's defenses against infectious agents, as well as against local cells that have acquired or developed a malignancy. In order to carry out their job, B and T cells must have the ability to discriminate "self" from "nonself," and "healthy" from "unhealthy," [[antigen]]s (protein segments that make a good fit, like a key and a lock, with specialized receptors in B and T cell membranes). For instance, "killer" T cells can be activated when presented with fragments of inappropriately-expressed proteins (resulting, say, from a malignant mutation) or with foreign antigens produced as a consequence of a viral infection. After becoming activated, they migrate out of the lymph nodes in which they reside, proliferate, recognize the affected cells and commit them to programmed cell death. The receptors in immature B and T cell membranes are not tailored precisely to coincide with "known" antigens. Rather, they are generated through a highly-variable process that results in an immense variety, capable of making a good fit with an astounding number of precise molecular shapes. This means that most of these immature cells can be either ineffective (because the almost random shapes of their receptors do not engage any antigen of significance) or dangerous to their own organism, because their receptors could make a good molecular fit with healthy self antigens. If they were to be let loose without any further processing, many could become ''autoreactive'' and attack healthy body cells. The way the immune system regulates this process is by "deleting" both the ineffective and the potentially damaging immature cells via apoptosis. As has just been described in the previous section on development, all tissue in multicellular animals depends on continuous receipt of survival signals. In the case of T cells, as they develop and mature in the thymus, the survival signal depends on their capability to engage foreign antigens. Those that fail in this test, amounting to about 97% of the freshly-produced T cells, are committed to programmed cell death. The survivors are tested as well for potentially damaging autoimmune reactions, and those that show high affinity to healthy self antigens are killed via apoptosis. Be aware that such a portrayal presents a highly-simplified picture: The actual process in which B and T cells are driven to proliferation, differentiation or apoptosis comprises a complex interplay between positive and negative regulators. == Apoptotic process == === Morphology === A cell undergoing apoptosis shows a characteristic morphology that can be seen under a [[microscope]]: # The cell becomes round (circular). This occurs because the protein structures that conform the cytoskeleton are digested by specialized [[peptidase]]s (called ''[[caspase]]s'') that have been activated inside the cell. # [[Chromatin]] ([[DNA]] and its packaging [[protein]]s in the [[cell nucleus]]) undergoes initial degradation and condensation (see the article by Madeleine Kihlmark ''et al.'', in [http://jcs.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/114/20/3643]). # Chromatin undergoes further condensation into compact patches against the [[nuclear envelope]]. At this stage, the double membrane that surrounds the nucleus still appears complete; however, as observed by Kihlmark and colleagues, specialized caspases have already advanced in the degradation of nuclear pore proteins and have begun to degrade the [[lamin]] that underlies the nuclear envelope. It must be noted, also, that, while the previous stage of initial chromatin condensation has been observed in nonapoptotic forms of programmed cell death, this advanced stage (called [[pyknosis]]) is considered a hallmark of apoptosis. [http://www.jem.org/cgi/content/abstract/192/4/571] # The nuclear envelope becomes discontinuous and the DNA inside it is fragmented (a process referred to as [[karyorrhexis]]). The nucleus breaks into several discrete ''[[chromatin]] bodies'' or ''nucleosomal units'' due to the degradation of DNA [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10739646]. # [[Plasma membrane]] blebbings. # The cell is [[phagocytosis\|phagocytosed]], ''or'' # The cell breaks apart into several [[vesicle (biology)\|vesicle]]s called ''apoptotic bodies'', which are then phagocytosed. === Biochemical signals for safe disposal === The dying cells described, undergoing the final stages of apoptosis, display "eat me" signals, like phosphatidylserine (PS). Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the cytosolic (inner) surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed to the extracellular surface during apoptosis. Phagocytic scavengers, such as macrophages, have specialized receptors that recognize PS and carry out their disposal job in an orderly manner without eliciting an inflammatory response [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14645835], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14645848]. In studies on mouse embryos lacking PS receptors conducted by Ming O. Li and colleagues [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=14645847], un-ingested cells undergoing apoptosis accumulated in the brain and lungs, leading to neonatal lethality. Ho
is the other primary characteristic of gem diamonds, and has been highly prized throughout history. Over time, especially since around 1900, experts in the field of ''[[gemology]]'' have developed methods of characterizing diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics, known informally as the ''four Cs'', are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these are ''carat'', ''clarity'', ''color'', and ''cut''. Most gem diamonds are traded on the wholesale market based on single values for each of the four Cs; for example knowing that a diamond is rated as 1.5 carats, VS2 clarity, F color, excellent cut, is enough to reasonably establish an expected price range. More detailed information from within each characteristic can then be used to determine actual market value for individual stones. Consumers who purchase individual diamonds are often advised to use the four Cs to pick the diamond that is "right" for them; to these is sometimes added the "fifth C" of ''cost''. Other characteristics not described by the four Cs can and do influence the value or appearance of a gem diamond. These characteristics include physical characteristics such as the presence of [[fluorescence]], as well as data on a diamond's history including its source and which gemological institute performed evaluation services on the diamond. ''Cleanliness'' also dramatically affects a diamond's beauty. There are four major gemological associations which "certify" diamonds: that is, define the four Cs of a diamond. While carat weight and cut angles are mathematically defined, the clarity and color are judged by the trained human eye and are therefore open to slight variance in interpretation. * [[Gemological Institute of America]] (GIA) was the first laboratory to issue modern diamond reports, and holds the highest reputation amongst gemologists for its consistent, conservative grading. * [[American Gemological Society]] (AGS) is not as widely recognized nor as old as the GIA, but garners an equally high reputation. * [[International Gemological Laboratory]] (IGL) is a generally respected laboratory but suffers from a negative industry reputation for its grading practices, which are perceived by critics as being either less conservative or less consistent than the GIA and AGS. * [[European Gemological Laboratory]] (EGI) has a similar reputation to the IGL. === Carat === The ''[[carat (mass)\|carat]] weight'' measures the mass of a diamond. One carat is defined as exactly 200 [[milligram]]s (about 0.007 [[ounce]]). The ''point'' unit&mdash;equal to one one-hundredth of a carat (0.01 carat, or 2 mg)&mdash;is commonly used for diamonds of less than one carat. All else being equal, the value of a diamond increases exponentially in relation to carat weight, since larger diamonds are both rarer and more desirable for use as gemstones. A review of comparable diamonds available for purchase in September 2005 demonstrates this effect (approximate prices for round cut, G color, VS2 diamonds with "1A" cut grade, as listed on http://www.pricescope.com): <!-- When updating, round to nearest $500 --> {\| class="infobox" style="border-collapse: collapse;" border="2" \|- style="background-color: #cccccc;" !Carat size !Cost per carat (US$) !Total cost (US$) \|- \|0.5 carat (50 points) \|align="right"\|3,000 \|align="right"\|1,500 \|- \|1.0 carat \|align="right"\|6,500 \|align="right"\|6,500 \|- \|1.5 carats \|align="right"\|8,500 \|align="right"\|12,750 \|- \|2.0 carats \|align="right"\|13,000 \|align="right"\|26,000 \|- \|3.0 carats \|align="right"\|17,000 \|align="right"\|51,000 \|- \|5.0 carats \|align="right"\|23,000 \|align="right"\|115,000 \|} The price per carat does not increase smoothly with increasing size. Instead, there are sharp jumps around milestone carat weights, as demand is much higher for diamonds weighing just more than a milestone than for those weighing just less. As an example, a 0.95 carat diamond may have a significantly lower price per carat than a comparable 1.05 carat diamond, because of differences in demand. A weekly price list published by Rapaport of New York, of diamond prices per carat, for different diamond cuts, clarity and weights, is currently considered the [[de-facto]] retail price baseline. Jewelers often trade diamonds at negotiated discounts off the Rapaport price (e.g., "R -3%"). In the wholesale trade of gem diamonds, carat is often used in denominating lots of diamonds for sale. For example, a buyer may place an order for 100 carats of 0.5 carat, D&ndash;F, VS2-SI1, excellent cut diamonds, indicating he wishes to purchase 200 diamonds (100 carats total mass) of those approximate characteristics. Because of this, diamond prices (particularly among wholesalers and other industry professionals) are often quoted per carat, rather than per stone. ''Total carat weight'' (t.c.w.) is a phrase used to describe the total mass of diamonds or other gemstone in a piece of jewelry, when more than one gemstone is used. Diamond solitaire earrings, for example, are usually quoted in t.c.w. when placed for sale, indicating the mass of the diamonds in both earrings and not each individual diamond. T.c.w. is also widely used for diamond necklaces, bracelets and other similar jewelry pieces. ===Clarity=== {{main\|Diamond clarity}} Clarity is a measure of internal defects of a diamond called ''inclusions''. Inclusions may be crystals of a foreign material or another diamond crystal, or structural imperfections such as tiny cracks that can appear whitish or cloudy. The number, size, color, relative location, orientation, and visibility of inclusions can all affect the relative clarity of a diamond. The [[Gemological Institute of America]] (GIA) and others have developed systems to grade clarity, which are generally based on those inclusions which are visible to a trained professional when a diamond is viewed from above, under 10x magnification. Diamonds become increasingly rare when considering higher clarity gradings. Only about 20 percent of all diamonds mined have a clarity rating high enough for the diamond to be considered appropriate for use as a gemstone; the other 80 percent are relegated to industrial use. Of that top 20 percent, a significant portion contains an inclusion or inclusions that are visible to the naked eye upon close inspection. Those that do not have a visible inclusion are known as "eye-clean" and are preferred by most buyers, although visible inclusions can sometimes be hidden under the setting in a piece of jewelry. Most inclusions present in gem-quality diamonds do not affect the diamonds' performance or structural integrity. However, large clouds can affect a diamond's ability to transmit and scatter light. Large cracks close to or breaking the surface may reduce a diamond's resistance to fracture. Diamonds are graded by the major societies on a scale ranging from Flawless to Imperfect. (see the main article for more detail) ===Color=== {{main\|Diamond color}} [[Image:ThompsonDiamonds.JPG\|thumbnail\|right\|Jewelers sometimes set diamonds in groups of similar colors.]] [[Image:Hope_Diamond.jpg\|thumb\|right\|The [[Hope Diamond]]]] A chemically pure and structurally perfect diamond is perfectly transparent with no [[hue]], or '''color'''. However, in reality almost no gem-sized natural diamonds are absolutely perfect. The color of a diamond may be affected by chemical impurities and/or structural defects in the [[crystal lattice]]. Depending on the hue and intensity of a diamond's coloration, a diamond's color can either detract from or enhance its value. For example, most white diamonds are discounted in price as more yellow hue is detectable, while intense pink or blue diamonds (such as the [[Hope Diamond]]) can be dramatically more valuable. Most diamonds used as gemstones are basically transparent with little tint, or ''white diamonds''. The most common impurity, [[nitrogen]], replaces a small proportion of carbon atoms in a diamond's structure and causes a yellowish to brownish tint. This effect is present in almost all white diamonds; in only the rarest diamonds is the coloration due to this effect undetectable. The GIA has developed a rating system for color in white diamonds, from "D" to "Z" (with D being "colorless" and Z having a bright yellow coloration), which has been widely adopted in the industry and is universally recognized, superseding several older systems once used in different countries. The system uses a benchmark set of either natural diamonds of known color grade, or precision-crafted [[cubic zirconia]]; test lighting conditions are also standardized and carefully controlled. Diamonds with higher color grades are rarer, in higher demand, and therefore more expensive, than lower color grades. Oddly enough, diamonds graded Z are also rare, and the bright yellow color is also highly valued. Diamonds graded D-F are considered "colorless", G-J are considered "near-colorless", K-M are "slightly colored". N-Y are usually appear light yellow or brown. In contrast to yellow or brown hues, diamonds of other colors are much rarer and more valuable. While even a pale pink or blue hue may increase the value of a diamond, more intense coloration is usually considered more desirable and commands the highest prices. A variety of impurities and structural imperfections cause different colors in diamonds, including yellow, pink, blue, red, green, brown, and other hues. Diamonds with unusual or intense coloration are sometimes labeled "fancy" by the diamond industry. Intense yellow coloration is considered one of the fancy colors, and is separa
-called "Damasian list" appended to the pseudepigraphical [[Decretum Gelasianum]] [http://www.tertullian.org/decretum_eng.htm] is actually a valuable though non-papal list from the early 6th century. Denziger's recension is found in the links at [[Decretum Gelasianum]]. The "Damasian Canon" was published by C.H. Turner in ''JTS'', vol. 1, 1900, pp 554-560. In [[405]], [[Pope Innocent I]] in Letter #6 (to Exuperius) described a canon identical to Trent (without the distinction between protocanonicals and deuterocanonicals). In the late [[380s]], [[Gregory of Nazianus]] produced a canon ([http://www.ntcanon.org/Gregory.canon.shtml]) in verse which agreed with that of his contemporary Athanasius, other than placing the "Catholic Epistles" after the Pauline Epistles and omitting Revelation. Bishop Amphilocus of [[Iconium]], in his poem ''Iambics for Seleucus'' ([http://www.ntcanon.org/Amphilochius.canon.shtml]) written some time after [[394]], discusses debate over the canonical inclusion of a number of books, and almost certainly rejects the later Epistles of Peter and John, Jude, and Revelation. 3rd [[Synods of Carthage\|Synod of Carthage]] [http://www.ntcanon.org/Carthage.canon.shtml]: in [[397]], ratified the canon accepted previously at the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa in [[393]] and which was supposedly endorsed by [[Pope Damasus I]], but the acts of which have been lost. The 27-book NT canon included ''the Gospels, four books; the Acts of the Apostles, one book; the Epistles of Paul, thirteen; of the same to the Hebrews; one Epistle; of Peter, two; of John, apostle, three; of James, one; of Jude, one; the Revelation of John.'' When St. [[Jerome]] translated the Bible into [[Latin]], producing the [[Vulgate]] bible c. [[400]], he argued for the ''Veritas Hebraica'', meaning the truth of the [[Jewish Bible]] over the [[Septuagint]] translation. At the insistence of the Pope, however, he added existing translations for what he considered doubtful books, but did not personally translate them anew. This period marks the beginning of a more widely recognized canon, although the inclusion of some books was still debated: Epistle to Hebrews, James, 2 John, 3 John, 2 Peter, Jude and Revelation. Grounds for debate included the question of authorship of these books (note that the so-called Damasian "Council at Rome" had already rejected [[John the Evangelist\|John the Apostle]]'s authorship of 2 and 3 John, while retaining the books), their suitability for use (Revelation at that time was already being interpreted in a wide variety of [[heresy\|heretical]] ways), and how widely they were actually being used (2 Peter being amongst the most weakly attested of all the books in the Christian canon). The late-[[5th Century\|5th]] or early-[[6th Century]] [[Peshitta]] of the [[Syrian Orthodox Church]] ([http://www.ntcanon.org/Peshitta.shtml]) includes a 22-book NT, excluding II Peter, II John, III John, Jude, and Revelation. (The ''Lee Peshitta'' of 1823 follows the Protestant canon'') '''List of the Sixty Books''' [http://www.ntcanon.org/Sixty_Canonical_Books.shtml]: dated to the 7th century, has 34 OT books and '''26-book NT''' (excludes Revelation) and 9 books "outside the sixty": Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, 1-4 Maccabees, Esther, Judith, Tobit and a 25 book [[apocrypha]]. [[Quinisext Council\|Orthodox Synod in Trullo]]: in [[692]], rejected by [[Pope Constantine]], approved Gregory Theologus' 22 book OT and '''26-book NT''' (excludes Revelation) and the [[Canons of the Apostles]] of the [[Apostolic Constitutions]] of which Canon #85 [http://www.bible-researcher.com/apostolic.html] is a list of the '''27-book OT''' plus Judith, Sirach, 1-3Maccabees, Didache, 1-2Clement, and '''26-book NT''' (excludes Revelation), and the Apostolic Constitutions which themselves were rejected because they were said to contain heretical interpolations. [[John of Damascus]]: c. [[654]] - c. [[749]], in ''Exact Exposition of Orthodox Faith 4.17'' accepted Didache and Apostolic Constitutions. [[Saint Nicephorus\|Nicephorus]]: the Patriarch of Jerusalem, [[806]]-[[815]], in a ''Stichometria'' [http://www.ntcanon.org/Stichometry_of_Nicephorus.shtml] appended to the end of his ''Chronography'' rejected Esther, Tobit, Judith, [[Wisdom of Solomon]], [[Ecclesiasticus\|Sirach]], Maccabees, [[Psalms of Solomon]], [[Enoch]], Didache, Barnabas, Hermas, [[Epistles of Clement\|Clement]], [[Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs]], Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of the Hebrews, 3rd Corinthians, Acts of Paul, Revelation, Apocalypse of Peter. [[Protestant Reformation]]: begun by [[Martin Luther]], who made an attempt to remove the books of Hebrews, James, Jude and Revelation from the canon (partially because they were perceived to go against certain Protestant doctrines such as [[sola fide]], partially because of the early debate over their inclusion), but this was not generally accepted among his followers. However, these books are ordered last in [[German language\|German-language]] [[Lutheran]] Bibles to this day. Bruce Metzger's ''Canon of the New Testament'' says in [[1596]] Jacob Lucius published a Bible at Hamburg which labeled Luther's four as "Apocrypha"; David Wolder the pastor of Hamburg's Church of St. Peter published in the same year a triglot Bible which labeled them as "non canonical"; J. Vogt published a Bible at Goslar in [[1614]] similar to Lucius'; Gustavus Adolphus of Stockholm in [[1618]] published a Bible with them labeled as "Apocr(yphal) New Testament." Luther also eliminated the "doubtful" books from his Old Testament, terming them "[[Apocrypha]], that are books which are not considered equal to the Holy Scriptures, but are useful and good to read". He also argued unsuccessfully for the relocation of [[Book of Esther\|Esther]] from the Canon to the Apocrypha, since without the deuterocanonical sections, it never mentions God. As a result Catholics and Protestants continue to use different canons, which differ in respect to the Old Testament. There is some evidence that the first decision to omit these books entirely from the Bible was made by Protestant laity rather than clergy. Bibles dating from shortly after the [[Reformation]] have been found whose tables of contents included the entire Roman Catholic canon, but which did not actually contain the disputed books, leading some historians to think that the workers at the printing presses took it upon themselves to omit them. However, Anglican and Lutheran Bibles usually still contained these books until the [[20th century]], while Calvinist Bibles did not. Several reasons are proposed for the omission of these books from the canon. One is the support for Catholic doctrines such as [[Purgatory]] and prayer for the dead found in [[2 Maccabees]]. Luther himself said he was following Jerome's teaching about the ''Veritas Hebraica''. [[Council of Trent]]: on [[April 8]], [[1546]], by vote (24 yea, 15 nay, 16 abstain) approved the present [[Roman Catholic]] Bible Canon including the [[Deuterocanonical Books]]. This is said to be the same list as produced at the [[Council of Florence]] in [[1451]], this list was defined as canonical in the profession of faith proposed for the [[Jacobite Orthodox Church]]. Because of its placement, the list was not considered binding for the Catholic church, and in light of [[Martin Luther]]'s demands, the Catholic Church examined the question of the Canon again at the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed the Canon of the Council of Florence. The Old Testament books that had been in doubt were termed [[deuterocanonical]], not indicating a lesser degree of inspiration, but a later time of final approval. Beyond these books, some editions of the latin [[Vulgate]] include [[Psalm 151]], the [[Prayer of Manasseh]], [[1 Esdras]] (called 3 Esdras), [[2 Esdras]] (called 4 Esdras), and the [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]] in an appendix, styled "Apogryphi". [[Thirty-Nine Articles]]: in [[1563]], of the [[Church of England]], article 6, recognized the Roman Catholic Canon including the Deuterocanonicals with the caveat "for example of life and instruction in manners ... [but not] to establish any doctrine." [[King James Bible#Difference in the contents\|King James Bible]]: of [[1611]], included deuterocanon and apocrypha from the Vulgate and Septuagint. [[Westminster Confession of Faith]]: in [[1647]], of [[Calvinism]], decreed a '''39-book OT''' and '''27-book NT''', all others labelled as apocrypha [http://www.reformed.org/documents/wcf_with_proofs/]. [[Synod of Jerusalem]][http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.v.vii.html]: in [[1672]], decreed the [[Greek Orthodox]] Canon which is the same as the [[Roman Catholic]] but includes [[Psalm 151]], [[1 Esdras]], [[3 Maccabees]], [[4 Maccabees]], [[Psalms of Solomon]], [[Odes\|Odes of Solomon]], [[Letter of Jeremiah]]. The Greek Orthodox generally consider the [[Septuagint]] to be divinely inspired. [[Thomas Jefferson]]: in [[1819]], produced the [[Jefferson Bible]], by excluding sayings of Jesus which he felt were easily determined to be inauthentic ("like picking diamonds from dunghills" -To Adams, [[24 January]] [[1814]]). [[Vatican I]]: on [[April 24]], [[1870]], approved the additions to [[Mark 16\|Mark]] (v.16:9-20), [[Gospel of Luke#Manuscripts\|Luke]], (22:19b-20,43-44) and [[Pericope Adulteræ\|John]], (7:53-8:11) which are not present in early manuscripts. [[Pope Pius XI]]: on [[June 2]], [[1927]], decreed the [[Comma Johanneum]] was open to dispute. [[Jesus Seminar]]: in [[1993]], ranked sayings of Jesus for authenticity by vote and published ''The Five Gospels : What Did Jesus Really Say? The Search for the Authentic Words of Jesus''. In addition to the canonical four gospels, the fifth gospel is the [[Gospel of Thomas]]. Many Christians have accepted and continue to accept th
ne]] [[Category:American horror writers\|Rice, Anne]] [[Category:Irish-Americans\|Rice, Anne]] [[Category:New Orleanians\|Rice, Anne]] [[Category:People opposed to fan fiction\|Rice, Anne]] [[Category:Roman Catholic writers\|Rice, Anne]] [[bg:Ан Райс]] [[da:Anne Rice]] [[de:Anne Rice]] [[es:Anne Rice]] [[fr:Anne Rice]] [[is:Anne Rice]] [[it:Anne Rice]] [[nl:Anne Rice]] [[ja:アン・ライス]] [[no:Anne Rice]] [[pl:Anne Rice]] [[pt:Anne Rice]] [[fi:Anne Rice]] [[sv:Anne Rice]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Analysis</title> <id>1134</id> <revision> <id>40763791</id> <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:39:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>KSchutte</username> <id>295931</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar\|analysis}} '''Analysis''' generally means ''the action of taking something apart in order to study it.'' It may refer to: In '''philosophy''': * [[Philosophical analysis]], a general term for the techniques used by philosophers * ''[[Analysis (journal)\|ANALYSIS]]'' is the name of a prominent journal in philosophy. In '''mathematics''': * [[Mathematical analysis]], the generic name given to any branch of mathematics which depends upon the concepts of limits and convergence [[Complex analysis]] [[Functional analysis]] [[Harmonic analysis]] [[Non-standard analysis]] ** [[Real analysis]] In '''statistics''': * [[Analysis of variance]], a collection of statistical models and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed variance into different parts * [[Meta-analysis]], combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses * [[Time-series analysis]], methods that attempt to understand a sequence of data points spaced apart at uniform time intervals In '''computer science''': * [[Analysis of algorithms]] * [[Competitive analysis]], shows how on-line algorithms perform and demonstrates the power of randomization in algorithms * [[Computer program analysis]], the process of automatically analysing the behavior of computer programs * [[Lexical analysis]], the process of procesing an input sequence of characters and producing as output a sequence of symbols * [[Numerical analysis]], the study of algorithms for the problems of continuous mathematics * [[Object-oriented analysis and design]], ala Booch * [[Semantic analysis (computer science)]] * [[Static code analysis]], the analysis of computer software that is performed without actually executing programs built from that software * [[Structured Systems Analysis and Design Methodology]], ala Yourdon * [[Syntax analysis]], a process in compilers that recognizes the structure of programming languages, also known as parsing In '''music''': * [[Musical analysis]], a process attempting to answer the question "how does this music work?" ** [[Schenkerian analysis]] In '''psychotherapy''': * [[Psychoanalysis]], seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients' mental processes ** [[Transactional analysis]] In '''cryptography''': * [[Cryptanalysis]], the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted information * [[Frequency analysis]], a method to decompose a function, wave, or signal into its frequency components In '''economics''': * [[Financial analysis]], the analysis of the accounts and the economic prospects of a firm * [[Fundamental analysis]], a stock valuation method that uses financial analysis * [[Principal components analysis]], a technique that can be used to simplify a dataset * [[Technical analysis]], the study of price action in securities markets in order to forecast future prices In '''linguistics''': * [[Discourse analysis]], a general term for the analysis of language use above the sentence or clause level * [[Semantic analysis (linguistics)]], the process of unpacking clause, sentence and paragraph structure * [[Voice analysis]], the study of speech sounds for purposes other than linguistic content In '''signal processing''': * [[Finite element analysis]], a computer simulation technique used in engineering analysis * [[Independent component analysis]] * [[Link quality analysis]], the analysis of signal quality * [[Path quality analysis]] In '''literary criticism''': * [[Analysis (Homer)]], an influential school of thought in Homeric scholarship in the 19th-20th centuries It may also refer to: * [[Aura analysis]], a technique in which supporters of the method claim that the body's aura, or energy field is "analyzed" * [[Bowling analysis]], a notation summarising a cricket bowler's performance * [[Category analysis]] * [[Chemical analysis]], the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure * [[Dimensional analysis]], a conceptual tool to understand physical situations involving a mix of different kinds of physical quantities * [[Isotope analysis]], the identification of isotopic signature, the distribution of certain stable isotopes and chemical elements within chemical compounds * [[Life cycle cost analysis]], calculates the cost of a system or product over its entire life span * [[Lithic analysis]], the analysis of stone tools using basic scientific techniques * [[Neutron activation analysis]], a technique used to very accurately determine the concentrations of elements in a sample * [[Protocol analysis]], a means for extracting persons' thoughts while they are performing a task * [[System analysis]], the branch of electrical engineering that characterizes electrical systems and their properties * [[Systems analysis]], the science dealing with analysis of complex, large scale systems and the interactions within those systems ==See also== [[Analytic]] [[Synthesis]] *[[Scientific method]] {{disambig}} [[cs:Analýza]] [[da:Analyse]] [[de:Analyse]] [[es:Análisis]] [[fr:Analyse]] [[io:Analizo]] [[ko:해석학]] [[lb:Analys]] [[mk:Анализа]] [[nl:Analyse]] [[pl:Analiza]] [[simple:Analyse]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abner Doubleday</title> <id>1135</id> <revision> <id>41932237</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:39:49Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Hlj</username> <id>36708</id> </contributor> <comment>reword</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AbnerDoubleday.jpeg\|thumb\|Abner Doubleday]] '''Abner Doubleday''' ([[June 26]], [[1819]] &ndash; [[January 26]], [[1893]]), was a career [[U.S. Army]] officer and [[Union army\|Union]] general in the [[American Civil War]]. He fired the first shot in defense of [[Battle of Fort Sumter\|Fort Sumter]], the opening battle of the war. Although he himself made no such claim, some believe he should be credited with the invention of [[baseball]]. ==Early years== Doubleday was born in [[Ballston Spa, New York]]. His grandfather had fought in the [[Revolutionary War]] and his father served four years in the [[U.S. Congress]]. Abner practiced as a civil engineer for two years before entering the [[U.S. Military Academy]], from which graduated in 1842 and was commissioned a [[second lieutenant]] in the 3rd U.S. Artillery. ==Military career== Doubleday served in the [[Mexican-American War]] and [[Seminole Wars]]. At the start of the Civil War, he was a captain in the garrison at [[Fort Sumter]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina\|Charleston Harbor]], under [[Major Robert Anderson]]. He aimed the cannon that fired the first return shot in answer to the [[Confederate States Army \| Confederate]] bombardment on [[April 12]], [[1861]], starting the war. Doubleday served in the [[Shenandoah Valley]] from June to August, 1861. He was appointed [[brigadier general]] of volunteers on [[February 3]], [[1862]], and led the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, [[III Corps (ACW)\|III Corps]] at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]]. He took command of the division on [[August 30]] when its commander was wounded. He again led the division at [[Battle of South Mountain\|South Mountain]], [[Battle of Antietam\|Antietam]] (where he was wounded by a shell exploding nearby), and [[Battle of Fredericksburg\|Fredericksburg]] (where his division mostly sat idle). Doubleday was promoted to [[major general]] of volunteers on [[November 9]], [[1862]], and commanded 3rd Division, [[I Corps (ACW)\|I Corps]], at [[Battle of Chancellorsville\|Chancellorsville]], and took over corps command for a day when General [[John F. Reynolds]] was killed in opening of the [[Battle of Gettysburg]], [[July 9]], [[1863]]. Army commander [[George G. Meade]] replaced Doubleday with [[John Newton (ACW) \| John Newton]], a more junior major general from another corps, after the first day of battle, one in which the I Corps was overwhelmed by a Confederate assault. Meade had a long history of disdain for Doubleday's combat effectiveness, dating back to South Mountain. Doubleday was humiliated by this snub and held a lasting grudge against Meade. He was wounded in the neck on the second day of the battle and assumed mostly administrative duties in the defenses of [[Washington, D.C.]], including the attack by [[Jubal A. Early]] in the [[Valley Campaigns of 1864]]. ==Later life== After the Civil War, Doubleday retired from the Army in 1873 and moved to [[San Francisco]], where he obtained a charter for the [[cable car (railway)\|cable car]] railway that still runs there. By 1878, he was living in [[Mendham, New Jersey]], from where, that year, he became a prominent member of the [[Theosophical Society]]. When two of the founders of that society, [[Helena Blavatsky]] and [[Henry Steel Olcott]], moved to India at the end of that year, he was constituted as the President of the American body. Doubleday died in Mendham, and is buried in [[Arlington National Cemetery]] in Arlington, Virginia. ==Legacy== Although Doubleday was a competent, if colorless, combat general with experience in many important Civil War battles, the lore of ba
nds of the state to the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was necessary. It may be noted, in confirmation of this view, that the naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers on chronology to precisely this period, i.e. the years 490-480 ([[Eusebius of Caesarea\|Eusebius]], Chron. Can. p. 337). In the repulse of [[Xerxes I]] it is possible that the Aeginetans played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus. The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would naturally seek to obscure their services. It was to Aegina rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as of the Athenian (Herod. viii. 91). There are other indications, too, of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of defence. In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. [[Greek History]], sect. Authorities). During the next twenty years the Philo-laconian policy of [[Cimon]] secured Aegina, as a member of the Spartan league, from attack. The change in Athenian foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of Cimon in 461, led to what is sometimes called the First Peloponnesian War, in which the brunt of the fighting fell upon Corinth and Aegina. The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally (c. 456 B.C.). The tribute was fixed at 30 talents. By the terms of the Thirty Years' Truce ([[445 BC]]) Athens covenanted to restore to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained a dead letter. In the first winter of the [[Peloponnesian War]] ([[431 BC]]) Athens expelled the Aeginetans, and established a cleruchy in their island. The exiles were settled by Sparta in Thyreatis, on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis. Even in their new home they were not safe from Athenian rancour.1 A force landed under Nicias in [[424 BC\|424]], and put most of them to the sword. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for operations against Athens in the Corinthian War. Its greatness, however, was at an end. The part which it plays henceforward is insignificant. It would be a mistake to attribute the fall of Aegina solely to the development of the Athenian navy. It is probable that the powor of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years after Sabamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as relatively, to that of Athens. Commerce was the source of Aegina's greatness, and her trade, which appears to have been principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from the war with [[Iran\|Persia]]. Her medism in [[491 BC\|491]] is to be explained by her commercial relations with the Persian Empire. She was forced into patriotism in spite of herself, and the glory won by [[Salamis]] was paid for by the loss of her trade and the decay of her marine. The completeness of the ruin of so powerful a state &ndash; we should look in vain for an analogous case in the history of the modern world &ndash; finds an explanation in the economic conditions of the island, the prosperity of which rested upon a basis of slave-labour. It is impossible, indeed, to accept Aristotle's (cf. Athenaeus vi. 272) estimate of 470,000 as the number of the slave-population; it is clear, however, that the number must have been out of all proportion to that of the free inhabitants. In this respect the history of Aegina does but anticipate the history of Greece as a whole. The constitutional history of Aegina is unusually simple. So long as the island retained its independence the government was an oligarchy. There is no trace of the heroic monarchy and no tradition of a tyrannis. The story of Nicodromus, while it proves the existence of a democratic party, suggests, at the same time, that it could count upon little support. Pericles called Aegina the ''eye-sore'' (leme) of the Peiraeus. The physician [[Paul of Aegina]] came from here, and was the most respected medical scholar of the [[Byzantine Empire]] for many years. == Modern History == Aegina passed with the rest of Greece under the successive dominations of Macedon, the Aetolians, Attalus of Pergamum and [[Roman empire\|Rome]]. In [[1537]] the island, then a prosperous Venetian colony, was overrun and ruined by the pirate Barbarossa (Khair-ed-Din). One of the last Venetian strongholds in the Levant, it was ceded by the [[Treaty of Passarowitz]] ([[1718]]) to the Turks. In [[1826]]-[[1828]] the town became for two years (Jan. 1828 - Dec. 1829) the first capital of Modern Greece. Today Aegina is a famous tourist destination. It takes about 35 minutes to arrive in Aegina from the Piraus port. ==Communities and villages== [[Aegina the city ]] [[Kipseli]] [[Agia Marina (Aegina), Greece\|Agia Marina]] [[Anitseon]] [[Kontos (Aegina), Greece\|Kontos]] [[Kypseli (Aegina), Greece\|Kypseli]] [[Marathon, Aegina\|Marathon]] [[Mesagros]] [[Metochi (Aegina), Greece\|Metochi]] [[Perdika (Aegina), Greece\|Perdika]] [[Portes (Aegina), Greece\|Portes]] [[Souvala]] [[Vagia, Greece\|Vagia]] [[Vathy (Aegina), Greece\|Vathy]] ==Historical population== {\| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0"11 \|- bgcolor="#efefef" ! Year !! Communal population !! Change !! Municipal/Island population \|\| Change \|- \| [[1981]] \|\| 6,730 \|\| - \|\| 11,127 \|\| - \|- \| [[1991]] \|\| 6,373 \|\| -357/-5.20% \|\| 11,639 \|\| 512/4.50%<!-- \|- \| [[2001]] \|\| - \|\| - \|\| - \|\| - --> \|} There are no municipal boundaries in the island, it is encircled with the [[Saronic Gulf]]. == Daughter of Asopus == In [[Greek mythology]], '''[[Aegina (mythology)\|Aegina]]''' was a daughter of the river god [[Asopus]] and the [[nymph]] [[Metope (mythology)\|Metope]]. She bore at least two children: [[Menoetius]] by [[Actor (mythology)\|Actor]], and [[Aeacus]] by [[Zeus]]. When Zeus abducted Aegina, he took her to [[Oenone]], an island close to [[Attica]]. This island would later be called Aegina. Here, Aegina gave birth to Aeacus, who would later become king of Oenone; henceforth, Aegina. == External links == * [http://www.aeginagreece.com Aegina's Ultimate Internet Guide] &ndash; The most complete and up to date online guide about Aegina island * [http://www.travel-to-aegina.com Aegina] &ndash; A travel guide to Aegina island * [http://www.aegina.gr Aegina.gr] * [http://www.aroundaegina.com Travel Guide for Aegina Island] {{1911}} [[Category:Athens]] [[Category:Islands of Greece]] <!--[[Category:Greek provinces]]--> [[Category:Cities and towns in Greece]] [[ca:Egina]] [[de:Aigina (Insel)]] [[et:Aígina]] [[es:Egina]] [[fr:Égine (île)]] [[it:Egina (isola)]] [[ja:アイギナ島]] [[la:Aegina]] [[nl:Egina]] [[sv:Egina]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aegis</title> <id>2628</id> <revision> <id>41937218</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:20:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Abhorsen327</username> <id>1006868</id> </contributor> <comment>Added Edith Hamilton's reference to the Aegis</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} '''Aegis ''' (Gr. ''&#913;&#953;&#947;&#943;&#962;''), in [[Homer]], is the [[shield]] or buckler of [[Zeus]], fashioned for him by [[Hephaestus]], furnished with tassels and bearing the [[Gorgon]]'s head in the centre. Originally symbolic of the storm-cloud, it is probably derived from ''aisso'', signifying rapid, violent motion. Another possible etymology is from the root ''&#913;&#953;&#947;-'' (Aeg-) meaning wave, as per ''&#913;&#953;&#947;&#945;&#943;&#959;&#957;'' (Aegean) = wavy sea. When the god shakes it, [[Mount Ida]] is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are smitten with fear. He sometimes lends it to [[Athena]] and (rarely) to [[Apollo (god)\|Apollo]]. According to Part One, Section One of [[Edith Hamilton]]'s "Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes" (Warner Books' United States Paperback Edition), the Aegis is [[Zeus]]' [[breastplate]], and was "awful to behold." In a later story ([[Gaius Julius Hyginus\|Hyginus]], Poet. Astronom. ii. 13) Zeus is said to have used the skin of the [[goat]] [[Amalthea (mythology)\|Amalthea]] (aigis=goat-skin) which suckled him in [[Crete]], as a buckler when he went forth to do battle against the giants. There is also the legend which represents the aegis as a fire-breathing monster like the [[Chimera (creature)\|Chimera]], which was slain by Athena, who afterwards wore its skin as a [[cuirass]] ([[Diodorus Siculus]] iii. 70). Still others say it was the skin of the monstrous giant [[Pallas (disambiguation)\|Pallas]]. Another version describes it to have been really the goat's skin used as a belt to support the shield. When so used it would generally be fastened on the right shoulder, and would partially envelop the chest as it passed obliquely round in front and behind to be attached to the shield under the left arm. Hence, by [[metonymy]], it would be employed to denote at times the shield which it supported, and at other times a cuirass, the purpose of which it in part served. In accordance with this double meaning, the aegis appears in works of art sometimes as an animal's skin thrown over the shoulders and arms, and sometimes as a cuirass, with a border of snakes corresponding to the tassels of Homer, usually with the Gorgon's head in the centre. It is often represented on the statues of [[Roman Empire\|Roman]] emperors, heroes, and warriors, and on cameos and vases. The aegis also appears in
soning is very similar to [[arsenic]] poisoning. In small doses, antimony causes [[headache]], [[dizziness]], and [[Depression (mood)\|depression]]. Such small doses have in the past been reported in some acidic fruit drinks. The acidic nature of the drink is sufficient to dissolve small amounts of antimony oxide contained in the packaging of the drink; modern manufacturing methods prevent this occurrence. Larger doses cause violent and frequent vomiting, and will lead to death in few days. Very large doses will cause violent vomiting, causing the poison to be expelled from the body before any harm is done. == Compounds == [[Antimony pentafluoride]] SbF<sub>5</sub>, [[Antimony trioxide]] Sb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, [[Stibine]] (Antimony Trihydride SbH<sub>3</sub>), [[Indium antimonide]] (InSb) ; see also [[:Category:Antimony compounds]] ==References== [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/51.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &ndash; Antimony] [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs23.html Public Health Statement for Antimony] ==See also== [[antimonial]] == External links == {{Commons\|Antimony}} [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/10.html National Pollutant Inventory - Antimony and compounds] [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Sb/index.html WebElements.com &ndash; Antimony] [http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem/sb.html Elementymology & Elements Multidict: Antimony] (by Peter van der Krogt) * [http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/antimony/antimony_table09.html World Mine Production of Antimony, by Country] [[Category:Chemical elements]] [[Category:Metalloids]] [[Category:Pnictogens]] [[ar:كحل]] [[bs:Antimon]] [[ca:Antimoni]] [[cs:Antimon]] [[de:Antimon]] [[et:Antimon]] [[es:Antimonio]] [[eo:Antimono]] [[fr:Antimoine]] [[ko:안티모니]] [[io:Antimonio]] [[is:Antimon]] [[it:Antimonio]] [[he:אנטימון]] [[ku:Stîbyûm]] [[lv:Antimons]] [[lt:Stibis]] [[lb:Antimon]] [[hu:Antimon]] [[nl:Antimoon]] [[ja:アンチモン]] [[no:Antimon]] [[nn:Antimon]] [[oc:Antimòni]] [[pl:Antymon]] [[pt:Antimônio]] [[ru:Сурьма]] [[sk:Antimón (nerast)]] [[sl:Antimon]] [[sr:Антимон]] [[fi:Antimoni]] [[sv:Antimon]] [[th:พลวง]] [[uk:Сурма]] [[zh:锑]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Actinium</title> <id>899</id> <revision> <id>41411929</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:42:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Polonium\|Polonium]] ([[User talk:Polonium\|talk]]) to last version by Orzetto</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header \| number=89 \| symbol=Ac \| name=actinium \| left=[[radium]] \| right=[[thorium]] \| above=[[lanthanum\|La]] \| below=[[Untriennium\|Ute]] \| color1=#ff99cc \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series \| [[actinide]]s }} {{Elementbox_groupperiodblock \| group=3 \| period=7 \| block=f }} {{Elementbox_appearance \| silvery }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm \| [[1 E-25 kg\|(227)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig \| &#91;[[radon\|Rn]]&#93; 6d<sup>1</sup> 7s<sup>2</sup> }} {{Elementbox_epershell \| 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 9, 2 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop \| color1=#ff99cc \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase \| [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt \| 10 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint \| k=(circa) 1323 \| c=1050 \| f=1922 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint \| k=3471 \| c=3198 \| f=5788 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol \| 14 }} {{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol \| 400 }} {{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 \| 27.2 }} {{Elementbox_section_atomicprop \| color1=#ff99cc \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_crystalstruct \| cubic face centered }} {{Elementbox_oxistates \| 3<br />(neutral oxide) }} {{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling \| 1.1 }} {{Elementbox_ionizationenergies2 \| 499 \| 1170 }} {{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm \| [[1 E-10 m\|195]] }} {{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous \| color1=#ff99cc \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_magnetic \| no data }} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k \| 12 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number \| 7440-34-8 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin \| isotopesof=actinium \| color1=#ff99cc \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay \| mn=225 \| sym=Ac \| na=[[synthetic radioisotope\|syn]] \| hl=[[1 E s\|10 days]] \| dm=[[alpha decay\|&alpha;]] \| de=5.935 \| pn=221 \| ps=[[francium\|Fr]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 \| mn=226 \| sym=Ac \| na=[[synthetic radioisotope\|syn]] \| hl=[[1 E s\|29.37 hours]] \| dm1=[[beta emission\|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] \| de1=1.117 \| pn1=226 \| ps1=[[thorium\|Th]] \| dm2=[[electron capture\|&epsilon;]] \| de2=0.640 \| pn2=226 \| ps2=[[radium\|Ra]] \| dm3=[[alpha decay\|&alpha;]] \| de3=5.536 \| pn3=222 \| ps3=[[francium\|Fr]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 \| mn=227 \| sym=Ac \| na=100% \| hl=[[1 E s\|21.773 years]] \| dm1=[[beta emission\|&beta;<sup>-</sup>]] \| de1=0.045 \| pn1=227 \| ps1=[[thorium\|Th]] \| dm2=[[alpha decay\|&alpha;]] \| de2=5.042 \| pn2=223 \| ps2=[[francium\|Fr]] }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer \| color1=#ff99cc \| color2=black }} '''Actinium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Ac and [[atomic number]] 89. ==Notable characteristics== Actinium is a silvery radioactive metallic element. Due to its intense radioactivity, Actinium glows in the dark with an eerie blue light. It is found only in traces in uranium ores as 227-Ac, an [[alpha radiation\|&alpha;]] and [[beta radiation\|&beta; emitter]] with a [[half-life]] of 21.773 years. One ton of [[uranium]] ore contains about a tenth of a gram of actinium. ==Applications== It is about 150 times as radioactive as radium, making it valuable as a [[neutron source]]. Otherwise it has no significant industrial applications. Actinium-225 is used in medicine to produce Bi-213 in a reusable generator or can be used alone as an agent for radio-immunotherapy. ==History== Actinium was discovered in [[1899]] by [[André-Louis Debierne]], a French chemist, who separated it from [[uraninite\|pitchblende]]. [[Friedrich Otto Giesel]] independently discovered actinium in [[1902]]. The chemical behavior of actinium is similar to that of the rare earth [[lanthanum]]. The word actinium comes from the Greek ''aktis, aktinos'', meaning beam or ray. ==Occurrence== Actinium is found in trace amounts in uranium ore, but more commonly is made in milligram amounts by the neutron irradiation of 226-Ra in a nuclear reactor. Actinium metal has been prepared by the reduction of actinium fluoride with lithium vapor at about 1100 to 1300ºC. ==Isotopes== Naturally occurring actinium is composed of 1 radioactive [[isotope]]; <sup>227</sup>Ac. 36 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized with the most stable being 227-Ac with a [[half-life]] of 21.772 [[years\|y]], 225-Ac with a half-life of 10.0 [[day]]s, and 226-Ac with a half-life of 29.37 [[hours\|h]]. All of the remaining [[radioactive decay\|radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 10 hours and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 1 minute. The shortest-lived isotope of actinium is<sup>217</sup>Ac which decays through [[alpha decay]] and [[electron capture]]. It has a half-life of 69 [[nanoseconds\|ns]]. Actinium also has 2 [[meta state]]s. Purified actinium-227 comes into equilibrium with its decay products at the end of 185 days, and then decays according to its 21.773-year half-life. The isotopes of actinium range in [[atomic weight]] from 206 [[atomic mass unit\|amu]] (<sup>206</sup>actinium) to 236 amu (<sup>236</sup>Ac). ==Precautions== Actinium-227 is extremely radioactive, and in terms of its potential for radiation induced health effects, actinium-227 is about as dangerous as plutonium. Ingesting even small amounts of actinium-227 would present a serious health hazard. ==References== [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/89.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Actinium] ==External links== {{Commons\|Actinium}} [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ac/index.html WebElements.com - Actinium] [[Category:Chemical elements]] [[Category:Actinides]] [[ar:أكتينيوم]] [[ca:Actini]] [[cs:Aktinium]] [[da:Actinium]] [[de:Actinium]] [[et:Aktiinium]] [[es:Actinio]] [[eo:Aktinio]] [[fr:Actinium]] [[he:אקטיניום]] [[hr:Aktinij]] [[ko:악티늄]] [[io:Aktiniumo]] [[it:Attinio]] [[la:Actinium]] [[lt:Aktinis]] [[hu:Aktínium]] [[nl:Actinium]] [[ja:アクチニウム]] [[no:Actinium]] [[nn:Actinium]] [[pl:Aktyn]] [[pt:Actínio]] [[ru:Актиний]] [[sr:Актинијум]] [[fi:Aktinium]] [[sv:Aktinium]] [[th:แอกทิเนียม]] [[uk:Актиній]] [[zh:锕]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Americium</title> <id>900</id> <revision> <id>41411944</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:42:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Maveric149</username> <id>62</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Polonium\|Polonium]] ([[User talk:Polonium\|talk]]) to last version by Vary</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header \| number=95 \| symbol=Am \| name=americium \| left=[[plutonium]] \| right=[[curium]] \| above=[[europium\|Eu]] \| below=(Uqp) \| color1=#ff99cc \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_series \| [[actinide]]s }} {{Elementbox_periodblock \| period=7 \| block=f }} {{Elementbox_appearance \| silvery white }} {{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm \| [[1 E-25 kg\|(243)]] }} {{Elementbox_econfig \| &#91;[[radon\|Rn]]&#93; 5f<sup>7</sup> 7s<sup>2</sup> }} {{Elementbox_epershell \| 2, 8, 18, 32, 25, 8, 2 }} {{Elementbox_section_physicalprop \| color1=#ff99cc \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_phase \| [[solid]] }} {{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt \| 12 }} {{Elementbox_meltingpoint \| k=1449 \| c=1176 \| f=2149 }} {{Elementbox_boilingpoint \| k=2880 \| c=2607 \| f=4725 }} {{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpm
ish Army. ''Computing'' * [[Apache HTTP Server]], a popular [[web server]] software maintained by the [[Apache Software Foundation]]. [[Apache License]], an open source license authored by the [[Apache Software Foundation]] ''People'' [[Apache Indian (musician)\|Apache Indian (rapper)]], the stage name of British ragga dee jay Steven Kapur. [[Apache (thug)]], a type of French underworld person [[Les Apaches]], a society of French composers and artists Apache, a Japanese scrap scavenger, see [[Japan's Threepenny Opera]] ''Entertainment'' [[Apache (dance)]], a form of dance in the 1920s. [[Apache (dance move)]], a move in [[Lindy Hop]] and other dances. [[Apache (single)]], a rock 'n' roll instrumental recorded by [[The Shadows]] and others. [[Apache (computer game)]], a game by Team 17 released in 1993. ''[[Apache (movie)]]'', a 1954 motion picture film starring actor [[Burt Lancaster]] and directed by [[Robert Aldrich]]. "Apache," a hit song by the [[rap]] group [[Sugarhill Gang]] ''Places'' [[Apache, Oklahoma]], a city in Oklahoma. ''Education'' * [[Apaches (safety)]], an educational health and safety film ''Medicine'' * [[APACHE II]], an acute physiology and chronic health evaluation system, a numerical scoring system for critically ill patients that can predict their survival. ''Industry'' * [[Apache_Corporation_(Energy)\|Apache Corporation]], large independent oil and gas company. ---- {{disambig}} [[da:Apache (flertydig)]] [[de:Apache]] [[es:Apache]] [[fr:Apache]] [[hr:Apache]] [[it:Apache]] [[nl:Apache]] [[ja:アパッチ]] [[pl:Apache]] [[pt:Apache]] [[ru:Апач]] [[sl:Apache]] [[sv:Apache]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>André the Giant</title> <id>2575</id> <revision> <id>41972024</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:38:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.95.181.44</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Legacy */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Wrestler\|name=André René Roussimoff \|image=Andre09.jpg \|names=André Roussimoff<br />Butcher Roussimoff<br />Monster Roussimoff<br />Monster Eiffel Tower<br />Jean Ferré<br />Géant Ferré<br />'''André the Giant'''<br />Giant Machine \|height=6 ft 10 in (208 cm) \|weight=380 lb (172 kg)<br />to 540 lb (245 kg) \|birth_date = [[May 19]], [[1946]] \|death_date = [[January 27]], [[1993]] \|birth_place = [[Molien]], [[Seine-et-Marne]] \|death_place = [[Paris]] \|resides= \|billed= \|trainer=Frank Valois<br>Édouard Carpentier \|debut=[[1964]] \|retired=[[1992]] \|}} '''André the Giant''' ([[May 19]], [[1946]] &ndash; [[January 27]], [[1993]]) was a [[Professional wrestling\|professional wrestler]] and [[actor]], born '''André René Roussimoff''' in [[Molien]], [[France]]. His great size was a result of excessive [[growth hormone]], a condition known as [[pituitary gigantism]], and led to him being dubbed "The Eighth Wonder of the World." ==Career== Born to French parents of [[Bulgaria\|Bulgarian]] and [[Poland\|Polish]] descent in a small farm near Ussy-sur-Marne, he left home in his adolescence to become a pro wrestler. He was billed at a height of 7'4" (2.24m) and sometimes 7'5" (2.26m) with a weight which ranged from 380 to 525 pounds. His correct height is contested but the last time he was legitimately measured at the age of 24, he was 6 feet and 9 3/4 inches tall (2.08m) <sup>[[#References\|1]]</sup>. The great exaggeration of his height probably comes from the fact that [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]] was the tallest athlete in the world at the time at 7 feet and 2 inches (2.19m) and promoters wanted to bill Roussimoff as the biggest athlete in the world. Nevertheless, the sight of him alone was enough to draw huge crowds in a day when there were only a handful of people over 6'6" (1.98m). After touring the world with different promotions for many years (mostly in [[Montreal]] for Édouard Carpentier), he was signed by the World Wide Wrestling Federation (which would later change its name to the [[World Wrestling Federation]] in 1979, and is now known as [[World Wrestling Entertainment]]). On [[March 26]], [[1973]], Roussimoff made his WWF debut, defeating Buddy Wolfe in New York's [[Madison Square Garden]]. He also dabbled in acting during [[1976]] and [[1977]], playing a [[Sasquatch]] (aka "[[Bigfoot]]") on the television series ''[[The Six Million Dollar Man]]''. By the time WWF chairman [[Vince McMahon\|Vincent K. McMahon]] began to expand his promotion to the national level in the early [[1980s]], Roussimoff wrestled exclusively for the WWF. Roussimoff was a very imposing figure &ndash; it is said that he never tested the full extent of his true strength because he was afraid of the damage it might cause. Despite the hype, many wrestlers have stated that while Andre might not know his full strength, he was always easy to work with in the ring, and always protected his opponents. It is also said that Roussimoff could drink an entire case of [[beer]] and not feel so much as a buzz. There were also stories of Andre drinking cases of wine until he would pass out as a way to numb the pain his condition caused him. He would pass out in hotel lobbies, and a sheet would simply be thrown over him, as no one had the strength to move his massive body unaided. However, there is no proof that any of these stories are true, and that while Andre was certainly a legendary drinker who loved to have a good time eating and drinking with friends, wrestling is famous for tall tales, and this could be simply another tall tale. He was offered a professional [[American football]] contract with the [[Washington Redskins]] after a tryout in [[1974]] and seriously considered it before turning it down, reasoning that he could make far more money wrestling (which was probably true, especially at that time). He was one of the WWF's most beloved "[[face (professional wrestling)\|babyfaces]]" throughout the [[1970s]] and early '80s, although the legend that for 14 years never lost by pinfall or submission in a WWF ring before being pinned by [[Hulk Hogan]] on [[March 29]], [[1987]] at [[WrestleMania III]] is pure fiction, designed to hype the WrestleMania matchup to be bigger than it was. Roussimoff had lost clean in matches outside of the parameters of the WWF; a pinfall loss in [[Mexico]] to El [[Canek]] in [[1984]], and in [[Japan]], a submission loss to [[Antonio Inoki]] in [[1986]], as well as a controversial no-contest finish against [[Akira Maeda]], who used heel shoot-style tactics to dominate the match. He also went 60-minute time limit draws with the two other major world champions of the day, [[Harley Race]] and [[Nick Bockwinkel]]. Roussimoff had memorable clashes all over the world with a variety of tough, rugged opponents. Among his chief rivals in the ring: [[Ed Farhat\|The Sheik]] (who gained a deathmatch win over the Frenchman in 1974 with the help of his fireball), [[Abdullah the Butcher]], [[Stan Hansen]], [[Ernie Ladd]], and a young [[Hulk Hogan]], who first met Roussimoff in 1978 during his rookie years in the deep South. Hogan and André would go on to have one of the great WWF feuds of 1980, peaking in front of 36,295 fans at the [[Showdown at Shea\|Showdown At Shea]] event, on [[August 9]], [[1980]] in [[Flushing, New York]]'s [[Shea Stadium]]. One of André's most bitter feuds pitted him against the Mongolian terror Killer Khan, who was managed by the late [[Fred Blassie]]. According to the storyline, Khan had broken André's ankle during a match in [[Rochester, New York]], by leaping off the top rope and crashing down upon it with his kneedrop (actually, André had broken his ankle getting out of bed). After a stay at Beth-Israel Hospital in Boston, Roussimoff returned with payback on his mind. On [[November 14]], [[1981]] at the Philadelphia Spectrum, Roussimoff exacted revenge by destroying Killer Khan in what was billed as a "Mongolian Stretcher Match", in which the loser must be taken to the dressing room on a stretcher. Another memorable Roussimoff feud involved a man who considered himself to be "the true giant" of wrestling: the late 6'10", 364-pound [[John Minton (wrestler)\|Big John Studd]]. Throughout the early to mid-1980s, Roussimoff and Studd fought all over the world, battling to try and determine who the real giant of wrestling was. In December 1984, Studd took the feud to a new level, when he and partner [[Ken Patera]] knocked out Roussimoff during a televised tag team match, and proceeded to cut off Roussimoff's famous long locks. Roussimoff had the last laugh at the first [[WrestleMania (1985)\|WrestleMania]], on [[March 31]], [[1985]] at Madison Square Garden. Roussimoff conquered Studd in a [[United States dollar\|$]]15,000 Bodyslam Challenge. After slamming Studd, he attempted to give the $15,000 prize to the fans, before having the bag stolen from him by his future manager Bobby "The Brain" Heenan. The following year, at [[WrestleMania 2]] ([[April 7]], [[1986]]), Roussimoff continued to display his dominance, by winning a 20-man battle royal that featured top NFL stars and wrestlers. Roussimoff eliminated future wrestling legend [[Bret Hart]] to win the contest. Afterwards, Roussimoff continued his [[feud (professional wrestling)\|feud]] with Studd and [[Chris Pallies\|King Kong Bundy]]. Roussimoff was suspended after a no-show; he returned under a mask as 'The Giant Machine' part of a team with 'Big Machine' ([[Robert Windham]]) and 'Super Machine' ([[Bill Eadie]]). (The 'Machines' gimmick was copied from [[New Japan Pro Wrestling]] character 'Super Strong Machine', played by Japanese wrestler Junji Hirata.) Soon afterwards, Giant Machine disappeared and Roussimoff was reinstated, to the approval of [[Bobby "The Brain" Heenan]]. Roussimoff was turned [[heel (professional wrestling)\|heel]]
Census)\|African American]], 0.25% [[Native American (U.S. Census)\|Native American]], 1.25% [[Asia]]n, 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)\|Pacific Islander]], 0.23% from [[Race (U.S. Census)\|other races]], and 0.89% from two or more races. 0.98% of the population are [[Hispanic American\|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)\|Latino]] of any race. There are 17,816 households out of which 31.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.5% are [[Marriage\|married couples]] living together, 23.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 34.2% are non-families. 30.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 12.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.50 and the average family size is 3.13. In the city the population is spread out with 28.1% under the age of 18, 9.2% from 18 to 24, 26.2% from 25 to 44, 21.4% from 45 to 64, and 15.1% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 36 years. For every 100 females there are 83.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 77.7 males. The median income for a household in the city is $26,097, and the median income for a family is $31,978. Males have a median income of $29,456 versus $20,154 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $16,242. 27.4% of the population and 23.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 37.7% of those under the age of 18 and 18.5% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. == Sports teams == Alexandria is the home of the [[Alexandria Aces]] [[minor league baseball]] team. == External links == [http://www.cityofalexandriala.com/home.asp City of Alexandria] : Government and community services. {{Mapit-US-cityscale\|31.292782\|-92.459153}} {{Louisiana}} [[Category:Cities in Louisiana]] [[Category:Rapides Parish, Louisiana]] [[pt:Alexandria (Louisiana)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alexandria, Virginia</title> <id>3084</id> <revision> <id>41824684</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:01:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Doctor Whom</username> <id>303715</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/ Buses */ updated link; there is now a separate article</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2\|Alexandria}} {{US City infobox\| city = Alexandria \| state = Virginia \| motto = \| nickname = \| flag = \| seal = Alexandria VA seal.png\| map = VAMap-doton-Alexandria.PNG \| map size = 250 \| map cap = Location in Virginia \| founded = 1718 \| incorporated = \| county = [[Independent city]] \| mayor = William D. Euille \| area = 39.9 [[square kilometer\|km²]] (15.4 [[square mile\|mi²]]) \| area land = 39.3 km² (15.2 mi²)\| area water = 0.6 km² (0.2 mi²) \| area percentage = 1.49%\| census yr = 2000\| city pop = 128,283\| metro pop = \| density = 3,262.9\| time zone = Eastern\| utc = 5\| north_coord = 38.8162 \| west_coord = 77.0713\| web = www.alexandriava.gov\| \|}} '''Alexandria''' is an [[independent city]] in the [[U.S. state\|Commonwealth]] of [[Virginia]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 128,284. It is located on the west bank of the [[Potomac River]], six miles south of downtown [[Washington, DC]]. Like the rest of [[Northern Virginia]], as well as southern Maryland, modern Alexandria has been shaped by its proximity to the nation's [[capital]]. It is largely populated by professionals working in the federal civil service, the U.S. military, or for one of the many private companies which contract to provide services to the federal government. The latter are known locally as [[beltway bandits]], after the [[Capital Beltway]], an interstate highway that circles Washington, D.C. One of Alexandria's largest employers is the U.S. [[United States Department of Defense\|Department of Defense]]. Others include the [[Institute for Defense Analyses]] and the [[Center for Naval Analyses]]. Alexandria is home to numerous associations, charities, and non-profit organizations including the national headquarters of groups such as the Salvation Army. The historic center of Alexandria is known as ''Old Town''. It is a major draw for tourists and those seeking nightlife. Like Old Town, many Alexandria neighborhoods are high-income suburbs of Washington D.C. A 2005 assessed-value study of homes and condominiums found that over 40 percent were in the highest bracket, worth $556,000 or more. Alexandria landmarks include the [[George Washington Masonic National Memorial]] (also known as the [[Mason]]ic Temple), Gadsby's Tavern, Christ Church, the Little Theatre, the Torpedo Factory, Market Square, Robert E. Lee's boyhood home, the John Carlyle House and the [[Virginia Theological Seminary]]. In 2005, Alexandria became one of the first cities of its size to offer free wireless internet access to some of its residents and visitors. Market Square in Old Town was once the site of the second-largest slave market in the United States. Today it contains a large fountain and extensive landscaping, as well as a weekly farmers' market. Alexandria's public high school, [[T.C. Williams High School\|T.C. Williams]], and its legendary former football coach, Herman "Mad Dog" Boone, were featured in the 2000 motion picture, "[[Remember the Titans]]." ==History== [[Image:Alexandria Map.gif\|thumbnail\|275px\|right\|Map of Alexandria, with [[Arlington, Virginia\|Arlington]] to the north, [[Fairfax County, Virginia\|Fairfax county]] to the south and west, and the [[Potomac River]] to the east]] The City of Alexandria, first known as Belhaven, was named in honor of John Alexander, who in the last quarter of the [[17th century]] had bought the land on which the city now stands from Robert Howison; the first settlement here was made in [[1695]]. Alexandria was laid out in [[1749]] and was incorporated in [[1779]]. A portion of the City of Alexandria shares with all of today's [[Arlington County, Virginia\|Arlington County]] the distinction of having been originally in Virginia, ceded to the U.S. Government to form the [[Washington, D.C.\|District of Columbia]], and later reattached to Virginia by the federal government in [[1846]], when the District was reduced in size to exclude the portion south of the [[Potomac River]]. From [[1790]] until [[1846]], [[Alexandria County, D.C.\|Alexandria County]] was a part of the District of Columbia; the City of Alexandria was re-chartered in [[1852]]. The City of Alexandria became independent of Alexandria County in [[1870]]. The remaining portion of Alexandria County changed its name to Arlington County in [[1920]], ending years of confusion. ''See article on [[Arlington County, Virginia\|Arlington, Virginia]] for more information.'' In [[1930]], Alexandria annexed the Town of Potomac. That town, adjacent to [[Potomac Yard]], had been laid out beginning in the late [[19th century]] and incorporated in [[1908]]. ===[[American Revolutionary War\|Revolutionary War]]=== In [[1755]] General [[Edward Braddock]] organized his fatal expedition against [[Fort Duquesne]] at Alexandria, and here, in April of the same year, the governors of [[Virginia]], [[Massachusetts]], [[New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Maryland]] met to determine upon concerted action against the [[France\|French]] in America. In March [[1785]], commissioners from Virginia and Maryland met here to discuss the commercial relations of the two states, finishing their business at [[Mount Vernon]] on the 28th with an agreement for freedom of trade and freedom of navigation of the Potomac. The Maryland legislature in ratifying this agreement on [[November 22]] proposed a conference among representatives from all the states to consider the adoption of definite commercial regulations. This led to the calling of the Annapolis Convention of 1786, which in turn led to the calling of the Federal Convention of [[1787]]. In [[1790]], Alexandria was included in the area chosen by [[George Washington]] to become the District of Columbia. During the [[War of 1812]], Alexandria surrendered to a British fleet in [[1814]] without a fight. As agreed in the terms of surrender the British looted stores and warehouses of mainly flour, [[tobacco]], [[cotton]], [[wine]] and [[sugar]] [http://oha.ci.alexandria.va.us/archaeology/decades/ar-decades-1810.html]. ===Return to Virginia=== Over time, a movement grew to separate from Alexandria from the District of Columbia. As competition grew with the port of [[Georgetown, Washington, D.C.\|Georgetown]] and the [[Chesapeake and Ohio Canal]] favored the north side of the Potomac, the city's economy stagnated. In addition, many in Alexandra hoped to benefit from land sales and increased business from the federal government, but it had no need for the land south of the river. In addition, its residents had lost representation and the right to vote at any level of government. Alexandria was also an important port and market in the [[slave trade]] there was increasing talk of [[abolition]] of slavery in the national [[capital]], and the economy would suffer greatly if slavery was outlawed. At the same time, there was an active abolition movement in Virginia, and the state's [[Virginia General Assembly\|General Assembly]] was closely divided on the question of slavery (resulting in the formation of [[West Virginia]] eighteen years later by the most anti-slavery counties) and Alexandria and Alexandria County would provide two new pro-slavery representatives. After a referendum, voters petitioned Congress and Virginia to return the area to Virginia. The area was retroceded to Virginia by on [[July 9]], [[1846]].[http://www.citymuseumdc.org/gettoknow/faq.asp] ===American Civil War=== At the opening of the [[American Civil War]], the city was occupied by Federal troops until the end of the war, making it the longest held city during the war. Great exci
e the key players of the conspiracy are now dead, Paul's children are left in a relatively safe situation. With Paul's family secure and his most trusted associates in power, the Empire and House Atreides appear to be in safe hands. ==External links== {{isfdb title\|id=2037\|title=Dune Messiah}} [[Matrix Revolutions]] [http://filip.stir.org/en/writings/20031109_matrix_3_review.html uses the main plot elements of Frank Herbert's book Dune Messiah.] [[Category:1970 books]] [[Category:Frank Herbert novels]] [[Category:Science fiction novels]] [[Category:Dune universe media]] [[es:El Mesías de Dune]] [[fr:Le Messie de Dune]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Duke Nukem 3D</title> <id>8569</id> <revision> <id>42144647</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:51:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.200.125.84</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Console ports */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG\| title = Duke Nukem 3D \|image = [[Image:dukenukem3d.jpg\|250px]] \|developer = [[3D Realms]] \|publisher = [[Apogee Software]] \|designer = \|engine = [[Build engine\|Build]] \|released = [[January 29]] [[1996]] ([[IBM PC compatible\|PC]])<br />[[May 25]] [[1997]] ([[Apple Macintosh\|Mac]])<br/>[[April 1]], [[2003]] ([[Source code\|Source]]) \|genre = [[First-person shooter]] \|modes = [[Single player]], [[Multiplayer]] \|ratings = [[ESRB]]: Mature<br />[[BBFC]]: 18<br />[[OFLC]]: MA15+ \|platforms = [[IBM PC compatible\|PC]] ([[MS-DOS]]), [[Apple Macintosh\|Mac]], [[Sega Saturn]], [[Sega Genesis]] ([[Brazil]] only), [[Sony Playstation]], [[game.com]] \|media = [[Compact disk\|CD]] (PC/Mac) \|requirements = \|input = }} '''''Duke Nukem 3D''''' is a [[first-person shooter]] developed by [[3D Realms]] and released on [[January 29]], [[1996]] by [[Apogee Software]], featuring the adventures of [[Duke Nukem (character)\|Duke Nukem]], based on a character that had appeared in earlier [[platform game]]s by the company: ''[[Duke Nukem (game)\|Duke Nukem]]'' and ''[[Duke Nukem II]]''. ==Synopsis== :"Murderous aliens have landed in futuristic Los Angeles, and humans suddenly find themselves atop the endangered species list. The odds are a million-to-one, just the way Duke likes it!" Taking on the role of Duke Nukem, players must fight through 28 levels spread over three chapters. (A commercial upgrade later added a fourth episode of 11 additional levels.) As usual for a first-person shooter, players encounter a whole host of different enemies, and can engage them with a range of weaponry. As well as killing aliens to free the Earth, players must also solve puzzles to progress through the various levels. Some puzzles allow access to extra, hidden levels. ==Humor== [[Image:DukeNukem3d-DoomedSpaceMarine.png\|thumb\|250px\|right\|"That's one doomed space marine."]] ''Duke Nukem 3D'' is mainly notable for the often crude humor it introduced into what had previously been a fairly humorless [[first-person shooter\|genre]], including a stream of one-liners (heavily inspired by [[Ash Williams]] and [[They Live\|John Nada]]) from the title character. Many of these related to the frequently gruesome deaths meted out by the Duke ("That's gotta hurt"), interactions with useable props such as toilets ("Ahhh, much better") or noteworthy things Duke comes across and feels necessary to comment on, like Duke Nukem arcade machines ("Hmm... don't have time to play with myself."). Various [[Easter egg (virtual)\|easter eggs]] appear in the game, such as a giant sign on a wall proclaiming "NOONE SHOULD BE HERE" in an area not accessible except by using a no-clip cheat. The game also references and [[parody\|spoofs]] many films and other games. For instance, when the player comes upon a corpse that closely resembles the [[player character]] in ''[[Doom]]'', Duke comments, "That's one doomed [[space marine]]." This quote became famous after websites dedicated to ''Duke Nukem 3D'' began reporting that ''Doom'''s developer, [[id Software]], had filed a lawsuit against Apogee Games and 3D Realms, trying to obtain an injunction to remove it. (The suit was ultimately unsuccessful.) Another jab at a fellow shooter game was a line in a level in Episode 3 when a building (with a sticker warning of a fault line) blows up and partially collapses; Duke responds, "I ain't afraid of no quake," obviously poking fun at the game ''[[Quake]]'', which was yet to be released. The game freely plundered many themes from cinematic sources, notably the ''[[Alien (movie)\|Alien]]'' (the proto-slimes come out of eggs exactly like [[Xenomorph\|those seen]] in the ''Alien'' series and people trapped in pods who whisper "kill me" like in ''[[Aliens (film)\|Aliens]]'' and one deleted scene from ''Alien'') and ''[[Evil Dead]]'' film series. There were also cameos from [[Indiana Jones]] (a dead Indy hanging in a cave that collapses), ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' (a hidden recreation of the Enterprise bridge), ''[[Star Wars]]'' (the hanging corpse of [[Luke Skywalker]] in [[Imperial Stormtrooper\|Stormtrooper]] armor), ''[[Escape From L.A.]]'' (the corpse of the movie's lead character, [[Snake Plissken\|Snake]], on a pike, with Duke saying, "I guess he didn't escape from LA."), ''[[The Hunt for Red October]]'' (the submarine USS Dallas in Episode 1, Level 3), ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)\|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' and ''[[The Terminator]]'' (where we see a crushed [[T-800\|Terminator]] like at the end of the first movie). In the ''Atomic Edition'', the game contained references to ''[[Dirty Harry]]'', ''[[Die Hard]]'', ''[[Mission: Impossible]]'', and ''[[Independence Day (movie)\|Independence Day]]''. There are also references to the [[OJ Simpson]] trial, including the chase of the white Ford Bronco being played on TV in the red light district bar as well as billboards simply saying ''Innocent?'' and ''Guilty!''. ==Gameplay== ===Level design=== A notable quality of the game was the immense interactivity and realism of its levels. While many past first-person shooter games like [[Doom]] took place within relatively confined corridors, usually in gloomy, claustrophobic bases, the levels of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' took the player through attractively rendered street scenes, military bases, [[desert]]s, flooded cities, [[space station]]s, moon bases and even [[Japan\|Japanese]] villas. Levels were also designed in a fairly non-linear manner such that players could advantageously use air ducts, back doors and sewers to avoid enemies or find hidden secrets, which also made the levels well suited to [[Deathmatch\|deathmatch]]. As well as being highly detailed (for the time), these locations were also filled with objects that the player can interact with (including [[light switch\|light switches]], [[toilet]]s, [[pool table]]s, [[arcade game]]s, [[closed-circuit television\|closed-circuit cameras]] and, infamously, [[striptease\|strippers]]). While these rarely had a crucial role in play (the closed-circuit cameras being a tactical exception), they gave ''Duke Nukem 3D'' an immersive feel greater than that in its rivals. As previously indicated, they also usually added considerably to its humor. An extra "feature" in the game that could be exploited by players was warping (''i.e.'' [[teleportation]] from place to place very quickly). This feature would only operate at some very specific locations in the game, and usually only under complex sequences and/or simultaneous moves. Many players particularly liked these warps as they were very difficult to find and because they were able to convey powerful advantage during play. In fact, the warps were nothing more than an unwanted [[computer bug\|bug]] in the software, more specifically in the 3D engine. 3D Realms eventually fixed most of the warps in version 1.5 (also known as ''Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition''). However, for many experienced players the warps contributed a lot to their enjoyment of the game, and many people kept playing with the earlier version v1.3d (in which the warps were allowed), instead of using the v1.5. Most of these warps were an indirect result of the [[Build engine]]'s inability to support rooms on top of other rooms. The developers had to work around this problem by overlapping different rooms to give the illusion of different floors. Crouching or jumping around in certain spots inside said overlapped rooms would occasionally confuse the game and warp the player to another "floor." This concept can also be seen in underwater portions of the game - crouching down on the surface of the water would actually teleport the player to a completely different sector shaped to look like an underwater room. However, this behaviour is intentional and was used to create the illusion of being underwater. ===Weapons and equipment=== [[Image:dukenukem3dscreenshot.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|Duke Nukem engages some enemies with a freeze gun]] The game also featured some of the most varied weapons in any first-person shooter game. Traditional weapons such as [[pistol]]s, [[shotgun]]s and [[machine gun]]s were augmented by the inclusion of a range of more imaginative weapons, some of which, even today (Q1 2006), are still unique to the ''Duke Nukem'' series. [[Pipe bomb]]s with remote [[trigger]]s and laser trip bombs allowed the player to set traps for enemies to blunder into- (the trip bomb also appears in [[Half-Life]], with a wieldable version in [[Half-Life 2]].) A [[freeze]] gun locked enemies in a block of ice long enough for Duke to smash them with a well-placed shot or boot. A shrink ray would turn enemies into vulnerable miniature versions of themselves, that again were at the mercy of Duke's boot (using mirrors, the shrink ray could also be used on Duke himself to complete objectives that required a shorter stature). ''Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic
CE FLIES'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|8 \|- \|\|'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''\|\|6<sup>TH</sup>\|\|688 \|- \|} \|- \| valign="top" \| {\| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black" \|- \|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"\|'''1967 NL''' \|- \|\|'''GAMES'''\|\|9<sup>TH</sup>\|\|155 \|- \|\|'''AT BATS'''\|\|6<sup>TH</sup>\|\|600 \|- \|\|'''RUNS'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|113 \|- \|\|'''HITS'''\|\|6<sup>TH</sup>\|\|184 \|- \|\|'''DOUBLES'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|37 \|- \|\|'''HOME RUNS'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|39 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 OUTS'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|8.88 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 PA'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|5.83 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 AB'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|6.50 \|- \|\|'''RBI'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|109 \|- \|\|'''STOLEN BASES'''\|\|10<sup>TH</sup>\|\|17 \|- \|\|'''AVERAGE'''\|\|8<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.307 \|- \|\|'''SLG'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|.573 \|- \|\|'''OPS'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|.943 \|- \|\|'''RUNS CREATED'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|126 \|- \|\|'''RCAA'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|55 \|- \|\|'''RCAP'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|41 \|- \|\|'''OWP'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.735 \|- \|\|'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|7.75 \|- \|\|'''TOTAL BASES'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|344 \|- \|\|'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|79 \|- \|\|'''ISOLATED POWER'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|.267 \|- \|\|'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.390 \|- \|\|'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|.965 \|- \|\|'''BPA'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|.608 \|- \|\|'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|19 \|- \|\|'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''\|\|7<sup>TH</sup>\|\|6 \|- \|\|'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''\|\|7<sup>TH</sup>\|\|669 \|- \|} \| valign="top" \| {\| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black" \|- \|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"\|'''1968 NL''' \|- \|\|'''GAMES'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|160 \|- \|\|'''RUNS'''\|\|10<sup>TH</sup>\|\|84 \|- \|\|'''HITS'''\|\|10<sup>TH</sup>\|\|174 \|- \|\|'''DOUBLES'''\|\|6<sup>TH</sup>\|\|33 \|- \|\|'''HOME RUNS'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|29 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 OUTS'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|6.26 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 PA'''\|\|6<sup>TH</sup>\|\|4.29 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 AB'''\|\|6<sup>TH</sup>\|\|4.79 \|- \|\|'''RBI'''\|\|7<sup>TH</sup>\|\|86 \|- \|\|'''WALKS'''\|\|8<sup>TH</sup>\|\|64 \|- \|\|'''STOLEN BASES'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|28 \|- \|\|'''SLG'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.498 \|- \|\|'''OPS'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.852 \|- \|\|'''RUNS CREATED'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|104 \|- \|\|'''RCAA'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|45 \|- \|\|'''RCAP'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|40 \|- \|\|'''OWP'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|.736 \|- \|\|'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|6.06 \|- \|\|'''TOTAL BASES'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|302 \|- \|\|'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|66 \|- \|\|'''ISOLATED POWER'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.211 \|- \|\|'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.355 \|- \|\|'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.852 \|- \|\|'''BPA'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|.546 \|- \|\|'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|23 \|- \|\|'''GIDP'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|21 \|- \|} \| valign="top" \| {\| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black" \|- \|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"\|'''1969 NL''' \|- \|\|'''RUNS'''\|\|10<sup>TH</sup>\|\|100 \|- \|\|'''DOUBLES'''\|\|10<sup>TH</sup>\|\|30 \|- \|\|'''HOME RUNS'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|44 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 OUTS'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|10.73 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 PA'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|6.89 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 AB'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|8.04 \|- \|\|'''RBI'''\|\|7<sup>TH</sup>\|\|97 \|- \|\|'''WALKS'''\|\|7<sup>TH</sup>\|\|87 \|- \|\|'''CAUGHT STEALING'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|10 \|- \|\|'''SLG'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|.607 \|- \|\|'''OBA'''\|\|7<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.396 \|- \|\|'''OPS'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|1.003 \|- \|\|'''RUNS CREATED'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|127 \|- \|\|'''RCAA'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|58 \|- \|\|'''RCAP'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|41 \|- \|\|'''OWP'''\|\|6<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.750 \|- \|\|'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|8.36 \|- \|\|'''TOTAL BASES'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|332 \|- \|\|'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|77 \|- \|\|'''ISOLATED POWER'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|.307 \|- \|\|'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|.464 \|- \|\|'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|1.032 \|- \|\|'''BPA'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|.635 \|- \|\|'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|19 \|- \|} \|- \| valign="top" \| {\| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black" \|- \|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"\|'''1970 NL''' \|- \|\|'''RUNS'''\|\|9<sup>TH</sup>\|\|103 \|- \|\|'''HOME RUNS'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|38 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 OUTS'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|9.97 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 PA'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|6.35 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 AB'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|7.36 \|- \|\|'''RBI'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|118 \|- \|\|'''SLG'''\|\|7<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.574 \|- \|\|'''OPS'''\|\|6<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.958 \|- \|\|'''RCAA'''\|\|10<sup>TH</sup>\|\|42 \|- \|\|'''OWP'''\|\|7<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.693 \|- \|\|'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''\|\|6<sup>TH</sup>\|\|8.15 \|- \|\|'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''\|\|9<sup>TH</sup>\|\|65 \|- \|\|'''ISOLATED POWER'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.275 \|- \|\|'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.436 \|- \|\|'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''\|\|6<sup>TH</sup>\|\|1.016 \|- \|\|'''BPA'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.615 \|- \|\|'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|15 \|- \|} \| valign="top" \| {\| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black" \|- \|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"\|'''1971 NL''' \|- \|\|'''RUNS'''\|\|6<sup>TH</sup>\|\|95 \|- \|\|'''HOME RUNS'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|47 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 OUTS'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|13.51 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 PA'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|8.20 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 AB'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|9.49 \|- \|\|'''RBI'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|118 \|- \|\|'''AVERAGE'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.327 \|- \|\|'''SLG'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|.669 \|- \|\|'''OBA'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|.410 \|- \|\|'''OPS'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|1.079 \|- \|\|'''RUNS CREATED'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|135 \|- \|\|'''RCAA'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|73 \|- \|\|'''RCAP'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|60 \|- \|\|'''OWP'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|.804 \|- \|\|'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|10.47 \|- \|\|'''TOTAL BASES'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|331 \|- \|\|'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''\|\|2<sup>ND</sup>\|\|72 \|- \|\|'''ISOLATED POWER'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|.341 \|- \|\|'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|.485 \|- \|\|'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|1.178 \|- \|\|'''BPA'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|.689 \|- \|\|'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|21 \|- \|} \| valign="top" \| {\| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black" \|- \|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"\|'''1972 NL''' \|- \|\|'''HOME RUNS'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|34 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 OUTS'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|9.74 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 PA'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|6.25 \|- \|\|'''HR/100 AB'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|7.57 \|- \|\|'''WALKS'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|92 \|- \|\|'''SLG'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.514 \|- \|\|'''OBA'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.390 \|- \|\|'''OPS'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.904 \|- \|\|'''OWP'''\|\|8<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.675 \|- \|\|'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|6.96 \|- \|\|'''ISOLATED POWER'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.249 \|- \|\|'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''\|\|1<sup>ST</sup>\|\|.463 \|- \|\|'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.945 \|- \|\|'''BPA'''\|\|6<sup>TH</sup>\|\|.572 \|- \|\|'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''\|\|3<sup>RD</sup>\|\|15 \|- \|\|'''GIDP'''\|\|7<sup>TH</sup>\|\|17 \|- \|} <br> {\| cellpadding="1" cellspacing="4" style="border: 1px solid black" \|- \|colspan="3" align="center" style="border-bottom: 2px solid black"\|'''1973 NL''' \|- \|\|'''HOME RUNS'''\|\|4<sup>TH</sup>\|\|40 \|- \|\|'''RUNS CREATED'''\|\|9<sup>TH</sup>\|\|103 \|- \|\|'''RCAA'''\|\|5<sup>TH</sup>\|\|47 \|- \|\|'''RCAP'''\|\|9<sup>TH</sup>\|\|36 \|- \|} \|- \|} == Trivia == Hank Aaron is may be an [[Eagle Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)\|Eagle Scout]] (this is unconfirmed). He is a recipient of the [[Silver Buffalo Award]], the highest adult award given by the [[Boy Scouts of America]]. Despite hitting more career home runs than any other player, Hank Aaron's single-season high was 47. This figure puts him in a tie for the 64th-best season mark by a hitter. His second-best total, 45, is only tied for 100th-best. However, the compensating fact is his career was remarkably stable with no major absences or interruptions such as medical leaves. This enabled him to make his records with a steady acc
Draiocht Fein]] or ADF, which was incorporated in [[1990]] in the state of [[Delaware]] as a U.S. 501(c)3 non-profit organization. Over the years, Bonewits has had varying degrees of involvement with [[Santeria]], the ''Caliphate Line'' of the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]], [[Gardnerian Wicca]], the [[New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn]] (a [[Wiccan]] organization not to be confused with the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]) as well as others. Bonewits served as ArchDruid of the ADF until [[1996]], when he resigned due to the onset of symptoms of [[Eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome]]. Bonewits retains the lifelong title of ArchDruid Emeritus of the ADF. He currently lives in [[Nyack%2C_New_York\|Nyack, NY]] and is a member of the [[Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans]] or CUUPS, and is married to the co-founder of the organization, Phaedra Heyman Bonewits. Bonewits is currently promoting a charity program to help Neopagan seniors,{{fn\|1}} and in January [[2006]] was the key note speaker at the ''Conference On Current Pagan Studies'' at the [[Claremont Graduate University]] in [[Claremont%2C_California\|Claremont, CA]]. ==Contributions to Neopaganism== Bonewits has coined much of the modern terminology used to define and articulate many of the conceptual themes and issues which affect the North American Neopagan community. * Developed the [[Advanced_Bonewits_Cult_Danger_Evaluation_Frame#Isaac_Bonewits\|Advanced Bonewits Cult Danger Evaluation Frame]] or ABCDEF * Pioneered the modern usage of the term ''[[thealogy]]'', ''Paleo-Paganism'', ''Meso-Paganism'' and numerous other [[retronym]]s * Is thought to have coined the term ''[[Polytheistic_reconstructionism\|reconstructionism]] * Coined the phrase "Never again the burning." ==Notes== {{fnb\|1}}[http://www.neopagan.net/Adopt-an-Elder.html Adopt an Elder] ==Partial bibliography== ''Real Magic: An Introductory Treatise on the Basic Principles of Yellow Magic'', 1972, 1989 ISBN 0877286884 * ''Authentic Thaumaturgy'', 1978, 1998 ISBN 1556343604 * ''Rites of Worship: A Neopagan Approach'', 2003 ISBN 1594055017 * ''Witchcraft: A Concise Guide or Which Witch Is Which?'', 2003 ISBN 1594055009 * ''The Pagan Man: Priests, Warriors, Hunters, and Drummers'', 2005 ISBN 0806526971 * ''Bonewits' Essential Guide to Witchcraft and Wicca'', 2006 ISBN 0806527110 ==See also== [[Ar nDraiocht Fein]] [[Neo-Paganism]] [[Thealogy]] ==External links== [http://orgs.carleton.edu/Druids/ARDA/ A Reformed Druid Anthology] includes ''The Druid Chronicles (Evolved)''. [http://www.neopagan.net Isaac Bonewits' Homepage] <br> <br> <!-- Categorization --> [[Category:1949 births\|Bonewits, Isaac]] [[Category:Living people\|Bonewits, Isaac]] [[Category:Druids\|Bonewits, Isaac]] [[Category:Wiccan people\|Bonewits, Isaac]] [[Category:American occultists\|Bonewits, Isaac]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Isaac Bonewits laws of magic</title> <id>15060</id> <revision> <id>21757119</id> <timestamp>2005-08-24T22:03:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RJHall</username> <id>91076</id> </contributor> <comment>cat</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A [[hypothesis]] on the '''Laws of [[magic (paranormal)\|Magic]]''' that was first launched in its entirety by [[Isaac Bonewits]] in his popular book ''Real Magic'' (1971, revised edition 1989). Bonewits' book claims the existence of magical laws relating to the following: Association * Identification * Personification * Words of Power * Names * Invocation * Evocation * Contagion * Unity * Similarity * Positive and negative attraction * Cause and effect * Knowledge * Infinite data * Infinite universes * Personal universes * Finite senses * Self-knowledge * Synchronicity * Perversity * Polarity * Dynamic balance * Synthesis * True falsehoods * Pragmatism These "laws" are synthesized from a multitude of belief systems from around the world, and were collected in order to explain and categorize magical beliefs within a cohesive framework. Many interrelationships of these areas exist, and some are subsets of others. ''Examples of use:'' It is widely believed (by those subscribing to such beliefs) that in order to produce an effective [[voodoo doll]] one needs an object associated with the target of the magic. This would categorize this as a form of magic using the "association" rule. Also, the use of a doll to affect a human would be in accordance with the "similarity" rule. In this way, practically all magical practice in many [[culture]]s can be put in relation, and behavioural patterns are easier to spot. ==See also== * [[magic (paranormal)\|Magic]] for a discussion of the validity of paranormal magic. [[Category:Magic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Intel 8080</title> <id>15062</id> <revision> <id>42038414</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:55:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ixfd64</username> <id>6284</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Disambiguate [[BASIC]] to [[BASIC programming language]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups\|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Intel C8080A 9064 33001 N8384 top.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|Intel C8080A processor. The first pin is marked with the key (black dot)]] [[Image:AMD C8080A.jpg\|thumb\|150px\|AMD clone]] [[Image:NEC 8080AF cropped.png\|thumb\|150px\|[[NEC Corporation\|NEC]] 8080AF (2nd-source).]] The '''Intel 8080''' was an early [[microprocessor]] designed and manufactured by [[Intel]]. The [[8-bit]] [[central processing unit\|CPU]] was released in April 1974 running at 2&nbsp;[[megahertz\|MHz]], and is generally considered to be the first truly usable microprocessor CPU design. ==Description== ===Programming model=== The Intel 8080 was the successor to the [[Intel 8008]]; this was due to it being [[assembly language]] [[source-compatibility\|source-compatible]] because it used the same [[instruction set]] developed by [[Computer Terminal Corporation]]. The 8080's large 40 pin [[dual in-line package\|DIP]] packaging permitted it to provide a 16-bit [[address bus]] and an 8-bit [[data bus]], allowing easy access to 64 [[kilobyte]]s of memory. ====Registers==== The processor had seven 8-bit [[processor register\|registers]], six of which could be combined into three 16-bit register pairs (BC, DE and HL). It also had the 8 bit accumulator, the 16-bit [[Stack-based memory allocation\|stack pointer]] to memory (replacing the 8008's internal [[stack (data structure)\|stack]]), and a 16-bit [[program counter]]. ====Commands==== Most of the 8 bit operations were possible between the accumulator and either one of the registers or the memory cell, indexed by the 16 bit value of the register pair HL. Moving operations were supported between any two registers or between any register and the HL-indexed memory cell. The command system also had strange commands to move a byte from a given register into the same register (MOV A,A , for instance). These commands were seldom used, however, unless programmed delays were needed. The command to move from the HL-indexed memory cell into the same memory cell (i.e., MOV M, M) always halted the processor until the external reset or interrupt signals were received. Thus instead of MOV M, M this command was marked as HLT (halt) and used for this purpose, when required. All processor commands were coded by one byte, but some of them were followed by one or two bytes of data, a memory address, or a port number. The register-to-register data-move commands were all coded by one byte, making up about a quarter of the commands in the processor-command system. The processor had 8 commands to call the subroutines located at the fixed addresses at the beginning or the address space (RST). These commands were frequently used in the interrupt-handling or system-library calls. The most sophisticated (and the longest to execute) command was XTHL, which was used for exchanging the register pair HL with the value, stored at address, indicated by the stack pointer. ====16 bit operations==== Despite the fact that the 8080 was generally an 8 bit processor, it was also able to increment or decrement any register pair (INX, DCX), add the register pairs (DAD), switch HL with DE (XCHG) and perform the 16 bit arithmetical shift (DAD H) with one command. Hence some 16 bit operations were already possible. ===Input/output scheme=== ====Input output port space==== The 8080 supported up to 256 [[input/output]] (I/O) ports, accessed from programs via dedicated I/O instructions&mdash;each instruction taking an I/O port address as its operand. This scheme&mdash;using a separate I/O address space&mdash;is now less commonly used than [[memory map]]ping of I/O ports/devices. At the time of the 8080's launch, this I/O mapping scheme was seen as an advantage, as it freed up the processor's limited number of address pins for the memory address space. In most other CPU architectures, however, the mapping of I/O ports in a common address space both for memory and I/O, gave a simpler instruction set; no need for separate I/O instructions. The 8080-style I/O port scheme continued into the Intel 8085, and x86 families of microprocessors. ====Stack space==== One of the bits in the processor state word (see below) was indicating that the processor is accessing data from the stack. Using this signal, it was possible to implement the separate stack memory space. However this feature was seldom used. ====Shared memory implementations==== The 8080 has the shared control signals for reading and writing both to/from memory and I/O ports and in basic computers was frequently connected using the shared memory map, accessing ports as the memory cells. The specialised I/O commands were either not used or (in the applications with less memory) were used k
loader\|Second assistant camera operator]]''' ("[[clap boy]]") :The second assistant camera operator (2AC) operates the [[clapperboard]] at the beginning of each take and loads the raw [[film stock]] into the camera magazines between takes, if there is no additional specifically desiginated film loader. The 2AC is also in charge of overseeing the meticulously kept notebooks that records when the film stock is received, used, and sent to the lab for processing. Additionally, the 2nd AC oversees orginization of camera equipment and transport of the equipment from one shooting location to another. '''Loader''' :The loader is the desiginated film loader. S/he transfer's motion picture film from the manufacturer's light-tight canisters to the camera magazines for attachment to the camera by the 1st AC. After exposure during filming, the loader then removes the film from the magazines and places it back into the light-tight cans for transport to the laboratory. It is the responsibility of the loader to manage the inventory of film and communicate with the 1st AC on the film usage and remaining stock throughout the day. On small production crews, this job is often combined with the 2nd AC. With the prevelance of digital photography, this position is often eliminated. '''Camera Production Assistant''' (camera intern) :Usually a volunteer or trainee in the camera department, the camera PA assists the crew with menial details while learning the trade of the camera assistant, operator or cinematographer. '''Digital Imaging Technician''' ("DIT") :On digital photography productions the digital imaging technician is responsible for the coordination of the internal workings of the digital camera. Under the direction of the cinematographer or director of photography, the DIT will make adjustments to the multitude of variables available in most professional digital cameras to creatively or technically manipulate the resulting image. == Production Sound == '''[[Production sound mixer]]''' :The production sound mixer is head of sound department on the set, responsible for recording all sound on a set. This requires choice and deployment of microphones, choice of recording media, and mixing of audio signals in real time. '''[[Boom operator (media)\|Boom operator]]''' :The boom operator is an assistant to production sound mixer, responsible for microphone placement and movement during a take. The boom operator uses a [[boom]], a special piece of equipment that allows precise control of the microphone at a much greater distance away from the actors. == Grip == [[Grip]] :Grips are trained lighting and rigging technicians. The main responsibilities of a grip are to work closely with the electrical department to put in the lighting set-ups necessary for a shot. On the [[sound stage]], they are responsible for moving and adjusting major set pieces when something needs to be moved to get a camera into position. They may belong to the [[International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employes]]. '''[[Key grip]]''' :The key grip is the chief grip on a set, and is the head of the set operations department. The key grip works with the director of photography to help set up the set and to achieve the correct lighting and blocking. '''[[Best boy\|Best boy grip]]''' :The best boy grip is the chief assistant to the key grip. '''[[Dolly grip]]''' :The grip in charge of operating the [[camera dolly]] is called the dolly grip. He/she places, levels, and moves the dolly track, then pushes and pulls the dolly and usually a camera operator and camera assistant as riders. == Electrical == '''[[Gaffer]]''' :The gaffer is the head of the electrical department, responsible for the design and execution of the lighting plan for a production. Sometimes the gaffer is credited as "Chief Lighting Technician". '''[[Best boy\|Best boy electric]] :The best boy electric is the chief assistant to the gaffer. '''[[Light technician]]''' :Light technicians are involved with setting up and controlling lighting equipment. == Editorial == '''[[Film editor]]''' :The film editor is the person who assembles the various shots into a coherent film, with the help of the director. Film editors may belong to the [[American Cinema Editors]] (A.C.E.) '''[[Chyron operator]]''' :The Chyron operator creates titles and/or text graphics -- Chryon is a brand name for a character generator. '''[[Color timer]]''' :The color timer works in a film lab to adjust the color of the film. '''Negative cutter''' :The negative cutter cuts and splices the negatives as directed by the film editor, and then provide the assembled negative reels to the lab in order for prints (positives for projection) to be made. == Visual Effects == '''[[Visual effects supervisor]]''' :The visual effects supervisor is in charge of the visual effects department. [[Visual effects]] refer to post-production alterations to the film's images. They are not to be confused with [[special effects]], which are done during production (on set). == Sound/Music == '''[[Sound designer]]''' :The sound designer, or "supervising sound editor", is in charge of the post-production sound of a movie. Sometimes this may involve great creative license, and other times it may simply mean working with the director and editor to balance the sound to their liking. '''[[Dialogue editor]]''' :Responsible for assembling and editing all the dialog in the soundtrack. '''[[Sound editor]]''' :Responsible for assembling and editing all the sound effects in the soundtrack. '''[[Re-Recording Mixer]]''' :Balances all of the sounds prepared by the dialogue, music and effects editors, and finalizes the films audio track. '''[[Music supervisor]]''' :The music supervisor, or "music director", works with composer, mixers and editors to create and integrate the film's music. '''[[Composer]]''' :The composer is resposible for writing the [[musical score]] for a film. '''[[Foley artist]]''' :The foley artist is the person who creates and records many of the sound effects for a film. == See also == [[Screenplay]] [[Motion picture terminology]] [[List of movie-related topics\|List of motion picture-related topics ]] [[Category:Film]] [[Category:Film crew\|]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fear</title> <id>10828</id> <revision> <id>41556730</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:18:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.54.161.91</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* See also */ no. just... no.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Fear (disambiguation)]].'' '''Fear''' is an unpleasant [[feeling]] of perceived [[risk]] or danger, whether it be real or imagined. Fear also can be described as a feeling of extreme dislike towards certain conditions, objects or situations such as: fear of [[darkness]], fear of [[ghost]]s, etc. It is one of the basic [[emotion]]s. {{emotion}} Fear may underlie some [[phenomena]] of [[behavior]] modification, although these phenomena can be explained without adducing fear as a factor in them. Furthermore, application of aversive stimuli is also often ineffective in producing change in the behaviour intended to be changed. Fearing objects or contexts can be learned; in animals this is being studied as [[fear conditioning]], which depends on the [[emotion]]al circuitry of the [[brain]]. Fear inside a person has different degrees and varies from one person to another (see also [[phobia]]). If not properly handled, fear can lead to social problems. People who experience intense fear have been known to commit irrational and/or dangerous acts. Some philosophers have considered fear to be a useless emotion; other thinkers note the usefulness of fear as a warning of potentially unpleasant consequences. Still others consider that fear is the fuel that feeds the ego's (as in "separating/judgmental agent") engine. ==Degrees of fear== Fear can be described by different terms in accordance with its relative degrees. Fear covers a number of terms - [[worry]], [[terror]], [[fright]], [[paranoia]], [[Horror (emotion)\|horror]], [[persecution complex]] and [[dread]]. ===Distrust=== A mild stage of fear, more like caution than fear, usually focused on a person or object. Distrust is a lack of faith or belief, described as a feeling towards something questionable or unknown. For example, having distrust in a rickety old bridge across a 10,000ft drop. ===Paranoia=== Paranoia is a term used to describe a psychosis of fear, related to perception of being persecuted. (see also [[Guilt]]) This perception often causes one to change their normal behaviour in radical ways, after time their behavior may become extremely compulsive. ===Terror=== Terror refers to a pronounced state of fear, where someone becomes overwhelmed with a sense of immediate danger. Thus, terror overwhelms the person to the point of ill rational choices and non-typical behavior. ==Expression== ===Facial=== In fear, ones eyes widen and the upper lip rises. The brows draw together and the lips stretch horizontally. The speech is slurred and it takes longer to think through what one wants to say in any given situation. Eyes tend to get wide when one has fear, out of anticipation for what will happen next. ==Cause of fear== {{See also\|Mass hysteria}} The causes of fear can vary to a surprising degree; fear is to a certain extent a "cultural artifact" ([[Clifford Geertz]]). In 19th century Britain, one of the biggest fears was of dying poor, unmourned, unremembered, and possibly ending up on an [[anatomist]]'s dissection table. By the early twentieth century, this had given way to a fear of being buried alive, to the extent that those who could afford it would make all sorts of arrangements to ensure this would be avoided (eg glass lids, for observation, and breathing pipes, for survival until re
omment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[paranormal]]. For other meanings, see [[ghost (disambiguation)]].'' A '''ghost''' is an alleged non-corporeal manifestation of a [[dead]] person (or, rarely, an animal). It is often thought to be a manifestation of the [[spirit]] or [[soul]] of a person which has remained on [[Earth]] after [[death]]. According to some beliefs, a ghost may be the personality of a person after his or her death, and not tied directly to the soul or spirit. Every culture in the world carries stories about ghosts, but they vary across time and place, with disagreements both as to what ghosts are and whether they are just figments of imagination or a part of reality. == Beliefs about ghosts == Ghosts are often depicted of a human size and shape (although some accounts also mention animal ghosts), but typically described as "silvery", "shadowy", "semitransparent", "misty" or "fog-like." [[Parapsychologists]] refer to the "substance" of which ghosts and other spirits are made of as "[[ectoplasm]]". Ghosts do not have a physical body like human beings, but only a subtle [[astral body]]. Sometimes they do not manifest themselves visually but in terms of other phenomena, such as the movements of an object, spontaneous throwing of a light switch, noises, etc., which supposedly have no natural explanation. In the West, those who believe in ghosts sometimes hold them to be souls that could not find rest after death, and so linger on Earth. The inability to find rest is often explained by unfinished business, such as a victim seeking justice or revenge after death. Criminals sometimes supposedly linger to avoid [[Purgatory]] or [[Hell]]. It is sometimes held that ghosts reside in [[Limbo]], a place, according to nonorthodox [[Catholicism\|Catholic]] doctrine, between [[Heaven]] and [[Hell]] where the souls of unbaptized infants go. It is worth noting that while mainstream [[Protestants]] and [[Evangelical Christians]] believe in the existence of principalities, they do not believe in ghosts (as spiritual manifestations of the dead) and would generally attribute more violent ghosts, such as [[poltergeists]], to the actions of [[demons]]. Some ghost researchers approach the possibility of ghosts from a more scientific standpoint, seeking to find correlations and causal relationships between recordable phenomena and the supposed presence of ghosts. Those who follow this approach most often believe that ghosts are not actual disembodied souls or spirits, but rather they are impressions of psychic energy left behind by a deceased (or in some rare cases, still living) person. They assert that traumatic events (such as a murder or suicide) cause mental energy to be released into the world, where it may be experienced by other people who are sensitive to its presence. This way of thinking classifies ghosts in the same category of [[preternatural]] unexplained phenomena as [[poltergeists]]/[[telekinesis]], [[extra-sensory perception\|ESP]], and [[telepathy]]. Theories from this approach often encounter difficulties in explaining ghosts that appear to be sentient, such as those which answer questions or react to specific actions from people present. However, it may be possible that enough of a dead person's psyche might be imprinted on an environment so as to give the likeness of thought or autonomy. In Asian cultures (such as [[China]]), many people believe in [[reincarnation]]. Ghosts are those souls that refused to be "recycled" because they have unfinished business, similar to those in the West. [[Exorcism\|Exorcist]]s can either help a ghost to be driven away or reincarnated. In Chinese tradition, apart from being reincarnated, a ghost can also become immortal and become a [[demigod]], or it can go to hell and suffer for eternity, or it can die again and become "ghost of ghost". The Chinese also believe that some ghosts, especially those who died of drowning, kill people in order to rob them of their rights to reincarnation. The victims of such paranormal "murders" are called tìsíguǐ (&#26367;&#27515;&#39740;), literally "substitute death ghost" or "substitute devil" which in Chinese is a synonym for [[scapegoat]]. Also in China, particularly in the [[Guangzhou]] area, the Chinese people usually hold a Chinese version of [[Day of the dead]] ritual for their ancestors in autumn. The ritual consists of burning [[Hell Bank Notes]] and other luxury items made of paper mache as well as pouring wine three times on their grave and leaving food. An older ritual is for the living family to prepare a grand feast for their dead relatives "returning" home. During the time of feast, those relatives amongst the living are not allowed to leave their bedrooms regardless of how much noise the ghost makes. Very detailed information about ghosts is given in [[Garuda]] [[Purana]], a scripture from [[Vedic religion\|Vedic]] ([[Hindu]]) tradition. How ghosts fit into this worldview is shown [http://veda.harekrsna.cz/planetarium/index.htm#15 here]. Both the West and the East share some fundamental beliefs about ghosts. They may wander around places they frequented when alive or where they died. Such places are known as "[[haunted house\|haunt]]ed"; the rounds they go on are known as "hauntings". They often wear the sort of clothing in which they would have been seen when alive. [[Buddhist]] [[Samsara]] includes the concept of the [[hungry ghost realm]]. [[sentience\|Sentient being]]s in that realm are referred to as ''hungry ghosts'' because of their attachment to this world. [[Asura]]s are also referred to as "fighting ghosts". ==Skeptical analysis== While some accept ghosts as a reality, many others are skeptical of the [[existence]] of ghosts. For example, the vast [[majority]] of the [[scientific community]] believes that ghosts, as well as other [[supernatural]] and [[paranormal]] entities, do not exist. Skeptics often explain ghost sightings with the principle of [[Occam's razor]], which argues that explanations should maximize [[parsimony]] with the rest of our [[knowledge]]. They may suggest that, since few to none of us have ever had an [[interpersonal relationship]] with a ghost, but most or all of us have had an experience of [[delusion\|self-delusion]] or have attributed a [[causality\|false cause]] to an event, that these options should be preferred in the absence of a great abundance of evidence. They are also keen to note that most ghost sightings happen when our [[senses]] are impaired, and that the [[evidence]] is unreliable because it doesn't occur when we have full use of our faculties. Occasionally, the sincerity and motive of the claimant will be questioned. They might make up a haunting for a personal reason. For example, lingering of ghosts is typically associated with seeking justice or revenge. Ascribing such motives and powers to dead people could be interpreted as a scare tactic. Also, a person might claim a haunting for personal popularity and income. A [[hoax]] or [[confidence game\|con]] might also be getting played on the reporting person themselves. Again, the reasons could be popularity and income; but fear might also factor into the motive. For example, the telling of ghost stories might be a way for secluded communities to scare off intruders. It can also discourage new tenants from living in an apparently abandoned house. A society could have elaborate setups with members of that community playing ghosts. [[Human]] [[physiology]] may make us more susceptible to ghost sightings. Ghosts are often associated with a chilling sensation, but a natural animal response to fear is hair raising, which can be mistaken for chill. Also, the peripheral vision is very sensitive to motion, but does not contain much color or focused shapes. Any random motion outside the focused view can create a strong illusion of an eerie figure. Also, [[sound]] [[waves]] with [[frequencies]] lower than 20 [[hertz]] are called [[infrasound]]; they are formally inaudible, but British scientists Richard Lord and Richard Wiseman have concluded that infrasound can cause humans to feel a "presence" in the room, or unexplained feelings of anxiety or dread.[http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/08/1062901994082.html?oneclick=true] Sometimes ghosts are associated with [[electromagnetic]] disturbances, which suggests that they might be attributable to the [[electromagnetic field]] and not to a presently dead [[person]]. Often, videos of paranormal investigators will show them using [[E-field]] or [[B-field]] detectors and finding "ghostly" results near wall outlets and electrical appliances. Psychological factors may also relate to ghost sightings. Many people exaggerate their interpretation of their own perceptions, either when visiting a place they believe to be haunted, or when visiting a site which they know has seen unpleasant historical events. Certain images such as paintings and movies might "program" a person to automatically associate a certain structure or area as haunted because of what he has seen in the movies. The earliest literature to rationally discuss the issue comes from the Chinese philosopher, [[Mozi\|Mo Tzu]] (470-391 BC) :''"Since we must understand whether ghosts and spirits exist or not, how can we find out? Mo Tzu said: The way to find out whether anything exists or not is to depend on the testimony of the ears and eyes of the multitude. If some have heard it or some have seen it then we have to say it exists. If no one has heard it and no one has seen it then we have to say it does not exist. So, then, why not go to some village or some district and inquire? If from antiquity to the present, and since the beginning of man, there are men who have seen t
ring in the strip after a few years, apparently because he was considered superfluous. ([[Jim Davis]] explained how the character was created to give Jon someone to be friends with and talk to, but as Garfield's character evolved and ended up speaking with Jon, the conversations became more Garfield-Jon oriented. This made Lyman's character unneeded, so even though they don't explain why, he was written out. Jim Davis later gave humorous scenarios of what happened in the ''Garfield 25th Anniversary Book''.) ; Mom : Jon's mom. Lives on a farm, and is known to be a great cook. ; Dad : Jon's dad. Lives on a farm, and is completely useless when it comes to modern equipment. ; Doc Boy : Jon's brother. Lives on a farm with his mom and dad, and often fights with Jon, calling him a "City sissy". ; Spiders : Like most animals, spiders can communicate freely with Garfield. Unfortunately for them, he takes great pleasure in swatting, squishing, or smashing them. The spiders occasionally show a desire for revenge, but are usually friendly. ; Mice : shown in many previous Garfields. They live to torture Garfield, and get Garfield into a lot of trouble when Jon sees the things the mice do (tiny snowmen, balconys, etc.) ==Themes and Settings== Usually, the standard setting is Garfield standing on a table or floor, always flat. Occasionally, Garfield ventures elsewhere and when goes somewhere else, he usually spends a week or two in that area. * '''The TV Chair''' is one of Garfield's favorite places, where he entertains himself with shows such as Binky the Clown and others. Many of the shows mentioned are absurd and stupid, and give Jim Davis an opportunity to comment on pop-culture. * '''Outside''', Garfield has confrontations with various characters, such as dogs (more vicious than Odie), birds, worms, and even conscious flowers. "Beware of Dog" signs are abound, and Garfield often tries to torment the chained-up dogs as some kind of revenge. Garfield tries to capture birds in the bird fountain, often unsuccessfully (However, unlike Tom in [[Tom and Jerry (MGM)\|Tom and Jerry]], Garfield does occasionally kill and consume his prey). He finds it a lot easier to capture flowers though, and often eats them. * Early in the series, Garfield would spend time on the '''window ledge''' and always get trapped in the roll-up blinds. This culminated in a two-week storyline in which Garfield, Odie, Jon, two complete strangers, and even a street lamp (Odie had to go) all got trapped in the blinds. This was one of the few storylines in which a Sunday strip was part of the regular story arc. After this, Jon bought Venetian blinds (which Garfield, somehow, still manages to get stuck in). * '''The Fence in the Alley''' is an area where Garfield often tells bad jokes or caterwauls, in a homage to [[vaudeville]]. Odie joins the act from time to time, once as a [[ventriloquist]]'s dummy, and once as "Mr Skins", who accompanied Garfield on the drums. Garfield is frequently the target of disgusted fans, who throw shoes, rotten vegetables, and houseplants at him and once burned down his fence with burning arrows (Garfield's temporary replacement, a plastic flamingo, just "didn't feel the same"). Garfield, however, loves the attention he receives, and once complained that he thought a joke deserved more than a single shoe. He does sometimes get applause from his audience, though one time the audience consisted solely of his mother. * '''Up the tree''' is another area where Garfield often traps himself. Garfield knows not to climb, but ironically can never overcome the urge. A firefighter usually has to save him on the last day of the week. One time, Jon got stuck up the tree trying to rescue him. * Occasionally, Garfield will be taken to the '''vet's office''', a place he loathes. In this setting, Jon always tries to get a date with Liz, the vet, and usually fails badly, his failures causing Garfield to snicker. At the end of one date, Jon got a kiss, currently his only on-screen kiss in the comic. * Sometimes Jon takes Garfield to the '''park'''. Jon tries to meet girls in the park, but always fails miserably and humorously. * '''Vacations''' are taken by Jon and his pets every so often, usually to exotic places. Early in the series, Garfield had to sneak along in the suitcase, but at some point Jon gave up and took him along as an equal. These are funny because they portray Jon's inability to get along with people normally. They also introduce new scenarios, which are usually rare in this strip. * '''The Beach''' is frequented by Garfield and company, and is another site at which Jon fails at finding girls. Garfield hates the beach simply because it has no TV, and is too hot. This theme will often show up in the summer. * '''Irma's diner''' was visited often early on, but not as much as the series progressed. Irma is a chirpy, but slow-witted and unattractive waitress/manager, and one of Jon's few friends. The food is terrible, and is the center of most of the jokes, along with the poor management. * '''The window''' is a setting showing Garfield looking from inside the house, making comments on events going on outside. Sometimes Jon joins him. * Jon periodically visits his parents and brother on the '''farm'''. This results in comical displays of stupidity by Jon and his family, and their interactions. * '''The used car lot''' is an entertaining scene that parodies the business. Jon always gets conned by the overly clever and sneaky salesman, while Garfield knows it all along. This is paralleled in the '''used refrigerator store''' and '''used Christmas tree lot''' which appear later. Garfield often engages in week-long interactions with a minor character, event, or thing, such as Nermal, Arlene, the mailman, an alarm clock, a scale, the TV, Pooky, spiders, mice, coffee, hamburgers, balls of yarn, [[rubber chicken]]s, dieting, shedding, pie throwing, fishing, Mondays, Clive, lasagna, the "Caped Avenger", sweaters, colds, etc. Some more unique themes are things like "Garfield's Believe It or Don't", "Garfield's Law", "Garfield's History", which show the world, history, and science from Garfield's point-of-view. Another particular theme is the "National Fat Week", where Garfield spends the week making fun of skinny people. Most of December is spent preparing for [[Christmas]], with a predictable focus on presents. Every week before June 19th, the strip focuses on his birthday, which Garfield dreads. Occasionally the strip celebrates [[Halloween]] as well with scary-themed jokes. Jokes are introduced seasonally, with snow-related gags common in January or February and beach or heat themed jokes in the summer. One storyline, which lasted a week from October the 23rd, 1989 (possibly to coincide with Halloween, although the 31st actually fell the following week), is unique in that it is not humorous. It depicts Garfield awakening in a future in which the house is abandoned and he no longer exists. This is revealed to have been a dream of some kind, and ends with this narration: "An imagination is a powerful tool. It can tint memories of the past, shade perceptions of the present, or paint a future so vivid that it can entice...or terrify, all depending on how we conduct ourselves today." Alternatively, some theorize that the end of this storyline actually implies that the rest of the series, the more conventional strips, are all fantasies Garfield is playing out in his head to delude himself from realizing the dark turn his life has taken, as he slowly starves to death in an abandoned house. This is arguably supported by the text, as the narration reads "After years of taking life for granted, Garfield is shaken by a horrifying vision of the invevitable process called 'time'. He has only one weapon... '''Denial'''" right before Jon and Odie reappear. This emphasis on Denial, with the word given its own box in the panel it appears in, and being followed immediately by the earlier text on the power of the imagination, supports the theory. ==Removing Garfield's thought bubbles== On February 11, 2006, author [[Neil Gaiman]] noted a new internet trend of removing Garfield's thought bubbles from the strip [http://www.neilgaiman.com/journal/archive/2006_02_01_archive.html], apparently invented by a member of the ''Truth And Beauty Bombs'' forums [http://www.truthandbeautybombs.com/bb/viewtopic.php?t=4997&postdays=0&postorder=asc&start=0]. The author of a similar project, ''Arbuckle'', explains: "'Garfield' changes from being a comic about a sassy, corpulent feline, and becomes a compelling picture of a lonely, pathetic, delusional man who talks to his pets. Consider that Jon, according to Garfield canon, cannot hear his cat's thoughts. This is the world as he sees it. This is his story." [http://www.tailsteak.com/arbuckle/] ==Television== * ''[[Garfield and Friends]]'' ([[Animated cartoon\|Animated cartoon series]], 1988–1995) * ''[[Garfield Gets a Life]]'' (animated special) 1991 * ''[[Garfield's Feline Fantasies]]'' (animated special) 1990 * ''[[Garfield's Thanksgiving]]'' (animated special) 1989 * ''[[Garfield's Babes and Bullets]]'' (animated special) 1989 * ''[[Garfield: His 9 Lives]]'' (animated special) 1988 * ''[[Garfield Goes Hollywood]]'' (animated special) 1987 * ''[[A Garfield Christmas]]'' (animated special) 1987 * ''[[Garfield in Paradise]]'' (animated special) 1986 * ''[[Garfield's Halloween Adventure]]'' (animated special) 1985 * ''[[Garfield in the Rough]]'' (animated special) 1984 * ''[[Garfield on the Town]]'' (animated special) 1983 * ''[[Here Comes Garfield]]'' (animated special) 1982 ==Books== ===Numbered Paperbacks=== These books, generally released twice a year, contain reprints of the comic as it appears in newspapers daily. These books were originally printed in black and white, but recent on
g season he was in the West Ham side which lost the [[League Cup]] final on [[aggregate]] to [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.\|West Bromwich Albion]], and in February 1966 he was given his debut for England by manager [[Alf Ramsey]]. ==1966 World Cup campaign== Hurst settled into international football quickly but as the World Cup approached, it seemed clear that his inclusion in Ramsey's squad of 22 would merely be as a different option to the first choice partnership of [[Jimmy Greaves]] and [[Roger Hunt]]. Greaves and Hunt were indeed picked for the three group games against [[Uruguay national football team\|Uruguay]], [[Mexico national football team\|Mexico]] and [[France national football team\|France]], but in the latter game, Greaves suffered a deep gash to his leg which required stitches, and Hurst was called up to take his place in the quarter final against [[Argentina national football team\|Argentina]]. With captain [[Bobby Moore]] and young midfielder [[Martin Peters]] already in the side, it completed a trio of West Ham players selected by Ramsey at this most crucial stage of the competition. Argentina were talented but preferred a violent approach to the game, which saw them reduced to ten men. The game was still tightly contested as it entered its final 15 minutes, but then Peters swung over a curling cross from the left flank and Hurst, anticipating his clubmate's thinking, got in front of his marker to glance a near post header past the Argentine keeper. England won 1-0 and were in the semi finals. Greaves was not fit for the game against [[Portugal national football team\|Portugal]] so Hurst and Hunt continued up front, and England won 2-1 thanks to a brace from [[Bobby Charlton]], the second of which was set up by Hurst. As the final against the Germans approached, the [[media]] learnt of Greaves' return to fitness and, while appreciating Hurst's contribution, started to call for the return of England's most prolific centre forward. Ramsey, however, would not be swayed. Hurst had played well enough to keep his place and, with [[substitute (soccer)\|substitute]]s still disallowed in competitive football, Greaves' hopes of taking part in the final were dashed. Ramsey informed Greaves and Hurst of his decision the day before the game, and would be conclusively vindicated. ==The World Cup Final== West Germany took the lead through [[Helmut Haller]] early on, but six minutes later Moore was fouled just inside the German half of the field. He quickly picked himself up and delivered the free kick to Hurst, totally unmarked in his run as the Germans regrouped. The goalkeeper was statuesque as the header thundered past him, levelling the match. In the second half, chances went begging for both sides before England won a corner on the right with a quarter of an hour left on the [[clock]]. [[Alan Ball (footballer)\|Alan Ball]] took it, outswinging the ball to Hurst on the edge of the area. Hurst turned to shoot and the ball deflected high into the air, looping down on to the right boot of Peters, who smashed it home. The Germans equalised with virtually the last kick of the game, forcing extra time. The subsequent 30 minutes would shape the rest of Hurst's life. In the first period, Ball flicked a pass inside to Hurst who struck a strong shot towards goal, falling backwards as he did so. The ball beat the goalkeeper, hit the crossbar and bounced down before [[Wolfgang Weber]], scorer of the Germans' second goal, headed it out for a corner. England's players wanted a goal; the Germans were just as adamant that the ball had not fully crossed the line. The referee, unsure, decided to consult his linesman, [[Tofik Bakhramov]], on the right flank who had waved his flag to get the official's attention. The linesman, from [[Azerbaijan]], signalled that the ball had crossed the line and the goal was given. The Germans went mad and protested with the linesman vociferously, though as the linesman only spoke [[Russia]]n and [[Turkish language\|Turkish]], that was a pointless exercise. Ever since, football reporters and commentators on England games have called in jest for a "Russian linesman" (Azerbaijan was part of the [[USSR]] at the time therefore all states under [[Moscow]] direction were often incorrectly referred to as "Russian") whenever there has been a contentious decision to make, especially when that decision has not gone England's way. The debate on Hurst's second goal will last forever. Advances in technology have never conclusively proved that the ball crossed the line, and generally support the opposite view, but Bakrahmov was insistent at the time and continued to justify his decision in decades to come until his death. For his part, Hurst never saw the ball bounce down because his momentum on shooting had taken him backwards on to the Wembley turf. However, he always believed the ball was in the net because of Hunt's reaction - the [[Liverpool F.C.\|Liverpool]] striker was following in as the ball hit the bar and turned to celebrate a goal instead of trying to knock the rebound into the net. Hurst's argument was that a natural goalscorer such as Hunt would have put the ball into the net himself had he been in any doubt. It looked like a 3-2 win for England with Hurst as the hero with the winning goal but in the last seconds, as the Germans were pushing everyone forward to seek the equalizer, Moore cleared his lines with a long ball over the German defence. Hurst ran on to it towards goal, stating later that he intended just to blast it as far away as he could to eat away valuable seconds. He did rather better than that - the shot flew into the net at the near post, completing a stunning victory and a hat-trick which remains unique to this day. There was no time for the Germans to restart the match. Hurst still emerged the hero of the win but as a result of the third goal, became an icon of world football too. ==Last minute== The referee had put his [[whistle]] to his lips as Moore shaped to play the final pass to Hurst. He didn't blow it, however, yet some supporters misheard, assumed the game was complete and started invading the pitch. As Hurst collected the pass, [[BBC]] commentator [[Kenneth Wolstenholme]] immortalised his own contribution to the day with the most famous piece of football commentary ever: <blockquote>'''''"And here comes Hurst, he's got...''''' (notices invaders) '''''...some people are on the pitch, they think it's all over!''''' (Hurst shoots and scores) '''''It is now! And it's four!''''' </blockquote> Hurst was immediately jumped upon by Alan Ball, the only other player upfield at the time Moore played the pass. Meanwhile, [[camera]]s quickly snapped a bemused-looking Greaves in his suit and tie on the England bench, amazed at the achievements of the man who had replaced him. Greaves would later say it was an emotional reaction but he was just as thrilled for Hurst and England as the other squad players who had not been picked for the final. ==After the match== It wasn't until the celebratory [[banquet]] that evening that Hurst realised he had scored a hat-trick, assuming that the final whistle had been blown before he'd struck the ball into the net for the third goal. This meant he had not attempted to get the match ball as a [[souvenir]], which hat-trick scorers traditionally do. Haller, scorer of the Germans' first goal, acquired the ball and was seen holding it as he collected his losers' medal. He returned it to England more than 30 years later. The media were desperate to speak one-on-one with Hurst and they found him the day after the final, back home in [[London]]. As if to prove that life had to go on, Hurst was carrying out the mundane task of mowing his lawn when the [[journalist]]s turned up. ==Continuing international career== Hurst continued to play and score for England but at the age of 24, his career had obviously peaked. Nothing in football could ever surpass winning the World Cup and scoring a hat-trick in the final. He won no more honours with West Ham in the 1960s but maintained his England place for much of the period, and was still an internationally-feared goalscorer by the time he was named in Ramsey's squad which would go to [[Mexico]] and defend the World Cup in 1970. Hurst scored the only goal of England's opening game against [[Romania national football team\|Romania]] as England progressed through to the quarter finals, where once again they would face West Germany. Hurst played a part in a goal for Peters which put England 2-0 up, but the Germans forced their way back in and won 3-2 after extra time. In 1972, West Ham reached the semi final of the [[League Cup]] when they played [[Stoke City F.C.\|Stoke City]] over two legs. In the home leg for West Ham, they were awarded a penalty which Hurst took. He blasted the ball with some power for the top corner, but Stoke goalkeeper and Hurst's international team-mate [[Gordon Banks]] somehow [[fingertip]]ped the ball over the bar. Stoke won the tie and ultimately the competition, and Hurst left West Ham to join them later the same year for 75,000 [[Pound sterling\|pound]]s. He had played one game short of 500 for West Ham, scoring 252 goals. His England career ended the same year with yet another game against West Germany in the qualification stages for the [[1972 European Football Championship\|1972 European Championships]], which England lost. He had won 49 caps and scored 24 goals, currently putting him 11th in the all-time England scorers' list. ==His final years as a player== Hurst wound down his career with Stoke and also [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.\|West Bromwich Albion]]. In 1976 Geoff signed for the [[Seattle Sounders]] of the [[NASL]]. Unlike many players who came over to the NASL from Europe to end their careers, Hurst rapidly proved his worth, and became a valuable member of the Sounder's team. He was the team’s second-leading scorer, helping the
ut (2000): "Profilkrise und Funktionswandel. Bündnis 90/Die Grünen auf dem Weg zu einem neuen Selbstverständnis", in ''Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte'', B5 2000, S. 22-29. ==External links== [http://www.gruene.de Official Homepage of Bündnis 90/Die Grünen with some English language information] [http://www.boell.de/de/13_archiv/2192.html Online archive at Heinrich Böll Foundation, German] [http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040719&s=hockenos "German Greens and Pax Europa" (English) The Nation article about Green foreign policy] {{Green Parties}} [[Category:Green political parties]] [[Category:Political parties in Germany]] [[Category:1979 establishments]] [[de:Bündnis 90/Die Grünen]] [[es:Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen]] [[fr:Bündnis 90/Die Grünen]] [[ko:독일 녹색당]] [[ja:緑の党 (ドイツ)]] [[no:Bündnis 90/Die Grünen]] [[pl:Związek 90/Zieloni]] [[ru:Партия Зелёных (Германия)]] [[fi:Vihreä puolue (Saksa)]] [[sv:Bündnis 90/Die Grünen]] [[zh:德国绿党]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Goettingen</title> <id>12247</id> <revision> <id>27989117</id> <timestamp>2005-11-11T03:18:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Curpsbot-unicodify</username> <id>397664</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>1 &<name>; → Unicode</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Göttingen]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gheorghe Zamfir</title> <id>12248</id> <revision> <id>40470265</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T20:16:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.89.4.131</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gheorghe Zamfir''' {{IPA\|/'gěor.ge zam'fir/}} (born [[April 6th]], [[1941]], in [[Găeşti]], [[Romania]]) is a famous Romanian [[musician]] who is a virtuoso on the [[pan pipes]]. He was initially self-taught and continued his education at the Bucharest Academy of Music, where he was a pupil of [[Fanica Luca]], and the Conservatory of Bucharest (1968). He came to the public eye when he was 'discovered' by Swiss [[ethnomusicologist]] [[Marcel Cellier]] who extensively researched Romanian [[folk music]] in the 1960s. Throughout his 50 year long career, Gheorghe Zamfir has won an overall 120 golden and platinum disc awards and sold over 120 million albums. Largely through the numerous television [[commercials]] for his albums, he introduced the [[panflute]] to a modern audience and revived it from obscurity. He has made many albums of panflute music, and his song "The Lonely Shepherd" is featured in [[Quentin Tarantino]]'s film ''[[Kill Bill Vol. 1]]''. In the [[television series]] ''[[King of the Hill]]'''s episode "Propane Boom", Zamfir was suggested as a corporate spokesman to rival [[Mega Lo Mart]]'s [[Chuck Mangione]]. Arguably, his most famous contribution was to the soundtrack for the classic Australian film [[Picnic at Hanging Rock]]. == External links == [http://romania-on-line.net/whoswho/ZamfirGheorghe.htm Zamfir's Résumé (Recordings, Career, Education, Concerts (only 1))] * [http://www.gheorghe-zamfir.com/index-e.htm Official Homepage] [[Category:1941 births\|Zamfir, Gheorghe]] [[Category:Living people\|Zamfir, Gheorghe]] [[Category:Romanian musicians\|Zamfir, Gheorghe]] [[Category:Panpipes\|Zamfir, Gheorghe]] [[de:Gheorghe Zamfir]] [[fr:Gheorghe Zamfir]] [[nl:Gheorghe Zamfir]] [[ro:Gheorghe Zamfir]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Greater London</title> <id>12249</id> <revision> <id>41974220</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:56:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Wereon</username> <id>33684</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For more coverage on London, visit the [[Portal:London\|'''''London Portal''''']]. {\| border=1 cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width=275 style=margin-left:10px \|- !colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="#ff9999"\|Greater London \|- \|colspan=2 align=center\|[[Image:EnglandLondon.png\|London region shown within England]] \|- !colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"\|Geography \|- \|width="45%"\|Status:\|\|[[Regions of England\|Region]] and (excluding the City of London) [[Ceremonial counties of England\|Ceremonial county]] \|- \|[[Surface area\|Area]]:<br>- Total\|\|[[List of United Kingdom nations by area\|9th in England]]<br>[[1 E9 m²\|1,580]] [[square kilometre\|km&sup2;]] \|- \|[[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics\|NUTS]] 1:\|\|UKI \|- !colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"\|Demographics \|- \|[[Population]]:<br>- ([[2004]] midyear estimate)<br>([[2001]] census based midyear estimate)<br>- [[Density]]\|\|[[List of United Kingdom nations by population\|2nd in England]]<br>7,420,600<br><br>7,322,400<br><br>4,725/km&sup2; (in 2006) \|- !colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"\|Politics \|- \|colspan=2 align=center\|[[Greater London Authority]] <br>[[Image:London.gif]] <br> <br>http://www.london.gov.uk/ \|- \|Mayor\|\|[[Ken Livingstone]] ([[Labour Party (UK)\|Labour]]) \|} '''Greater London''' is the top level administrative subdivision covering [[London]] and forms one of the nine [[regions of England]]. ==Scope== The administrative area of Greater London covers the large [[conurbation]] which comprises the [[City of London]], the [[City of Westminster]] and 31 other [[London boroughs]], and encompasses what is commonly known simply as London, capital of England and the [[United Kingdom]]. It covers 1579 km&sup2; (609 sq. mi) and had a population of 7,172,036 at the April 2001 census. The results of the census were proved to be undercounted, and after careful research the UK [[Office for National Statistics]] published a 2001 midyear estimate of 7,322,400 which is more credible than the census itself. Since 2000, the outer boundary of Greater London has coincided with the [[Metropolitan Police District]]. The highest point of the region is [[Botley Hill]] in the [[North Downs]], at 267 metres. ==Local government== Since 2000 the London region has been administered by the [[Greater London Authority]] (the "GLA"), and has a directly-elected [[Mayor of London]], [[Ken Livingstone]], who is scrutinised by an elected [[London Assembly]]. The headquarters of the GLA is at [[City Hall (London)\|City Hall]] in [[Southwark]]. ==Status== The status of Greater London is somewhat unusual. It is officially classified as a [[Ceremonial counties of England\|ceremonial county]] (excluding the City of London, which is a ceremonial county itself) and as one of the nine official [[regions of England]] - in this context properly called '''London'''. It is the only English region with wide ranging devolved powers, an elected regional assembly or a directly elected leader position. The term "London" is usually used in reference to Greater London or to the urban conurbation, not to the tiny [[City of London]] at its centre (which is usually styled as "the City" or "the Square Mile"). In strict legal terms however Greater London is not a "City" as it does not have official [[City status in the United Kingdom\|city status]] (though one London borough, Westminster, is officially a city, as well as the City of London itself). However in practical terms Greater London is effectively a single city, and is commonly thought of as such. In common parlance it is sometimes called a "town" (in the context of "going up to town", without specifying which one) and in terms of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]], whose head is the ''Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis'', it is a [[metropolis]]. ==Divisions== Greater London contains 32 London boroughs (including the City of Westminster), which are effectively [[unitary authorities]] and the City of London, which has a unique government dating back to the [[12th century]]. {\| class="toccolours" style="margin:0 auto; backgrond:none;" \| style="padding-right:1em;" \| <ol> <li>[[City of London]]</li> <li>[[City of Westminster]]</li> <li>[[Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea\|Kensington and Chelsea]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham\|Hammersmith and Fulham]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Wandsworth\|Wandsworth]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Lambeth\|Lambeth]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Southwark\|Southwark]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Tower Hamlets\|Tower Hamlets]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Hackney\|Hackney]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Islington\|Islington]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Camden\|Camden]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Brent\|Brent]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Ealing\|Ealing]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Hounslow\|Hounslow]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Richmond upon Thames\|Richmond]]</li> <li>[[Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames\|Kingston]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Merton\|Merton]]</li> </ol> \| style="background:#FFF; padding:0 1em;" class="toccolours"\|[[Image:LondonNumbered.png]] \| <ol start="18"> <li>[[London Borough of Sutton\|Sutton]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Croydon\|Croydon]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Bromley\|Bromley]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Lewisham\|Lewisham]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Greenwich\|Greenwich]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Bexley\|Bexley]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Havering\|Havering]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Barking and Dagenham\|Barking and Dagenham]]</li> <li>[[London Borough of Redbridge\|Redbridge]]</li> <li>[[London Borou
otality of relationships within the archipelago at that time. The collective term for the archipelago used within this work is '''Oceani Insulae''' meaning ''"Islands of the Ocean"'' (Book 2, 46 in the Sharpe edition = Book 2, 47 in Reeves edition) and it is used sparingly. Another early native source to use a collective term is the ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]'' of [[Bede]] written in the early eighth century. The collective term for the archipelago used within this work is ''insularum'' meaning "islands" (Book 1, 8) and it too is used sparingly. The term does not appear to have entered [[English language]] usage until after the [[Reformation]]. The earliest quotation of ''"British Isles"'' given by the authoritative [[Oxford English Dictionary]] is in [[1621]]. ===Renaissance mapmakers=== Continental mapmakers [[Gerardus Mercator]] ([[1512]]), [[Balthasar Moretus]] ([[1624]]), [[Giovanni Magini]] ([[1596]]), [[Abraham Ortelius]] ([[1570]]) and [[Sebastian Munster]] ([[1550]]) produced maps bearing the term "British Isles". Ortelius makes clear his understanding that England, Scotland and Ireland were politically nominally at least separate in [[1570]] by the full title of his map: "Angliae, Scotiae et Hiberniae, sive Britannicar. insularum descriptio" which translates as "a description of England, Scotland and Ireland, or the British Isles", additionally many maps from this period show Cornwall as a separate nation, most notably those of Mercator. ==Subsequent political history== [[Image:UK MAPS.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|right\|Map of the British Isles showing the cities]] By the time the Romans left in the [[5th century]] the peoples of the isles were differentiated into the [[Brython]]s in the lands that would become England, Cornwall, Wales and southern Scotland and the [[Picts]] in northern Scotland, while Ireland was dominated by several peoples ([[Attacotti]], [[The Connachta]], [[Ulaidh]]) including the [[Scottish people\|Scotti (Scots)]] confederation who would shortly establish [[Dalriada]] in western Pictland. In the following centuries [[Anglo-Saxons]] formed the kingdom of [[Wessex]], pushing the British back into [[Wales]], [[Rheged\|Cumbria]], [[Kingdom of Strathclyde\|south-west Scotland]] and [[Dumnonia]] later to become [[Kernow]] (or [[Cornwall]]). [[Angles]] took over [[Kingdom of Northumbria\|Northumbria]] and [[Gododdin\|south-east Scotland]]. [[Viking]] invaders formed the [[Danelaw]] in eastern England and took over [[Caithness]], the [[Hebrides]], the [[Isle of Man]] and north-east Ireland, forming a settlement at [[Dublin]]. The Scots amalgamated with the Picts forming a [[Kingdom of Scotland\|Scottish Kingdom]] which by the early [[11th century]] expanded to include the area of modern Scotland and Cumbria. The [[Norman Conquest]] of [[1066]] brought England under [[Normans\|Norman]] rule and their [[1072]] foray into Scotland left the first of a series of arguments as to whether the Scots accepted the suzerainty of the English kings. In [[1171]] King [[Henry II of England]] invaded Ireland, asuming the title [[Lord of Ireland]]. The Anglo-Normans settled as a ruling elite controlling much of Ireland, but over time the native Irish regained some territory and, outside the area of English authority around Dublin called the [[Pale]], the Norman lords adopted the Irish language and customs and became known as the [[Old English (Ireland)\|"Old English"]]. This meant that Irish kingdoms such as Tir Eoghan, Tir Connall, [[Thomond]], Laois, [[Ui Failghe]] and others remained free of English rule till the early 17th century. In [[1140]] the [[Hebrides\|Hebridean Islands]], the [[Isle of Man]] and [[Antrim]] came under the Norse-Gael rule of the [[Lord of the Isles]] who kept a varying degree of independence until the Hebrides were forfeited to Scotland in [[1493]]. From the early [[13th century]] the [[Scots language]] of south east Scotland was spread throughout the Lowlands, but the [[Scottish Highlands]] remained [[Scottish Gaelic language\|Gaelic]] speaking and developed the semi-independent [[Scottish clan]] system. Wales came under English control with the [[Statute of Rhuddlan]] in [[1284]] and became part of the [[Kingdom of England]] by the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]]. The English Kings became [[Kingdom of Ireland\|Kings of Ireland]] as well in [[1541]], ruling through an Irish Parliament. Scotland was still independent despite a series of disputes and wars with England, then in [[1603]] King [[James I of England\|James VI of Scotland]] inherited the title James I of England, unifying the countries under a [[personal union\|personal union of the crowns]]. While the governments of England and Scotland remained separate, King James proclaimed himself "King of Great Brittaine" on October 20th [[1604]], apparently with the political aim of creating a shared identity under his autocratic rule. Ireland was effectively being ruled as a colony of England and James expanded an existing policy of English settlers, adding Scots [[Presbyterian]]s and creating the "[[Plantation of Ulster]]" at the expense of the existing [[Roman Catholic Church\|Roman Catholic]]s, both the native Irish and the "Old English". As the century progressed the Civil [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]] brought Irish rebellion with massacres alienating Protestants from Catholics and making Irish Catholics embittered about the English, tensions further reinforced in the [[Williamite war in Ireland\|Jacobite war in Ireland]]. Scottish economic weakness against English protectionism lead to merger of the governments in the [[1707]] [[Act of Union 1707\| Act of Union]] when the official name became The Kingdom of Great Britain, with pro-[[House of Hanover\|Hanoverian]] Scots enthusiastically adopting the term "North Britain" as an alternative to "Scotland" for example "The Royal Regiment of Scots Dragoons" were renamed "[[Scots Greys\|The Royal North British Dragoons]]" (later examples included the [[North British Magazine]] and the [[North British Railway]]). The [[Scottish Highlands\|Scottish Highlanders]] were still Gaelic speaking and were derisively called "Erse" (Irish) by the [[Scottish Lowlands\|Lowlanders]], but to end [[Jacobitism]] the [[Scottish clan]] system was crushed and they became fully British. A French-aided rebellion in Ireland in [[1798]] was defeated and Ireland was brought firmly under British government control by the [[1800]] [[Act of Union 1800\|Act of Union]] in what became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. During the [[19th century]] famine and emigration affected the Irish and the Scottish Highlanders. Irish nationalist attempts to win independence peaked in the early [[20th century]] with the [[Anglo-Irish War\|Anglo-Irish war of independence]] and the [[1922]] separation of the [[Irish Free State]], later becoming the [[Republic of Ireland]]. The mostly Protestant [[Northern Ireland\|northeast]] continued to be part of what was now the [[United Kingdom]] of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, with a [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] which is at present suspended. Inspired by the Irish movement, nationalist parties developed in [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Cornwall]]. More recently Scotland has gained [[devolution\|Home Rule]] with a [[Scottish Parliament]] and Wales a degree of home administration with the [[Welsh Assembly]], but both remain part of the unitary United Kingdom. Cornwall has not been granted any devolved power but a petition calling for a Cornish assembly has collected more than 50,000 signatures. ==Problems with modern usage== Today the term ''[[Britain\|British]]'' is usually used to describe people or things belonging to either Great Britain or the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. However, many parts of the British Isles do not belong to the UK - including the [[Republic of Ireland]], the [[Isle of Man]], [[Guernsey]] and [[Jersey]]. Many people, particularly those from the [[Republic of Ireland]], find the term ''British Isles'' unacceptable and even offensive because of this. Hostility to the term British Isles has often been caused by its misinterpretation; this was exemplified by an embarrassing and controversial ''faux pas'' by the then [[United States\|American]] [[First Lady of the United States\|First Lady]] [[Nancy Reagan]] during an Irish visit. The confusion caused by the term was also highlighted during a stop-over visit to the Republic of Ireland by then [[Soviet Union]] leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], when he indicated that he presumed Ireland's [[head of state]] was [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom\|Queen Elizabeth II]], given that she was the British Queen and his officials said that Ireland was a part of the British Isles. The term ''British Isles'' is no longer used in Irish state documents, has been abandoned in schoolbooks in the Republic of Ireland and is being phased out of textbooks<sup>[[#Footnotes\|4]]</sup>. ==Alternative terms== Many have suggested replacements for the term ''British Isles'' but none has yet won universal acceptance. Sometimes, an ambiguous phrase such as "these Isles" or "the Isles" is used, thus utilising the same logic used when referring to the [[Persian Gulf]] as the "Gulf". In cases where what is being referred to is the two largest islands, the term "Great Britain and Ireland" [http://www.therai.org.uk/] can be used, but this risks confusion with the common term "Great Britain and ''Northern'' Ireland". In the context of the [[Northern Ireland]] peace process the term ''[[Islands of the North Atlantic]]'' (IONA), a term initially created by former [[Conservative Party (UK)\|Conservative Party]] MP [[John Biggs-Davison\|Sir John Biggs-Davison]], has been used as a neutral term to describe t
made Christmas cards alive] [http://www.ucg.org/booklets/HH/jcnotborndec25.htm Analysis of Jesus's Birthdate, from the UCG] [http://fromuruguay.blogspot.com/2005/12/christmas-in-uruguay.html From Uruguay] Christmas in Uruguay [http://www.japaneselifestyle.com.au/culture/christmas.html Christmas in Japan] How the Western Santa and Asian customs fused to produce this unique holiday [http://www.komar.org/xmas/ The custom of celebrating with Christmas Lights] Videos and pictures of some extreme forms of holiday lighting [http://www.benbest.com/history/xmas.html The History of Christmas] Exhaustive recap of Christmas history [http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/Xmas/ Christmas Traditions of UK] [http://www.cvc.org/christmas/asia.htm Christmas in Asia (various countries)] [http://www.santas.net/australianchristmas.htm Christmas Traditions in Australia] [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03724b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia] [http://touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=16-10-012-v Touchstone -- Calculating Christmas] [http://www.stnicholascenter.org/Brix?pageID=23 St. Nicholas site] [http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/newsletter/christmas/nick.html Saint Nicholas history] [http://www.dickensfair.com/ The Great Dickens Christmas Faire] the oldest San Francisco traditional holiday event. [http://www.noradsanta.org/ noradsanta.org] - [[NORAD]] tracks [[Santa Claus]] on his route. [http://www.christmas-day.org/ Christmas Day ]- Detail on Christmas Celebrations, history and more (Indian website) [[Category:Christmas]] <!-- interwiki - codes to foreign language articles below, do not remove --> [[af:Kersfees]] [[ang:Crīstesmæsse]] [[bg:Коледа]] [[be:Божае Нараджэньне]] [[br:Nedeleg]] [[ca:Nadal]] [[ceb:Disyembre]] [[cs:Vánoce]] [[cy:Nadolig]] [[da:Jul]] [[de:Weihnachten]] [[el:Χριστούγεννα]] [[es:Navidad]] [[eo:Kristnasko]] [[fr:Noël]] [[ga:An Nollaig]] [[ko:크리스마스]] [[hr:Božić]] [[ilo:Deciembre]] [[id:Natal]] [[is:Jól]] [[it:Natale]] [[he:חג המולד]] [[jv:Natal]] [[sw:Desemba]] [[la:Christi Natalis]] [[lv:Decembris]] [[lt:Kalėdos]] [[lb:Chrëschtdag]] [[hu:Karácsony]] [[ms:Krismas]] [[nl:Kerstmis]] [[nds:Wiehnacht]] [[ja:クリスマス]] [[no:Jul]] [[nn:Jul]] [[oc:Nadal]] [[pl:Boże Narodzenie]] [[pt:Natal]] [[ro:Crăciun]] [[rm:Nadal]] [[ru:Рождество Христово]] [[scn:Natali]] [[simple:Christmas]] [[sl:Božič]] [[sr:Божић]] [[fi:Joulu]] [[sv:Jul]] [[tl:Pasko]] [[ta:டிசம்பர்]] [[th:คริสต์มาส]] [[vi:Giáng sinh]] [[uk:Різдво]] [[war:Disyembre]] [[zh:圣诞节]] [[pam:Disiembri]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Contraction mapping</title> <id>6239</id> <revision> <id>40429274</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:02:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kompik</username> <id>358008</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>See also: [[Short map]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''contraction mapping''', or '''contraction''', on a [[metric space]] ''(M,d)'' is a [[function (mathematics)\|function]] ''f'' from ''M'' to itself, with the property that there is some [[real number]] 0 < ''k'' < 1 such that, for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''M'', :<math>d(f(x),f(y))\leq k\,d(x,y).</math> The smallest such value of ''k'' is called the '''Lipschitz constant''' of ''f''. Contractive maps are sometimes called '''Lipschitzian maps'''. If the Lipschitz constant is equal to one, then the mapping is said to be ''non-expansive''. More generally, the idea of a contractive mapping can be defined for maps between metric spaces. Thus, if ''(M,d)'' and ''(N,g)'' are two metric spaces, and <math>f:M\rightarrow N</math>, then one looks for the constant ''k'' such that <math>g(f(x),f(y))\leq k\,d(x,y)</math> for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''M''. Every contraction mapping is [[Lipschitz continuous]] and hence [[uniformly continuous]]. A contraction mapping has at most one [[fixed point (mathematics)\|fixed point]]. Moreover, the [[Banach fixed point theorem]] states that every contraction mapping on a nonempty [[completeness (topology)\|complete]] metric space has a unique fixed point, and that for any ''x'' in ''M'' the [[iterated function]] sequence ''x'', ''f'' (''x''), ''f'' (''f'' (''x'')), ''f'' (''f'' (''f'' (''x''))), ... converges to the fixed point. ==See also== [[Short map]] ==References== * Vasile I. Istratescu, ''Fixed Point Theory, An Introduction'', D.Reidel, Holland (1981). ISBN 90-277-1224-7 provides an undergraduate level introduction. * Andrzej Granas and James Dugundji, ''Fixed Point Theory'' (2003) Springer-Verlag, New York, ISBN 0-387-00173-5 * William A. Kirk and Brailey Sims, ''Handbook of Metric Fixed Point Theory'' (2001), Kluwer Academic, London ISBN 0-7923-7073-2 [[Category:Metric geometry]] [[Category:Fixed points]] [[de:Kontraktion (Mathematik)]] [[pl:Kontrakcja (matematyka)]] [[sv:Kontraktionsavbildning]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Celtic language</title> <id>6240</id> <revision> <id>15904396</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Celtic languages]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of climbing areas</title> <id>6241</id> <revision> <id>40322310</id> <timestamp>2006-02-19T20:33:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Madcamelz</username> <id>958904</id> </contributor> <comment>/* [[Canada]] /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of articles about [[climbing area]]s and regions associated with [[climbing]]. {{listdev}} __NOTOC__ [[#Africa\|Africa]] \| [[#Asia\|Asia]] \| [[#Australasia\|Australasia]] \| [[#Europe\|Europe]] \| [[#North America\|North America]] \| [[#South America\|South America]] == Africa == ===[[South Africa]]=== [[Eastern Cape Province\|Eastern Cape]] [[Cockscombe]] [[Morgans Bay]] * [[Free State Province\|Free State]] [[Mnt Everest Reserve]] [[Swinburne, Free State\|Swinburne]] * [[Gauteng Province\|Gauteng]] ** [[The Chosspile]] * [[KwaZulu-Natal Province\|KwaZulu-Natal]] [[Drakensberg]] [[Kloof\|Kloof Gorge]] [[Monteseel]] [[Shongweni]] * [[Mpumalanga Province\|Mpumalanga]] [[Waterval Boven]] [[Wilgepoort]] * [[Limpopo Province]] [[Blouberg]] [[Hanglip]] [[Krantzberg]] [[Wellington's Dome]] ** [[Wolkberg]] * [[Northwest Province]] ** [[Magaliesberg]] * [[Western Cape Province\|Western Cape]] [[Milner Amphitheater]] [[Montagu, South Africa\|Montagu]] [[Oudtshoorn]] [[Rocklands]] [[Table Mountain (South Africa)\|Table Mountain]] [[Wolfberg]] == Asia == === [[India]] === * [[Bangalore]] [[Hampi]] [[Savan Durga]] [[Turalli]] [[Ramanagaram]] === [[Thailand]] === * [[Krabi province\|Krabi]] ** [[Railay Beach]] == Australasia == === [[Australia]] === * [[Australian Capital Territory]] ** [[Booroomba Rocks]] * [[New South Wales]] [[Blue Mountains]] [[Point Perpendicular]] [[Warrambungles]] [[Nowra]] [[Bungonia Gorge]] [[Watagans]] * [[Queensland]] [[Frog Buttress]] [[Kangaroo Point]] ** [[Glass House Mountains]] * [[South Australia]] ** [[Moonarie]] * [[Tasmania]] [[Freycinet Peninsula]] [[Frenchman's Cap]] ** [[Ben Lomond National Park]] * [[Victoria_(Australia)\|Victoria]] [[Grampians National Park]] [[Mount Arapiles]] ** [[Mount Buffalo]] * [[Western Australia]] ** [[Bluff Knoll]] === [[New Zealand]] === * [[Wharepapa]] * [[Paynes Ford]] * [[Castle Hill, New Zealand\|Castle Hill]] * [[Whanganui Bay]] == Europe == ===[[Belgium]]=== * [[Freyr]] * [[Beez]] ===[[France]]=== * [[Annot]] * [[Ardeche]] * [[Calanques]] * [[Verdon]] * [[Fontainebleau]] [[Gorges d'Apremont]] [[Bas Cuvier]] [[Trois Pignons]] [[Éléphant]] * [[Dijon]] [[Saussois]] [[Saffres]] * [[Briançon]]([[Alps]]) [[Fressinière]] [[Saint-Crépin]] ** [[Mont Dauphin]] ===[[Germany]]=== * [[Frankenjura]] * [[Südpfalz]] * [[Elbsandsteingebirge]] * [[Ith]] * [[Altmühltal]] * [[Schwäbische Alb]] * [[Eifel]] * [[Kanstein]] * [[Monte Pinnow]] * [[Selter]] ===[[Greece]]=== * [[Kalymnos]] * [[Meteora]] * [[Nafplio]] * [[Varasova]] ===[[Ireland]] (including [[Northern Ireland]])=== * [[The Burren]] * [[Dalkey]] * [[Fair Head]] * [[Glendalough]] * [[Mourne Mountains]] ===[[Italy]]=== * [[Arco, Italy\|Arco]] * [[Finale Ligure]] ===[[Luxembourg]]=== * [[Berdorf]] ===[[Portugal]]=== * [[Buracas do Cagimil]] * [[Cascais - Guia]] * [[Faro - Rocha da Pena]] * [[Montejunto]] * [[Penacova]] * [[Portalegre]] * [[Peniche]] * [[Redinha - Senhora da Estrela]] * [[Reguengo do Fétal]] * [[Serra da Arrábida - Fenda]] * [[Sesimbra - Pedreiras]] * [[Vale dos Poios]] * [[Valongo]] ===[[Poland]]=== * [[Hejszowina]] * [[Jura Krakowsko-Cz&#281;stochowska]] * [[Sokoliki]] * [[Tatra mountains]] ===[[Norway]]=== [[Bergen, Norway\|Bergen]] [[Jotunheimen]] [[Oslo]] [[Romsdal]] ===[[Russia]]=== * [[Karjala]] [[Impilakhti]] [[Hiitola]] ** [[Jastrebinoe]] * [[Nordth Caucas]] [[Bezengi]] [[Kislovodsk]] ** [[Pjatigorsk]] ===[[Slovenia]]=== * [[Bohinjska Bela]] * [[Črni kal]] * [[Kote&#269;nik]] * [[Mišja Pe&#269;]] * [[Osp]] ===[[Spain]]=== * [[Atauri]] * [[Canary Islands]] * [[Costa Blanca]] * [[Costa Daurada]] * [[El Chorro]] * [[Loja, Granada\|Loja]] * [[Majorca]] * [[Montserrat (mountain)\|Montserrat]] * [[Rodellar]] ===[[United Kingdom\|UK]]=== * [[Wales]] ** [[Pembroke]] * [[Lake District]] * [[Peak District]] * [[Scotland]] * [[Yorkshire]] * [[Lancashire]] [[Anglezarke]] [[Wilton]] [[Brownstones]] [[Denham]] * [[Cornwall]] * [[Devon]] [[Dartmoor]] [[Sea Cliff Limestone]] Dorset Portland Swanage == North America == ===[[Canada]]=== * [[Bugaboos]], British Columbia * [[Banff, Alberta\|Banff]], Alberta * [[Canmor
the long wavelength limit the size of the universe itself (see [[cosmology]]), though in principle the spectrum is [[infinite]]. Electromagnetic energy at a particular [[wavelength]] [[lambda\|&lambda;]] (in vacuum) has an associated [[frequency]] [[nu\|&nu;]] and [[photon]] [[energy]] ''E''. Thus, the electromagnetic spectrum may be expressed equally well in terms of any of these three quantities. They are related according to the equations: :<math>\lambda = \frac{c}{\nu} \,\!</math> and :<math>E=h\nu \,\!</math> where: * ''c'' is the [[speed of light]], 299792458 m/s <math>(c \approx 3 \cdot 10^8 \ \mbox{ m}/\mbox{s} = 300,000 \ \mbox{km}/\mbox{s})</math>. * ''h'' is [[Planck's constant]], <math>(h \approx 6.626069 \cdot 10^{-34} \ \mbox{J} \cdot \mbox{s} \approx 4.13567 \ \mathrm{\mu} \mbox{eV}/\mbox{GHz})</math>. == Spectra of objects == Nearly all objects in the [[universe]] emit, reflect and/or transmit some light. (One hypothetical exception may be [[dark matter]].) The distribution of this light along the electromagnetic spectrum (called the ''spectrum'' of the object) is determined by the object's composition. Several types of spectra can be distinguished depending upon the nature of the radiation coming from an object: * If the spectrum is composed primarily of [[thermal radiation]] emitted by the object itself, an ''[[emission spectrum]]'' occurs. ** Some bodies emit light more or less according to the [[blackbody spectrum]]. * If the spectrum is composed of background light, parts of which the object transmits and parts of which it absorbs, an ''[[absorption spectrum]]'' occurs. [[Electromagnetic spectroscopy]] is the branch of physics that deals with the characterization of matter by its spectra. == Classification systems == [[Image:Spectre.svg\|thumb\|350px\|Electromagnetic spectrum illustration.]] While the classification scheme is generally accurate, in reality there is often some overlap between neighboring types of electromagnetic energy. For example, SLF radio waves at 60 Hz may be received and studied by astronomers, or may be ducted along wires as electric power. Also, some low-energy gamma rays actually have a longer wavelength than some high-energy X-rays. This is possible because "gamma ray" is the name given to the photons generated from [[nuclear decay]] or other nuclear and subnuclear processes, whereas X-rays on the other hand are generated by [[electron]]ic transitions involving highly energetic inner electrons. Therefore the distinction between gamma ray and X-ray is related to the radiation source rather than the radiation wavelength. Generally, nuclear transitions are much more energetic than electronic transitions, so usually, gamma-rays are more energetic than X-rays. However, there are a few low-energy nuclear transitions (e.g. the 14.4 keV nuclear transition of [[Iron\|Fe]]-57) that produce gamma rays that are less energetic than some of the higher energy X-rays. Use of the radio frequency spectrum is regulated by governments. This is called [[frequency allocation]]. === Radio frequency === {{radio_spectrum}} [[Image:Atmospheric electromagnetic transmittance or opacity.jpg\|thumb\|right\|350px\|Plot of Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation.]] {{main\|radio frequency}} [[Radio]] waves generally are utilized by [[antenna (radio)\|antennas]] of appropriate size (according to the principle of [[resonance]]), with wavelengths ranging from hundreds of meters to about one millimeter. They are used for transmission of data, via [[modulation]]. [[Television]], [[mobile phone]]s, [[wireless networking]] and [[amateur radio]] all use radio waves. === Microwaves === The [[super high frequency]] ([[SHF]]) and [[extremely high frequency]] ([[EHF]]) of [[Microwave]]s come next up the frequency scale. Microwaves are waves which are typically short enough to employ tubular metal [[waveguide]]s of reasonable diameter. Microwave energy is produced with [[klystron]] and [[magnetron]] tubes, and with solid state [[diode]]s such as [[Gunn diode\|Gunn]] and [[IMPATT diode\|IMPATT]] devices. Microwaves are absorbed by molecules that have a [[dipole moment]] in liquids. In a [[microwave oven]], this effect is used to heat food. Low-intensity microwave radiation is used in [[Wi-Fi]]. It should be noted that an average microwave oven in active condition is, in close range, powerful enough to cause interference with poorly shielded electromagnetic fields such as those found in mobile medical devices and cheap consumer electronics. ==== [[Terahertz radiation]] ==== This is a region of the light spectrum between far infrared and microwaves. Until recently, the range was rarely studied and few sources existed for microwave energy at the high end of the band (sub-millimeter waves or so-called '''[[terahertz radiation\|terahertz waves]]'''), but applications such as imaging and communications are now appearing. The proposed [[WiMAX]] standard for wireless networking, a long-range enhancement of [[Wi-Fi]], lies within this region. Scientists are also looking to apply Terahertz technology in the armed forces, where high frequency waves will be sent at enemy troops to incapacitate them. === Infrared radiation === The [[infrared]] part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from roughly 300 GHz (1 mm) to 400 THz (750 nm). It can be divided into three parts: '''Far-infrared''', from 300 GHz (1 mm) to 30 THz (10 &mu;m). The lower part of this range may also be called microwaves. This radiation is typically absorbed by so-called rotational modes in gas-phase molecules, by molecular motions in liquids, and by phonons in solids. The water in the Earth's atmosphere absorbs so strongly in this range that it renders the atmosphere effectively opaque. However, there are certain wavelength ranges ("windows") within the opaque range which allow partial transmission, and can be used for astronomy. The wavelength range from approximately 200 &mu;m up to a few mm is often referred to as [[Submillimetre_astronomy\|"sub-millimeter" in astronomy]], reserving far infrared for wavelengths below 200 &mu;m. '''Mid-infrared''', from 30 to 120 THz (10 to 2.5 &mu;m). Hot objects ([[black-body]] radiators) can radiate strongly in this range. It is absorbed by molecular vibrations, that is, when the different atoms in a molecule vibrate around their equilibrium positions. This range is sometimes called the ''fingerprint region'' since the mid-infrared absorption spectrum of a compound is very specific for that compound. *'''Near-infrared''', from 120 to 400 THz (2,500 to 750 nm). Physical processes that are relevant for this range are similar to those for visible light. === Visible radiation (light) === {\| align="right" class="wikitable" \|- ! [[Color]] !! Wavelength interval !! Frequency interval \|- \| [[violet (color)\|violet]] \|bgcolor="#50007F"\|<font color=white>~ 380 to 430 nm</font> \|bgcolor="#50007F"\|<font color=white>~ 790 to 700 THz</font> \|- \| [[blue]] \|bgcolor="#0000FF"\|<font color=white>~ 430 to 500 nm</font> \|bgcolor="#0000FF"\|<font color=white>~ 700 to 600 THz</font> \|- \| [[cyan]] \|bgcolor="#00D4D4"\|~ 500 to 520 nm \|bgcolor="#00D4D4"\|~ 600 to 580 THz \|- \| [[green]] \|bgcolor="#00FF00"\|~ 520 to 565 nm \|bgcolor="#00FF00"\|~ 580 to 530 THz \|- \| [[yellow]] \|bgcolor="#FFFF00"\|~ 565 to 590 nm \|bgcolor="#FFFF00"\|~ 530 to 510 THz \|- \| [[orange (colour)\|orange]] \|bgcolor="#FF8000"\|~ 590 to 625 nm \|bgcolor="#FF8000"\|~ 510 to 480 THz \|- \| [[red]] \|bgcolor="#DF0000"\|~ 625 to 740 nm \|bgcolor="#DF0000"\|~ 480 to 405 THz \|- \|colspan="5" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;"\|'''Continuous spectrum'''<br /> [[Image:Spectrum441pxWithnm.png]]<br /> The spectrum of visible light in [[nanometer]]s<br /> <small>''Designed for monitors with [[gamma correction\|gamma]] 1.5.''</small><br /> \|} Above infrared in frequency comes [[visible light]]. This is the range in which the [[sun]] and [[star]]s similar to it emit most of their radiation. It is probably not a coincidence that the [[luminosity function\|human eye is sensitive]] to the wavelengths that the sun emits most strongly. Visible light (and near-infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in molecules and atoms that move from one energy level to another. The light we see with our eyes is really a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. A [[rainbow]] shows the optical (visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if you could see it) would be located just beyond the red side of the rainbow with [[ultraviolet]] appearing just beyond the violet end. === Ultraviolet light === Next in frequency comes [[ultraviolet]] (UV). This is radiation whose wavelength is shorter than the violet end of the [[visible spectrum]]. Being very energetic, UV can break chemical bonds, making molecules unusually reactive or ionizing them, in general changing their mutual behavior. [[Sunburn]], for example, is caused by the disruptive effects of UV radiation on [[skin]] [[Cell (biology)\|cell]]s, which can even cause [[skin cancer]], if the radiation damages the complex [[DNA]] molecules in the cells (UV radiation is a proven [[mutagen]]). The [[Sun]] emits a large amount of UV radiation, which could quickly turn [[Earth]] into a barren desert, but most of it is absorbed by the atmosphere's [[ozone layer]] before reaching the surface. === X-rays === After UV come [[X-ray]]s. Hard X-rays are of shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays. X-rays are used for seeing through some things and not others, as well as for h
tan]]s and those with a less Reformed understanding of Anglicanism. It must be understood that the concept of religious freedom was in those days neither understood nor accepted by many people, and that the groups involved in the struggle were aiming for control, not freedom. By continental standards the level of violence over religion was not high, but among the casualties were a king ([[Charles I of England\|Charles I]]) and an Archbishop of Canterbury ([[William Laud]]). The final outcome in [[1660]] after the [[English Restoration\|Restoration]] of [[Charles II of England\|Charles II]] was not too far removed from the Elizabethan ideal. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation, taken for granted by the [[Tudors]], had to be abandoned. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with an Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and the two extremes, Roman Catholic and those Puritans who dissented from the establishment, too strong to be suppressed altogether, having to continue their existence outside the national church, rather than controlling it. The English Reformation may be said to have ended at this point. The Elizabethan settlement failed in that it was never able to gain the assent of the entire English people. Yet as the Anglican form of Christianity is now flourishing in many parts of the world far away from England it may possibly have succeeded beyond the wildest expectations of anybody alive in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. ==Leadership== The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] has a precedence of honour over the other archbishops of the Anglican Communion. He is recognised as [[primus inter pares]], or first amongst equals. The Archbishop of Canterbury, however, does not exercise any direct authority in the provinces outside England. The current Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Rowan Williams]], as former [[Archbishop of Wales]], is the first primate appointed from outside the Church of England since the Reformation. All Anglican priests have Apostolic Succession. Since the reign of [[Henry VIII of England\|Henry VIII]] ultimate authority in the [[Church of England]] has been vested in the reigning monarch. Since the time of [[Elizabeth I of England\|Elizabeth I]] the sovereign's title has been 'Supreme Governor' rather than 'Head' of the Church of England. In practice this means that the monarch has the responsibility of seeing that the administrative machinery of the church is running smoothly, and in particular that new bishops are appointed when needed. Today this responsibility is discharged by the Prime Minister. Anglican churches outside England do not have this relationship with the British monarch, however it remains the case that the Archbishop of Canterbury, leader of the worldwide Anglican Communion, is appointed by [[the Crown]] of the United Kingdom (in theory; in practice by the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom\|Prime Minister]]). ==Churches== Anglicanism is most commonly identified with the established [[Church of England]], but Anglican churches exist in most parts of the world. In some countries (e.g., the [[United States]], [[Scotland]]) the Anglican church is known as Episcopal, from the Latin ''episcopus'', "[[bishop]]", which comes from a [[Greek language\|Greek]] word literally meaning an "overseer." Some Anglican churches are not in communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury but consider themselves ''Anglican'' because they retain practices of the Church of England and the [[Book of Common Prayer]]. Each [[national church]] or [[province (Anglican)\|province]] is headed by a [[Primate (religion)\|Primate]] called a [[Primus of Scotland\|Primus]] in the [[Scottish Episcopal Church]], an [[Archbishop]] in most countries, a [[Presiding Bishop]] in the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America\|Episcopal Church USA]] and a Prime Bishop in the Philippine Episcopal Church. These churches are divided into a number of dioceses, usually corresponding to state or metropolitan divisions. There are three orders of the ordained ministry: [[deacon]], [[priest]] and [[bishop]]. No requirement is made for [[clerical celibacy]] and women may be ordained as deacons in almost all provinces, as priests in some, and as bishops in a few provinces. Religious orders of monks, brothers, sisters and nuns were suppressed in England during the Reformation but have made a reappearance in Victorian times and thrive today. Those Anglican churches "in [[full communion\|communion]]" with the See of [[Canterbury, Kent\|Canterbury]] constitute the [[Anglican Communion]], a formal organisation made up of churches at the national level. However, there are a large number of denominations (albeit insignificant in terms of number of adherents) which call themselves Anglican that are known as the "[[Anglican continuing churches\|continuing church]]" movement and do not acknowledge the Anglican Communion. They are generally conservative-to-traditionalist and, to a varying degree [[Anglo-Catholicism\|Anglo-Catholic]] in their doctrinal orientation, but tend to side politically with [[Evangelicalism\|Evangelicals]] of the right; some, however, are at the extreme evangelical end of the churchmanship spectrum, such as the [[Church of England in South Africa]] (not in communion in Canterbury but in communion with the [[Diocese of Sydney]]), and the [[Reformed Episcopal Church]]. They consider the Church of England and the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], as well as some other member churches of the Anglican Communion, to have departed from the historic faith by ordaining women, by ordaining openly gay people, by altering the theological emphases of the 1928 [[Book of Common Prayer]] of the Episcopal Church of the United States or the 1662 Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England, and by loosening the Church's traditional regulations concerning sexual and marital matters. There are also those independent jurisdictions, such as The National Anglican Catholic Church of the United States - which uses Anglican, Catholic and Lutheran principles in their doctrine. In the Indian subcontinent Anglican churches have entered into formal union with evangelical protestant denominations while remaining part of the Anglican Communion and indeed bringing their Presbyterian and other historically non-Anglican fellows along with them. As a percentage of the total population these united churches are not significant but numerically they are very substantial other than in Bangladesh. See [[Church of North India]], [[Church of South India]], [[Church of Pakistan]] and [[Church of Bangladesh]]. ==Doctrine== Anglicans look for authority (in the formula of [[Richard Hooker (theologian)\|Richard Hooker]]) in the experience of Scripture, Reason, and Tradition (the practices and writings of the historical church). While it is often taught that these three are of equal value (using an image of a three-legged stool), the Anglican formularies have always pointed out that: ::"Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation: so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man, that it should be believed as an article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation." (Article VI, The [[Thirty-nine Articles\|Anglican Thirty-nine Articles of Religion]]). Historically, Anglicans have regarded the [[Bible]], the three Creeds ([[Nicene Creed]], [[Apostles' Creed]], and [[Athanasian Creed]]), the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] of Religion and the [[Book of Common Prayer]] (1662) as the principal norms of doctrine. Thus, some have said that the Anglican Church retains much of the liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church, but is tolerant of [[Reformed]] doctrine. This state of affairs is a consequence of the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]]. The traditional liturgy of Anglicanism, the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, has been considered "too Catholic" by those of Puritan leanings in the 16th century and Evangelicals in later periods, and "too Evangelical" by those of [[Anglo-Catholicism\|Anglo-Catholic]] leanings. This distinction is routinely a matter of debate both within specific Anglican Churches and throughout the Anglican Communion by members themselves. Since the [[Oxford Movement]] of the mid-19th century, many churches of the Communion have embraced and extended liturgical and pastoral practices dissimilar with most Reformed Protestant theology. This extends beyond the ceremony of [[High Church]] services to even more theologically significant territory. Some Anglican clergy practise all seven of the [[sacraments]] in a marked way, in departure from the teaching of early Protestant thinkers like [[John Calvin]] and [[Martin Luther]], even though opinions vary about the best way to understand these "sacramental rites". For example, some Anglican clergy will hear private confessions from their parishioners, a practice widely discontinued in Protestant denominations. Nevertheless, while Anglo-Catholic practices, particularly liturgical ones, have become much more mainstream within the denomination over the last century, there remain many areas where practices and beliefs remain on the more Protestant or Evangelical side of the debate. ==Churchmanship== Anglicanism has always been characterised by diversity in theology and the ceremonial (or lack thereof) of the liturgy. Different individuals, groups, parishes, dioceses, and national churches may identify more with Catholic traditions and theology or, alternatively, with the principles of Evangelicalism. Some Anglicans follow such devotional practices common among Roman Catholics as solemn benediction of the reserved sacrament, use of the [[rosary]], or of [[anglican prayer beads]], and prayer to the departed saints, whic
EFA]] Federation to another. [[1997]] - A chartered [[Tupolev]] TU-154 from [[Tajikistan]] crashes in the desert near Sharja, [[United Arab Emirates]] airport killing 85. [[2002]] - The [[Digital_audio_broadcasting\|digital radio station]] [[BBC7]] is launched by the comedian [[Paul Merton]]. [[2005]] - The 43rd known [[Mersenne prime]] is discovered by [[Dr. Curtis Cooper]] & [[Dr. Steven Boone]] of [[USA]], participants of the [[GIMPS]] [[distributed computing]] project. The [[prime number]] is the largest known Mersenne prime at the time of its discovery, and is more than nine [[million]] [[digit]]s long. 2005 - Ten million Iraqis participate in their [[Iraqi legislative election, December 2005\|first democratic election]]. 2005 - Latvia edits its [[constitution]] to ban [[social equality\|equal marriage rights]] to [[gay\|gays]] and [[lesbian\|lesbians]]. 2005 - Argentina's president [[Néstor Kirchner]] announces the cancellation of the external debt to the [[IMF]]. ==Births== [[37]] - [[Nero]], Roman Emperor of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] (d. [[68]]) [[1859]] - [[L. L. Zamenhof]], Russian initiator of [[Esperanto]] (d. [[1917]]) [[1860]] - [[Niels Ryberg Finsen]], Danish physician and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine\|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1904]]) [[1861]] - [[Charles Duryea]], American automobile pioneer (d. [[1938]]) [[1878]] - [[Hans Carossa]], German writer (d. [[1956]]) [[1888]] - [[Maxwell Anderson]], American writer (d. [[1959]]) [[1892]] - [[J. Paul Getty]], American oil tycoon (d. [[1976]]) [[1899]] - [[Harold Abrahams]], British sprinter and Olympic gold medalist (d. [[1978]]) [[1907]] - [[Oscar Niemeyer]], Brazilian architect [[1910]] - [[John H. Hammond]], American musician and record producer (d. [[1987]]) [[1912]] - [[Ray Eames]], American designer (d. [[1988]]) 1912 - [[Stan Kenton]], American musician (d. [[1979]]) [[1913]] - [[Muriel Rukeyser]], American poet (d. [[1980]]) [[1916]] - [[Buddy Cole (musician)\|Buddy Cole]], American pianist (d. [[1964]]) 1916 - [[Maurice Wilkins]], New Zealand-born physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine\|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[2004]]) [[1918]] - [[Jeff Chandler (actor)\|Jeff Chandler]], American actor (d. [[1961]]) [[1922]] - [[Alan Freed]], American disc jockey (d. [[1965]]) [[1923]] - [[Freeman Dyson]], English-born American physicist [[1928]] - [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]], Austrian artist (d. [[2000]]) [[1933]] - [[Tim Conway]], American actor and comedian [[1938]] - [[Billy Shaw]], American football player [[1939]] - [[Cindy Birdsong]], American singer ([[The Supremes]]) [[1942]] - [[Dave Clark (musician)\|Dave Clark]], British drummer ([[The Dave Clark Five]]) [[1949]] - [[Don Johnson]], American actor [[1952]] - [[Cassandra Harris]], Australian actress (d. [[1991]]) 1952 - [[Julie Taymor]], American theater, opera, and film director [[1955]] - [[Paul Simonon]], British bassist ([[The Clash]]) [[1961]] - [[Karin Resetarits]], Austrian journalist and politician [[1967]] - [[Mo Vaughn]], American baseball player [[1968]] - [[Javid Hussain]], Indian film producer 1968 - [[Garrett Wang]], American actor [[1970]] - [[Michael Shanks]], Canadian actor 1970 - [[Frankie Dettori]], Italian champion jockey [[1972]] - [[Stuart Townsend]], Irish actor [[1973]] - [[Surya Bonaly]], French-born American figure skater [[1976]] - [[Baichung Bhutia]], Indian footballer [[1979]] - [[Adam Brody]], American actor 1979 - [[Eric Young]], Canadian professional wrestler [[1981]] - [[Thomas Herrion]], American football player (d. [[2005]]) ==Deaths== [[1025]] - [[Basil II]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[958]]) [[1072]] - [[Alp Arslan]], Turkish sultan in Persia (b. [[1029]]) [[1263]] - King [[Haakon IV of Norway]] (b. [[1204]]) [[1598]] - [[Philips van Marnix, lord of Sint-Aldegonde]], Dutch writer and statesman (b. [[1538]]) [[1621]] - [[Charles de Luynes]], Constable of France (b. [[1578]]) [[1673]] - [[Margaret Cavendish]], English writer (b. [[1623]]) [[1675]] - [[Johannes Vermeer]], Dutch painter (b. [[1632]]) [[1683]] - [[Izaak Walton]], English writer (b. [[1593]]) [[1688]] - [[Gaspar Fagel]], Dutch statesman (b. [[1634]]) [[1715]] - [[George Hickes]], English minister and scholar (b. [[1642]]) [[1753]] - [[Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington]], English architect (b. [[1694]]) [[1792]] - [[Joseph Martin Kraus]], Swedish composer (b. [[1756]]) [[1890]] - [[Sitting Bull]], Sioux nation leader (b. circa [[1831]]) [[1943]] - [[Fats Waller]], American musician (b. [[1904]]) [[1947]] - [[Arthur Machen]], British author (b. [[1863]]) [[1958]] - [[Wolfgang Ernst Pauli]], Austrian-born American physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics\|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1900]]) [[1966]] - [[Walt Disney]], American animator (b. [[1901]]) [[1968]] - [[Jess Willard]], American boxer and World [[Heavyweight]] Champion (b. [[1881]]) [[1975]] - [[Anatole Litvak]], Russian-born filmmaker (b. [[1902]]) [[1984]] - [[Jan Peerce]], American tenor (b. [[1904]]) 1984 - [[Lennard Pearce]], British actor (b. [[1915]]) [[1989]] - [[Arnold Moss]], American character actor (b. [[1910]]) [[1991]] - [[Vasily Grigoryevich Zaitsev]], Russian-born Soviet sniper (b. [[1915]]) [[2001]] - [[Russ Haas]], American professional wrestler (b. [[1974]]) 2001 - [[Rufus Thomas]], American musician (b. [[1917]]) [[2003]] - [[George Fisher (cartoonist)\|George Fisher]], American political cartoonist (b. [[1923]]) [[2005]] - [[William Proxmire]], U.S. Senator from Wisconsin (b. [[1911]]) 2005 - [[Darrell Russell (football player)\|Darrell Russell]], American football player (b. [[1976]]) ==Holidays and observances== [[Roman festivals]] - [[Consualia]] in honor of [[Consus]] is held. * [[Calendar of Saints\|R.C. Saints]] - [[St. Valerian (Abbenza)\|St. Valerian]]; [[Saint Wunibald]] of [[Heidenheim]]. * [[United States]] - Bill of Rights Day, in honor of the ratification of the [[United States Bill of Rights]] in [[1791]]. * [[Zamenhof Day]] celebrated in the [[Esperanto]] movement in honor of [[L. L. Zamenhof]], the creator of Esperanto. == External links == * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/15 BBC: On This Day] ---- [[December 14]] - [[December 16]] - [[November 15]] - [[January 15]] -- [[historical anniversaries\|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:15 Desember]] [[ar:15 ديسمبر]] [[an:15 d'abiento]] [[ast:15 d'avientu]] [[bg:15 декември]] [[be:15 сьнежня]] [[bs:15. decembar]] [[br:15 Kerzu]] [[ca:15 de desembre]] [[ceb:Disyembre 15]] [[cv:Раштав, 15]] [[co:15 di decembre]] [[cs:15. prosinec]] [[cy:15 Rhagfyr]] [[da:15. december]] [[de:15. Dezember]] [[et:15. detsember]] [[el:15 Δεκεμβρίου]] [[es:15 de diciembre]] [[eo:15-a de decembro]] [[eu:Abenduaren 15]] [[fo:15. desember]] [[fr:15 décembre]] [[fy:15 desimber]] [[ga:15 Nollaig]] [[gl:15 de decembro]] [[ko:12월 15일]] [[hr:15. prosinca]] [[io:15 di decembro]] [[id:15 Desember]] [[ia:15 de decembre]] [[is:15. desember]] [[it:15 dicembre]] [[he:15 בדצמבר]] [[jv:15 Desember]] [[ka:15 დეკემბერი]] [[csb:15 gòdnika]] [[ku:15'ê berfanbarê]] [[la:15 Decembris]] [[lt:Gruodžio 15]] [[lb:15. Dezember]] [[hu:December 15]] [[mk:15 декември]] [[ms:15 Disember]] [[nap:15 'e dicembre]] [[nl:15 december]] [[ja:12月15日]] [[no:15. desember]] [[nn:15. desember]] [[oc:15 de decembre]] [[pl:15 grudnia]] [[pt:15 de Dezembro]] [[ro:15 decembrie]] [[ru:15 декабря]] [[se:Juovlamánu 15.]] [[sco:15 December]] [[sq:15 Dhjetor]] [[scn:15 di dicèmmiru]] [[simple:December 15]] [[sk:15. december]] [[sl:15. december]] [[sr:15. децембар]] [[fi:15. joulukuuta]] [[sv:15 december]] [[tl:Disyembre 15]] [[tt:15. Dekäber]] [[te:డిసెంబర్ 15]] [[th:15 ธันวาคม]] [[vi:15 tháng 12]] [[tr:15 Aralık]] [[uk:15 грудня]] [[wa:15 di decimbe]] [[war:Disyembre 15]] [[zh:12月15日]] [[pam:Disiembri 15]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DOS</title> <id>8146</id> <revision> <id>42088187</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:21:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Alexwcovington</username> <id>37752</id> </contributor> <comment>/* History */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4\|the family of closely related operating systems for the IBM PC compatible platform\|DOS as an acronym for Disk Operating System\|Disk operating system}} {{For\|the similarly-named operating for the System/360\|DOS/360}} {{otheruses}} '''DOS''' commonly refers to the family of closely related operating systems which dominated the [[IBM PC compatible]] market between 1981 and 1995 (or until about 2000, if you include Windows 9X) : [[PC-DOS]], [[MS-DOS]], [[FreeDOS]], [[DR-DOS]], [[Novell-DOS]], [[OpenDOS]], [[PTS-DOS]], [[ROM-DOS]] and several others. Of these, MS-DOS from [[Microsoft]] was the most widely used. These operating systems ran on [[IBM PC]] type hardware using the [[Intel]] [[x86]] [[CPU]]s or their compatible cousins from other makers. [[Image: Msdos.gif\|right\|thumb\|250px\|This screen shows the help information for the often used MS-DOS <tt>dir</tt> command.]] == History == MS-DOS (and the IBM PC-DOS which was licensed therefrom), and its predecessor, [[QDOS]], was an imitation of [[CP/M]] ('''C'''ontrol '''P'''rogram / (for) '''M'''icrocomputers)&mdash;which was the dominant operating system for 8-bit [[Intel 8080]] and [[Zilog]] [[Zilog Z-80\|Z80]] based microcomputers. It was first developed at [[Seattle Computer Products]] by Tim Patterson as a variant of [[CP/M-80]] from [[Digital Research]], but intended as an internal product for testing SCP's new [[8086]] [[Central processing unit\|CPU]] card for the [[S-100 bus]]. It did not run on the 8080 (or compatible) CPU needed for CP/M-80. It was called [[QDOS]], among several other names. Microsoft licensed it from SCP, made changes and licensed the result to IBM (sold as [[PC-DOS]]) for its new 'PC' using the 8088 CPU (internally the same as the 8086)
procedure, e.g. pulmonary vein isolation. This is performed by a cardiologist who specializes in electrophysiology and is done [[percutaneously]] with [[catheters]]. Alternatively, a maze procedure can be performed through [[cardiothoracic surgery]]. ==See also== [[Antiarrhythmic agents]] [[Artificial pacemaker]] [[Electrical conduction system of the heart]] [[Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator]]. ==External links== * [http://heartcenter.seattlechildrens.org/conditions_treated/arrhythmia.asp Arrhythmia information] from Seattle Children's Hospital Heart Center [http://www.sads.org/ SADS Foundation] [http://www.c-r-y.org.uk Cardiac Risk in the Young] (UK) [[Category:Cardiac electrophysiology]] [[Category:medical emergencies]] [[de:Herzrhythmusstörung]] [[fr:Troubles de la conduction cardiaque]] [[ko:부정맥]] [[it:Aritmia]] [[he:אריתמיה]] [[nl:Hartritmestoornis]] [[no:Arytmi]] [[ja:不整脈]] [[pt:Arritmia cardíaca]] [[sv:Arytmier]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cote DIvoire</title> <id>5563</id> <revision> <id>15903765</id> <timestamp>2004-12-09T01:12:31Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Dryazan</username> <id>75150</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Côte d'Ivoire]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cote DIvoire/History</title> <id>5564</id> <revision> <id>15903766</id> <timestamp>2003-05-15T03:31:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Minesweeper</username> <id>7279</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fix double redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History_of_Côte_d'Ivoire]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Côte d'Ivoire</title> <id>5565</id> <revision> <id>41026144</id> <timestamp>2006-02-24T15:56:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>67.88.88.66</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Crops and natural resources /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Country geography\| name =Côte d'Ivoire\| map =Côte d'Ivoire Map.jpg\| continent =[[Africa]]\| region =[[West Africa]]<br />[[Sub-Saharan Africa]]\| coordinates =8°00'N, 5°00'W\| area ranking =67th\| km area =322,460\| miles area =124,503\| percent land= 98.62\| percent water = 1.38\| km coastline =515\| miles coastline = 320\| borders =[[Land borders\|Total land borders]]:<br />3110&nbsp;km (1932&nbsp;miles)<br />[[Liberia]]:&nbsp;716 km (445 miles)<br />[[Ghana]]:&nbsp;668 km (415 miles)<br />[[Guinea]]:&nbsp;610 km (379 miles)<br />[[Burkina Faso]]:&nbsp;584 km (363 miles)<br />[[Mali]]:&nbsp;532 km (331)<br />\| highest point= [[Mont Nimba]]<br />1752&nbsp;m (5748&nbsp;ft)\| lowest point= [[Gulf of Guinea]]<br />0&nbsp;m/ft ([[sea level]])\| longest river=[[Bandama River]]<br />\| largest lake=[[Lac de Kossou]]<br />\|}} '''Côte d'Ivoire''' (the '''Ivory Coast''') is a [[Sub-Saharan Africa\|sub-Saharan]] nation in southern [[West Africa]] located at 8 00°N, 5 00°W. The country is shaped like a [[Square (geometry)\|square]] and borders the [[Gulf of Guinea]] in the north [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the south (515 km of coastline) and five other [[Africa]]n nations on the other three sides, with a total of 3,110 km of [[border]]s: [[Liberia]] to the southwest (716 km), [[Guinea]] to the northwest (610 km), [[Mali]] to the north-northeast (532 km), and [[Ghana]] to the east (668 km). In total, Côte d'Ivoire comprises 322,460 km², of which 318,000 km² is land and 4,460 km² is water, which makes the country slightly larger than the [[U.S. state]] of [[New Mexico]], or about the size of [[Germany]]. Côte d'Ivoire makes maritime claims of 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km) as an [[exclusive economic zone]], 12 nautical miles (22 km) of territorial sea, and a 200 nautical mile (370 km) [[continental shelf]]. ==Terrain and topography== Côte d'Ivoire's [[terrain]] can generally be described as a large [[plateau]] rising gradually from [[sea level]] in the south to almost 500 m [[elevation]] in the north. The nation's natural resources have made it into a comparatively prosperous nation in the [[Economy of Africa\|African economy]]. The southeastern region of Côte d'Ivoire is marked by coastal inland [[lagoon]]s that starts at the Ghanaian border and stretch 300 km (190 miles) along the eastern half of the coast. The southern region, especially the southwest, is densely [[forest]]ed and moist, and is categorized as [[Eastern Guinean forests\|eastern Guinean forest]]. The northern region is a [[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands\|savanna]]-and-[[scrubland]] zone of lateritic or sandy [[soil]]s, with [[vegetation]] decreasing from south to north within the region, categorized as [[Guinean montane forests\|Guinean montane forest]]. The terrain is mostly flat to undulating [[plain]]s, with [[mountain]]s in the northwest. The lowest elevation in Côte d'Ivoire is at sea level on the coasts. The highest elevation is [[Mont Nimba]], at 1,752 m in the far west of the country along the border with Guinea and Liberia. ==Climate== The [[climate]] of Côte d'Ivoire is generally warm and humid, ranging from [[Equator\|equatorial]] in the southern coasts to [[Tropics\|tropical]] in the middle and semiarid in the far north. There are three seasons: warm and dry (November to March), hot and dry (March to May), and hot and wet (June to October). Temperatures average between 25 and 30 °C and range from 10 to 40 °C. ==Crops and natural resources== Côte d'Ivoire's also has a large [[timber]] industry to due its large [[forest]] coverage. The nation's [[hardwood]] exports match that of [[Brazil]]. In recent years there has been much concern about the rapid rate of [[deforestation]]. [[Rainforest]]s are being destroyed at a rate sometimes cited as the highest in the world. The only forest left completely untouched in Côte d'Ivoire is [[Taï National Park]] (''Parc National de Taï''), a 3600km² (1400 square mile) area in the country's far southwest that is home to over 150 [[Endemic (ecology)\|endemic]] species and many other [[endangered species]] such as the [[Pygmy Hippopotamus]] and 11 species of [[monkey]]s. Eight percent of the country is comprised of [[arable land]]. Côte d'Ivoire is the world's largest producer of cocoa, a major national [[cash crop]]. Other chief crops include [[coffee]], [[banana]]s, and [[oil palm]]s, which produce [[palm oil]] and kernels. [[Natural resource]]s include [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[diamond]]s, [[manganese]], [[iron]], [[cobalt]], [[bauxite]], [[copper]], and [[hydropower]]. Watssssssssssssssssssss up!!!! =] ==Natural hazards== [[Natural hazard]]s include the heavy surf and the lack of [[natural harbor]]s on the coast; during the rainy season torrential [[flooding]] is a danger. ==Treaties and international agreements== Côte d'Ivoire is party to these treaties: [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna]] [[Basel Convention]] on [[hazardous waste]]s [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]] [[London Convention]] on [[marine dumping]] [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]] on [[nuclear testing]] [[Montreal Protocol]] on [[ozone depletion]] [[MARPOL 73/78]] on [[ship pollution]] [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983]] [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994]] [[Ramsar Convention]] on [[wetland conservation]]. ==Sources== "Cote d'Ivoire." ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2006''. World Almanac Books: New York, 2006. "Cote d'Ivoire." ''CIA World Factbook''. November 2, 2004. [http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/iv.html] {{Africa in topic\|Geography of}} [[Category:Geography of Côte d'Ivoire\| ]] [[Category:Geography by country\|Côte d'Ivoire]] [[pt:Geografia da Costa do Marfim]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Côte d'Ivoire</title> <id>5566</id> <revision> <id>39374369</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:19:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>83.121.2.141</ip> </contributor> <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine\|DabMachine]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cote d Ivoire demography.png\|thumb\|300px\|right\|Demographics of Côte d'Ivoire, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization\|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]] ==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook== ===Population=== :17,298,040 :''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.) ===Age structure=== :0-14 years: 41% (male 3,490,536/female 3,596,208) :15-64 years: 56.3% (male 4,920,726/female 4,820,326) :65 years and over: 2.7% (male 231,514/female 238,730) (2005 est.) ===Median age=== :Total: 19.05 years :Male: 19.36 years :Female: 18.76 years (2005 est.) ===Population growth rate=== :2.06% (2005 est.) ===Birth rate=== :35.51 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Death rate=== :14.94 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Net migration rate=== :0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) ===Sex ratio=== :At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female :Under 15 years: 0.97 male(s)/female :15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female :65 years and over: 0.97 male(s)/female :Total population: 1 male(s)/female (2005 est.) ===Infant mortality rate=== :Total: 90.83 deaths/1,000 live bi
http://almaz.com/nobel/medicine/aspirin.html * http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/1biochem/research7.html * http://www.med.mcgill.ca/mjm/issues/v02n02/aspirin.html * http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0297web/health.html * http://www.howstuffworks.com/aspirin *[http://www.bluerhinos.co.uk/molview/indv.php?id=5 Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk] See Aspirin in 3D == References == # {{note\|litovitz-2001}} Litovitz TL. 2000 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. Am J Emerg Med 2001;19(5):337-395 {{analgesics}} [[Category:Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs]] [[Category:Antiplatelet drugs]] [[Category:Over-the-counter substances]] [[Category:Aromatic compounds]] [[Category:Acetates]] [[Category:Carboxylic acids]] {{Link FA\|he}} {{Link FA\|fr}} {{Link FA\|nl}} [[ar:أسبرين]] [[bg:Аспирин]] [[ca:Aspirina]] [[da:Aspirin]] [[de:Acetylsalicylsäure]] [[es:Ácido acetilsalicílico]] [[fa:آسپیرین]] [[fr:Acide acétylsalicylique]] [[gl:Aspirina]] [[ko:아스피린]] [[it:Aspirina]] [[he:אספירין]] [[lt:Aspirinas]] [[hu:Acetilszalicilsav]] [[ms:Aspirin]] [[nl:Aspirine]] [[ja:アスピリン]] [[nn:Acetylsalisylsyre]] [[pl:Aspiryna]] [[pt:Aspirina]] [[ro:Aspirină]] [[ru:Ацетилсалициловая кислота]] [[sr:Аспирин]] [[fi:Aspiriini]] [[sv:Acetylsalicylsyra]] [[th:แอสไพริน]] [[tr:Aspirin]] [[uk:Ацетилсаліцилова кислота]] [[zh:阿司匹林]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abner</title> <id>1526</id> <revision> <id>36054067</id> <timestamp>2006-01-21T05:23:33Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kfranco</username> <id>536239</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Minor cleanup of verse citations</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[Book of Samuel]], '''Abner''' ([[Biblical Hebrew]] for "father of [or is a] light"), is first cousin to [[Saul the King\|Saul]] and commander-in-chief of his army (1 Samuel 14:50, 20:25). He is only referred to incidentally in Saul's history (1 Samuel 17:55, 26:5), and is not mentioned in the account of the disastrous [[battle of Gilboa]] when Saul's power was crushed. Seizing the youngest but only surviving of Saul's sons, [[Ishbaal]], Abner set him up as king over [[Kingdom of Israel\|Israel]] at [[Mahanaim]], east of the [[Jordan River\|Jordan]]. [[David]], who was accepted as king by [[Kingdom of Judah\|Judah]] alone, was meanwhile reigning at [[Hebron]], and for some time war was carried on between the two parties. The only engagement between the rival factions which is told at length is noteworthy, inasmuch as it was preceded by an encounter at [[Gibeon]] between twelve chosen men from each side, in which the whole twenty-four seem to have perished (2 Samuel 2:12). In the general engagement which followed, Abner was defeated and put to flight. He was closely pursued by [[Asahel]], brother of [[Joab]], who is said to have been "light of foot as a wild roe" (2 Samuel 2:18). As Asahel would not desist from the pursuit, though warned, Abner was compelled to slay him in self-defence. This originated a deadly [[feud]] between the leaders of the opposite parties, for Joab, as next of kin to Asahel, was by the law and custom of the country the avenger of his blood. For some time afterwards the war was carried on, the advantage being invariably on the side of David. At length, Ishbaal lost the main prop of his tottering cause by remonstrating with Abner for marrying [[Rizpah]], one of Saul's [[concubine]]s, an alliance which, according to contemporary notions, implied pretensions to the [[throne]] (cf. 2 Samuel 16:21ff.). Abner was indignant at the deserved rebuke, and immediately opened negotiatons with David, who welcomed him on the condition that his wife [[Michal]] should be restored to him. This was done, and the proceedings were ratified by a feast. Almost immediately after, however, Joab, who had been sent away, perhaps intentionally returned and slew Abner at the gate of Hebron. The ostensible motive for the [[assassination]] was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would be a sufficient justification for the deed according to the moral standard of the time. The conduct of David after the event was such as to show that he had no complicity in the act, though he could not venture to punish its perpetrators (2 Samuel 3:31-39; cf. 1 Kings 2:31ff.). Soon however, Ishbaal/Ishbosheth was assassinated as he slept, and David became king of the reunited kingdoms. {{1911}} [[Category:Tanakh people]] [[fr:Abner]] [[gl:Abner]] [[he:אבנר בן נר]] [[nl:Abner]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ahmed I</title> <id>1527</id> <revision> <id>40056446</id> <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:40:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>FlaBot</username> <id>228773</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: fi</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sultan ahmed I.jpg\|frame\|Sultan Ahmed I]] '''Ahmed I''' (in [[Arabic language\|Arabic]] أحمد الأول) ([[April 18]], [[1590]] &ndash; [[November 22]], [[1617]]) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] from [[1603]] until his death. He succeeded his father [[Mehmed III]] in [[1603]] and became the first Ottoman sultan who reached the throne before attaining his majority. He was of kindly and humane disposition, as he showed by refusing to put to death his brother Mustafa (later [[Mustafa I]]), who eventually succeeded him. He was known for his skills in fencing, horseback riding, and fluency in numerous languages. In the earlier part of his reign he showed decision and vigour, which were belied by his subsequent conduct. The wars which attended his accession both in [[Hungary]] and in [[Iran\|Persia]] terminated unfavourably for the Empire, and her prestige received its first check in the [[Treaty of Sitvatorok]], signed in [[1606]], whereby the annual tribute paid by [[Austria]] was abolished. [[Georgia (country)\|Georgia]] and [[Azerbaijan]] was ceded to Persia. Ahmed gave himself up to pleasure during the remainder of his reign, which ended in [[1617]], and demoralization and corruption became as general throughout the public service as indisciplin in the ranks of the army. The use of [[tobacco]] is said to have been introduced in the Empire during his reign. Ahmed I died of [[typhus]] in [[1617]]. Today Ahmed I is remembered mainly for the construction of the [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque]] (also known as the [[Blue Mosque]]), one of the masterpieces of [[Islamic architecture]]. The area in [[Istanbul]] around the Mosque is today called Sultanahmet. He is buried in a masoleum right outside the walls of the famous mosque. {{royal-stub}} {{Ottoman-stub}} {{start box}} {{succession box\|title=[[Ottoman Sultan]]\|before=[[Mehmed III]]\|after=[[Mustafa I]]\|years=1603&ndash;1617}} {{end box}} [[Category:1590 births\|Ahmed I]] [[Category:1617 deaths\|Ahmed I]] [[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]] [[ar:أحمد الأول]] [[de:Ahmed I.]] [[es:Ahmed I]] [[hr:Ahmed I.]] [[hu:I. Ahmed]] [[nl:Ahmet I]] [[ja:アフメト1世]] [[pl:Ahmed I]] [[sr:Ахмед I]] [[fi:Ahmed I]] [[sv:Ahmed I]] [[tr:I. Ahmet]] [[uk:Ахмед I]] [[zh:艾哈迈德一世]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ahmed II</title> <id>1528</id> <revision> <id>38843064</id> <timestamp>2006-02-09T00:14:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Darwinek</username> <id>107928</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>stub</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ahmed II''' (in [[Arabic language\|Arabic]] أحمد الثانى) ([[February 25]], [[1643]] &ndash; [[1695]]) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Ahmed was the son of Sultan [[Ibrahim I]] and succeeded his brother [[Suleiman II]] in [[1691]]. His best known act was to confirm [[Mustafa Köprülü]] as [[grand vizier]]. Only a few weeks after his accession the Ottoman Empire sustained a crushing defeat at the [[Battle of Slankamen]] from the [[Austrian]]s under Margrave [[Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden\|Louis William]] of [[Grand Duchy of Baden\|Baden]] and was driven from [[Hungary]]. During the four years of his reign disaster followed on disaster, and in 1695 Ahmed died, worn out by disease and sorrow. {{royal-stub}} {{start box}} {{succession box\|title=[[Ottoman Sultan]]\|before=[[Suleiman II]]\|after=[[Mustafa II]]\|years=1691&ndash;1695}} {{end box}} [[Category:1643 births\|Ahmed II]] [[Category:1695 deaths\|Ahmed II]] [[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]] [[ar:أحمد الثاني]] [[bg:Ахмед II]] [[de:Ahmed II.]] [[es:Ahmed II]] [[hr:Ahmed II.]] [[hu:II. Ahmed]] [[nl:Ahmet II]] [[sr:Ахмед II]] [[tr:II. Ahmet]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ahmed III</title> <id>1529</id> <revision> <id>41612001</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:34:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ugur Basak Bot</username> <id>735354</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Modifying: ar</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ahmed III.jpg\|thumb\|Sultan Ahmed III]] [[Image:Koceks - Surname-i Vehbi.jpg\|thumb\|right\|180px\|[[Kocek\|Köçeks]] at a fair. Köçek troupe dancing at Sultan [[Ahmed III]]'s 14-day celebration of his sons' circumcision in 1720. Miniature from the ''Surname-i Vehbi'', [[Topkapi Palace]], [[Istanbul]].]] '''Ahmed III''' (Arabic {{ar\|أحمد الثالث}}) (born [[December 30]], [[1673]], died [[1736]]) was a [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and a son of sultan [[Mehmed IV]]. He succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of his brother [[Mustafa II]]. Ahmed cultivated good relations with [[England]], in view doubtless of [[Russia]]'s menacing attitude. He afforded a refuge in Turkey to [[Charles XII of Sweden]] after the Swedish defeat at the hands of [[Peter I of Russia\|Peter the Great]] in the [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709. Forced against his
xplained by the absence in comedy of a literary style which at the same time was national. Goldoni gave to his country a classical form, which, though it has since been cultivated, has never been cultivated by a master. ==Themes== In Goldoni's plays, written while he was still in Italy, there is a complete lack of [[religion\|religious]] and [[ecclesiastical]] subjects. This is suprising considering his staunch Catholic upbringing. He gives no thoughts to death or repent in his memoirs, or in his comedies. Indeed, after his move to France, his plays take a clear [[anti-clericalism\|anti-clerical]] tone, and often satirize the hypocrisy of monks and of the [[Catholic Church\|Church]]. Goldoni was inspired by his love of human kind, and the admiration he had for his fellowman. His wrote, and was obsessed with, the relationships humans had with one another, their cities and homes, the [[Humanist]] movement, and the study of [[philosophy]]. The moral and civil values that Goldoni holds to be of utmost importance in his plays are those of rationality, civility, humanism, the importance of the rising middle-class, a progressive stance to state affairs, honor and honesty. Goldoni had a typically middle-class dislike for arrogance, intolerance and the abuse of power. Goldoni's main characters are no abstract examples of human virtue, nor monstrous examples of human vice. They occupy the middle ground of human temperament. Goldoni maintains an acute sensibility for the differences in social classes between his characters as well as environmental and generational changes. Goldoni pokes fun at the arrogant nobility and the pauper who lacks dignity. ==Language== As in other theatrical works of the time and place, the characters in Goldoni's comedies spoke originally either the literary Tuscan language (which became modern [[Italian language\|Italian]]) or the [[Venetian language\|Venetian dialect]], depending on their station in life. However, in some printed editions of his plays he often turned the Venetian texts into Tuscan, too. ==Works== ===Tragedies=== ''Amalasunta'', burned by Goldoni after its premiere (1733) ===Tragicomedies=== ''Belisario'' (17??) ''Rosmonda'', "[[Rosamund]]" (17??) ''La Griselda'' (17??) ''Don Giovanni Tenorio'' o sia ''Il dissoluto'', "The Dissolute" (17??) ''Rinaldo di Mont'Albano'' (17??) ''Enrico'' (17??) ''Giustino'' (17??) ''La sposa persiana'', "The [[Persia]]n Wife", in verse (1753) ''Ircana in Julfa'', "Ircana in [[Jaffa]]<!--GUESS-->" (17??) ''Ircana in Ispaan'', "Ircana in [[Isfahan]]" (17??) ''La peruviana'', "The [[Peru\|Peruvian]] Woman" (17??) ''La bella selvaggia'', "The Savage Beauty" (17??) ''La dalmatina'', "The [[Dalmatia]]n Woman" (17??) ''Gli amori di Alessandro Magno'', "The Loves of [[Alexander the Great]]" (17??) ''Artemisia'', "[[Artemisia]]" (17??) ''Enea nel Lazio'', "[[Aeneas]] in [[Latium]]" (17??) ''Zoroastro'', "[[Zoroaster]]" (17??) ''La bella giorgiana'', "The [[Georgia (country)\|Georgia]]n Beauty" (17??) ===Comedies=== ''L'uomo di mondo'', "Man of the World" (17??) ''Il prodigo'', "The Prodigal One" (17??) ''Il Momolo cortesan'', partly written, partly improvised (1738) ''Il mercante fallito'' o sia ''La bancarotta'', "The Bankrupt Merchant" or "The Bankruptcy" (1741) ''La donna di garbo'' (1743) ''Il servitore di due padroni'', "The Servant of Two Masters", now often retitled ''Arlecchino servitore di due padroni'' (1745) ''Il frappatore'' (17??) ''I due gemelli veneziani'', "The Two Venetian Twins" (17??) ''L'uomo prudente'', "The Prudent Man" (17??) ''La vedova scaltra'', "The Shrewd Widow" (1748) ''La putta onorata'', "The Honorable Whore" (1749) ''Buona moglie'', "The Good Wife" (1749) ''Il cavaliere e la dama'', "The Gentleman and the Lady" (17??) ''L'avvocato veneziano'', "The Venetian Lawyer" (17??) ''Il padre di famiglia'', "The Family Man" (17??) ''Famiglia dell'antiquario'', "The Antiquarian's Family" (1750) ''L'erede fortunata'', "The Lucky Heir" (1750) ''Il teatro comico'' (1750-1751) ''Le femmine puntigliose'' (1750-1751) ''La bottega del caffè'', "The Coffee Shop" (1750-1751) ''Il bugiardo'', "The Liar" (1750-1751) ''L'adulatore'', "The Flatterer" (17??) ''Il poeta fanatico'', "The Fanatical Poet" (17??) ''La Pamela'', "Pamela" (17??) ''Il cavaliere di buon gusto'', "The Gentleman with Good Taste" (17??) ''Il giuocatore'', "The Gambler" (17??) ''Il vero amico'', "The True Friend" (17??) ''La finta ammalata'', "The Fake Patient" (1750-1751) ''La dama prudente'', "The Prudent Lady" (17??) ''L'incognita'', "The Unknown" (17??) ''L'avventuriere onorato'', "The Honorable Scoundrel" (1750-1751) ''I pettegolezzi delle donne'', "Women's Gossip" (1750-1751) ''Il Moliére'', "Molière" (17??) ''La castalda'' (17??) ''L'amante militare'', "The Soldier Lover" (17??) ''Il tutore'', "The Steward" (17??) ''La moglie saggia'', "The Wise Wife" (1752) ''Il feudatario'' (17??) ''Le donne gelose'', "The Jaelous Women" (1752) ''La serva amorosa'', "The Loving Maid" (1752) ''I puntigli domestici'', "The Domestic Squabbles" (17??) ''La figlia obbediente'', "The Obedient Daughter" (17??) ''I mercatanti'', "The Merchants" (17??) ''La locandiera'', "The Landlady"<!--OR IS THAT "The innkeeper woman"?--> (1753) ''Le donne curiose'', "The Curious Women" (1753) ''Il contrattempo'' o sia ''Il chiacchierone imprudente'', "The Unwelcome Event" or "The Imprudent Talker" (17??) ''La donna vendicativa'', "The Vengeful Woman" (17??) Opening sketch for the Teatro Comico di San Luca, [[October 7]], 1753 ''Il geloso avaro'', "The Jealous Stingy Man" (17??) ''La donna di testa debole'', "The Feeble Minded Woman" (17??) ''La cameriera brillante'', "The Genial Maid" (17??) ''Il filosofo inglese'', "The English Philosopher" (17??) ''Il vecchio bizzarro'', "The Bizarre Old Man" (17??) ''Il festino'', "The Banquet" (17??) ''L'impostore'', "The Imposter" (17??) Opening sketch for the Teatro Comico di San Luca, [[fall (season)\|fall season]], 1754 ''La madre amorosa'', "The Loving Mother" (17??) ''Terenzio'', "[[Terentio]]" (17??) ''Torquato Tasso'', "[[Torquato Tasso]]" (17??) ''Il cavaliere giocondo'', "The Merry Gentleman" (17??) ''Le massere'' (1755) ''I malcontenti'', "The Unsatisfied Ones" (17??) Opening sketch for the Teatro Comico di San Luca, fall season, 1755 ''La buona famiglia'', "The Good Family" (17??) ''Le donne de casa soa", "The Women from His Hosehold"<!--OR IS THAT "The Women from His Home Town"?--> (1755) ''La villeggiatura'', "The Vacation" (17??) ''La donna stravagante'', "The Extravagant Woman" (17??) ''Il campiello'' (1756) ''L'avaro'', "The Stingy Man" (17??) ''L'amante di se medesimo'', "The Lover of His Own Self" (17??) ''Il medico olandese'', "The [[Dutch people\|Dutch]] Doctor" (17??) ''La donna sola'', "The Lonely Woman" (17??) ''La pupilla'', "The Female Student" (17??) ''Il cavaliere di spirito'' o sia ''La donna di testa debole'', "The Witty Gentleman" or "The Feeble Minded Woman" (17??) ''La vedova spiritosa'', "The Spirituous Widow" (17??) ''Il padre per amore'', "Father for Love" (17??) ''Lo spirito di contraddizione'', "Spirit of Contradiction" (17??) ''Il ricco insidiato'', "The Sought After Rich man" (17??) ''Le morbinose'' ''Le donne di buon umore'', "The Good Humored Women" (17??) ''L'apatista'' o sia ''L'indifferente'', "The Apathic Man" or "The Indifferent Man" (17??) ''La donna bizzarra'', "The Bizarre Woman" (17??) ''La sposa sagace'', "The Wise Woman" (17??) ''La donna di governo'' (17??) ''La donna forte'', "The strong Woman" (17??) ''I morbinosi'' (1759)? ''La scuola di ballo'', "The Dance School" (17??) ''Gli innamorati'', "The Lovers" (1759) ''Pamela maritata'', "Pamela Is Married" (17??) ''L'impresario delle Smirne'', "The Businessman from [[Izmir\|Smyrna]]" (1759) ''La guerra'', "The War" (17??) ''I rusteghi'', "The Country Folk" (1760) ''Il curioso accidente'', "The Curious Incident" (1760) ''La donna di maneggio'' (17??) ''La casa nova'', "The New House" (1760) ''La buona madre'', "The Good Mother" (1761) ''Le smanie per la villeggiatura'', "Pining for Vacation" (1761) ''Le avventure della villeggiatura'', "The Adventures of Vacation" (1761) ''Il ritorno dalla villeggiatura'', "Back from Vacation" (1761) ''Lo scozzese'', "The [[Stottish people\|Scotsman]]" (17??) ''Il buon compatriotto'', "The Good Compatriot" (17??) ''Il sior Todero brontolono sia Il vecchio fastidioso'', "Grumpy Mr. Todero" (1762) ''Le baruffe chiozzotte'' (1762) ''Una delle ultime sere di carnevale'', "One of the Last Carnival Evenings" (1762) ''L'osteria della posta'', "The Tavern at the Mail Station" (17??) ''L'amore paterno'' o sia ''La serva riconoscente'', "Father's Love" or "The Grateful Maid" (17??) ''Il matrimonio per concorso'', "Marriage
o the laws, should be maintained, but that the Crown in Right of [[Canada]] should, as a rule, place federal government information and data in the public domain. It was also recommended that where Crown copyright is asserted for generating revenue, licensing should be based on the principles of non-exclusivity and the recovery of no more than the marginal costs incurred in the reproduction of the information or data ... the federal government should create and maintain an inventory of Crown works covered by intellectual property that is of potential interest to the learning community and the information production sector at large; negotiate nonexclusive licenses for their use on the basis of cost recovery for digitization, processing and distribution; and invite provincial and territorial governments to provide similar services. The [[Yukon Territory]] and the federal government take the most liberal approach to Crown copyright in statutes and regulations, by permitting anyone to make copies without permission for any purpose – except commercial – while the other jurisdictions make fairly strongly worded prohibitions against copying the laws for anything other than personal use. It appears that perhaps the intent of these notices is to prevent copying by commercial publishers of the electronic version as prepared by the government, while permitting commercial publishers to manually type (or optically scan) the text of statutes if they wish to publish individual statutes (presumably with some value added to the raw legislative text). Because the federal government was the leader in publishing statutes and regulations for free in Canada, and is responsible for the Copyright Act, it is important to take note of the Reproduction of Federal Law Order, PC 1996-1995, 19 December 1996. The preamble states the basic principles that support the copyright notice. Whereas it is of fundamental importance to a democratic society that its law be widely known and that its citizens have unimpeded access to that law …. Anyone may, without charge or request for permission, reproduce enactments and consolidations of enactments of the Government of Canada, and decisions and reasons for decisions of federally-constituted courts and administrative tribunals, provided due diligence is exercised in ensuring the accuracy of the materials reproduced and the reproduction is not represented as an official version. The federal Department of Justice has granted a free licence for copying federal law. The Yukon Territory has perhaps the simplest copyright notice of all Canadian jurisdictions: “The legal material on this site may be reproduced, in whole or in part and by any means, without further permission from Yukon Justice.” By contrast, the other jurisdictions in Canada all restrict copying for commercial purposes (and sometimes for other purposes as well). One can speculate that the reason that some provinces assert copyright and limit electronic access to the law is to sell legal texts to legal publishers and the law profession. To ensure governments have something to sell, it is necessary to impose copyright limits and to ensure that the electronic access to the law that is provided is not as functional as it could be. It should also be noted that governments are increasingly limiting the paper production and distribution of their laws and court decisions. This makes it all the more important for governments to provide the maximum access to electronic versions of the law. Perhaps the most detailed copyright notice is from British Columbia, which refers to matters of ownership, reproduction, distribution, sale private study, and so on. It even tells the reader who to contact if they have any questions, and how to do so. See also the copyright notices from Ontario, [[Alberta]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Newfoundland]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Quebec]] and the [[Northwest Territories]]. As would be expected, jurisdictions that do not publish their statutes for free on the Internet have tougher copyright notices. The [[British Columbia]] Superior Courts notice reads: :''The decisions of the Superior Courts are made available on the Internet for the purpose of public information and research. The material on the database/web site may be used without permission provided that the material is accurately reproduced and an acknowledgement of the source of the work is included. Copying of the materials, in whole or in part, for resale or other commercial purposes is strictly prohibited unless authorized by the Superior Courts.'' The question of who owns copyright in statutes and court and administrative tribunal decisions is one that is rarely litigated. It has been used by some governments to justify a refusal to publish the laws electronically and to justify using the laws to generate revenues. One way to challenge these arguments is to question the legal theory of copyright in the laws, but perhaps the better way is to focus on the policy choices and arguments relating to access to the laws. In ''Tolmie v Attorney-General of Canada'', Oct. 14, 1997 (F.C.T.D.), McGillis J dealt with a case where Mr. Tolmie requested, on 6 January 1995, under the Access to Information Act, the Revised Statutes of Canada in electronic form. “The preferred format is the existing WordPerfect 5.1 format that is presently used within Justice Canada for creating the Statutes. However, alternative formats such as the Folio format used on the CD-ROM produced for this purpose would be acceptable.” On 20 August 1995, the [[Department of Justice]] published the electronic statutes and announced they would soon be published on CD-ROM, which occurred in October 1995. The CD-ROM was priced at $225.00. McGillis J rejected Mr. Tolmie’s request on the grounds that the statutes were publicly available in electronic format and therefore excluded from the application of the Act under s 68(a). ==In New Zealand== Crown copyright in [[New Zealand]] is defined by Sections 2(1), 26 and 27 of the ''Copyright Act 1994''. The Crown is the first owner of any copyright subsisting in any work created by a person who is employed or engaged by the Crown, under a contract of service, apprenticeship, or a contract for services. It covers works of the Queen in right of New Zealand, Ministers of the Crown, offices of Parliament and government departments. For [[Crown entities]] and [[State-owned enterprises]], however, regular copyright provisions apply instead. A term of 100 years applies under Section 26(3)(b), with the exception 25 years for typographical arrangements of published material. At common law, and under the Copyright Acts until recently, the Crown acquired title by a kind of prerogative copyright in certain books or publications such as Acts of Parliament, Proclamations, and Orders in Council. However, there has been a deliberate divestment by the Crown of its copyright in law – principally in light of the policy considerations which hold that law should be freely available. Section 27(1) defines a further exception to Crown copyright and copyright -- Bills, Acts of Parliament, regulations, bylaws, Hansard, tabled select committee reports, court judgments, tribunal judgments, Royal commission reports, commission of inquiry reports, ministerial inquiry reports and statutory inquiry reports do not carry any copyright, regardless of age. Section 27(1) came into effect on [[1 April]] [[2001]]. There is, in New Zealand, under s 27 of the Copyright Act 1994, no copyright in regulations. Of course, the Section 27(1) exceptions apply in the original work, and do not apply in terms of new typographical editions by others, nor in annotations made by organisations such as legal publishers. ==External links== * [http://cgp-egc.gc.ca/copyright/application-e.pdf Application to obtain copyright licence from Canadian government] (PDF file) * Sterling, J.A.L. "[http://www.lexum.umontreal.ca/conf/dac/en/sterling/sterling.html Crown Copyright in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth Countries]". * Vaver, David. "[http://www.lexum.umontreal.ca/conf/dac/en/vaver/vaver.html Copyright and the state in Canada and the United States]". * Intellectual Property Policy Group, Ministry of Economic Development, New Zealand. [http://www.med.govt.nz/buslt/int_prop/info-sheets/copyright-prot.html#P27_4364 What Does Not Qualify for Copyright Protection?] (from ''[http://www.med.govt.nz/buslt/int_prop/info-sheets/copyright-prot.html Copyright Protection in New Zealand]''). * Ah Kit, Jonathan. ''[http://www.ibiblio.org/ahkitj/section27/ Section 27 and Public Domain Page]''. ==See also== * [[Parliamentary copyright]] * [[Work of the United States Government]] [[Category:Copyright law]] [[Category:United Kingdom law]] [[Category:Canadian copyright law]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cookie</title> <id>7218</id> <revision> <id>42061328</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:14:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>UkPaolo</username> <id>269651</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/213.249.155.231\|213.249.155.231]] ([[User talk:213.249.155.231\|talk]]) to last version by Rmhermen</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about edible cookies. For other uses, see [[Cookie (disambiguation)]]'' [[Image:Choco chip cookie.jpg\|thumb\|275px\|A chocolate chip cookie]] In the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], a '''cookie''' is a small, flat [[baking\|baked]] [[cake]].<br> In [[Commonwealth English]], they are called '''[[biscuit]]s'''. ==Origin of name== Its name derives from the [[Dutch language\|Dutch]] word ''koekje'' which means ''little cake'', and arrived in the [[English language]] via the [[Scots language]], rather than directly from the Dutch. In [[Scottish English]] the word denotes a small [[Scone (bread)\|scone]]-like ca
ka:არკანზასი]] [[la:Arcansia]] [[lv:Ārkanzasa]] [[lt:Arkanzasas]] [[lb:Arkansas]] [[hu:Arkansas]] [[mk:Арканзас]] [[ms:Arkansas]] [[nl:Arkansas]] [[ja:アーカンソー州]] [[no:Arkansas]] [[nn:Arkansas]] [[os:Арканзас]] [[pl:Arkansas]] [[pt:Arkansas]] [[ru:Арканзас]] [[sa:आर्कन्‍सा]] [[sq:Arkansas]] [[simple:Arkansas]] [[sk:Arkansas]] [[sl:Arkansas]] [[sr:Арканзас]] [[fi:Arkansas]] [[sv:Arkansas]] [[tr:Arkansas]] [[uk:Арканзас]] [[zh:阿肯色州]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Atmosphere</title> <id>1931</id> <revision> <id>41185087</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T17:00:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sango123</username> <id>223113</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>a -> A</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}} {{wiktionarypar\|atmosphere}} '''Atmosphere''' may refer to: [[Celestial body atmosphere]], such as: [[Earth's atmosphere]] [[Stellar atmosphere]]s [[Atmosphere (unit)]], a unit of pressure [[Gas]] mixture (an artificial atmosphere) Ambience or [[mood]] [[Atmosphere (band)]], a hip-hop music group [[Adobe Atmosphere]], a 3D computer graphics product by Adobe Systems {{disambig}} [[ar:غلاف جوي]] [[ca:Atmosfera]] [[da:Atmosfære]] [[de:Atmosphäre (Begriffsklärung)]] [[eo:Atmosfero]] [[es:Atmósfera]] [[et:Atmosfäär]] [[fr:Atmosphère]] [[lt:Atmosfera]] [[nl:Atmosfeer]] [[pl:Atmosfera]] [[ru:Атмосфера]] [[sl:Atmosfera (razločitev)]] [[sv:Atmosfär]] [[uk:&#1040;&#1090;&#1084;&#1086;&#1089;&#1092;&#1077;&#1088;&#1072;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Avoid statements that will date quickly talk</title> <id>1932</id> <revision> <id>15900392</id> <timestamp>2002-04-22T23:54:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username> <id>43</id> </contributor> <comment></comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[wikipedia talk:Avoid statements that will date quickly]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apus</title> <id>1933</id> <revision> <id>40828570</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T07:09:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Palica</username> <id>188933</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: sk</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the genus of birds, see [[Apus (genus)]].'' :''For the computer, see [[APUS_Computer\|APUS]].'' {{Infobox Constellation\| name = Apus \| abbreviation = Aps \| genitive = Apodis \| symbology = the [[bird of paradise]] \| RA = 16 \| dec= &minus;75 \| areatotal = 206 \| arearank = 67th \| numberstars = 0 \| starname = [[Alpha Apodis\|&alpha; Aps]] \| starmagnitude = 3.83 \| meteorshowers = None \| bordering = [[Triangulum Australe]] [[Circinus]] [[Musca]] [[Chamaeleon]] [[Octans]] [[Pavo (constellation)\|Pavo]] [[Ara]] \| latmax = 5 \| latmin = 90 \| month = July \| notes=}} '''Apus''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[bird of paradise]]'' or ''[[swallow]]'', from [[Greek language\|Greek]] ''&alpha;&pi;&omicron;&upsilon;&sigmaf;'', lit. "no-feet") is a faint southern [[constellation]], not visible to the ancient Greeks. The constellation was one of twelve constellations created by [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] and [[Frederick de Houtman]] between [[1595]] and [[1597]], and it first appeared in [[Johann Bayer]]'s ''[[Uranometria]]'' of [[1603]]. ==Notable and named stars== {\| style="color:#000000; font-size:smaller;" cellspacing=2 cellpadding=0 \|- ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" \| [[Bayer designation\|BD]] ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" \| Names and other designations ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" \| [[apparent magnitude\|Mag.]] ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" \| [[Light year\|Ly]] away ! style="background-color:#dddddd;" \| Comments \|- \| &alpha; \|\| [[Alpha Apodis]] \|\| 3.83 \|\| 411 \|\| \|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" \| &gamma; \|\| [[Gamma Apodis]] \|\| 3.86 \|\| 160 \|\| \|- \| &beta; \|\| [[Beta Apodis]] \|\| 4.23 \|\| 158 \|\| \|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" \| &delta;&sup1; \|\| [[Delta Apodis\|Delta-1 Apodis]] \|\| 4.68 \|\| 770 \|\| * [[irregular variable]] * [[double star]] with [[Delta Apodis\|&delta;&sup2; Apodis]] \|- \| &zeta; \|\| [[Zeta Apodis]] \|\| 4.79 \|\| 312 \|\| \|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" \| &eta; \|\| [[Eta Apodis]] \|\| 4.89 \|\| 140 \|\| \|- \| &epsilon; \|\| [[Epsilon Apodis]] \|\| 5.06 \|\| 551 \|\| * [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable\|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]] \|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" \| &delta;&sup2; \|\| [[Delta Apodis\|Delta-2 Apodis]] \|\| 5.27 \|\| 663 \|\| * [[double star]] with [[Delta Apodis\|&delta;&sup1; Apodis]] \|- \| &iota; \|\| [[Iota Apodis]] \|\| 5.39 \|\| 1140 \|\| \|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" \| &kappa;&sup1; \|\| [[Kappa Apodis\|Kappa-1 Apodis]] \|\| 4.68 \|\| 1020 \|\| * [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable\|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]] \|- \| \|\| [[R Apodis]] \|\| 5.37 \|\| 428 \|\| \|- style="background-color:#eeeeee;" \| &kappa;&sup2; \|\| [[Kappa Apodis\|Kappa-2 Apodis]] \|\| 5.64 \|\| 735 \|\| \|- \| &theta; \|\| [[Theta Apodis]] \|\| 5.69 \|\| 328 \|\| * [[semiregular variable\|semiregular]] [[variable star]] \|} Source: <cite>The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.</cite>, <cite>The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200</cite> <BR clear="all"/> ==See also== {{ConstellationsByBayer}} {{ConstellationList}} == External links == [http://www.astronomical.org/portal/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=3 Peoria Astronomical Society - Apus] [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/constellations/apus/ NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Apus] {{Commons\|Apus}} {{astro-stub}} [[Category:Apus constellation\| ]] [[ca:Au del Paradís]] [[cs:Rajka (souhvězdí)]] [[da:Paradisfuglen]] [[de:Paradiesvogel (Sternbild)]] [[es:Apus]] [[fr:Oiseau de paradis (constellation)]] [[ko:극락조자리]] [[id:Apus]] [[it:Apus]] [[la:Apus (sidus)]] [[lt:Rojaus Paukštis (astronomija)]] [[hu:Paradicsommadár (csillagkép)]] [[nl:Paradijsvogel (sterrenbeeld)]] [[ja:ふうちょう座]] [[nn:Paradisfuglen]] [[pt:Apus]] [[ru:Райская Птица (созвездие)]] [[sk:Súhvezdie Rajka]] [[th:กลุ่มดาวนกการเวก]] [[vi:Thiên Yến]] [[zh:天燕座]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abadan</title> <id>1934</id> <revision> <id>41724005</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:20:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web\|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser\|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abadan.png\|right\|Map of Iran (Persia) and surrounding lands, showing location of Abadan]] '''Abadan''' (&#1570;&#1576;&#1575;&#1583;&#1575;&#1606; in [[Persian language\|Persian]]) is a city in the [[Khuzestan]] province in southwestern [[Iran]] ([[Persian empire\|Persia]]). It lies on Abadan Island, on the [[Arvand]] river. In 2005 the population was estimated to be at 1,291,690.<small>[http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/2005_world_city_populations/Iran.html]</small> ==Etymology== In [[medieval]] sources and up to the present century, the name of the Island always occurs in the [[Arabic language\|Arabic]] form '' 'Abadan''(ﻥﺍﺩﺎﺒﻋ). This name has sometimes been derived from the word ''worshiper''(ﺩﺎﺒﻋ). On the other hand, ''Beladori''(d.[[892]]) quotes the story that the town was founded by '' 'Abbad bin Hosayn Khabethi'', who established a garrison there during the governorship of ''Hajjaj'' in the [[Ummayad]] period. An Iranian etymology of the name (from the Persian word "ab" (water) and the root "p&#257;" (guard, watch) thus "coastguard station"), was suggested by ''B. Farahvashi''. Supporting evidence is the name "Apphana" which [[Ptolemy]] applies to an island off the mouth of The Tigris. The Persian version of the name had begun to come into general use before it was adopted by official decree in [[1935]] (see [http://www.iranica.com/articles/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home1/iranica/articles/v1_articles/abadan&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/logs/pdfdownload.html Abadan], in [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]], pp.51-52). The geographer Marcian also renders the name "Apphadana" in his writings (see ''Geographia Marciani Heracleotae'', ed. David Hoeschel, Augsburg 1600 p48). ==History== Abadan is thought to have originally developed as a port city under the [[Abbasid]]s' rule. From 17th century onward, the Island of Abadan was part of the lands of the [[Arab]] ''Ka'ab'' ([[Bani Kaab]]) tribe. One section of this tribe, ''Mohaysen'', had its headquarters at ''Mohammara''(present-day [[Khorramshahr]]), until the removel of Shaikh [[Khaz'al Khan]] in [[1924]]. (see [http://www.iranica.com], p.53, under ''Abadan'') It was not until the [[20th century]] that rich oil fields were discovered in the area. In 1910, the population had been around 400. The [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]] built their first [[oil refinery]] in Abadan, starting in 1909 and completing it in 1913. By 1938, it was the largest in the world. To this day it remains a vast facility for refining [[petroleum]]. Only a low 9 percent of managers (of the oil company) were from Khuzestan. The proportion of natives of [[Tehran]], the [[Caspian]], [[Azarbaijan]] and [[Kurdistan Province, Iran\|Kurdistan]] rose from 4 percent of [[blue collar]] workers to 22 percent of [[white collar]] workers to 45 percent of managers. Thus while [[Arabic]] speakers were concentrated on the lower rungs of the work force, managers tended to be brought in from some distance.(see [http://www.iranica.com], p.56, under ''Abadan'') On [[August 20]] [[1978]], the Cinema Rex, a movi
r's degree\|MA]] degree in the same two subjects in [[1930]] and in [[1934]] received a [[Doctor of Philosophy\|Ph.D.]] in mathematics. Her dissertation was on ''New Types of Irreducibility Criteria''. Hopper began teaching [[mathematics]] at [[Vassar_College\|Vassar]] in [[1931]]; by [[1941]] she was an [[associate professor]]. ==Mark I and Mark II Calculators== In [[1943]] she joined the [[U.S. Naval Reserve]] and was assigned to work with [[Howard Aiken]] on the [[Mark I Calculator]]. She was the first person to write a program for it. At the end of the war she was discharged from the Navy, but she continued to work on the development of the Mark II and the Mark III [[Calculator]]s. It was while she was working on Mark 2 that she discovered a [[moth]] in a relay &mdash; a bug in the computer. Hopper noted it in a log book (now in the [[Smithsonian Institution]]) as the first actual case of a bug being found. Erroneously, some have cited this incident as the genesis of the term [[computer bug\|bug]], but the term was already in wide use. ==UNIVAC== In [[1949]], Hopper became an employee of the [[Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation]] and joined the team developing the [[UNIVAC I]]. In the early [[1950s]] the company was taken over by the [[Remington Rand]] corporation and it was while she was working for them that her original [[compiler]] work was done. The compiler was known as the A compiler and its first version was [[A-0]]. Later versions were released commercially as the [[ARITH-MATIC]], [[MATH-MATIC]] and [[FLOW-MATIC]] compilers. ==COBOL== She later returned to the Navy where she worked on validation software for the programming language [[COBOL]] and its compiler. COBOL was defined by the [[CODASYL]] committee which extended her FLOW-MATIC language with some ideas from the [[IBM]] equivalent, the [[COMTRAN]]. However, it was her idea that programs could be written in a language that was close to English rather than in [[machine code]] or in languages close to machine code, such as the [[assembler]]s of the time. It is fair to say that COBOL was based very much on her philosophy. ==Standards== In the 1970s, she pioneered the implementation of [[standardization\|standards]] testing of computers, most significantly for [[programming languages]], particularly for [[COBOL]] and [[Fortran]]. The '''Navy Tests''' for conformance to these language standards led to significant convergence among the programming language [[dialect]]s of the major computer vendors. These tests, and their official administration, were taken over in the 1980s by the National Bureau of Standards, now [[NIST]]. ==Retirement== [[Image:Grace Hopper.jpg\|thumbnail\|200px\|Grace Hopper (January 1984)]]Hopper retired from the Naval Reserve with the rank of [[Commander]] at the end of [[1966]]. She was recalled to active duty in August of [[1967]] for a six-month period that turned into an indefinite assignment. She again retired in in [[1971]] but was asked to return to active duty again in [[1972]]. She was promoted to [[Captain]] in [[1973]] by Admiral [[Elmo R. Zumwalt, Jr.]]. After Rep. [[Philip Crane]] saw her on a March [[1983]] segment of ''[[60 Minutes]]'', he championed a joint [[resolution (law)\|resolution]] in the [[United States House of Representatives\|House of Representatives]] which led to her promotion to [[Commodore (rank)\|Commodore]] by special Presidential appointment. By [[1985]] she became a [[rear admiral]]. She retired (involuntarily) from the Navy in [[1986]]. At a celebration held in Boston on the [[USS Constitution]] to celebrate her retirement, Hopper was awarded the Defense Distinguished Service Medal, the highest award possible by the Department of Defense. At the moment of her retirement, she was the oldest officer in the US Navy and aboard the oldest ship in the US Navy. She was then hired as a senior consultant to [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], a position she retained until her death in [[1992]]. Her primary activity in this capacity was as a goodwill ambassador, lecturing widely on the early days of computers, her career, and on efforts that computer vendors could take to make life easier for their users. She visited a large fraction of Digital engineering facilities where she generally received a standing ovation at the conclusion of her remarks. She always wore her Navy full dress uniform to these lectures. ==Military awards== Her military awards and decorations include: * [[Defense Distinguished Service Medal]] * [[Legion of Merit]] * [[Meritorious Service Medal (USA)\|Meritorious Service Medal]] * [[American Campaign Medal]] * [[World War II Victory Medal]] * [[National Defense Service Medal]] * [[Armed Forces Reserve Medal]] with two [[Hourglass Device]]s * [[Naval Reserve Medal]] She was laid to rest with full military honors in [[Arlington National Cemetery]]. ''[[Grace Murray Hopper Park]]'', located on South Joyce Street in [[Arlington, Virginia]], is a small memorial park in front of her former residence and is now owned by Arlington County, Virginia. Women at the world's largest software company, [[Microsoft Corporation]], formed an employee group called "Hoppers" and established a scholarship in her honor. Hoppers has over 3000 members worldwide. ==Honors== * [[1969]] &ndash; She won the first "man of the year" award from the [[Association of Information Technology Professionals\|Data Processing Management Association]]. * [[1971]] &ndash; The annual "Grace Murray Hopper Award for Outstanding Young Computer Professionals" was established in 1971 by the [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. * [[1973]] &ndash; She became the first person from the United States and the first woman of any nationality to be made a Distinguished Fellow of the [[British Computer Society]]. * [[1986]] &ndash; Upon her retirement she received the [[Defense Distinguished Service Medal]]. * [[1987]] &ndash; She became a [[Computer History Museum]] [http://www.computerhistory.org/events/hall_of_fellows/hopper/ Fellow Award Recipient]. * [[1991]] &ndash; She received the [[National Medal of Technology]]. * [[1996]] &ndash; [[USS Hopper (DDG-70)\|USS ''Hopper'' (DDG-70)]], named in her honor, was launched. ''Hopper'' is one of few [[List of U.S. military vessels named after women\|U.S. Navy ships to be named after a woman]]. ==Anecdotes== [[Image:H96566k.jpg\|thumbnail\|185px\|Photo of first [[computer bug]].]] Throughout much of her later career, Grace Hopper was much in demand as a speaker at various computer-related events. She was well-known for her lively and irreverent speaking style, as well as a rich treasury of early "war stories". While she was working on a Mark II computer at [[Harvard University]], her associates discovered a [[moth]] stuck in a [[relay]] and thereby impeding operation, whereupon she remarked that they were "debugging" the system. Though the term ''[[computer bug]]'' cannot be definitively attributed to Admiral Hopper, she did bring the term into popularity. The remains of the moth can be found in the group's log book at the [[Smithsonian Institution\|Smithsonian Institution's]] [[National Museum of American History]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]. Grace Hopper is famous for her ''nanoseconds'' visual aid. People (such as generals and admirals) used to ask her why [[satellite]] communication took so long. She started handing out pieces of wire which were under one foot long, which is the distance that light travels in one [[nanosecond]]. Later she used the same pieces of wire to illustrate why computers had to be small to be fast. At many of her talks, she handed out nanoseconds to everyone in the audience, contrasting them with a coil of wire nearly a thousand feet long, representing a [[microsecond]]. {{Wikiquote}} Obituary notices by * Betts, Mitch (''[[Computerworld]]'' 26: 14, 1992) * Bromberg, Howard (''[[IEEE Software]]'' 9: 103&ndash;104, 1992) * Danca, Richard A. (''[[Federal Computing Week]]'' 6: 26&ndash;27, 1992) * Hancock, Bill (''[[Digital Review]]'' 9: 40, 1992) * Power, Kevin (''[[Government Computer News]]'' 11: 70, 1992) * [[Jean E. Sammet\|Sammet, J.E.]] (''[[Communications of the ACM]]'' 35: 128&ndash;132, 1992) * Weiss, Eric A. (''[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]]'' 14: 56&ndash;58, 1992) ==See also== * [[Women in computing]] * [[Systems engineering]] ** [[Futures techniques]] ==External links== [http://www.history.navy.mil/bios/hopper.htm Biography] and [http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-h/g-hoppr.htm Images] from the [[United States Navy\|U.S. Navy]] [[Naval Historical Center]] [http://www.chips.navy.mil/links/grace_hopper/womn.htm Grace Hopper links] from ''Chips'', the U.S. Navy [[information technology]] magazine [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Hopper.html Full Hopper biography] with many links [http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/Hopper.Danis.html A shorter Hopper biography] [http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/hopper-story.html Biography] and [http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/hopper-wit.html Wit and Wisdom] from a Yale website [http://www.hopper.navy.mil/ USS Hopper website], which includes a [http://www.hopper.navy.mil/grace/grace.htm biography of Hopper] [http://www.acm.org/awards/awards_hopper.html Grace Murray Hopper Award] [http://www2.govexec.com/gtla/ The Government Technology Leadership Awards: The Gracies] [http://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen/hopper.html Biography from the San Diego Supercomputer Center] [http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object.cfm?key=35&objkey=30 Page from log book with moth/bug at the National Museum of American History] [http://myoldmac.net/FAQ/firstComputerBug.htm More details and photos from the moth/bug in the Mark II] {{MathGenealogy \|id=15664}} [[Category:1906 births\|Hopper, Grace]] [[Category:1992 deaths\|Hopper, Grace]] [
aul Ehrlich]] on commodity prices The annual [[Nenana, Alaska\|Nenana Ice Classic]], when the inhabitants of [[Alaska]] bet on when the ice will break on the [[Tanana River]]. Wager on [[Black hole information paradox]]: [[Stephen Hawking]] and [[Kip Thorne]] against [[John Preskill]] ==Associated word usage== * The English expression "I bet that ''xxxxx''", meaning "I consider it very probable that ''xxxxx''", need not carry any suggestion of the speaker intending to gamble. * The English word [[hazard]] originated as [[Arabic language\|Arabic]] ''az-z&#257;r'' or ''al-z&#257;r'', which meant a type of [[dice]] game. Compare also the English word "dicey" meaning "risky". * Scientists have dubbed certain random-number-based calculation [[algorithm]]s the "[[Monte Carlo method]]". '''Even money''', as a gambling term, describes a wagering [[proposition]] with even [[odds]] - in other words, if one loses a bet, one stands to lose the same amount of money that the winner of the bet would win (less, of course, the [[vigorish]] or "juice"). The term has come to have meaning in the wider [[English language\|English]] usage beyond actual gambling, however, as a way of describing an event whose occurrence is about as likely to occur as not, as in "It's even money that it will rain today". Compare ''50 50''. ==By country== [[Gambling in the People's Republic of China]] [[Gambling in France]] [[Gambling in Hong Kong]] (PRC) [[Gambling in Italy]] [[Gambling in Macau]] (PRC) [[Gambling in Monaco]] [[Gambling in Taiwan]] [[Gambling in the United Kingdom]] [[Gambling in the United States]] [[Gambling in Brazil]] ==See also== [[pathological gambling]] [[compulsive gambling]] [[Casino]] [[online gambling]] [[Online casino]] [[casino game]] [[Casino Night]] Casino [[comp]] and [[junket]] [[casino token]] [[deathpool]] [[bet exchange]] [[three card monte]] [[spread betting]] [[gambler's ruin]] [[gambler's fallacy]] [[Dutch book]] [[sports betting forums]] [[Australian punting glossary]] ==Bibliography== Brisman, Andrew. ''American Mensa Guide to Casino Gambling: Winning Ways'' (Stirling, 1999) ISBN 080694837X Ortiz, Darwin. ''Gambling Scams: How They Work, How to Detect Them, How to Protect Yourself'' (Carol, 1990) ISBN 0396083668 (Hardcover) ISBN 0818405295 (Paperback) Reith, Gerda. ''Age of Chance: Gambling in Western Culture'' ISBN 0415179971 (Hardcover) ISBN 0415263093 (Paperback) Steinmetz, Andrew. ''The Gaming Table: Its Votaries and Victims'' [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext96/tgamt10.txt Gutenberg text] Thorp, Edward O. ''Beat the Dealer: A Winning Strategy for the Game of Twenty-One'' (Vintage, 1966) ISBN 0394703103 ==External links== <!-- Some fair warning, this section is watched closely. There are a few dozen high quality gambling information sites that could be linked here that would add to the value of the article. However, Wikipedia is not a link repository, so currently what is linked are the two authoritative link pages that link to most of the valuable gambling info content on the Internet. If you insist on thinking you have a link that is "special" enough to merit inclusion, please start a discussion to justify this (unlikely) circumstance. Also, this article is about general gambling information. --> {{wikiquote}} [http://dmoz.org/Games/Gambling/ DMOZ Gambling directory] [http://dir.yahoo.com/Recreation/Gambling/ Yahoo Gambling directory] [http://gaming.unlv.edu/ Gaming Studies Research Center] - at [[University of Nevada, Las Vegas]] [http://www.dictionaryofgambling.com DictionaryOfGambling.com] [http://www.gambling-law-us.com/ United States Gambling Laws] [http://www.unr.edu/gaming/ Institute for the Study of Gambling and Commercial Gaming] at the [[University of Nevada, Reno]] [http://www.gamblersanonymous.org Gamblers Anonymous International] [[Category:Gambling\|]] [[da:Hasardspil]] [[de:Glücksspiel]] [[eo:Hazardludo]] [[fr:Jeu de hasard]] [[ko:도박]] [[it:Gioco d'azzardo]] [[he:הימור]] [[lt:Lošimas]] [[nl:Gokken]] [[ja:ギャンブル]] [[no:Hasard]] [[pl:Hazard]] [[simple:Gambling]] [[sl:Hazard]] [[fi:Uhkapeli]] [[sv:Hasardspel]] [[zh:赌博]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Godels Incompleteness Theorem</title> <id>11922</id> <revision> <id>41645264</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:35:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Trovatore</username> <id>310173</id> </contributor> <comment>fx dbl redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] {{R from misspelling}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Goedels Incompleteness Theorem</title> <id>11923</id> <revision> <id>41645448</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:37:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Trovatore</username> <id>310173</id> </contributor> <comment>fx dbl rd</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] {{R from misspelling}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Game theory</title> <id>11924</id> <revision> <id>42054739</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:13:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>87.196.29.193</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* References */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see: [[game (disambiguation)\|games in general]], a band named [[Game Theory (band)\|Game Theory]], or [[combinatorial game theory]] (used to study games like [[nim]], [[chess]], and [[go (board game)\|go]]).'' '''Game theory''' is a branch of [[applied mathematics]] that studies strategic situations where players choose different actions in an attempt to maximize their returns. First developed as a tool for understanding [[economics\|economic]] behavior, game theory is now used in many diverse academic fields, ranging from [[biology]] to [[philosophy]]. Game theory saw substantial growth and its first formalization by [[John von Neumann]] before and during the [[Cold War]], mainly due to its application to [[military strategy]], most notably to the concept of [[mutual assured destruction]]. Beginning in the 1970s, game theory has been applied to animal behavior, including species' development by [[natural selection]]. Because of interesting games like the [[prisoner's dilemma]], in which mutual self-interest hurts everyone, game theory has been used in [[political science]], [[ethics]] and philosophy. Finally, game theory has recently drawn attention from [[computer science\|computer scientists]] because of its use in [[artificial intelligence]] and [[cybernetics]]. In addition to its academic interest, game theory has received attention in popular culture. A [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel\|Nobel Prize]]-winning game theorist, [[John Forbes Nash\|John Nash]] was the subject of the 1998 biography by [[Sylvia Nasar]] and the 2001 film ''[[A Beautiful Mind]]''. Several [[game show]]s have adopted game theoretic situations, including ''[[Friend or Foe?]]'' and to some extent ''[[Survivor (TV series)\|Survivor]]''. The character of [[Jack Bristow]] on the [[television]] show "[[Alias]]" is one of the few fictional game theorists in popular culture. {{ref\|popculture}} Although similar to [[decision theory]], game theory studies decisions that are made in an environment where various players interact. In other words, game theory studies choice of optimal behavior when costs and benefits of each option are not fixed, but depend upon the choices of other individuals. ==Representation of games== The '''games''' studied by game theory are well-defined mathematical objects. A game consists of a set of players, a set of moves (or [[strategy (game theory)\|strategies]]) available to those players, and a specification of payoffs for each combination of strategies. There are two ways of representing games that are common in the literature. See also [[List of games in game theory]]. ===Normal form=== {\| align=right border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" \|+ align=bottom \|''A normal form game'' \|- \| ! scope="col" style="color: #900;width: 90px;"\|''Player 2 chooses left'' ! scope="col" style="color: #900;width: 90px;"\|''Player 2 chooses right'' \|- ! scope="col" style="color: #009;width: 90px;"\|''Player 1 chooses top'' \|align=center\| <span style="color: #009">4</span>, <span style="color: #900">3</span> \|align=center\| <span style="color: #009">-1</span>, <span style="color: #900">-1</span> \|- ! scope="col" style="color: #009;width: 100px;"\|''Player 1 chooses bottom'' \|align=center\| <span style="color: #009">0</span>, <span style="color: #900">0</span> \|align=center\| <span style="color: #009">3</span>, <span style="color: #900">4</span> \|} {{main article\|[[Normal form game]]}} The normal (or strategic form) game is a [[Matrix (mathematics)\|matrix]] which shows the players, strategies, and payoffs (see the example to the right). Here there are two players; one chooses the row and the other chooses the column. Each player has two strategies, which are specified by the number of rows and the number of columns. The payoffs are provided in the interior. The first number is the payoff received by the row player (''Player 1'' in our example); the second is the payoff for the column player (''Player 2'' in our example). Suppose that ''Player 1'' plays top and that ''Player 2'' plays left. Then ''
ed States environmental law]]. The wide popularity of ''The [[Whole Earth Catalog]]s'', starting in [[1968]], was quite influential among the younger, hands-on, activist generation of the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. Recently, in addition to opposing environmental degradation and protecting wilderness, an increased focus on coexisting with natural biodiversity has appeared, a strain that is apparent in the movement for [[sustainable agriculture]] and in the concept of [[Reconciliation Ecology]]. == Environmentalism and Politics == Environmentalists first became influential in American politics after [[Earth Day]], [[April 22]], [[1970]]. Their activism directly led to the creation of numerous U.S. environmental laws, starting with the [[Clean Air Act]] and [[Clean Water Act]] and the formation of the US Environmental Protection Agency, or [[Environmental Protection Agency\|EPA]] in [[1970]]. These successes were followed by the enactment of a whole series of laws regulating [[waste]] ([[Resource Conservation and Recovery Act]]), [[Toxin\|toxic substances]] ([[Toxic Substances Control Act]]), [[pesticides]] (FIFRA: [[Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act]]), clean-up of polluted sites ([[Superfund]]), protection of [[endangered species]] ([[Endangered Species Act]]), and more. Fewer environmental laws have been passed in the last decade as corporations and other [[conservative]] interests have increased their influence over [[Politics of the United States\|American politics]]. Corporate cooperation against environmental lobbyists has been organized by the [[Wise use\|Wise Use]] group. At the same time, many environmentalists have been turning toward other means of persuasion, such as working with business, community, and other partners to promote [[sustainable development]]. Much environmental activism is directed towards [[conservation movement\|conservation]], as well as the prevention or elimination of pollution. However, [[conservation movement]]s, [[ecology movement]]s, [[peace movement]]s, [[green parties]], [[green anarchism\|green-]] and [[eco-anarchism\|eco-anarchists]] often subscribe to very different ideologies, while supporting the same goals as those who call themselves “environmentalists”. To outsiders, these groups or factions can appear to be indistinguishable. As [[World population\|human population]] and industrial activity continue to increase, environmentalists often find themselves in serious conflict with those who believe that human and industrial activities should not be overly regulated or restricted, such as some [[libertarian]]s. Environmentalists often clash with others, particularly “corporate interests,” over issues of the management of [[natural resources]], like in the case of the [[Earth's atmosphere\|atmosphere]] as a “carbon dump”, the focus of [[climate change]], and [[global warming]] controversy. They usually seek to protect commonly owned or unowned resources for future generations. Those who take issue with new untested technologies are more precisely known, especially in [[Europe]], as [[political ecologist]]s. They usually seek, in contrast, to preserve the integrity of existing ecologies and ecoregions, and in general are more pessimistic about human “management”. === "Post-Environmentalism" === In [[2004]], with the presidency and both houses of congress of the [[United States]] government controlled the [[Republican Party (United States)\|Republican Party]]&mdash;generally seen by environmentalists as more friendly to big business than to environmentalism&mdash;some environmentalists started questioning whether "environmentalism" was even a useful political framework. According to a controversial essay titled "The Death of Environmentalism" ([[Michael Shellenberger]] and [[Ted Nordhaus]], 2004) American environmentalism has been remarkably successful in protecting the air, water, and large stretches of wilderness in [[North America]] and Europe, but these environmentalists have stagnated as a vital force for cultural and political change. Shellenberger and Nordhaus wrote, "Today environmentalism is just another special interest. Evidence for this can be found in its concepts, its proposals, and its reasoning. What stands out is how arbitrary environmental leaders are about what gets counted and what doesn't as 'environmental.' Most of the movement's leading thinkers, funders, and advocates do not question their most basic assumptions about who we are, what we stand for, and what it is that we should be doing." Their essay was followed by a speech in San Francisco called "Is Environmentalism Dead?" by former Sierra Club President, Adam Werbach, who argued for the evolution of environmentalism into a more expansive, relevant and powerful progressive politics. These "post-environmental movement" thinkers argue that the ecological crises the human species faces in the 21st century are qualitatively different from the problems the environmental movement was created to address in the 1960s and 1970s. Climate change and habitat destruction, they argue, are global, more complex, and demand far deeper transformations of the economy, the culture and political life. The consequence of environmentalism's outdated and arbitrary definition, they argue, is political irrelevancy. === Radical Environmentalism === While most environmentalists are mainstream and peaceful, a small minority are more radical in their approach. Various extreme ideologies of [[radical environmentalism]], and several ecology-based theories of [[anarchism\|anarchy]] (known as (small-g) [[green anarchism]], i.e. [[eco-terrorism]]) are cited to justify equipment [[sabotage]], [[logging]], [[Fishing industry\|fishing]] [[blockade]]s, and [[arson]], such as burning of houses impinging on a perceived "natural ecology." Environmentalists differ in their views of these ideologies and groups, but almost all condemn [[Violence\|violent]] actions that can harm [[humans]]. Some tolerate the destruction of property not essential to sustaining or saving human life. The most extreme often claim to view themselves as part of nature, simply acting to protect itself from man. == See also == [[Environmental movement]] [[Environmental skepticism]] [[Environmentalism (Critique of George W. Bush's politics)]] [[Environmentalist wacko, Econazi and Ecoterrorist]] [[Forestry]] [[Free-market environmentalism]] [[Political ecology]] [[Pollution]] [[Radical environmentalism]] ==External links== [http://grist.org/ Grist Magazine] - Environmental news, analysis, and humor [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-13 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Environment [http://www.foei.org Friends of the Earth - International] - a network of environmental organisations including [http://www.foe.org Friends of the Earth - US] and [http://www.foe.org.uk Friends of the Earth - England, Wales, and Northern Ireland] [http://www.moveleft.com/moveleft_subject_submit_environment.html MoveLeft Media's environmental articles] [http://www.earth.columbia.edu/sop2004/ State of the Planet 2004 Conference] [http://www.activistmagazine.com ACTivist Magazine - a magazine for peace, ecology and human rights] [http://samvak.tripod.com/nature.html The philosophy and economics of environmentalism] [http://www.takesomeaction.co.uk A website for endangered wildlife and environmental issues] [http://environment.harvard.edu/religion/main.html Essays on environmental teachings of major religions] [http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Articles/Ecology%20Environment%20and%20Islam.html Environment and Ecology - an Islamic perspective] [[Category:American environment]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Environmentalist</title> <id>10184</id> <revision> <id>42161735</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:46:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Djm21589</username> <id>1026952</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">An '''environmentalist''' is a person or a group that supports any goal of the [[environmental movement]], an information-based perspective on appropriate use of technology to prevent adverse effects on the environment. Most politically inclined environmentalists identify themselves as [[greens]] and they have strong views on issues that concern the environment. The [[Worldwide green parties\|Green Parties]] are generally applied to those in the [[environmental movement]] working as volunteers, activists or paid staff. However, the term could also be applied to [[environmental science\|environmental scientists]]. Some environmentalists are also [[green anarchism\|green anarchists]], arguing that true environmental change cannot occur under the present economic model. Typically, environmentalists have [[conservationist]] views - in general, they advocate for the [[preservation]], restoration, or enhancement of the [[natural environment]]. [[Eco-defense]] is a phrase used to describe the act of [[violence]], [[sabotage]], [[vandalism]], property damage and intimidation both against people and against property committed in the name of environmentalism. Eco-terrorism are things done to the environment that have negative reprocussions to the environment. this phrase has been twisted and is now often used to describe Eco-defenders. Environmentalists are sometimes given names in a derogatory context such as [[Watermelon#Watermeltermon_connotations\|watermelon]], [[tree hugger]] or [[greeny]] (greenie). ==See also== [[Environmentalism]] [[Environmental movement]] [[:Category:Environmentalists\|List of Environmentalists]] [[Conservationist]] [[Conservation movement]] [[Conservation ethic]] [[Ecology movement]] [[Category:Environmentalists\|]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Environmentalists</title> <id>10185</id> <r
the East (E5) * In the South (E6) ===Department F (Frontier and Border Police)=== The border guards of Germany answered directly to the Gestapo as an effort to keep close track of immigration and emigration to and from the Reich. After the start of the [[World War II]], the office of the Border Police lost most of its authority to the German military, who patrolled the borders of Germany and the occupied territories as part of counter efforts to an Allied invasion. ===Local Offices=== The local offices of the Gestapo were known as ''Gestapostellen'' and ''Gestapoleitstellen''. These offices answered to a local commander known as the ''Inspektor der Sicherheitspolizei und SD'' who, in turn, was under the dual command of ''Referat N'' of the Gestapo and also local [[SS and Police Leader]]s. The classic image of the Gestapo officer, dressed in [[trench coat]] and [[hat]], can be attributed to Gestapo personnel assigned to local offices in German cities and larger towns. This image seems to have been popularized by the assassination of the former Chancellor General [[Kurt von Schleicher]] in 1934. General von Schleicher and his wife were gunned down in their [[Berlin]] home by three men dressed in black trench coats and wearing black fedoras. The killers of General von Schleicher were widely believed to have been Gestapo men. At a press conference held later the same day, [[Hermann Göring]] was asked by foreign correspondents to respond to a hot rumor that General von Schleicher had been murdered in his home. Goring stated that the Gestapo had attempted to arrest Schleicher, but that he had been “shot while attempting to resist arrest”. ===Auxiliary Duties=== The Gestapo also maintained offices at all [[Nazi concentration camps]], held an office on the staff of the SS and Police Leaders, and supplied personnel on an as-needed basis to such formations as the [[Einsatzgruppen]]. Such personnel, assigned to these auxiliary duties, were typically removed from the Gestapo chain of command and fell under the authority of other branches of the SS. ==The Daily Operations of the Gestapo== Contrary to popular belief, the Gestapo was not an omnipotent agency that had its agents in every nook and cranny of German society. So-called “V-men” as undercover Gestapo agents were known only to be used to infiltrate [[Social Democratic Party of Germany\|Social Democratic]] and [[Communist Party of Germany\|Communist]] opposition groups, but these cases were the exception, not the rule. As the analysis of the ''Gestapostellen'' done by the historian Robert Gellately has established, for the most part the Gestapo was made of bureaucrats and clerical workers who depended upon denunciations by ordinary Germans for their information. Indeed, the Gestapo was overwhelmed with denunciations and spent most of its time sorting out the credible denunciations from less credible ones. Far from being an all-powerful agency that knew everything about what was happening in German society, the local ''Gestapostellen'' were under-staffed, over-worked offices that struggled with the paper-load caused by so many denunciations. The ratio of Gestapo officers to the general public was extremely lop-sided; for example, in the region of [[Lower Franconia]], which had about one million people in the 1930s, there was only one Gestapo office for the entire region, which had 28 people attached to it, of whom half were clerical workers. Furthermore, for information about what was happening in German society, the ''Gestapostellen'' were most part dependent upon these denunciations. Thus, it was ordinary Germans by their willingness to denounce one another who supplied the Gestapo with the information that determined who the Gestapo arrested. The popular picture of the Gestapo with its spies everywhere terrorizing German society has been firmly rejected by most historians. == Gestapo counterintelligence == [[Image:Gestapo pins.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Insignia pins such as these were issued to Gestapo officers.]] The [[Polish government in exile]] in [[London]] during [[World War II]] received sensitive military information about Nazi Germany from agents and informants throughout [[Europe]]. After Germany conquered Poland in the fall of 1939, Gestapo officials believed that they had neutralized Polish intelligence activities. Cooperation of [[NKVD]] and [[Gestapo]]: In March 1940 representatives of NKVD and Gestapo meet for one week in [[Zakopane]], for the coordination of the pacification of resistance in [[Poland]]. The [[Soviet Union]] delivered hundreds of German and Austrian communists to Gestapo, as unwanted foreigners, together with relevant documents. However an advanced Polish intelligence network developed throughout Europe to provide information to the Allies. Some of the Polish information about the movement of German police and SS units to the East during the [[Operation Barbarossa\|German invasion]] of the [[Soviet Union]] in the fall of 1941 was similar to information British intelligence secretly got through intercepting and decoding German police and SS messages sent by [[radio telegraphy]]. In 1942, the Gestapo discovered a cache of Polish intelligence documents in [[Prague]] and were surprised to see that Polish agents and informants had been gathering detailed military information and smuggling it out to London, via [[Budapest]] and [[Istanbul]]. The Poles identified had tracked German military trains to the Eastern front and identified four [[Order Police]] (''Ordnungspolizei'') battalions sent to conquered areas of the Soviet Union in October 1941 and engaged in war crimes and mass murder. Polish agents also gathered detailed information about the morale of German soldiers in the East. After uncovering a sample of the information the Poles had reported, Gestapo officials concluded that Polish intelligence activity represented a very serious danger to Germany. As late as [[June 6]], [[1944]], [[Heinrich Müller]], head of the Gestapo, concerned about the leakage of information to the allied forces, set up a special unit called [[Sonderkommando Jerzy]], designed to root out the Polish intelligence network in western and southwestern Europe. == Notable individuals == === Agents and officers of the Gestapo === [[Klaus Barbie]] [[Rudolf Diels]] [[Adolf Eichmann]] [[Gerhard Flesch]] [[Hans Bernd Gisevius]] [[Herbert Kappler]] [[Heinrich Himmler]] [[Reinhard Heydrich]] [[Henry Oliver Rinnan]] [[Walter Schellenberg]] [[Karl Eberhard Schöngarth]] [[Franz Stangl]] (Austrian Gestapo) [[Max Wielen]] [[Hermann Göring]] [[Siegfried Wolfgang Fehmer]] === People executed by the Gestapo === [[Marc Bloch]], [[France\|French]] historian [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]], German theologian [[Roger Bushell]], leader of [[The Great Escape]] [[Wilhelm Canaris]], Head of the [[Abwehr]] [[Constant Chevillon]], Occultist [[Charles Delestraint]], [[French Resistance]] member [[Jean Moulin]], [[French Resistance]] leader [[Stanislaw Saks]], [[Poland\|Polish]] mathematician [[Juliusz Schauder]], Polish mathematician [[Barthel Schink]], Member of the [[Edelweiss Pirates]] [[Ernst Thälmann]], German communist leader == Other == Sometimes the word <b>Gestapo</b> is used colloquially for other organizations which are felt to be tyrannical: see [[Nazism#Nazi / Third Reich terminology in popular culture\|Nazi/3rd Reich terms in popular culture]]. An example is in the book version of the [[Tron (film)\|Tron]] movie, where a character says "This kind of romp is going to annoy the local gestapo." The Gestapo was parodied in the hit [[BBC]] [[sitcom]] ''[['Allo 'Allo!]]'', as stiff-as-board limping characters obsessed with protecting [[Adolf Hitler]] from assassination by the German military or resistance. Usually wearing black [[leather]] coats and hats, they were often seen [[cross-dressing]]. Herr Flick and Herr von Smallhausen were the local agents in the village of Nouvion, obsessed entirely with the German war effort. They were constantly under siege by the [[French Resistance]]. ==References== === Books === ''The Gestapo and German society : enforcing racial policy 1935-1945'', Robert Gellately, Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1990, ISBN 0198228694. ''German Resistance Against Hitler: The Search for Allies Abroad, 1938-1945'', Klemens Von Klemperer, Oxford University Press, 1992, ISBN 0198205511 ''Histoire de la Gestapo'', Jacques Delarue, Paris, 1962 ''An Illustrated History of the Gestapo'', Rupert Butler, Motorbooks, 1993, ISBN 0879388013 '''Pierre de Villemarest,''' '''''Untouchable - Who protected Bormann & Gestapo Müller after 1945...,''''' '''Aquilion, 2005, ISBN 1904997023''' '''''Suspected hoax works about the Gestapo include:''''' ''Gestapo Chief: The 1948 Interrogation of Heinrich Müller'' - Gregory Douglas. San Jose, CA 1995 ===External links=== * [http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/text/x08/xm0841.html Gestapo entry at the Simon Wiesenthal Center site] * [http://www.holocaustsurvivors.org/cgi-bin/data.show.pl?di=record&da=encyclopedia&ke=17 Holocaust Survivors Encyclopedia] * [http://www.angelfire.com/dc/1spy/Gestapo.html History of Espionage entry] * [http://www.archives.gov/iwg/research_papers/trial_of_war_criminals_before_imt.html U.S. Archives document on the IMT] * [http://www.archives.gov/iwg/ U.S. Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group] * [http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/spring_2002_fritz_kolbe_2.html U.S. Archives profile of CIA spy Fritz Kolbe] * [http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/nazi/innenpolitik/gestapo/ Gestapo entry at the Deutsches Historisches Museum (German Historical Museum) Berlin]www.SAC.biz <!--Categories--> <!--Interwiki--> [[Category:German intelligence agencies]] [[Category:German loanwords]] [[Category:Holocaust]] [[Category:Law enforcement agencies of Germany]] [[Category:Nazi Germany]] [[Category:Portmanteaus]]
ird Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4. Section 1.2.8: Fibonacci Numbers, pp.79&ndash;86. ==External links== * Alexey Stakhov, ''[http://www.goldenmuseum.com Museum of Harmony and Golden Section]'', (undated, 2005 or earlier). * Subhash Kak, ''[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0411195 The Golden Mean and the Physics of Aesthetics]'', Archive of Physics, (2004). * Ron Knott, ''[http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/phi.html The Golden Section: Phi]'', (2005). * Ron Knott, ''[http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibrep.html Representations of Integers using Fibonacci numbers]'', (2004). * Bob Johnson, ''[http://www.dur.ac.uk/bob.johnson/fibonacci/ Fibonacci resources]'', (2004) * Donald E. Simanek, ''[http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/pseudo/fibonacc.htm Fibonacci Flim-Flam]'', (undated, 2005 or earlier). * Rachel Hall, ''[http://www.sju.edu/~rhall/Multi/rhythm2.pdf Hemachandra's application to Sanskrit poetry]'', (undated; 2005 or earlier). * Alex Vinokur, ''[http://semillon.wpi.edu/~aofa/AofA/msg00012.html Computing Fibonacci numbers on a Turing Machine]'', (2003). * (no author given), ''[http://www.goldenmeangauge.co.uk/fibonacci.htm Fibonacci Numbers Information]'', (undated, 2005 or earlier). * [http://www.dur.ac.uk/bob.johnson/fibonacci Fibonacci resources site] * Wikisource, ''[[Wikisource:Sequence:Fibonacci numbers\| Table of first 1000 Fibonacci numbers]]'', (2005). * [http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fib.html Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Section] - Ron Knott's Surrey University multimedia web site on the Fibonacci numbers, the Golden section and the Golden string. * The [http://www.mscs.dal.ca/Fibonacci/ Fibonacci Association] incorporated in [[1963]], focuses on Fibonacci numbers and related mathematics, emphasizing new results, research proposals, challenging problems, and new proofs of old ideas. * Dawson Merrill's [http://www.goldenratio.org/info/ Fib-Phi] link page. * [http://primes.utm.edu/glossary/page.php?sort=FibonacciPrime Fibonacci primes] * [http://www.upl.cs.wisc.edu/~bethenco/fibo/ The One Millionth Fibonacci Number] [[Category:Fibonacci numbers\|]] [[bg:Число на Фибоначи]] [[ca:Successió de Fibonacci]] [[cs:Fibonacciho posloupnost]] [[da:Fibonacci-tal]] [[de:Fibonacci-Folge]] [[es:Sucesión de Fibonacci]] [[eo:Fibonaĉi-nombroj]] [[fr:Suite de Fibonacci]] [[ko:피보나치 수]] [[id:Bilangan Fibonacci]] [[it:Successione di Fibonacci]] [[he:סדרת פיבונאצ'י]] [[lv:Fibonači skaitļi]] [[hu:Fibonacci-számok]] [[nl:Rij van Fibonacci]] [[ja:フィボナッチ数]] [[no:Fibonacci-tall]] [[pl:Ciąg Fibonacciego]] [[pt:Número de Fibonacci]] [[ru:Числа Фибоначчи]] [[scn:Succissioni di Fibonacci]] [[sk:Fibonacciho postupnosť]] [[sl:Fibonaccijevo število]] [[fi:Fibonaccin lukujono]] [[sv:Fibonaccital]] [[vi:Dãy Fibonacci]] [[tr:Fibonacci sayıları]] [[zh:斐波那契数列]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fighter Aircraft</title> <id>10921</id> <revision> <id>15908711</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fighter aircraft]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>File sharing</title> <id>10922</id> <revision> <id>42124622</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:59:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Omniplex</username> <id>571527</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/ References */ get rid of bogus cyberspace infobox with internal links</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date\|January 2006}} '''File sharing''' is the practice of making [[computer file\|file]]s available to other users for download over the [[Internet]] and smaller [[computer network\|networks]]. Usually file sharing follows the [[peer-to-peer]] (P2P) model, where the files are stored on and served by personal computers of the users. Most people who engage in file sharing are also downloading files that other users share. Sometimes these two activities are linked together. P2P File sharing is distinct from file trading in that downloading files from a P2P network does not require uploading, although some networks either provide incentives for uploading such as credits or force the sharing of files being currently downloaded. ==History== File sharing is one of the original applications on the internet, preceding even email. FTP evolved as a common standard for file sharing and is still used to this day. Having said that, when people use the term 'file sharing' they are usually refering to the exchange of files over peer-to-peer file sharing networks. [[Napster]], originally a [[centralized system]], was the first major P2P file-sharing tool and popularized file sharing for the masses and came into being in the fall of 1999. Napster was a localized index for [[MP3]] files shared by the users logged into the system. It included [[Internet Relay Chat\|IRC]]-like chat and [[instant messenger]] features. Many new major clients now follow its example in design. An MP3-only sharing system, Napster was finally shut down by legal attacks from the [[music industry]]. It was openly attacked by some artists (notably [[Dr. Dre]], [[Metallica]]) and supported by others ([[Mötley Crüe]], [[Limp Bizkit]], [[Courtney Love]], [[Dave Matthews]], [[David Crowder Band]]). There was widespread media coverage of [[unreleased Madonna songs]] leaking out on to the web prior to the official commercial release, but there was no evidence that this injured sales. In fact, a similar leak of [[Radiohead]]'s album ''[[Kid A]]'' on Napster may have actually stimulated sales. Tracks from ''Kid A'' were released on [[Napster]] 3 months before the CD's release and millions had downloaded the music by the time it hit record stores. The album was not expected to do that well to begin with as it was an artsy endeavor by a band that never hit the Top 20 in the US before. There was very little marketing employed and few radio stations played it so Napster was expected to kill off whatever market was left. Instead, when the CD was released Radiohead zoomed to the top of the charts. Having put the music in the hands of so many people, Napster appears to be the force that drove this success. Nonetheless, the record industry was reluctant to credit a company it was suing. Even before its legal problems, the community created an alternative: [[OpenNap]]. A [[reverse-engineer]]ed version of the Napster [[protocol (computing)\|protocol]], it was released as the [[open source]] server alternative for Napster users. These networks continue to exist even after Napster's collapse and many clients using this protocol have appeared, particularly with the help of the [[Napigator]] [[server]] list - an effort to centralize all of the different [[servers]] and [[computer network\|networks]]. Afterward, a [[decentralized]] network known as [[Gnutella]] appeared. This service is fully [[open source]] and allows users to search for almost any file type; users can find more than just MP3s on these networks. It was created in response to the threat posed toward any centralized body like Napster. The purpose behind decentralization is to prevent any single broken link from compromising the entire network. Gnutella continues to define file sharing today, forming the extremes at both ends of the law in the wake of a series of civil lawsuits filed against computer users by the [[RIAA]] (which began in September, [[2003]]), however, Napster has gone away and left a gap, which to some extent has since been filled by BitTorrent and others. Gnutella and BitTorrent are free and open protocols and services while Napster has been resurrected as a commercial online music service that competes with other commercial services like [[iTunes]] and Rhapsody. Most file-sharing systems since have sought to ride the line between these two extremes. Today a variety of [[file-sharing program]]s are available on several different networks. Availability depends partly on [[operating system]], and different networks have different features (for example, multiple-source downloads, different sorts of search limiting, and so on). It is common for commercial file sharing clients to contain abrasive advertising software, or [[spyware]], while non-commercial ones usually do not. ==Network architecture== There are several major issues surrounding file sharing. Of these, the two most important are centralization vs decentralization and the [[privacy]] and [[anonymity]] of users. The latter takes on added importance when the [[legality]] of file-sharing is challenged by some [[copyright]] owners. A third issue is the collection and sale of data about users, using software referred to by its detractors as "[[spyware]]". In the early days, [[client (computing)\|client]] software was protocol-specific, so one had "Napster" clients, and one had "Gnutella" clients. There is an everpresent push towards making the [[GUI]]-side of things capable of using multiple protocols. It is argued: why should a user have to load up several different applications to do what is, in their mind, the same thing? In cases where there is perceived value in collecting, some people will have lots to share and will find themselves surrounded by eager people. This can cause problems when the collector cannot keep up with demand. Decentralization is one means to alleviate this problem, especially in cases where it is possible to ensure that multiple copies of a popular item are available from multiple sources (even simultaneously, as with [[multi-source]] downloading). Decentralization has also been pushed as a means of overcoming the threats posed to a centralized network, either by legal disputes or hostile users. A decentralized network has no body to att
''' by [[William Poundstone]]. Henry Holt & Company ([[October 1]] [[1999]]) ISBN 0805057668 # {{note\|science}} Much of Sagan's research in the field of planetary science is outlined by William Poundstone (see reference #1, above). Poundstone's biography of Sagan includes an eight page list of Sagan's scientific articles published from 1957 to 1998. Detailed information about Sagan's scientific work comes from the primary research articles. Example: Sagan, C., Thompson, W. R., and Khare, B. N. "[[Titan: A Laboratory for Prebiological Organic Chemistry]]," Accounts of Chemical Research, volume 25, page 286 (1992). There is commentary on this research article about Titan at [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/T/Titanprebiotic.html The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight]. # {{note\|nuclearwinter}} Turco RP, Toon OB, Ackerman TP, Pollack JB, Sagan C. "[[Climate and smoke: an appraisal of nuclear winter]]," [[Science (journal)\|Science]], volume 247, pages 166-176 (1990). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=11538069&dopt=Abstract PubMed abstract] \| [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0036-8075%2819900112%293%3A247%3A4939%3C166%3ACASAAO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V JSTORE] link to full text article. Carl Sagan discussed his involvement in the political nuclear winter debates and his erroneous global cooling prediction for the Gulf War fires in his book, '''''[[The Demon-Haunted World]]'''''. # {{note\|marijuana}}{{note label\|marijuana\|4\|a}} '''''[[Marihuana Reconsidered]]''''' by Lester, M.D. Grinspoon. Publisher: Quick American Archives (2nd edition; [[April 1]] [[1994]]) ISBN 0932551130. Sagan's [http://www.marijuana-uses.com/essays/002.html essay] is available online. # {{note\|Davidson}} '''''[[Carl Sagan: A Life]]''''' by Keay Davidson. John Wiley & Sons ([[August 30]] [[1999]]) ISBN 0471252867 # {{note\|drugnews}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/475954.stm BBC news story] that includes mention of Sagan's marijuana use. # {{note\|2001ASO}} "[http://enjoyment.independent.co.uk/film/news/article321643.ece 2001: The secrets of Kubrick's classic]" by Anthony Barnes ([[23 October]] [[2005]]). # {{note\|apple}} An account of this lawsuit is given in '''''[[Carl Sagan: A Life in the Cosmos]]''''', pages 363-364 and 374-375. # {{note\|God}} A similar quote can be found in Chapter 23 of Sagan's book '''''[[Broca's Brain]]'''''. "Some people think God is an outsized, light-skinned male with a long white beard, sitting on a throne somewhere up there in the sky, busily tallying the fall of every sparrow. Others - for example [[Baruch Spinoza]] and [[Albert Einstein]] - considered God to be essentially the sum total of the physical laws which describe the universe. I do not know of any compelling evidence for anthropomorphic patriarchs controlling human destiny from some hidden celestial vantage point, but it would be madness to deny the existence of physical laws." ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{Commons\|Carl Sagan}} * [http://www.skeptic.com/04.4.sagan-tribute.html In Memory of Carl Sagan]. Tributes by [[Tom McDonough]], [[James Randi]] and [[Michael Shermer]], and a selection of quotes from Sagan's works, published in ''[[Skeptic (magazine)\|Skeptic]]'', Vol. 4, no. 4, 1996, pp. 10-17. * [http://www.carlsagan.com/ CarlSagan.Com]. Homepage of ''Cosmos Studios'', which sells the ''Cosmos'' series on DVD and VHS video tape. * [http://www.news.cornell.edu/general/Dec96/saganobit.ltb.html Carl Sagan, Cornell astronomer, dies today ([[20 December]]) in Seattle]. [[Cornell University]] press release on Sagan's death. * [http://usenet.net.nz/apod/ap961226.html Astronomy Picture of the Day: Carl Sagan]. [[December 26]] [[1996]]. [http://www.marijuana-uses.com/essays/002.html Mr. X] - Sagan's essay in the 1971 book ''Marihuana Reconsidered'' [http://www.coseti.org/klaescnt.htm Larry Klaes' in-depth analysis of the film and novel ''Contact''] [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,925115,00.html "Big Bang Bust" TIME magazine, [[December 14]] [[1981]]] [http://www.bigear.org/vol1no2/sagan.htm "The Quest for Extraterrestrial Intelligence" Cosmic Search Magazine Vol. 1 No. 2, March 1979] [http://www.sciencenter.org/SaganPW/ Carl Sagan Planet Walk] [http://sagan.lsr1.com Sagan] The electronic music group [http://science.discovery.com/convergence/cosmos/cosmos.html 25th Anniversary Rebroadcast of Cosmos on The Science Channel] [http://www.csicop.org/si/2005-07/sagan.html Carl Sagan Takes Questions] [[Category:1934 births\|Sagan, Carl]] [[Category:1996 deaths\|Sagan, Carl]] [[Category:American astronomers\|Sagan, Carl]] [[Category:Planetary scientists\|Sagan, Carl]] [[Category:Humanists\|Sagan, Carl]] [[Category:Jewish American writers\|Sagan, Carl]] [[Category:Jewish-American scientists\|Sagan, Carl]] [[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners\|Sagan, Carl]] [[Category:Science fiction writers\|Sagan, Carl]] [[Category:Science writers\|Sagan, Carl]] [[Category:Skeptics\|Sagan, Carl]] [[Category:Cornell University faculty\|Sagan, Carl]] [[ca:Carl Sagan]] [[de:Carl Sagan]] [[es:Carl Sagan]] [[eo:Carl SAGAN]] [[eu:Carl Sagan]] [[fr:Carl Sagan]] [[gl:Carl Sagan]] [[ko:칼 세이건]] [[is:Carl Sagan]] [[it:Carl Sagan]] [[he:קרל סייגן]] [[lt:Karlas Saganas]] [[hu:Carl Sagan]] [[nl:Carl Sagan]] [[ja:カール・セーガン]] [[no:Carl Sagan]] [[pl:Carl Sagan]] [[pt:Carl Sagan]] [[ru:Саган, Карл]] [[simple:Carl Sagan]] [[sk:Carl Sagan]] [[sl:Carl Edward Sagan]] [[fi:Carl Sagan]] [[sv:Carl Sagan]] [[th:คาร์ล เซแกน]] [[tr:Carl Sagan]] [[zh:卡尔·萨根]] {{featured article}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Claymore</title> <id>6825</id> <revision> <id>41490750</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:46:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>InvaderJim42</username> <id>324358</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Two-handed (Highland) Claymore / removed repeated sentences</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} '''Claymore''' is a term used to describe two distinct types of [[sword]]s used by [[Scottish people\|Scottish]] warriors and soldiers. == Name == The name claymore is thought to be an anglicisation of ''claidheamh mòr'' - a [[Scottish Gaelic language\|Gaelic]] term meaning "big sword". However another theory suggests it comes from "claidheamh da lamh", literally two-hand sword. ''Claidheamh'' is ultimately [[cognate]] with [[Latin]] ''[[gladius]]''. == Two-handed (Highland) Claymore == The [[two-handed sword\|two-handed]] claymore was a large sword used in the [[Middle Ages\|medieval]] period. It was used in the constant [[Scottish clan\|clan]] warfare and border fights with the [[England\|English]] from circa [[1300]] to [[1700]]. The last known battle in which it is considered to have been used in a significant number is [[Battle of Killiecrankie]] in [[1689]]. It was somewhat smaller than other two-handed swords of the era, and was widely feared because its lightness made it faster in combat than its European counterparts. The two-handed claymore seems to be an offshoot of Early Scottish medieval swords which had developed a distinctive style of a cross-hilt with downsloping arms that ended in spatulate swellings. The average claymore ran about 55 inches (1.4 m) in overall length, with a 13 inch (330 mm) grip and a 42 inch (1 m) blade. Fairly uniform in style, the sword was set with a wheel [[pommel]] often capped by a crescent shaped nut and a guard with straight, down-sloping arms ending in [[quatrefoil]]s and [[languet]]s running down the center of the blade from the guard. == Basket-hilted Claymore == The second, later, sword to be designated claymore was a one-handed basket-hilted [[broadsword]] popular with Scottish troops from the [[18th century]] onwards, even seeing combat on the beaches of Normandy during WW2. The basket was designed to protect the hand in [[combat]]. This latter form of claymore can be seen in some forms of highland traditional dance as well as on the dress uniforms of [[British Army]] regiments drawn from the region. ==See also== [[Broadsword]] * [[Claymore mine]]s ==External links== * [http://www.armor.com/2000/catalog/item100.html\| Two-handed Claymore] [[Category:European swords]] [[de:Claymore]] [[es:Claymore]] [[fr:Claymore]] [[ja:クレイモア]] [[pl:Claymore]] [[ro:Claymore]] [[sl:Claymore]] [[fi:Claymore]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cases of anthrax</title> <id>6826</id> <revision> <id>15904942</id> <timestamp>2003-09-03T01:30:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT[[2001 anthrax attacks]] already merged with main article</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[2001 anthrax attacks]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cuban Missile Crisis</title> <id>6827</id> <revision> <id>42125920</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:09:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.85.136.201</ip> </contributor> <comment>typo</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cubacrisis_17_Oct_1962.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|right\|[[U.S.A.F.]] spy photo of one of the suspected launch sites]] The '''Cuban Missile Crisis''' was a very tense confrontation between the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United States]] over the Soviet deployment of [[nuclear weapon\|nuclear missiles]] in [[Cuba]]. The period of greatest danger started on [[October 16]], [[1962]], when U.S. [[reconnaissance]] was shown to U.S. president [[John F. Kennedy]] which revealed evidence for Soviet [[nuclear weapon\|nuclear missile]] installations in Cuba, and lasted for 13 days until [[October 28]], [[1962]], when Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] announced the installations would be dismantled. It is regarde
[[Battle of the Nile]], considered as Nelson's greatest tactical victory. Some clumps still survive, and work is underway to replant some of those that have "sunk". They stand on land owned by the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty\|National Trust]], forming part of the [[Stonehenge Historic Landscape]] estate. ===Nelson and the Royal Navy=== [[Image:Nelson On His Column - Trafalgar Square - London - 240404.jpg\|thumb\|150px\|right\|[[Nelson's Column]] in [[Trafalgar Square]].]] ''Victory'' is still kept on active commission in honour of Nelson &mdash; it is the flagship of the [[Second Sea Lord]], and is the oldest commissioned ship of the Royal Navy. She can be found in Number 2 Dry Dock of the [[Royal Navy Museum]] at the [[Portsmouth Naval Base]], in [[Portsmouth]], [[England]]. Two Royal Navy battleships have been named [[HMS Nelson\|HMS ''Nelson'']] in his honour. The Royal Navy celebrates Nelson every [[21 October]] by holding Trafalgar Day dinners and toasting ''"The Immortal Memory"'' of Nelson. The bullet that killed Nelson is permanently on display in the Grand Vestibule of [[Windsor Castle]]. The uniform that he wore during the battle, with the fatal bullet hole still visible, can be seen at the [[National Maritime Museum]] in Greenwich. A lock of Nelson's hair was given to the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] from the [[Royal Navy]] after the [[Russo-Japanese War]] to commemorate the victory at the [[Battle of Tsushima]]. It is still on display at ''Kyouiku Sankoukan'', a public museum maintained by the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]]. ==Nelson's descendants== Nelson had no legitimate children; his illegitimate daughter by Lady Hamilton, Horatia, subsequently married the Rev. Philip Ward and died in [[1881]]. She and Rev. Ward had nine children: Horatio Nelson Ward (born [[8 December]] [[1822]]); Eleanor Phillipa Ward (born April [[1824]]); Marmaduke Philip Smyth Ward (born [[27 May]] [[1825]]); John James Stephen Ward ([[13 February]] [[1827]]-[[1829]]); Nelson Ward (born [[8 May]] [[1828]]); William George Ward (born [[8 April]] [[1830]]); Edmund Ward ([[10 July]], [[1832]]-[[1833]]); Horatio Ward (born [[24 November]], [[1833]]), Philip Ward (born May [[1834]]); Caroline Ward (born January [[1836]]). Because Lord Nelson had no legitimate heirs, the Viscountcy and 1798 Barony of Nelson (both "of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk") became extinct upon his death. However, the 1801 Barony of Nelson ("of the Nile and of Hilborough in the County of Norfolk") passed by a special remainder to Lord Nelson's brother, [[William Nelson, 1st Earl Nelson\|The Revd William Nelson]]. William was also created [[Earl Nelson]] in recognition of his brother's services, which title is still extant. ==Literary influences== Although Nelson's exploits are often claimed to have provided inspiration for fictional characters such as [[Jack Aubrey]], [[Horatio Hornblower]] and [[Honor Harrington]], a close reading of the books does not bear this out. It is more likely Nelson's fame makes him the only Naval figure of the time that reviewers recall. Nelson appears, unnamed but recognizable, in [[Susan Sontag]]'s novel [[The Volcano Lover: A Romance]], which centers around [[Lady Emma Hamilton]]'s affair with him. Nelson himself appears as a ghost, in Amber Benson's and Christopher Golden's [[Ghosts of Albion]]. Barry Unsworth's Losing Nelson centers on the Nelson's actions in Naples in 1799. ==Last words== Nelson's final words (as related by Victory's Surgeon [[William Beatty]], based on the accounts of those who were with Nelson when he died) were "Thank God I have done my duty". According to Beatty, he repeated these words several times until he became unable to speak. In his dying hours, Nelson was also attended by his chaplain, Alexander Scott, his steward, Chevalier and Walter Burke, the [[purser]], whose accounts have been available for modern biographers of Nelson. In those accounts, Nelson's last words were "Drink, drink. Fan, fan. Rub, rub.". This was a request to alleviate his symptoms of thirst, heat and the pains of his wounds (Pocock, Horatio Nelson, 1987, p.331). It is a common misconception that Nelson's last words were "Kiss me, Hardy", spoken to the captain of HMS ''Victory'', [[Thomas Hardy (naval officer)\|Thomas Hardy]]. Nelson did, in fact, say this to Hardy a short time before his death, but they were not his last words, and Hardy was not present at his death (having been called back on deck). Some have speculated that Nelson actually said "Kismet, Hardy", but this is impossible, since the word ''[[kismet]]'' did not enter the English language until much later. =="Tapping the Admiral"== According to a [[legend]], naval [[rum]] rather than brandy was used to preserve his body in a barrel until it was returned to England. It is claimed that his crew had drunk half of the rum from the barrel by the time they reached London; the crew were supposed to have sucked out the rum using thin straws. However, this legend is unlikely, due to the great respect that the crew had for Nelson, and because his body was guarded night and day by a marine. Nevertheless, this legend has given rise to the slang term "tapping the Admiral", meaning illicit drinking, and may be related to the nickname given to Naval rum rations later, "Nelson's Blood" (although this may possibly be a deliberate echo of the [[Eucharist\|Communion]] ritual). ==Titles== Lord Nelson's full title, at the time of his death, was ''Vice Admiral of the White The Right Honourable Horatio, Viscount Nelson, [[Order of the Bath\|Knight of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath]]''. In addition, he was Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk, Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Hillborough in the County of Norfolk, Duke of [[Bronte, Sicily\|Bronte]] in the nobility of the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]], Knight of the Grand Cross of the Order of St Ferdinand and of Merit and a Knight of the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s Order of the Crescent, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of St Joachim, Colonel of the Marines, and Freeman of Norwich, Bath, Yarmouth, London, Salisbury and Exeter. [[Image:Lady Nelson - Project Gutenberg eText 16914.jpg\|thumb\|Lady Nelson]] ==References== {{1911}} {{cite book \| last = Coleman \| first = Terry \| title = The Nelson Touch: The life and legend \| publisher = Oxford University Press \| year = 2004 \| id = ISBN 0195173228 }} * {{cite book \| last = Hayward \| first = Joel S. A. \| title = For God and Glory: Lord Nelson and His Way of War \| publisher = \| year = 2003 }} * {{cite book \| last = Knight \| first = Rodger \| title = The Pursuit of Victory: The Life and Achievement of Horatio Nelson \| publisher = Basic Books \| year = 2005 }} * {{cite book \| last = Vincent \| first = Edgar \| title = Nelson: Love & Fame \| publisher = Basic Books \| year = 2003 }} * {{cite book \| last = Hibbert \| first = Christopher \| title = Nelson A Personal History. \| publisher = Basic Books \| year = 1994 }} * {{cite book \| last = Pocock \| first = Tom \| title = Horatio Nelson \| publisher = The Bodley Head \| location = London \| year = 1987 \| id = ISBN 0370311248 }} * {{cite book \| authorlink = William Beatty \| last = Beatty \| first = William \| title = The Death of Lord Nelson \| publisher = \| year = 1807 \| url = http://www.lulu.com/content/175902 }} ==Further reading== Michener, James, A. 1989. ''Caribbean''. Secker & Warburg. London. ISBN 0-436-27971-1 (Especially Chap. VIII. "A Wedding on Nevis", pp. 289-318). Some of it is fictionalised, "...but everything said about Nelson and his frantic search for a wealthy life is based on fact." Pocock, Tom 1987, ''Horatio Nelson''. The Bodley Head. London. ISBN 0-370-31124-8 Lambert, Andrew ''Nelson - Britannia's God of War''. Faber and Faber. London. ISBN 0-571-21222-0 Good new general biography; particularly helpful final two chapters on reactions to Nelson after his death, down to the current day. Sugden, John ''Nelson - A Dream of Glory''. Jonathan Cape. London. ISBN 0-224-06097-X Outstanding and extremely thorough account of Nelson's life as far as the battle of St. Vincent. ''[[National Geographic Society\|National Geographic]]'' magazine for [[October]], [[2005]], has an article covering the Battle of Trafalgar, in recognition of its 200th anniversary. ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{commons\|Horatio Nelson}} [http://www.badley.info/history/Nelson-Horatio-Great-Britain.biog.html Nelson Chronology World History Database] [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/walker/collections/19c/west.asp 'The Death of Nelson' (1806)] by [[Benjamin West]] http://www.aboutnelson.co.uk/ [http://www.nelson-society.org.uk The Nelson Society] [http://www.hmsvictory.ngfl.gov.uk Life onboard HMS ''Victory'': an educational resource] [http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-tap1.htm Tapping the Admiral] from [[World Wide Words]]. {{gutenberg author\|id=Horatio_Nelson\|name=Horatio Nelson}} [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15233 The Death of Lord Nelson], 1807, by William Beatty from [[Project Gutenberg]] (also available in print from [http://www.lulu.com/content/175902 LuLu.com]) [http://www.indepthinfo.com/band-of-brothers/lord-nelson.shtml Band of Brothers In History and Literature] [http://www.trafalgar200th.com A Tribute to Nelson's Navy] [http://www.oxonianreview.org/issues/5-1/5-1nicholls.html An essay on Nelson in The Oxonian Review of Books] {{start box}} {{succession box three to two \| before=New Creation \| title1=[[Earl Nelson\|Viscount Nelson]] \| years1= \| after1=Extinct \| title2=[[Earl Nelson\|Baron Nelson]] \| years2= \| after2=[[William Nelson, 1st Earl Nelson\|William Nelson]] \| title3=[[Earl Nelson\|Baron Nelson]] \| years3= }} {{end box}} {{featured article}} [[Category:1758 births\|Nelson, Horatio
le houses in Westeros. Ice, the greatsword of House Stark, is one such blade. ===Qarth=== A city in the far east, home to warlocks and merchant princes. ===Free cities=== The nine free cities are located between Westeros and the remains of Valyria. The nine Free Cities are Lys, Myr, Pentos, Braavos, Lorath, Norvos, Qohor, Volantis, and Tyrosh. Of these all but Norvos and Qohor are located along coasts or upon islands in the Narrow Sea. ==Notes and links== ===Notes=== # {{note\|s-cont}} User mail #202. Verbatim citation by [[GRRM]]. ===External links=== [http://www.westeros.org/Citadel/Graphics/im_map-westeros-color.jpg A map updated through <i>A Feast for Crows</i>] [[Category:A Song of Ice and Fire]] [[Category:Fantasy worlds]] [[bg:&#1042;&#1077;&#1089;&#1090;&#1077;&#1088;&#1086;&#1089;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>International Grandmaster</title> <id>12304</id> <revision> <id>41577843</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:51:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>D6</username> <id>75561</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>disambig. [[Georgia]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The title '''International Grandmaster''' is awarded to world-class [[chess]] masters by the world chess organization [[Fédération Internationale des Échecs\|FIDE]]. Apart from "World Champion", Grandmaster is the highest title a chess player can attain. It is a lifetime title, in chess literature usually abbreviated as '''GM''' or ''IGM'' (this is in contrast to ''FM'' for [[FIDE Master]] and ''IM'' for [[International Master]]). GM, IM, and FM are open to both men and women. A separate gender-segregated title, ''WGM'' for [[Woman Grandmaster]], is also available, but is something of a [[misnomer]]. It is awarded for a level of skill between that of a FIDE Master and an International Master. In 1991 [[Susan Polgar]] became the first woman to earn the GM title under the same conditions as the men, and these days most of the top 10 women hold the GM title. The requirements for becoming a Grandmaster are somewhat complex. A player must have an [[ELO rating system\|ELO chess rating]] of at least 2500 at one time (although they need not maintain this level to keep the title). A rating of 2400 or higher is required to become an International Master. In addition, three favorable results (called ''norms'') in tournaments involving other Grandmasters, including some from countries other than the applicant's, are usually required before FIDE will confer the title on a player. There are other milestones a player can achieve to get the title, such as winning the World Junior Championship. Current regulations may be found in the FIDE Handbook [http://www.fide.com/official/handbook.asp?level=B0101]. International Grandmaster titles are also awarded to [[correspondence chess]] players by the [[International Correspondence Chess Federation]], and composers and solvers of [[chess problem]]s. ==Origin and Current Statistics== The title "Grandmaster" was first formally conferred by [[Russian Tsar Nicholas II]], who in [[1914]] awarded it to five players ([[Emanuel Lasker\|Lasker]], [[Jose Raul Capablanca\|Capablanca]], [[Alexander Alekhine\|Alekhine]], [[Siegbert Tarrasch\|Tarrasch]] and [[Frank Marshall\|Marshall]]), who were finalists of a tournament in [[Saint Petersburg]] which he had partially funded. The tournament was won by Lasker ahead of Capablanca. FIDE first awarded the International Grandmaster title in 1950 to 27 players. These players were [[Ossip Bernstein\|Bernstein]], [[Isaac Boleslavsky\|Boleslavsky]], [[Igor Bondarevsky\|Bondarevsky]], [[Mikhail Botvinnik\|Botvinnik]], [[David Bronstein\|Bronstein]], [[Oldrich Duras\|Duras]], [[Max Euwe\|Euwe]], [[Reuben Fine\|Fine]], [[Salo Flohr\|Flohr]], [[Ernst Grünfeld\|Grünfeld]], [[Paul Keres\|Keres]], [[Borislav Kostić\|Kostić]], [[Alexander Kotov\|Kotov]], [[Grigory Levenfish\|Levenfish]], [[Andor Lilienthal\|Lilienthal]], [[Geza Maroczy\|Maroczy]], [[Jacques Mieses\|Mieses]], [[Miguel Najdorf\|Najdorf]], [[Viacheslav Ragozin\|Ragozin]], [[Samuel Reshevsky\|Reshevsky]], [[Akiba Rubinstein\|Rubinstein]], [[Friedrich Sämisch\|Sämisch]], [[Vasily Smyslov\|Smyslov]], [[Gideon Stahlberg\|Stahlberg]], [[László Szabó (chess player)\|Szabó]], [[Ksawery Tartakower\|Tartakower]], and [[Milan Vidmar\|Vidmar]]. In 1972 there were only 88 GM's with 33 being Russian. In July 2005, the FIDE ratings list included over 900 grandmasters; see [[list of chess players]] and [[:Category:Chess grandmasters\|category chess grandmasters]] for some of them. The increase is at least partly due to the greater ease of travel, which makes it simpler to organize the international tournaments required to provide norm opportunities. The Grandmaster title retains its prestige because it represents a very high level of chess performance against other titled players. A chess master is typically in the top 2% of all tournament players. A Grandmaster is typically in the top 0.02% percent at the time he or she earns the title. [http://www.uschess.org/ratings/ratedist.html] =="Super-grandmaster"== A player whose ELO rating is over 2700 is sometimes informally called a "super-GM". From 1970 when FIDE first adopted the ELO rating system to January 2006, there have been only 38 players who have achieved a peak rating of 2700 or more. Below is a list compiled by [http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=2489 Przemek Jahr]. This list however does not account for the [[inflation]] of ELO ratings over time, as is evident by the fact that almost all of these peak ratings are from recent years. {\| class="wikitable" !Rank !Rating !Player !Date !Country \|- \|1. \|2851 \|[[Garry Kasparov]] \|1999.07 \|[[Russia]] \|- \|2. \|2809 \|[[Vladimir Kramnik]] \|2002.01 \|[[Russia]] \|- \|3. \|2801 \|[[Veselin Topalov]] \|2006.01 \|[[Bulgaria]] \|- \|4. \|2797 \|[[Viswanathan Anand]] \|2001.07 \|[[India]] \|- \|5. \|2785 \|[[Bobby Fischer]] \|1972.04 \|[[USA]] \|- \|6. \|2780 \|[[Anatoly Karpov]] \|1994.07 \|[[Russia]] \|- \|7. \|2765 \|[[Peter Svidler]] \|2006.01 \|[[Russia]] \|- \|8. \|2763 \|[[Péter Lékó]] \|2005.04 \|[[Hungary]] \|- \|9. \|2758 \|[[Alexander Morozevich]] \|1999.07 \|[[Russia]] \|- \|10. \|2755 \|[[Michael Adams]] \|2000.07 \|[[England]] \|- \|11. \|2752 \|[[Vassily Ivanchuk]] \|2005.07 \|[[Ukraine]] \|- \|12. \|2752 \|[[Levon Aronian]] \|2006.01 \|[[Armenia]] \|- \|13. \|2751 \|[[Alexei Shirov]] \|2000.01 \|[[Spain ]] \|- \|14. \|2745 \|[[Gata Kamsky]] \|1996.07 \|[[USA]] \|- \|15. \|2743 \|[[Ruslan Ponomariov]] \|2002.04 \|[[Ukraine]] \|- \|16. \|2739 \|[[Evgeny Bareev]] \|2003.10 \|[[Russia]] \|- \|17. \|2735 \|[[Judit Polgar]] \|2005.07 \|[[Hungary]] \|- \|18. \|2732 \|[[Alexander Grischuk]] \|2003.07 \|[[Russia]] \|- \|19. \|2731 \|[[Etienne Bacrot]] \|2005.04 \|[[France]] \|- \|20. \|2724 \|[[Boris Gelfand]] \|2005.07 \|[[Russia]] \|- \|21. \|2715 \|[[Valery Salov]] \|1995.01 \|[[ Russia]] \|- \|22. \|2714 \|[[Loek van Wely]] \|2001.10 \|[[The Netherlands]] \|- \|23. \|2712 \|[[Nigel Short]] \|2004.04 \|[[England]] \|- \|24. \|2710 \|[[Alexander Beliavsky]] \|1997.07 \|[[Slovenia]] \|- \|25. \|2709 \|[[Shakhriyar Mamedyarov]] \|2006.01 \|[[Azerbaijan]] \|- \|26. \|2707 \|[[Vladimir Akopian]] \|2005.10 \|[[Armenia]] \|- \|27. \|2707 \|[[Liviu-Dieter Nisipeanu]] \|2005.10 \|[[Romania]] \|- \|28. \|2706 \|[[Rustam Kasimdzhanov]] \|2001.10 \|[[Uzbekistan]] \|- \|29. \|2706 \|[[Ivan Sokolov]] \|2004.01 \|[[The Netherlands]] \|- \|30. \|2705 \|[[Mikhail Tal]] \|1980.01 \|[[Latvia]] \|- \|31. \|2705 \|[[Alexey Dreev]] \|2003.10 \|[[Russia]] \|- \|32. \|2704 \|[[Teimour Radjabov]] \|2006.01 \|[[Azerbaijan]] \|- \|33. \|2702 \|[[Michal Krasenkow]] \|2000.07 \|[[Poland]] \|- \|34. \|2702 \|[[Ilia Smirin]] \|2001.07 \|[[Israel]] \|- \|35. \|2702 \|[[Alexander Khalifman]] \|2001.10 \|[[Russia]] \|- \|36. \|2702 \|[[Zurab Azmaiparashvili]] \|2003.07 \|[[Georgia (country)\|Georgia]] \|- \|37. \|2700 \|[[Vladimir Malakhov (chess)\|Vladimir Malakhov]] \|2004.01 \|[[Russia]] \|- \|38. \|2700 \|[[Viktor Bologan]] \|2005.04 \|[[Moldova]] \|} == Title Inflation == Some people have argued that the players currently awarded the title of Grandmaster are not as dominant as those five original Grandmasters were in their day. Lasker, Capablanca and Alekhine were all World Champions, and both Tarrasch and Marshall were strong enough to play world title matches (both losing against Lasker). Tarrasch was regarded as the strongest player in the world in the period between the decline of Steinitz and the rise of Lasker. This argument says that the title of Grandmaster ought to be reserved for those who, at some time in their lives, become serious contenders for the World Championship, or who have actually held that title. Otherwise, a "super-GM" designation becomes necessary in order to refer to that group, leading to an accumulation of superlatives. == See also == [[Chess prodigy#List of youngest grandmasters\|List of youngest grandmasters]] [[Category:Chess titles]] [[Category:Chess grandmasters\| ]] [[da:Skakstormester]] [[de:Großmeister (Schach)]] [[el:Διεθνής γκρανμαίτρ]] [[es:Gran Maestro Internacional]] [[fr:Grand-maître international]] [[it:Grande Maestro Internazionale]] [[he:רב אמן בשחמט]] [[nl:Grootmeester (schaken)]] [[pl:Arcymistrz]] [[sl:Šahovske kategorije in naslovi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</title> <id>12305</id> <revision> <id>40795724</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T01:50:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rms125a@hotmail.com</username> <id>376014</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>international nominals required for European subjects per Jtdirl</comment> <text xml:space="preserve"><div style="float:right; margin-left: 7px; margin-bottom: 7px;">[[Image:Lessing_signature.png]]</div> '''Gotthold Ephraim Lessing''' ([[22 January]], [[1729]] &ndash; [[15 February]], [[1781]]), writer, philosopher, publicist, and
ist_ohmmat20 \| 26.50 n}} {{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k \| 237 }} {{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 \| 23.1 }} {{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsatrt \| (rolled) 5000 }} {{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa \| 70 }} {{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa \| 26 }} {{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa \| 76 }} {{Elementbox_poissonratio \| 0.35 }} {{Elementbox_mohshardness \| 2.75 }} {{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa \| 167 }} {{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa \| 245 }} {{Elementbox_cas_number \| 7429-90-5 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_begin \| isotopesof=aluminium \| color1=#cccccc \| color2=black }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 \| mn=26 \| sym=Al \| na=[[synthetic radioisotope\|syn]] \| hl=[[1 E13 s\|7.17&times;10<sup>5</sup>]][[year\|y]] \| dm1=[[Positron emission\|&beta;<sup>+</sup>]] \| de1=1.17 \| pn1=26 \| ps1=[[magnesium\|Mg]] \| dm2=[[electron capture\|&epsilon;]] \| de2=- \| pn2=26 \| ps2=[[magnesium\|Mg]] \| dm3=[[Gamma radiation\|&gamma;]] \| de3=1.8086 \| pn3= \| ps3=- }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_stable \| mn=27 \| sym=Al \| na=100% \| n=14 }} {{Elementbox_isotopes_end}} {{Elementbox_footer \| color1=#cccccc \| color2=black }} '''Aluminium''' or '''aluminum''' (see the [[#Spelling\|spelling]] section below) is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol '''Al''' and atomic number 13. It is a silvery and ductile member of the [[poor metal]] group of [[chemical element]]s. Aluminium is found primarily as the ore [[bauxite]] and is remarkable for its resistance to corrosion (due to the phenomenon of [[passivation]]) and its light weight. Aluminium is used in many industries to make millions of different products and is very important to the [[world economy]]. Structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the [[aerospace]] industry and very important in other areas of [[transport]]ation and building in which light weight, durability, and strength are needed. ==Properties== [[Image:Aluminum_Metal.jpg\|thumb\|left\|A piece of aluminium metal about 15 centimetres long.]] Aluminium is a soft and lightweight metal with a dull silvery appearance, due to a thin layer of [[oxidation]] that forms quickly when it is exposed to air. Aluminium is nontoxic (as the metal), non-magnetic, and non-sparking. Pure aluminium has a tensile strength of about 49 megapascals (MPa) and 400 MPa if it is formed into an alloy. Aluminium is about one-third as dense as [[steel]] or [[copper]]; is [[Malleability\|malleable]], [[Ductility\|ductile]], and easily machined and cast; and has excellent [[corrosion]] resistance and durability due to the protective oxide layer. Aluminium mirror finish has the highest reflectance of any metal in the 200-400 nm (UV) , and the 3000-10000 nm (far IR) regions, while in the 400-700 nm visible range it is slightly outdone by [[silver]], and in the 700-3000 (near IR) by silver, [[gold]] and copper. It is the second most malleable metal (after gold) and the sixth most [[ductile]]. Aluminium is a good heat [[conductor]] which is why it is used to make saucepans. [[Image:Bohr2.gif\|thumb\|Caption\|[[Bohr]] Diagram.]] ==Applications== Whether measured in terms of quantity or value, the use of aluminium exceeds that of any other metal except [[iron]], and it is important in virtually all segments of the world economy. Pure aluminium has a low [[tensile strength]], but readily forms [[alloy]]s with many elements such as copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese and silicon (e.g.[[duralumin]]). Today almost all materials that claim to be aluminium are actually an alloy thereof. Pure aluminium is encountered only when corrosion resistance is more important than strength or hardness. Conversely, the term "alloy" in general use today usually means aluminium alloy. When combined with thermo-mechanical processing aluminium [[alloy]]s display a marked improvement in mechanical properties. Aluminium alloys form vital components of [[aircraft]] and [[rocket]]s as a result of their high strength to weight ratio. When aluminium is evaporated in a [[vacuum]] it forms a coating that reflects both [[visible light]] and [[infrared]]. These coatings form a thin layer of protective aluminium oxide that does not deteriorate as [[silver]] coatings do. In particular, nearly all modern [[mirror]]s are made using a thin reflective coating of aluminium on the back surface of a sheet of [[float glass]]. [[Telescope]] mirrors are also coated with a thin layer of aluminium, but are front coated to avoid internal reflections even though this makes the surface more susceptible to damage. [[Image:Diet Coke.jpg\|thumb\|150px\|left\|An [[aluminium can]] used for the [[soft drink]] [[Diet Coke]].]] Some of the many uses for aluminium are in: Transportation ([[automobile]]s, [[airplane]]s, [[truck]]s, [[railroad car]]s, marine vessels, [[bicycle]]s etc.) Packaging ([[aluminum can\|cans]], [[aluminium foil\|foil]], etc.) Water treatment Construction ([[window]]s, [[door]]s, siding, building wire, etc. Consumer durable goods (appliances, [[cooking utensil]]s, etc.) [[electricity\|Electrical]] [[transmission lines]] (aluminium components and wires are less dense than those made of copper and are lower in price [http://www.metalprices.com], but also present higher electrical resistance. Many localities prohibit the use of aluminum in residential wiring practices because of its higher resistance and thermal expansion value.) Machinery [[MKM steel]] and [[Alnico]] magnets, although non-[[magnet]]ic itself Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and [[compact disc\|CD]]s. [[Powder]]ed aluminium, a commonly used [[silvering]] agent in [[paint]]. Aluminium flakes may also be included in undercoat paints, particularly wood [[primer (paint)\|primer]] &mdash; on drying, the flakes overlap to produce a water resistant barrier. [[Anodising\|Anodised]] aluminium is more stable to further oxidation, and is used in various fields of construction, as well as [[heat sink]]ing. Most electronic appliances that require cooling of their internal devices (like transistors, [[Central processing unit\|CPU]]s - semiconductors in general) have [[heat sink]]s that are made of aluminium due to its ease of manufacture and good heat conductivity. [[Copper]] heat sinks are smaller although more expensive and harder to manufacture. Aluminium oxide, [[alumina]], is found naturally as [[corundum]] ([[ruby\|rubies]] and [[sapphire]]s), [[emery (mineral)\|emery]], and is used in [[glass]] making. Synthetic ruby and sapphire are used in [[laser]]s for the production of [[coherent light]]. Aluminium oxidises very energetically and as a result has found use in [[solid rocket]] fuels, [[thermite]], and other [[pyrotechnic]] compositions. Aluminium is also a [[superconductor]], with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 [[kelvin]]s. ===Engineering use=== Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a number system ([[ANSI]]) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents ([[DIN]] and [[ISO]]). Selecting the right alloy for a given application entails considerations of strength, [[ductility]], formability, [[weldability]] and [[corrosion]] resistance to name a few. A brief historical overview of alloys and manufacturing technologies is given in Ref. <ref name=sanders>R.E. Sanders, Technology Innovation in Aluminum Products, ''The Journal of The Minerals'', 53(2):21-25, 2001. [http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0102/Sanders-0102.html Online ed.]</ref>. Improper use of aluminium can result in problems, particularly in contrast to [[iron]] or [[steel]], which appear "better behaved" to the intuitive designer, mechanic, or technician. The reduction by two thirds of the weight of an aluminium part compared to a similarly sized iron or steel part seems enormously attractive, but it should be noted that it is accompanied by a reduction by two thirds in the stiffness of the part. Therefore, although direct replacement of an iron or steel part with a duplicate made from aluminium may still give acceptable strength to withstand peak loads, the increased flexibility will cause three times more deflection in the part. Where failure is not an issue but excessive flex is undesirable due to requirements for precision of location or efficiency of transmission of power, simple replacement of steel tubing with similarly sized aluminium tubing will result in a degree of flex which is undesirable; for instance, the increased flex under operating loads caused by replacing steel bicycle frame tubing with aluminium tubing of identical dimensions will cause misalignment of the power-train as well as absorbing the operating force. To increase the rigidity by increasing the thickness of the walls of the tubing increases the weight proportionately, so that the advantages of lighter weight are lost as the rigidity is restored. Aluminium can best be used by redesigning the part to suit its characteristics; for instance making a bicycle of aluminium tubing which has an oversize diameter rather than thicker walls. In this way, rigidity can be restored or even enhanced without increasing weight. The limit to this process is the increase in susceptibility to what is termed "[[buckling]]" failure, where the deviation of the force from any direction other than directly along the axis of the tubing causes folding of the walls of the tubing. The latest models of the [[Corvette]] automobile, among others, are a good example of redesigning parts to make best use of aluminium's advantages. The aluminium chassis members and suspension parts of these cars have large overall dimensions for stiffness but are lightened by reducing cross-sectional area and removing unneeded metal; as a result, they are not only equally or more durable and stiff as the usual steel parts, but they possess an airy gracefulness which most people find attract
291 pages. ISBN 7119019465. * ''Forts and Pirates - A History of Hong Kong''. Hong Kong History Society. Hyperion Books. December 1990. ISBN 9627489018. ==Footnotes== # {{note\|elected}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4094248.stm BBC News: Donald Tsang set to be HK leader] # {{note\|POO}} [http://www.corpun.com/hkjur4.htm Hong Kong Public Order Ordinance] # {{note\|shelved}} [http://www.democracy.org.hk/EN/may1999/law_05.htm Presentation to Legislative Council on Right of Abode Issue] # {{note\|draftedlaw}} [http://www.immd.gov.hk/ehtml/hksarvepid.htm HKSAR Immigration Department: Right of Abode in HKSAR - Verification of Eligibility for Permanent Identity Card] # {{note\|controversies}} [http://www.flyingchair.net/story.php?storyID=178 Hong Kong Government may delay universal suffrage] # {{note\|shifted}} [http://www.t-salon.net/2004/10/hong-kong-calls-for-universal.html T-Salon: Hong Kong: Calls for Universal Suffrage Unabated] # {{note\|issue}} [http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/hong_kong/intro/ip01_1094.htm Third annual report by the European Commission on the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region] #{{note\|extremes}} [http://www.mherrera.org/temp.htm Extreme temperatures] #{{note\|visit}} [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200509/s1467927.htm Hong Kong democrats visit China] - [[ABC News\|ABC News Online]]. Retrieved [[September 25]], [[2005]]. # {{note\|10th}} [http://www.info.gov.hk/info/hkbrief/eng/ahk.htm Hong Kong Information: About Hong Kong] # {{note\|11th}} [http://www.century21-hk.com/eng/page8_p1.htm Century21: Learn About Hong Kong] # {{note\|86.5}} [http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/inimr-ri.nsf/en/gr118382e.html Hong Kong Country Commercial Guide 2004: Economic Trends] # {{note\|24,626}} [http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Hong-Kong Nationmaster: Hong Kong] # {{note\|5percent}} [http://www.sinomedia.net/eurobiz/v200403/regional0403.html Sinomedia: Hong Kong Turnaround] # {{note\|deflation}} [http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/gwr5/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=46682 Guinness World Records: Lowest Inflation] # {{note\|.94}} [http://www.indexmundi.com/hong_kong/total_fertility_rate.html Hong Kong Total Fertility Rate] # {{note\|reported}} [http://www.hktrader.net/200111/200104/200104s1.htm Chief Executive pledges a clean, green, world-class city] # {{note\|60percent}} [http://www.auick.org/database/workshop/1998/07/003/001.html The Fifth Group Training Course on Integrated Urban Policy 1998] # {{note\|95percent}} [http://www.accomasia.com/hongkong/country.htm Hong Kong in a Nutshell] ==External links== {{Spoken Wikipedia\|En-Hong Kong.ogg\|2005-08-30}} {{portal}} {{sisterlinks\|Hong Kong}} * {{wikicities\|hongkong\|Hong Kong}} * {{wikitravel\|Hong Kong}} ===Government=== <!-- Wikipedia is not a web directory. This is not the place for personal sites, commercial advertisements or communities requiring membership/subscriptions. --> [http://www.info.gov.hk/ Hong Kong SAR Government Information Centre] - official HKSARG site [http://www.districtcouncils.gov.hk/ District Councils] - official district councils site [http://www.info.gov.hk/hkfacts/facts_e.htm Hong Kong Fact Sheets] - quick facts about Hong Kong [http://www.legco.gov.hk/ Hong Kong Legislative Council] - site of the legislative body [http://www.discoverhongkong.com/ Discover Hong Kong] - official site of the Hong Kong Tourism Board ===Newspapers and media=== <!-- Wikipedia is not a web directory. This is not the place for personal sites, commercial advertisements or communities requiring membership/subscriptions. --> [http://www.metrohk.com.hk/ Metro Newspaper, Hong Kong edition] [http://www.rthk.org.hk Radio Television of Hong Kong] - public broadcaster [http://www.scmp.com/ South China Morning Post] - English-language newspaper [http://www.thestandard.com.hk/ The Standard] - English-language business newspaper ===Maps=== <!-- Wikipedia is not a web directory. This is not the place for personal sites, commercial advertisements or communities requiring membership/subscriptions. --> [http://www.centamap.com/ CentaMap] [http://hkgteam.com/~moming/ Google HK Map] - combining Google satellite maps with CentaMap ===Photos=== <!-- Wikipedia is not a web directory. This is not the place for personal sites, commercial advertisements or communities requiring membership/subscriptions. --> [http://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/hongkong/ Flickr] - photos tagged with Hong Kong [http://www.globalphotos.org/hongkong.htm Global Photos] - gallery of Hong Kong photos ===Guides and directories=== <!-- Wikipedia is not a web directory. This is not the place for personal sites, commercial advertisements or communities requiring membership/subscriptions. --> [http://www.offshoreincorporation101.com/hong-kong-banks.html Banks] - directory of banks [http://www.foodeasy.com/en/index.php Foodeasy] - guide to restaurants [http://www.geoexpat.com/ GeoExpat] - magazine for expats [http://www.hongkong.alloexpat.com/information_center_hongkong.php HK Allo' Expat] - expat guide [http://www.hkoutdoors.com/ HK Outdoors] - about Hong Kong's countryside [http://www.uncoverchina.com/ Uncover China] - search directory [http://www.asiaexpat.info/ Asia Expat Hong Kong] - expat meeting place {{Hong Kong Topics}} {{Provinces of China}} <br> {{East Asia}} <br> {{Asia}} [[Category:Cities in China]] [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[Category:Former British colonies]] [[Category:Hong Kong\| ]] [[Category:Pearl River Delta]] [[Category:Special territories]] {{link FA\|ar}} {{Link FA\|de}} {{link FA\|no}} {{link FA\|zh}} [[ar:هونغ كونغ]] [[an:Hong Kong]] [[zh-min-nan:Hiong-káng]] [[ca:Hong Kong]] [[cs:Hongkong]] [[cy:Hong Kong]] [[da:Hongkong]] [[de:Hongkong]] [[et:Hongkong]] [[el:Χονγκ Κονγκ]] [[es:Hong Kong]] [[eo:Honkongo]] [[fa:هنگ‌کنگ]] [[fr:Hong Kong]] [[gl:Hong Kong - 香港]] [[ko:홍콩]] [[hi:होन्ग कोन्ग]] [[io:Hong Kong]] [[id:Hong Kong]] [[ilo:Hong Kong]] [[ia:Hong Kong]] [[is:Hong Kong]] [[it:Hong Kong]] [[he:הונג קונג]] [[jv:Hong Kong]] [[ka:ჰონკონგი]] [[lt:Honkongas]] [[lb:Hong Kong]] [[li:Hong Kong]] [[hu:Hongkong]] [[mi:Hongipua]] [[ms:Hong Kong]] [[nl:Hongkong]] [[nds:Hongkong]] [[ja:香港]] [[no:Hongkong]] [[nn:Hongkong]] [[pl:Hongkong]] [[pt:Hong Kong]] [[ro:Hong Kong]] [[ru:Гонконг]] [[sq:Hong Kong]] [[sh:Hong Kong]] [[simple:Hong Kong]] [[sk:Hong Kong]] [[sl:Hong Kong]] [[sr:Хонг Конг]] [[fi:Hongkong]] [[sv:Hongkong]] [[tl:Hong Kong]] [[th:เขตบริหารพิเศษฮ่องกง]] [[vi:Hồng Kông]] [[tr:Hong Kong]] [[uk:Гонконг]] [[zh:香港]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Hong Kong</title> <id>13406</id> <revision> <id>39299145</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T04:37:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>HenryLi</username> <id>149793</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Environment */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Geography_of_Hong_Kong}} The name '''[[Hong Kong]]''', literally meaning ''fragrant harbour'', is derived from the area around present-day [[Aberdeen, Hong Kong\|Aberdeen]] and [[Wong Chuk Hang]] on [[Hong Kong Island]], where fragrant trees were once abundant and exported. The Hong Kong Island is located in the [[South China Sea]] at the mouth of the [[Pearl River]] (Zhu Jiang). Other territories that were added later include the [[Kowloon Peninsula]] (south of [[Boundary Street]]) and the [[New Territories]]. The New Territories includes over 200 surrounding smaller islands. The body of water between Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula is [[Victoria Harbour]], one of the deepest maritime ports in the world. The landscape of Hong Kong is fairly hilly to mountainous with steep slopes. The highest point in the territory is [[Tai Mo Shan]], at a height of 958 metres. Lowlands exist in the northwestern part of the New Territories. Hong Kong is 60 km to the east of [[Macau]] on the opposite side of the [[Pearl River estuary]]. Hong Kong has a land border with the Chinese city of [[Shenzhen]] to the north. Of the territory's 1,102 square kilometres, only less than 25 percent is developed. The remaining land has been reserved as country parks and nature reserves. Hong Kong's climate is [[subtropical]] and prone to [[monsoon]]s. It is cool and dry in the wintertime which lasts from around January to March, and is hot and rainy from spring through summer. It is warm, sunny, and dry in autumn. It is often stated that spring and autumn are not clear-cut. Hong Kong occasionally has [[typhoon]]s. The ecology of Hong Kong is mostly affected by the results of climatic changes. Hong Kong's climate is seasonal due to alternating wind direction between winter and summer. Hong Kong has been geologically stable for millions of years. However, flora and fauna in Hong Kong are altered by climatic change, sea level alternation and human impact. The highest recorded temperature in Hong Kong is 40 degrees Celsius while the lowest recorded temperature is 0 degrees Celsius. See Also: [[Hong_Kong#Geography\|The '''Geography''' section in the article about Hong Kong]] == Geographical information == ===Location=== Eastern [[Asia]], on the south coast of [[China]], facing the [[South China Sea]] ===Geographic coordinates=== {{coor dm\|22\|15\|N\|114\|10\|E\|}} [[Image:HongKong&AsiaPacificLatitude.jpg\|center\|thumb\|650px\|The map shows the location of Hong Kong within China and the Asia Pacific area.]] ===Area=== <br>''total:'' 1,092 km&sup2; <br>''land:'' 1,042 km&sup2; <br>''water:'' 50 km&sup2; [[Image:Hk-map.png\|right\|thumb\|250px\|Hong Kong borders the city of [[Shenzhen]] in [[Guangdong]] Province.]] ===Land boundaries=== <br>''total:'' 30 km <br>''border city:'' [[Shenzhen]] [[Special Economic Zone]], [[Guangdong]] [[Province]] ===Coastline=== 733 km <br>'''Maritime claims:''' <br>''territorial sea:'' 3 nm Total sea area of Hong Kong (including [[Victoria Harbour]]): 16
aWeb - by UNSW - Information about Archaea] * [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/archaea/archaea.html Introduction to the Archaea, ecology, systematics and morphology] * [http://www.mediscover.net/Extremophiles.cfm Extremophiles Bioprospecting for antimicrobials, Dr Sarah Maloney] Citat: "...Ground breaking research on extremophiles continues to this day, with the recently-discovered 22nd genetically-encoded [[amino acid]] &ndash; [[pyrrolysine]] &ndash; from the archaeon, ''Methanosarcina barkeri'', (Hao et al., 2002; Srinivasan et al., 2002)...." * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/399972.stm BBC News July 21, 1999: Toughest bug reveals genetic secrets] Citat: "...It [''Pyrococcus abyssi''] likes conditions that the vast majority of other organisms would find impossible to live in. It thrives best at temperatures of about 103 degrees [Celsius] and under pressures of about 200 atmospheres...." * [http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/Pab/ Pyrococcus abyssi Home page at Genoscope] ==References== * {{cite book \| author=Howland, John L. \| title=The Surprising Archaea: Discovering Another Domain of Life \| publisher=Oxford: Oxford University Press \| year=2000 \| id=ISBN 0-19-511183-4}} * {{cite journal \| author=Lake, J.A. \| title=Origin of the eukaryotic nucleus determined by rate-invariant analysis of rRNA sequences \| journal=Nature \| year=1988 \| volume=331 \| pages=184–186}} * {{cite journal \| author=Woese, Carl R.; Fox, George E. \| title=Phylogenetic Structure of the Prokaryotic Domain: The Primary Kingdoms \| journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America \| year=1977 \| issue=11 \| volume=74 \| pages=5088–5090}} * {{cite journal \| author = Woese, Carl R., Kandler, Otto, Wheelis, Mark L \| title = Towards a natural system of organisms: Proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya \| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences \| year = 1990 \| issue = 12 \| volume = 87 \| pages = 4576–4579}} [[Category:Archaea\| ]] [[Category:Extremophiles]] [[ca:Arqueobacteri]] [[cs:Archea]] [[cy:Archaea]] [[da:Archaea]] [[de:Archaeen]] [[et:Arhed]] [[es:Archaea]] [[eo:Arkio]] [[fr:Archaea]] [[ko:고세균]] [[he:חיידקים קדומים]] [[la:Archaea]] [[lb:Archaeën]] [[nl:Archaea]] [[nds:Archaeen]] [[ja:古細菌]] [[no:Arkebakterier]] [[pl:Archeowce]] [[pt:Archaea]] [[sl:Arheja]] [[fi:Arkkieliöt]] [[sv:Arkéer]] [[vi:Archaea]] [[zh:古細菌]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Use of the word American</title> <id>1241</id> <revision> <id>41992568</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:20:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Che829</username> <id>401724</id> </contributor> <comment>/* The alternatives */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{pov}} '''''American''''', when used as an adjective, most frequently is used to mean "of the [[United States\|United States of America]]" in the English language. Less frequently, in a United States context, it means "of or relating to [[the Americas]]." When used as a noun, it most frequently is used to mean "United States [[citizen]]." Less frequently, "residing in the Americas," or "[[American English]]." ==''American'' in the Americas== The word [[The Americas\|America]] was [[The Americas#Naming of America\|derived]] by [[Holy Roman Empire\|German]] cartographer [[Martin Waldseemüller]] from the Latinized version of the name of [[Amerigo Vespucci]] (''Americus Vespucius''), an [[Italy\|Italian]] merchant and cartographer whose exploratory journeys in the late 1400s and early 1500s brought him to the eastern coastline of [[South America]] and to the [[Caribbean]]. The term ''American'' was subsequently used as an adjective describing the [[New World]] and its native people. Starting by 1700 the word "American" was used by Europeans for the Indians in the New World. In 1765 came the first use to describe the British colonists. That usage was widespread by 1774, and in 1776 the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)\|Declaration of Independence]] proclaimed a new country, "The United States of America." At that time "America" was also used to designate continents in atlases published in Europe, but very few people ever saw those books. The [[American Revolution]] was closely followed in Europe, and the term became common for the inhabitants of the new nation. Since 1776, the term ''American'' has gained universal usage in reference to residents of the [[United States of America]]. Controversy has arisen over whether this usage is appropriate, or whether the term should only be used as an adjective covering the whole of [[North America]] and [[South America]]. Geographers disagree among themselves: English language atlases display two continents, "North America" and "South America" while Spanish language atlases display one continent, "America." Proponents of the usage of ''American'' as a lexical attachment to 'America' broadly defined as the continent/s of North and South America argue that current usage is at best inaccurate, historically incorrect and at worst redolent of perceived US [[imperialism]]. They add that the main purpose of clear language is to avoid ambiguity. Proponents of the usage of ''American'' to refer to the United States argue that the USA is the only sovereign nation in the world with the word ''America'' in its official name. Additionally, other nations, including Mexico presently and Brazil in the past, have or have had the term "United States" in their official names. Thus, to many, referring to U.S. citizens as ''Americans'' is convenient and legitimate, while using ''U.S.'' could in fact be ambiguous. Also, there is tradition to consider as the term has been applied to residents of the U.S. from the very beginning of that country. Critics opposed to the change say that [[essentialism]] regarding words is an error. Lexicographers tell how people use the word; they do not issue edicts that say "America" can only refer to geographical continents rather than a country. Every major dictionary makes clear that "American" applied to residents of the U.S. is standard usage, and has been for over 200 years in every Anglophone country. In [[Canada]], the term "American" is widely understood to refer exclusively to citizens of the U.S., and Canadians do not refer to themselves as Americans. On the other hand, in [[Spain]], people who have lived in the Western Hemisphere but now live in Spain may be called, in Spanish, ''americanos'' (translated into English as "Americans"). In discussions of geography, one might specify North America, Central America, or South America when the reference is to a continent or region. Residents of the Western Hemisphere rarely call themselves "North American" or "South American"; the term "Central American" is more common. Many alternative [[neologism]]s to ''American'' have been proposed to refer to the United States of America, but they have failed to garner widespread acceptance. This has given rise to terms like "[[Mexican-American]]" or "Canadian-American" to refer to people of Mexican or Canadian origin living in the United States—either as first-generation immigrants or their descendants. These terms are never used to refer to natives of Mexico or Canada. Geo-politically speaking, such terms are redundant. [[Canadian identity\|Canadians]] in particular have devoted a great deal of attention to proclaiming that they are not-Americans -meaning US citizens-, both in their own cultural products and when they travel outside the region and are frequently mistaken as coming from the United States. ===American in the US Census=== [[Image:American1346.gif\|thumb\|"American" ancestry in US counties.]] In the United States census, millions of people describe their (main) [[ethnic origin]] as "American", particularly those belonging in southern states. This region has a high percentage of people who trace their descent to the colonial origins of the United States and often lack records of the particular, but generally, British countries of their ancestor's origins. ==''American'' in cultural usages== '''American''', culturally, generally refers to things which originated within the United States of America. Some foods, such as hamburgers, are seen as [[American cuisine]]. Some sports, such as [[baseball]] or [[American football]], are seen as American, even though they may be played in other countries. Some music, such as [[jazz]], [[country music]], or [[American folk music]] are seen as American, even though they may be popular in other countries. ==''American'' in other languages== [[English language\|English]] speakers commonly use ''American'' to refer to the United States only. In the [[United Kingdom]], the use of 'US' as an adjective is preferred where it can be comfortably used, and is prevalent in media and government house-styles. In [[Spanish language\|Spanish]], ''americano'' tends to refer to any resident of the Americas and not from the United States; English spoken in Latin America often makes this distinction as well. ''US-American'' is another option, and is the dominant demonym in German (''US-Amerikaner''). Latin Americans also have the [[euphemism]] ''norteamericano'' (''North American'', which itself conflates the USA and Canada and possibly Mexico). ''United Statian'' is awkward in English, but it exists in Spanish (''estadounidense'') and occasionally in German (''Vereinigten Staatler''), and in [[Portuguese language\|Portuguese]] (both in [[Portugal]] and [[Brazil]]), where the term ''estadunidense'' is growing and it is considered more appropriate than the common term ''norte-americano''. The word [[Gringo]] is widely used in all of [[Latin
tary history." Some official translations in the past have used the translation '''''New Mobile War Chronicle Gundam Wing''''' as well, and some of the official art uses '''''The New Mobile History Gundam Wing''''', and at least one Japanese book has used '''''Mobile Suit Gundam Wing'''''. {{spoiler}} ==Characters== {{mergeto\|After Colony list of characters}} The ''[[Gundam Wing]]'' characters include the [[Gundam]] pilots and many other side characters all of which have names which mean a number in some other language. For information on the organizations mentioned here, and others seen in Gundam Wing, see [[After Colony Nations and Factions]] ===Gundam Pilots=== [[Image:Gundam_wing.jpg\|thumb\|right\|The five main characters and their Gundams.]] '''[[Heero Yuy]]''' (real name unknown): Of [[Japan]]ese origin, Heero is the pilot of the [[XXXG-01W Wing Gundam]] and [[XXXG-00W0 Wing Gundam Zero]]. His name was taken from the assassinated peace advocate for the colonies. Often called "the perfect soldier", he speaks in a monotone voice and appears cold, reckless and emotionless, but according to Doctor J, he is actually a very kind-hearted person. Trained from youth, he became capable of piloting his Gundam with extreme prowess. His devotion to the completion of his mission is his defining characteristic (to the point that he detonates his Gundam while still riding it after receiving only one order). He is one of the few pilots who can utilize the Zero system to its fullest capacity and was the first to gain control of the system. During the television series, very little of his past is revealed, although according to the manga series Episode: Zero, Heero was once the protégé of an assassin called [[Odin Lowe]]. After Odin Lowe died, Heero was taken in by Doctor J, who trained him to become a Gundam pilot. Dr. J gave him the code name of Heero Yuy, after the martyred leader of the colonies. : According to the Sunrise creators, the name of Heero Yuy (pronounced "He-e-ro Yu-i" in Japanese) and its unique spelling are meant as a multiple wordplay on the Japanese words for "one" (ichi/hi) and "unique" (yui-itsu), the English word "hero," and [[Amuro Ray]] (the main protagonist in the first Mobile Suit Gundam series, pronounced "A-mu-ro Re-i"). ''Voices'': [[Hikaru Midorikawa]] (Japanese), [[Mark Hildreth (voice actor)\|Mark Hildreth]] (English), Zyad Al-Refa'ay (Arabic), Manuel Campuzano (Latin America) '''[[Duo Maxwell]]''': Of [[United States of America\|American]] origin, Duo is the pilot of the [[XXXG-01D Gundam Deathscythe]], and [[XXXG-01D2 Gundam Deathscythe Hell]] (the original Deathscythe Hell version was redesigned in the [[Gundam Wing: Endless Waltz\|Endless Waltz]] version, which was a "retroactive redesign"). During the Episode Zero manga, we are given a glimpse into Duo's life before becoming a Gundam pilot. He was an orphan who was brought to a Catholic church to be raised by Father Maxwell (thus his last name) and Sister Helen. There was a boy there that Duo looked up to named Solo who died, Duo named himself that because when he and Solo were together, they became a duo. Rebel forces on the colony threatened the church, and to ease their threatening and to keep anyone he cared about from being injured, he went and stole the rebels a mobile suit. By the time he returned, however, the church was demolished, and everyone was dead except Sister Helen, who died in his arms. Now he wears a priest's black shirt, with clerical collar. Duo refers to himself as Shinigami (God of Death) as a result of his belief that those close to him are fated to die. (When asked by Sister Helen upon his arrival at the church whether he believed in God, he said he believed in Death, since he's never seen God but has seen lots of death.) He is the most extroverted of the Gundam pilots. In the edited version his God of Death nickname was changed to the Great Destroyer. : Duo's surname was said to be inspired by [[Maxwell's Demon]]. Duo means "two", a reference to being Solo and Heero being "one". ''Voices'': [[Toshihiko Seki]] (Japanese), [[Scott McNeil]] (English), Muhammad Haddaqy (Arabic), Erick Osorio (Latin America) '''[[Trowa Barton]]''' (real name unknown; '''Triton Bloom''' is his suspected name though there is no sufficient evidence that this is his actual name): Trowa is of Latin American origin (officially confirmed by one of the show's producers), he's the pilot of the [[XXXG-01H Gundam Heavyarms]]. In his off-time he works in a circus as a clown and high wire act. Reserved by nature, he can be seen as emotionless as Heero, but is in fact a warm-hearted and very protective person, which is evident by the way he acts around people like Heero, Catherine and Quatre. Trowa has no recollection of his past and has lived most of his life on the battlefield; Trowa took the name of Trowa Barton, Dekim Barton's son, after the real Trowa was shot by the assistant of Dr. S. Trowa is assumed to be Catherine Bloom's long lost brother Triton, who was believed to have died years ago as an infant. There is only a little evidence of this: the baby being throw from the cart's wreckage that killed Catherine's family has Trowa's trademark bangs. That part precedes Trowa's main story in the Episode Zero manga, making it seem like the beginning of his own life story. And some very vague evidence, that Catherine is always overprotective of him in the series, even to the point of snapping at the other pilots when war is mentioned. : Following the number naming scheme, Trowa derives from the French "trois", meaning three. Trowa's name is supposedly an homage to director [[Tim Burton]], but this is unconfirmed. ''Voices'': [[Shigeru Nakahara]] (Japanese), [[Kirby Morrow]] (English), Ayas Abu-Ghazala (Arabic), Arturo Ciann (Latin America) '''[[Quatre Raberba Winner]]''': Of [[Arab]]ian origin, Quatre (pronounced KAT-trah) is the pilot of the [[XXXG-01SR Gundam Sandrock]]. He is a very kind young man who loves animals, and is the greatest believer in pacifism of the five Gundam pilots and gets along well with Duo. He believes that Earth and the colonies should not be fighting. He has twenty-nine older sisters, all test tube babies, because of the numerous problems experienced in natural pregnancy during the colonists' first arrival in space. Though the problem was later solved, the Winner family, who have been in space since the formation of the colonies, remained an exception. Quatre is the only child who was born naturally (his mother died giving birth to him and he was never told that he was born naturally) and is the heir to the Winner family. Quatre also leads a group of middle-eastern fighters known as the Maganac Corps. The Maganacs have accepted Quatre as their leader, when Quatre saved their leader Rashid's life, after Quatre helped flush out a traitor within the Maganacs ranks. His goggles were given to him at that time by the wounded Rashid, signifying their acceptance and loyalty to the young heir. He's a very close friend of Trowa Barton, specially after he almost dies for Quatre's sake.<br/> ''Voices'': [[Ai Orikasa]] (Japanese), [[Brad Swaile]] (English), Mansur Al-Salty (Arabic), Luis Tenorio (Latin America). NOTES: * Some fans speculate that he is actually an [[albinism\|albino]] Arabian because of his bright blonde hair and pale skin. His middle name, however, suggests that he is specifically of [[Berber]] heritage. It should be technically noted that the [[Crusade]]s brought some [[Caucasian race\|Caucasian]] blood into Berber bloodlines, and fair-haired Berbers are not uncommon. There is a thought that Quatre's empathic abilities (called his "space heart" in one episode) are a play on the Newtype abilities in the original Universal Century timeline of Gundam series.) Quatre means four in French, following the number themed name scheme. '''[[Chang Wufei]]'''(<font lang="zh">張五飛</font>): Of [[China\|Chinese]] origin, Wufei is the pilot of [[XXXG-01S Shenlong Gundam]]("<font lang="zh">神龍</font>"=God Dragon) which he calls Nataku (哪吒, equivalent to [[Nezha]]). Later in the series he pilots the [[XXXG-01S2 Altron Gundam]]("<font lang="zh">二頭龍</font>"pinyin:Ertoulong, Double-headed Dragon), an upgraded version of Shenlong. Wufei despises weakness in character and body. When he was younger, his unwillingness to fight resulted in the death of his wife Meilan, a strong girl that took the responsibility of protecting the colony with the Gundam Shenlong onto herself. (The elders of the colony were going to comply with the request to allow their colony to fall to Earth and cause chaos as outlined in the original Operation Meteor.) Wufei is a member of the Dragon clan in which members are obligated to marry at the age of 13. He fights for justice and named his Gundam after his wife, who believed that she was Nataku, a war god of legend who had a body but no soul to house within it.<br/> ''Voices'': [[Ryuuzou Ishino]] (Japanese), [[Ted Cole]] (English), Muhammad Mustafa (Arabic), José Gilberto Vilchis (Latin America) NOTES: In the original drafts of the series, Wufei had the [[Newtype]] power to sense evil-doers; this was subsequently written out. "Wu" in Mandarin Chinese is a homophone for "five", following the number themed naming scheme. Fei Chang (Western order of name) refers to a legendary Chinese hero. ===The Gundam Engineers=== *'''Doctor J''': The man who was responsible for the training of Heero Yuy and developed Wing Gundam. He is also the unofficial head of the Gundam engineers. His white hair hangs long and ragged, past his shoulders. He is also distinguished by a cybernetic arm and leg, and he always has dark goggles secured tightly over his eyes. He's rath
y\|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1980]]) [[1911]] - [[André Claveau]], French singer (d. [[2003]]) [[1916]] - [[Penelope Fitzgerald]], British writer (d. [[2000]]) [[1920]] - [[Kenneth E. Iverson]], Canadian computer scientist [[1922]] - [[Alan Voorhees]], American engineer and urban planner (d. [[2005]]) [[1929]] - [[Jacqueline Hill]], British actress (d. [[1993]]) 1929 - [[William Safire]], American columnist [[1930]] - [[Bob Guccione]], American magazine publisher 1930 - [[Bob Mathias]], American decathlete and Congressman. * 1930 - [[Armin Mueller-Stahl]], German actor [[1937]] - [[Kerry Packer]], Australian businessman (d. [[2005]]) [[1938]] - [[Peter Snell]], New Zealander runner [[1938]] - [[Carlo Little]], UK influential [[rock and roll]] [[drummer]] (d.[[2005]]) [[1939]] - [[Eddie Kendricks]], American singer ([[The Temptations]]) (d. [[1992]]) [[1941]] - [[Gene Clark]], American singer and songwriter ([[The Byrds]]) (d. [[1991]]) [[1942]] - [[Paul Butterfield]], American harmonica player (d. [[1987]]) [[1943]] - [[Ron Geesin]], British musician and composer [[1944]] - [[Jack L. Chalker]], Canadian novelist * 1944 - [[Bernard Hill]], British actor [[1945]] - [[Ernie Hudson]], American actor [[1946]] - [[Eugene Levy]], Canadian actor [[1949]] - [[Paul Rodgers]], British singer ([[Free (band)\|Free]] & [[Bad Company]]) [[1951]] - [[Ken Hitchcock]], Canadian ice hockey coach [[1955]] - [[Brad Davis (basketball)\|Brad Davis]], American basketball player [[1956]] - [[Mike Mills]], American bassist ([[R.E.M. (band)\|R.E.M.]]) [[1962]] - [[Rocco Mediate]], American golfer [[1966]] - [[Kristiina Ojuland]], Estonian politician [[1967]] - [[Vincent Damphousse]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player [[1968]] - [[Paul Tracy]], Canadian race car driver [[1970]] - [[Joshua Seth]], American voice actor [[1971]] - [[Antoine Rigaudeau]], French basketball player * 1971 - [[Alan Khan]], South African radio disc jockey [[1973]] - [[Paula Radcliffe]], British runner [[1975]] - [[Nick Dinsmore]], American professional wrestler * 1975 - [[Milla Jovovich]], Ukrainian-born actress and model [[1976]] - [[Zsanett Égerházi]], Hungarian-born Adult actress and model [[1978]] - [[Manny Pacquiao]], Filipino boxer ==Deaths== <!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) --> [[942]] - [[William I of Normandy\|William Longsword]] [[1187]] - [[Pope Gregory VIII]] [[1195]] - [[Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut]] (b. [[1150]]) [[1663]] - Queen [[Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba]] (b. [[1583]]) [[1721]] - [[Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough]], English statesman (b. [[1640]]) [[1830]] - [[Simón Bolívar]], Venezuelan-born [[President of Bolivia]] (b. [[1783]]) [[1833]] - [[Kaspar Hauser]], German foundling (b. [[1812]]) [[1897]] - [[Alphonse Daudet]], French writer (b. [[1840]]) [[1907]] - [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]], Irish-born physicist (b. [[1824]]) [[1909]] - King [[Léopold II of Belgium]] (b. [[1835]]) [[1917]] - [[Elizabeth Garrett Anderson]], British physician (b. [[1836]]) [[1933]] - [[Thubten Gyatso, 13th Dalai Lama\|Thubten Gyatso]], 13th [[Dalai Lama]] (b. [[1876]]) [[1957]] - [[Dorothy L. Sayers]], British writer (b. [[1893]]) [[1964]] - [[Victor Franz Hess]], Austrian-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics\|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1883]]) [[1967]] - [[Harold Holt]], Australian Prime Minister, believed drowned, (b. [[1908]]) 1987 - [[Marguerite Yourcenar]], Belgian novelist (b. [[1903]]) [[1992]] - [[Dana Andrews]], American actor (b. [[1909]]) [[1998]] - [[Claudia Benton]], Peruvian child psychologist (b. [[1959]]) [[1999]] - [[Grover Washington, Jr.]], American saxophonist (b. [[1943]]) [[2003]] - [[Ed Devereaux]], Australian actor (b. [[1925]]) * 2003 - [[Otto Graham]], American football player (b. [[1921]]) [[2005]] - [[Jack Anderson]], American journalist (b. [[1922]]) ==Holidays and observances== [[Roman festivals]] &ndash; [[Saturnalia]], in honor of [[Saturn (mythology)\|Saturn]], began. [[Calendar of Saints\|R.C. Saints]] &ndash; ''O Sapientia'' ; [[Saint Lazarus]] [[Greek orthodox church\|Greek Orthodox Church]] &ndash; Feast of [[Daniel]] the Prophet [[Bhutan]] &ndash; [[National Day]] ([[1907]]) [[USA]] &ndash; [[Wright Brothers Day]] (by Presidential Proclamation) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/17 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20051217.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Dec&day=17 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[December 16]] - [[December 18]] - [[November 17]] - [[January 17]] -- [[historical anniversaries\|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:17 Desember]] [[ang:17 Gēolmōnaþ]] [[ar:17 ديسمبر]] [[an:17 d'abiento]] [[ast:17 d'avientu]] [[bg:17 декември]] [[be:17 сьнежня]] [[bs:17. decembar]] [[ca:17 de desembre]] [[ceb:Disyembre 17]] [[cv:Раштав, 17]] [[co:17 di decembre]] [[cs:17. prosinec]] [[cy:17 Rhagfyr]] [[da:17. december]] [[de:17. Dezember]] [[et:17. detsember]] [[el:17 Δεκεμβρίου]] [[es:17 de diciembre]] [[eo:17-a de decembro]] [[eu:Abenduaren 17]] [[fo:17. desember]] [[fr:17 décembre]] [[fy:17 desimber]] [[ga:17 Nollaig]] [[gl:17 de decembro]] [[ko:12월 17일]] [[hr:17. prosinca]] [[io:17 di decembro]] [[id:17 Desember]] [[ia:17 de decembre]] [[is:17. desember]] [[it:17 dicembre]] [[he:17 בדצמבר]] [[jv:17 Desember]] [[ka:17 დეკემბერი]] [[csb:17 gòdnika]] [[ku:17'ê berfanbarê]] [[la:17 Decembris]] [[lt:Gruodžio 17]] [[lb:17. Dezember]] [[hu:December 17]] [[mk:17 декември]] [[ms:17 Disember]] [[nap:17 'e dicembre]] [[nl:17 december]] [[ja:12月17日]] [[no:17. desember]] [[nn:17. desember]] [[oc:17 de decembre]] [[os:17 декабры]] [[pl:17 grudnia]] [[pt:17 de Dezembro]] [[ro:17 decembrie]] [[ru:17 декабря]] [[se:Juovlamánu 17.]] [[sco:17 December]] [[sq:17 Dhjetor]] [[scn:17 di dicèmmiru]] [[simple:December 17]] [[sk:17. december]] [[sl:17. december]] [[sr:17. децембар]] [[fi:17. joulukuuta]] [[sv:17 december]] [[tl:Disyembre 17]] [[tt:17. Dekäber]] [[te:డిసెంబర్ 17]] [[th:17 ธันวาคม]] [[vi:17 tháng 12]] [[tr:17 Aralık]] [[uk:17 грудня]] [[wa:17 di decimbe]] [[war:Disyembre 17]] [[zh:12月17日]] [[pam:Disiembri 17]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Determinant mathematics</title> <id>8323</id> <revision> <id>15906329</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Determinant]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Difference engine</title> <id>8324</id> <revision> <id>41309239</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T13:00:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TimPope</username> <id>203786</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Category:English inventions</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the novel by Bruce Sterling and William Gibson, see [[The Difference Engine]]'' A '''difference engine''' is a historical, mechanical special-purpose [[computer]] designed to tabulate [[polynomial\|polynomial functions]]. Since [[logarithm\|logarithmic]] and [[trigonometric function]]s can be approximated by polynomials, such a machine is more general than it appears at first. [[Image:BabbageDifferenceEngine.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Part of Babbage's Difference engine, assembled after his death by Babbage's son, using parts found in his laboratory.]] ==History== The first of these devices was conceived in 1786 by [[J. H. Mueller]]. It was never built. Difference engines were forgotten and then rediscovered in 1822 by [[Charles Babbage]], who proposed it in a paper to the [[Royal Astronomical Society]] entitled "Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables."[http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Babbage.html] This machine used the decimal number system and was powered by cranking a handle. The [[British government]] initially financed the project, but withdrew funding when Babbage repeatedly asked for more money whilst making no apparent progress on building the machine. Babbage went on to design his much more general [[analytical engine]] but later produced an improved difference engine design (his "Difference Engine No. 2") between 1847 and 1849. Inspired by Babbage's difference engine plans, [[Per Georg Scheutz]] built several difference engines from 1855 onwards; one was sold to the British government in 1859. [[Martin Wiberg]] improved Scheutz's construction but used his device only for producing and publishing printed [[logarithm]]ic tables. Based on Babbage's original plans, the [[London Science Museum]] constructed a working Difference Engine No. 2 from 1989 to 1991, under Doron Swade, the then Curator of Computing. This was to celebrate the 200th anniversary of Babbage's birth. In 2000, the [[computer printer\|printer]] which Babbage originally designed for the difference engine was also completed. The conversion of the original design drawings into drawings suitable for engineering manufacturers' use revealed some minor errors in Babbage's design (introduced by accident or perhaps as a protection against unauthorized use), which had to be corrected. Once completed, both the engine and its printer worked flawlessly, and still do. The difference engine and printer were constructed to tolerances achievable with [[19th century]] technology, resolving a long-standing debate whether Babbage's design would actually have worked. (One of the reasons formerly advanced for the non-completion of Babbage's engines had been that engineering methods were insufficiently developed in the Victorian era.) ==Method of differences== [[Image:050114_2529_differ
n-Pons experiment and with other experiments involving metallic catalysts (and particularly electrolysis). ==History of cold fusion by electrolysis== ===Early work=== The idea that [[palladium]] or [[titanium]] might catalyze fusion stems from the special ability of these metals to absorb large quantities of [[hydrogen]] (including its [[deuterium]] [[isotope]]). The hydrogen or deuterium disassociate with the respective positive ions but remain in an anomalously mobile state inside the metal lattice, exhibiting rapid diffusion and high electrical conductivity. The special ability of palladium to absorb hydrogen was recognized in the [[19th century\|nineteenth century]]. In the late [[1920s\|nineteen-twenties]], two [[Germany\|German]] scientists, F. Paneth and K. Peters, reported the transformation of hydrogen into helium by spontaneous nuclear catalysis when hydrogen is absorbed by finely divided palladium at room temperature. These authors later acknowledged that the helium they measured was due to background from the air. In [[1927]], [[Sweden\|Swedish]] scientist J. Tandberg said that he had fused hydrogen into helium in an [[electrolytic cell]] with palladium electrodes. On the basis of his work he applied for a Swedish patent for "a method to produce helium and useful reaction energy". After deuterium was discovered in [[1932]], Tandberg continued his experiments with [[heavy water]]. Due to Paneth and Peters' retraction, Tandberg's patent application was eventually denied. ===Pons and Fleischmann's experiment=== On [[March 23]], [[1989]], the chemists [[Stanley Pons]] and [[Martin Fleischmann]] ("P and F") at the [[University of Utah]] held a press conference and reported the production of excess heat that could only be explained by a nuclear process. The report was particularly astounding given the simplicity of the equipment: essentially an [[electrolysis]] cell containing [[heavy water]] (deuterium oxide) and a [[palladium]] [[cathode]] which rapidly absorbed the deuterium produced during electrolysis. The press reported on the experiments widely, and it was one of the front-page items on most newspapers around the world. The immense beneficial implications of the Utah experiments, if they were correct, and the ready availability of the required equipment, led scientists around the world to attempt to repeat the experiments within hours of the announcement. The press conference followed about a year of work of increasing tempo by Pons and Fleischmann, who had been working on their basic experiments since [[1984]]. In [[1988]] they applied to the [[US Department of Energy]] for funding for a larger series of experiments: up to this point they had been running their experiments "out of pocket". The grant proposal was turned over to several people for [[peer review]], including Steven Jones of [[Brigham Young University]]. Jones had worked on [[muon-catalyzed fusion]] for some time, and had written an article on the topic entitled ''Cold Nuclear Fusion'' that had been published in ''[[Scientific American]]'' in July [[1987]]. He had since turned his attention to the problem of fusion in high-pressure environments, believing it could explain the fact that the interior [[temperature]] of the [[Earth]] was hotter than could be explained without nuclear reactions, and by unusually high concentrations of helium-3 around [[volcano]]es that implied some sort of [[nuclear reaction]] within. At first he worked with [[diamond anvil]]s, but had since moved to [[electrolytic cell]]s similar to those being worked on by Pons and Fleischmann, which he referred to as ''piezonuclear fusion''. In order to characterize the reactions, Jones had spent considerable time designing and building a neutron counter, one able to accurately measure the tiny numbers of neutrons being produced in his experiments. Both teams were in [[Utah]], and met on several occasions to discuss sharing work and techniques. During this time Pons and Fleischmann described their experiments as generating considerable "excess energy", excess in that it could not be explained by [[chemical reaction]]s alone. If this were true, their device would have considerable commercial value, and should be protected by [[patent]]s. Jones was measuring [[neutron]] flux instead, and seems to have considered it primarily of scientific interest, not commercial. In order to avoid problems in the future, the teams ''apparently'' agreed to simultaneously publish their results, although their accounts of their [[March 6]] meeting differ. In mid-March both teams were ready to publish, and Fleischmann and Jones were to meet at the airport on the 24th to both hand in their papers at the exact same time. However Pons and Fleischmann then "jumped the gun", and held their press conference the day before. Jones, apparently furious at being "scooped", faxed in his paper to ''Nature'' as soon as he saw the press announcements. Thus the teams both rushed to publish, which has perhaps muddied the field more than any scientific aspects. Within days scientists around the world had started work on duplications of the experiments. On [[April 10]] a team at [[Texas A&M University]] published results of excess heat, and later that day a team at the [[Georgia Institute of Technology]] announced neutron production. Both results were widely reported on in the press. Not so well reported was the fact that both teams soon withdrew their results for lack of evidence. For the next six weeks additional competing claims, counterclaims, and suggested explanations kept the topic on the front pages, and led to what writers have referred to as "fusion confusion." In mid-May Pons received a huge standing ovation during a presentation at the [[American Chemical Society]]. The same month the president of the University of Utah, who had already secured a $5 million commitment from his state legislature, asked for $25 million from the federal government to set up a "National Cold Fusion Institute". On [[May 1]] a meeting of the [[American Physical Society]] held a session on cold fusion that ran past midnight; a string of failed experiments were reported. A second session started the next evening and continued in much the same manner. The field appeared split between the "chemists" and the "physicists". At the end of May the [[Energy Research Advisory Board]] (under a charge of the [[US Department of Energy]]) formed a special panel to investigate cold fusion. The scientists in the panel found the evidence for cold fusion to be unconvincing. Nevertheless, the panel was "''sympathetic toward modest support for carefully focused and cooperative experiments within the present funding system''". [http://www.ncas.org/erab/sec5.htm] Both critics and those attempting replications were frustrated by what they said was incomplete information released by the University of Utah. With the initial reports suggesting successful duplication of their experiments there was not much public criticism, but a growing body of failed experiments started a "buzz" of their own. Pons and Fleischmann later apparently claimed that there was a "secret" to the experiment, a statement that infuriated the majority of scientists to the point of dismissing the experiment out of hand. By the end of May much of the [[media]] attention had faded. This was due not only to the competing results and counterclaims, but also to the limited attention span of modern media. However, while the research effort also cooled to some degree, projects continued around the world. In July and November 1989, ''Nature'' published papers critical of cold fusion [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v340/n6228/abs/340029a0.html] [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v342/n6248/abs/342375a0.html]. ===Experimental set-up and observations=== [[Image:Cold-fusion-calorimeter-nhe-diagram.png\|thumb\|A cold fusion calorimeter of the open type, used at the New Hydrogen Energy Institute in Japan. ''Source: SPAWAR/US Navy TR1862''\|220px]] In their original set-up, Fleischmann and Pons used a [[Dewar flask]] (a double-walled vacuum flask) for the [[electrolysis]], so that heat conduction would be minimal on the side and the bottom of the cell (only 5 % of the heat loss in this [[experiment]]). The cell flask was then submerged in a bath maintained at constant temperature to eliminate the effect of external heat sources. They used an open cell, thus allowing the gaseous deuterium and oxygen resulting from the [[electrolysis]] reaction to leave the cell (with some heat too). It was necessary to replenish the cell with [[heavy water]] at regular intervals. The cell was tall and narrow, so that the bubbling action of the gas kept the electrolyte well mixed and of a uniform temperature. Special attention was paid to the purity of the palladium cathode and electrolyte to prevent the build-up of material on its surface, especially after long periods of operation. The cell was also instrumented with a [[thermistor]] to measure the temperature of the [[electrolyte]], and an electrical heater to generate pulses of heat and calibrate the heat loss due to the gas outlet. After [[calibration]], it was possible to compute the heat generated by the reaction. A constant current was applied to the cell continuously for many weeks, and heavy water was added as necessary. For most of the time, the power input to the cell was equal to the power that went out of the cell within measuring accuracy, and the cell temperature was stable at around 30 °C. But then, at some point (and in some of the experiments), the temperature rose suddenly to about 50 °C without changes in the input power, for durations of 2 days or more. The generated power was calculated to be about 20 times the input power during the power bursts. Eventually t
team [http://www.arthurcclarke.net/ ArthurCClarke.net : fan community & discussion site] [http://www.setileague.org/editor/clarke.htm Where Is Everybody?] : an [[essay]] by Arthur C. Clarke on [[Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence\|SETI]] [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=clarke_19_2 God, Science, and Delusion] ''Free Inquiry'' magazine interview Volume 19, Number 2 [http://avclub.com/content/node/24247 Interview for ''The Onion''] ([[February 2004]]) * [http://www.fantasticmetropolis.com/show.html?ey.clarke The Motif of First Contact in Arthur C. Clarke's SF Works], by [[Zoran Živković (writer)\|Zoran Živković]] [http://www.geocities.com/jcsherwood/ACClinks2.htm Sir Arthur C. Clarke links] at [http://www.geocities.com/jcsherwood/ MysteryVisits.com] [http://www.geocities.com/jcsherwood/ACCphotos.htm Clarke image archive] at [http://www.geocities.com/jcsherwood/ MysteryVisits.com] [http://lakdiva.org/clarke/2005trip/ Clarke's 1945 Communication Satellite Idea] [http://fsweb.berry.edu/academic/hass/jhickman/images/arthur.jpg 2000 Photo] [http://www.peaceinspace.com/ab_board.shtml Institute for Cooperation in Space] [http://www.clarkefoundation.org/ The Arthur C. Clarke Foundation] [http://www.clarkeawards.org/ Sir Arthur Clarke Awards 2005] {{isfdb name\|id=Arthur_C._Clarke\|name=Arthur C. Clarke}} * {{imdb name\|id=0002009\|name=Arthur C. Clarke}} [http://www.spikemagazine.com/0198clar.php Spike Magazine Interview] [http://www.ent.mrt.ac.lk/~rohan/career/projects/sundial/sundial.html The Sundial on a Novel Concept] includes image of Clarke at the inaugaration of the Sundial [[Moratuwa University]] [[1996]] * [http://www.iee.org/publish/inspec/100years/clarke.cfm Memoirs of Science Abstracts' editorial staff] &mdash; by Arthur C. Clarke * [http://www.bsac.org/techserv/ndc/doc2003/rlvrep.htm ONCE UPON A TIME IN THE BSAC] references Clarke as a member * The late [[Trevor Hampton]] (British pioneer diver) had Clarke as a client [http://www.divernet.com/profs/0402hampton.htm] * [http://research.spaceref.com/acmgh/ The Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse], Devon Island, Nunavut (NASA Haughton Mars Project) [[Category:1917 births\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Living people\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Alumni of King's College London\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[Category:Science fiction writers\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:British science fiction writers\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Hugo Award winning authors\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Nebula Grand Masters\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:British World War II veterans\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Royal Air Force officers\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Natives of Somerset\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:SETI]] [[Category:Space exploration]] [[Category:Sri Lankans\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Futurists\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:British essayists\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Humanists\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Atheists\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[Category:Skeptics\|Clarke, Arthur C.]] [[bg:Артър Кларк]] [[cs:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[da:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[de:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[es:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[eo:Arthur C. CLARKE]] [[fa:آرتور چارلز کلارک]] [[fr:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[id:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[it:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[he:ארתור סי קלארק]] [[lt:Arturas Klarkas]] [[hu:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[nl:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[ja:アーサー・C・クラーク]] [[pl:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[pt:Arthur Charles Clarke]] [[ru:Кларк, Артур]] [[simple:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[sk:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[sr:Артур Ч. Кларк]] [[fi:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[sv:Arthur C. Clarke]] [[th:อาร์เทอร์ ซี. คลาร์ก]] [[uk:Кларк Артур Чарльз]] [[zh:亞瑟·查理斯·克拉克]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Apple Newton</title> <id>887</id> <revision> <id>41314092</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:08:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>222.166.160.181</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Newton logo.gif\|right\|thumb\|The Newton Logo.]] [[Image:Mp2k.gif\|right\|thumb\|The Apple Newton MessagePad 2100, the last model produced.]] The '''Apple Newton''', or simply '''Newton''', was an early line of [[personal digital assistant]]s developed, manufactured and marketed by [[Apple Computer]] from [[1993]] to [[1998]]. The original Newtons were based on the [[ARM architecture\|ARM]] 610 RISC processor, and featured [[handwriting recognition]]. Apple's official name for the device was ''MessagePad''; the term ''Newton'' was Apple's name for the operating system it used, but popular usage of the word ''Newton'' has grown to include the device and its software together. == The Newton in development == The Newton project was not originally intended to produce a PDA. The PDA category did not exist for most of Newton's genesis, and the "[[personal digital assistant]]" moniker itself was coined relatively late in the development cycle by Apple's then-CEO [[John Sculley]], the driving force behind the project. Newton was, in fact, intended to be a complete reinvention of personal computing. For most of its design lifecycle Newton had a large-format screen, more internal memory, and a rich object-oriented graphics kernel. One of the original motivating scenarios for the design was known as the "Architect Scenario," in which Newton's designers imagined a residential architect working quickly with a client to sketch, clean up, and interactively modify a simple two-dimensional home plan. For a portion of the Newton's development cycle (roughly the middle third <!--exact dates?-->), the project's primary programming language was [[Dylan programming language\|Dylan]], a small, efficient [[object-oriented]] [[Lisp programming language\|Lisp]] variant that still retains some interest. Although it was efficient (for its day, and considering its substantial run-time [[dynamic programming language\|dynamism]]), Dylan was a tough sell for the large-format Newton (and for a development team unused to Lisp programming). With the move to the smaller form factor, Dylan was relegated to experimental status in the "Bauhaus Project" and eventually cancelled outright. Had it been retained, Dylan, with [[garbage collection (computer science)\|garbage collection]] and close OS integration, would have preceded Microsoft's [[managed code]] revolution by over a decade. The project missed by far its original goals to reinvent personal computing, and then to rewrite contemporary application programming. The Newton project's broad vision fell victim to project slippage, [[feature creep]], and a growing fear that it would interfere with Macintosh sales. It was reinvented as a PDA which would be a complementary Macintosh peripheral instead of a stand-alone computer which might compete with the Macintosh. == Technical details == Newton used an advanced [[object-oriented programming]] system called [[NewtonScript]], developed by Apple employee [[Walter Smith (programmer)\|Walter Smith]] [http://waltersmith.us/]. One of the major complaints programmers had was that the Toolbox programming environment was overpriced at $1000 (later in the life of the Newton, the programming environment was made available free of charge). Additionally, it required learning a new way of programming. Despite this, many third party and [[shareware]] applications were (and continue to be) available for Newton. It has been suggested that the NewtonScript programming system should be made available open-source (as "[[abandonware]]") but most Newton enthusiasts consider this possibility to be highly unlikely. Data in Newton was stored in object-oriented databases known as ''soups.'' One of the revolutionary aspects of Newton was that soups were available to all programs; and programs could operate cross-soup; meaning that the calendar could refer to names in the address book; a note in the notepad could be converted to an appointment, and so forth; and the soups could be programmer-extended - a new address book enhancement could be built on the data from the existing address book. While the soup concept worked remarkably well within the Newton system itself, it caused several usability issues. First, it made it extremely difficult to synchronize data with other systems, like a desktop [[Macintosh]] or [[Personal computer\|PC]], making the Newton a [[data island]]. Apple's utility to perform this task, the Newton Connection Utility, was exceedingly complex and was never completed to perform to the satisfaction of most users. The realization that a handheld computer needed to work within the existing data environment of its users was key to the success of the later [[Palm Pilot]] platform, even though the Palm was technically inferior. The second consequence of the data-object soup was that objects could extend built-in applications such as the address book so seamlessly that Newton users could not distinguish which program or add-on object was responsible for the various features on their own system. A user rebuilding their system after extended usage might find themselves unable to manually restore their system to the same functionality because some long-forgotten downloaded extension was missing. Data owned and used by applications and extensions themselves were tossed in the "Storage" area of the "Extras" drawer. There was no built-in distinction between types of data in that area. For example, an installed application's icon could be sitting right next to a database of addresses used by another installed extension further down the list. There was no easy way to get a listing of all user-installed objects on a system. Finally, the data soup concept worked well for data like addresses, which benefit from being shared cross-functionally, but it worked poorly for discrete data sets like files and documents. This difficulty in working and sha
ing]]. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptual learning. There is a great deal of evidence for components of both the nativist and empiricist position, and this is a hotly debated research topic in developmental psychology. On the other hand, Chomsky's critique of a specific nativist position on this issue, [[radical behaviorism\|radical behaviorist]] [[Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]'s ''[[Verbal Behavior]]'' written in 1957, is widely considered among developmental psychologists to have sparked the decline in influence of behaviorism and signaled the beginning of the [[cognitive revolution]] in psychology. === Mechanisms of development === Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time, but also seeks to explain the principles and internal workings underlying these changes. Understanding these factors is aided by the use of [[model (abstract)\|models]]. Developmental models are often [[computer model\|computational]], but they do not necessarily need to be. A model must simply account for the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes done in reference to changes in the [[brain]] that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of the development. Computational accounts of development often use either [[symbolic]], [[connectionism\|connectionist]] ([[neural net\|neural network]]), or [[dynamical system]]s models to explain the mechanisms of development. == History of developmental psychology == The modern form of developmental psychology has its roots in the rich psychological tradition represented by [[Heraclitus]], [[Aristotle]] and [[Descartes]]. In the late [[nineteenth century]], psychologists familiar with the [[evolutionary theory]] of [[Darwin]] began seeking an evolutionary description of psychological development; prominent here was [[G. Stanley Hall]], who attempted to correlate ages of childhood with previous ages of mankind. A more scientific approach was initiated by [[James Mark Baldwin]], who wrote essays on topics that included ''Imitation: A Chapter in the Natural History of Consciousness'' and ''Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes''. By the early to mid-[[twentieth century]], the work of [[Vygotsky]] and [[Piaget]], mentioned above, had established a strong [[empirical]] tradition in the field. Developmental psychology made an early appearance in a more literary form, however. [[William Shakespeare]] had his melancholy character ''Jacques'' (in [[As You Like It]]) articulate the [http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/webstuff/poetry/Shakespeare-TheSeven.html ''seven ages of man'']: these included three stages of childhood and four of adulthood. In the mid-[[eighteenth century]] [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] described three stages of childhood: infans (infancy), puer (childhood) and adolescence in ''[[Emile: Or, On Education]]''. Rousseau's ideas were taken up strongly by educators at the time. In the [[twentieth century]], [[Rudolf Steiner]] articulated stages of psychological development throughout human life. The first three of these stages, which correspond closely with [[Piaget]]'s later-described stages of childhood, were first presented in Steiner's [[1911]] essay ''The Education of the Child''; his descriptions have been taken up by educators (in the [[Waldorf Schools]]) and by psychologists (in [[biographical therapy]]; see the works of [[Bernard Lievegoed]]). == Aspects of development == Developmental psychology is concerned with many different components of human psychology and how they change over time. These different aspects of development complement many other areas of psychology, including cognitive psychology and [[social psychology]]. === Cognitive development === {{main\|Cognitive psychology}} Cognitive development is primarily concerned with the ways in which infants and children acquire cognitive abilities. Major topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisiton and the development of perceptual and motor skills. [[Jean Piaget\|Piaget]] was one of the influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His [[theory of cognitive development\|theory]] suggest that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to [[adulthood]]. Other accounts, however, have suggested that development does not progress through stages that are as clearly defined as those of Piaget's. Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously, but often give rise to ''apparent'' stages of change in mental structures as Piaget described. === Social development === {{main\|Social psychology}} Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human [[social behavior]], with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. As the mind is the axis around which social behavior pivots, social psychologists tend to study the relationship between mind(s) and social behaviors. In early-modern social science theory, [[John Stuart Mill]], Comte, and others, laid the foundation for social psychology by asserting that human [[social cognition]] and behavior could and should be studied scientifically like any other [[natural science]]. == Research methods == Developmental psychology employs many of the [[psychological research methods\|research methods]] used in other areas of psychology. However, infants and children cannot always be tested in the same ways as adults, so different methods are often used to study development. [[Image:Baby.jpg\|thumb\|200px\|Special methods are required to study infant behavior.]] ===Infant research methods=== When studying infants, the habituation methodology is an example of a method often used to assess their performance. This method allows researchers to obtain information about what types of [[stimuli]] an infant is able to discriminate. In this [[paradigm]], infants are habituated to a particular stimulus and are then tested using different stimuli to evaluate discrimination. The critical measure in habituation is the infants' level of interest. Typically, infants prefer stimuli that are novel relative to those they have encountered previously. Several methods are used to measure infants' preference. These include the high-amplitude sucking procedure, in which infants suck on a pacifier more or less depending on their level of interest, the conditioned foot-kick procedure, in which infants move their legs to indicate preference, and the head-turn preference procedure, in which infants level of interest is measured by the amount of time spent looking in a particular direction. A key feature of all these methods is that, in each situation, the infant controls the stimuli being presented. This gives researchers a means of measuring discrimination. If an infant is able to discriminate between the habituated stimulus and a novel stimulus, they will show a preference for the novel stimulus. If, however, the infant cannot discriminate between the two stimuli, they will not show a preference for one over the other. ===Child research methods=== When studying older children, especially adolescents, adult measurements of behavior can often be used, but they may need to be simplified to allow children to perform certain tasks. ==Theorists & theories== [[Jean Piaget]], [[Theory of cognitive development]] [[Erik Erikson]], [[Erikson's stages of psychosocial development]] [[Lawrence Kohlberg]], [[Kohlberg's stages of moral development]] [[James W. Fowler]], [[Stages of faith development]]iiii ==See also== [[List of publications in psychology#Developmental psychology\|Annotated Bibliography]]: a list of prominent works in developmental psychology [[Developmental stage]] [[Evolutionary developmental psychology]] == External links == [http://www.devpsy.org Developmental Psychology]: lessons for teaching and learning developmental psychology * [http://classweb.gmu.edu/awinsler/ordp/topic.html GMU&rsquo;s On-Line Resources for Developmental Psychology]: a web directory of Developmental Psychology organizations * [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~stwright/psych/index.html Psychology Resources] [http://www.missouri.edu/~psycorie/EvoDevPsy.pdf#search='evolutionary%20developmental%20psychology' Evolutionary Developmental Psychology] (in the journal ''Child Development'') [http://bernard.pitzer.edu/~dmoore/psych199s03articles/Bjorklund.pdf#search='evolutionary%20developmental%20psychology' Child Development and Evolutionary Psychology] (in the journal ''Child Development'') [[Category:Developmental psychology\| ]] [[Category:Psychology]] [[af:Ontwikkelingsielkunde]] [[de:Entwicklungspsychologie]] [[fr:Psychologie du développement]] [[he:פסיכולוגיה התפתחותית]] [[nl:Ontwikkelingspsychologie]] [[ja:発達心理学]] [[pl:Psychologia rozwoju człowieka]] [[pt:Psicologia do desenvolvimento]] [[sk:Vývinová psychológia]] [[sl:Razvojna psihologija]] [[fi:Kehityspsykologia]] [[tr:Gelişimsel psikoloji]] [[zh:发展心理学]] [[sv:utvecklingspsykologi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DNA replication</title> <id>9015</id> <revision> <id>41838311</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:52:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>PseudoSudo</username> <id>825566</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.126.175.7\|71.126.175.7]] ([[User_talk:71.126.175.7\|talk]]) to last version by PseudoSudo</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dnareplication.png\|frame\|DNA replication. In the first step, a portion of the double helix shown above in blue is unwound by a [[helicase]]. Next, a molecule of [[DNA polymerase]] shown in green binds to one strand of the DNA. It moves along the strand, using it as a template for assembling a [[leading strand]] shown above in
ldór Guðmundsson. 2004. ''Halldór Laxness''. JPV, Reykjavík. * Hallberg, Peter. 1970. Hús skáldsins: um skáldverk Halldórs Laxness frá Sölku Völku til Gerplu. Reykjavík. Mál og menning. * ''Íslenska alfræðiorðabókin H-O. 1990.'' Editors: Dóra Hafsteinsdóttir and Sigríður Harðardóttir. Örn og Örlygur hf., Reykjavík. * [http://www2.mbl.is/mm/serefni/laxness/ritaskra.html Bibliography] * [http://www2.mbl.is/mm/serefni/laxness/ Halldór Laxness] * [http://www.gljufrasteinn.is/ - ''Gljúfrasteinn'' The Halldór Laxness Museum web site in several languages, including English] </div><div style="float:right; width:50%;"> In [[English language\|English]]: [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1955/laxness-bio.html Biography] from the [[Nobel Prize]] website </div><br clear="all"> [[Category:1902 births\|Laxness, Halldór]] [[Category:1998 deaths\|Laxness, Halldór]] [[Category:Icelandic writers\|Laxness, Halldór]] [[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners\|Laxness, Halldór]] [[Category:Icelandic people]] [[bg:Халдор Лакснес]] [[de:Halldór Laxness]] [[es:Halldór Laxness]] [[eo:Halldór Kiljan LAXNESS]] [[fr:Halldór Laxness]] [[is:Halldór Laxness]] [[he:הלדור לכסנס]] [[hu:Halldór Laxness]] [[no:Halldór Laxness]] [[nn:Halldór Kiljan Laxness]] [[pl:Halldór Kiljan Laxness]] [[pt:Halldór Laxness]] [[ro:Halldór Laxness]] [[fi:Halldór Laxness]] [[sv:Halldór Laxness]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hall and Woodhouse</title> <id>13897</id> <revision> <id>15911483</id> <timestamp>2005-04-20T13:37:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Justinc</username> <id>113336</id> </contributor> <comment>merge with Badger</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Badger Brewery]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Harmonic oscillator</title> <id>13899</id> <revision> <id>40874822</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:17:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Phil Boswell</username> <id>24373</id> </contributor> <comment>migrate {{[[template:book reference\|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book\|cite book]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser\|AWB]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Harmonic oscillator''' is a system which, when displaced from its equilibrium position, experiences a restoring [[force]] <math>F</math> proportional to the displacement <math>x</math>: :<math> F = -k x \, </math> where <math>k</math> is a positive [[constant]]. If <math>F</math> is the only force acting on the system, the system is called a '''simple harmonic oscillator''', and it undergoes '''simple harmonic motion''': [[sinusoidal]] [[oscillations]] about the equilibrium point, with a constant [[amplitude]] and a constant [[frequency]] (which does not depend on the [[amplitude]]). If a frictional [[force]] ([[damping]]) proportional to the [[velocity]] is also present, the harmonic oscillator is described as ''damped''. In such situation, the [[frequency]] of the [[oscillations]] is smaller than in the non-damped case, and the [[amplitude]] of the [[oscillations]] decreases with time. If an external time-dependent [[force]] is present, the harmonic oscillator is described as ''driven''. Mechanical examples include [[pendulum\|pendula]] (with small angles of displacement), masses connected to [[spring (device)\|spring]]s, and [[acoustics\|acoustical system]]s. Other analogous systems include electrical harmonic oscillators (see [[RLC circuit]]). This article discusses the harmonic oscillator in terms of [[classical mechanics]]. See the article [[quantum harmonic oscillator]] for a discussion of the harmonic oscillator in [[quantum mechanics]]. == Simple harmonic oscillator == The simple harmonic oscillator has no driving force, and no [[friction]] ([[damping]]), so the net force is just :<math> F = -k x \, </math> Using Newton's Second Law :<math> F = m a = -k x \, </math> The acceleration, <math>a</math> is equal to the second derivative of <math>x</math>. :<math> m \frac{d^2x}{dt^2} = -k x </math> If we define <math>{\omega_0}^2 = k/m</math>, then the equation can be written as follows, :<math> \frac{d^2x}{dt^2} + {\omega_0}^2 x = 0</math> and has the general solution :<math> x = A \cos {(\omega_0 t + \phi)} \, </math> where the [[amplitude]] <math>A \,</math> and the [[phase (waves)\|phase]] <math>\phi \,</math> are determined by the initial conditions. Alternatively, the general solution can be written as :<math> x = A \sin {(\omega_0 t + \phi)} \, </math> where the value of <math>\phi \,</math> is shifted by <math>\pi/2 \,</math> relative to the previous form; or as :<math> x = A \sin{\omega_0 t} + B \cos{\omega_0 t} \, </math> where <math>A \,</math> and <math>B \,</math> are the constants which are determined by the initial conditions, instead of <math>A \,</math> and <math>\phi \,</math> in the previous forms. The [[frequency]] of the oscillations is given by :<math> f = \frac{\omega_0}{2\pi} </math> The [[kinetic energy]] is :<math>T = \frac{1}{2} m \left(\frac{dx}{dt}\right)^2 = \frac{1}{2} k A^2 \sin^2(\omega_0 t + \phi)</math>. and the [[potential energy]] is :<math>U = \frac{1}{2} k x^2 = \frac{1}{2} k A^2 \cos^2(\omega_0 t + \phi)</math> so the total energy of the system has the constant value :<math>E = \frac{1}{2} k A^2</math> == Driven harmonic oscillator == This satisfies the nonhomogeneous second order linear differential equation ::<math>\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} + {\omega_0}^2x = A_0 \cos(\omega t).</math> Example: AC LC (inductor-capacitor) circuit. Note that this is true if the driving force applied is itself sinusoidal. The term on the right side of the equal sign corresponds to this applied driving force. == Damped harmonic oscillator == This satisfies the equation :<math>\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} + b/m \frac{dx}{dt} + {\omega_0}^2x = 0.</math> Example: weighted spring underwater (where the damping force exerted by the water is proportional to ''b''). == Damped, driven harmonic oscillator == This satisfies the equation :<math>m\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} + r \frac{dx}{dt} + kx= F_0 \cos(\omega t).</math> The general solution is a sum of a [[transient]] (the solution for damped undriven harmonic oscillator, [[homogeneous (mathematics)\|homogeneous]] ODE) that depends on initial conditions, and a [[steady state]] (particular solution of the unhomogenous ODE) that is independent of initial conditions and depends only on driving frequency, driving force, restoring force, damping force, and inertial moment of the oscillator (see also [[Linear transformation#Kernel and image\|kernel and image]]). The steady-state solution is ::::<math> x(t) = \frac{F_0}{Z_m \omega} \sin(\omega t - \phi)</math> where :<math> Z_m = \sqrt{r^2 + \left(\omega m - \frac{k}{\omega}\right)^2}</math> is the absolute value of the [[impedance]] :<math> Z = r + i\left(\omega m - \frac{k}{\omega}\right) </math> and :<math> \phi = \arctan\left(\frac{\omega m - \frac{k}{\omega}}{r}\right)</math> is the [[phase]] of the oscillation relative to the driving force. One might see that for a certain driving frequency, <math> \omega </math>, the amplitude (relative to a given <math>F_0</math>) is maximal. This occurs for the frequency :<math> {\omega}_r = \sqrt{\frac{k}{m} - \frac{r^2}{4 m^2}} </math> and is called '''[[resonance]] of [[displacement]]'''. In summary: at steady state the frequency of oscillation is the same as the that of the driving force, but the oscillation is phase-offset and scaled by amounts that depend on the frequency of the driving force in relation to the preferred (resonant) frequency of the oscillating system. Example: [[RLC circuit]]. == Full mathematical definition == Most harmonic oscillators, at least approximately, solve the differential equation: :<math>\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} + b/m \frac{dx}{dt} + {\omega_0}^2x = A_0 \cos(\omega t) </math> where ''t'' is time, ''b'' is the damping constant, &omega;<sub>o</sub> is the characteristic [[angular frequency]], and ''A''<sub>o</sub>cos(&omega;''t'') represents something driving the system with amplitude ''A''<sub>o</sub> and angular frequency &omega;. ''x'' is the measurement that is oscillating; it can be position, current, or nearly anything else. The [[angular frequency]] is related to the frequency, ''f'', by :<math> f = \frac{\omega}{2 \pi}.</math> === Important terms === [[Amplitude]]: maximal displacement from the [[equilibrium]]. * Period: the time it takes the system to complete an oscillation cycle. Opposite of [[frequency]]. * [[Frequency]]: the number of cycles the system performs per unit time (usually measured in [[hertz]] = 1/s). * [[Angular frequency]]: <math> \omega = 2 \pi f </math> * [[Phase]]: how much of a cycle the system completed (system that begins is in phase zero, system which completed half a cycle is in phase <math> \pi </math>). * [[Initial condition]]s: the state of the system at ''t'' = 0, the beginning of oscillations. == Simple harmonic oscillator == A simple harmonic oscillator is simply an oscillator that is neither damped nor driven. So the equation to describe one is: ::<math>\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} + {\omega_0}^2x = 0.</math> Physically, the above never actually exists, since there will always be friction or some other resistance, but two approximate examples are a mass on a [[Spring
'', who might give orders to a submissive, or otherwise employ physical or psychological techniques of control, but might instruct the submissive to perform the act on him or her. The same goes for bottoms and submissives. At one end of the continuum is a submissive who enjoys taking orders from a dominant but does not receive any physical stimulation. At the other is a bottom who enjoys the intense physical and psychological stimulation but does not submit to the person delivering them. It should be noted that the bottom is most often the partner who is giving instructions&mdash;the top typically tops when, and in the manner, requested by the bottom. However, there is a purist school of BDSM, for whom such "[[topping from the bottom]]" is incompatible with the retention of high ethical standards in the relationships wherein BDSM is practiced. Within a sadomasochisic context, submissive is often considered synonymous with bottom. Others opine that a "submissive" is specifically pursuing a dominant/submissive power-exchange as a key element, whereas a "bottom" may or may not be interested (or even willing) to engage in that exchange. For the latter, some have proposed the "pitcher" and "catcher" (borrowed from [[baseball]] terminology) as more neutral terminology, with the "pitcher" delivering the sensation, the instruction, etc; and the "catcher" receiving what is "pitched." === Switching === Some practitioners of BDSM enjoy '''[[switching (BDSM)\|switching]]'''&mdash;that is, playing both dominant and submissive roles, either during a single scene or taking on different roles at different occasions with different partners. A [[switch (BDSM)\|switch]] will be the [[top (BDSM)\|top]] on some occasions and the bottom on other occasions. A "switch" may be in a relationship with someone of the same primary orientation (two dominants, say), so switching provides each partner with an opportunity to realize his or her unsatisfied BDSM needs with others. Some individuals may switch, but may not identify as a switch because they do so infrequently or only under certain circumstances. == Safety == Some BDSM activities may be potentially dangerous if appropriate precautions are neglected. In particular, it is sometimes the practice that the submissive will complain of suffering or beg the dominant to stop, and that this will be ignored by the dominant. Therefore, one aspect to ensure safety is to agree upon a [[safeword]]. If the dominant and submissive are in a scene that causes unacceptable discomfort for one or both of them, a ''safeword'' can be uttered to warn the other of trouble and immediately call for a stop to the scene. Many BDSM relationships involve a ''simulation'' of rape or other non-consensual acts. A dominant and a submissive may choose to pretend that the submissive is being raped or otherwise forced to do something unwillingly. Therefore, words like "No!" or "Stop!" are inappropriate as safewords, because a submissive playing the ''role'' of a victim would say these words as part of the scenario. The ideal safeword is a word or brief phrase (such as "scrambled eggs") that normally would ''not'' be spoken during a sadomasochistic act, and which therefore calls attention to itself by its own incongruity. In scenes where the submissive is to refer to the dominant by a title or fictional name, the dominant's real name can serve as an effective safeword. Some people in BDSM use multiple levels of safewords. For example, the safeword "yellow" would be employed to indicate "You are approaching an intensity (or an activity) that I don't wish to experience; please take this scene in a different direction, or lower the intensity" while the safeword "red" would mean "Please stop this and release me, right now." In situations where the submissive's mouth is gagged, or the submissive is otherwise incapable of speaking without violating the fetish scenario, a non-verbal signal is used instead of a safeword. Typically this might be dropping a bell or ball, or uttering three high-pitched squeaks in quick succession. In theory, a dominant is capable of ignoring a safeword. In the actual BDSM lifestyle, a dominant who acquires a reputation for ignoring safewords will experience increasing difficulty finding fetish partners. Adequate care is prudent in [[bondage (BDSM)\|bondage]] to ensure safety from injury. It is wise to invest in first aid training for all involved parties. For activities involving bodily fluids, hygienic precautions should be duly considered for avoiding the spread of [[sexually transmitted diseases]]. == Various practices == BDSM may encompass practices such as [[erotic spanking]], [[flagellation]], such as flogging, paddling or whipping, or [[medical fetishism\|medical submission]] (i.e. a submissive partner submits to humiliating and/or painful medical procedures). BDSM activities are practiced by people of all sexualities. Many practice their BDSM activities exclusively in private, and do not share their predilections with others. Others socialize with other BDSM practitioners. The BDSM community can be regarded as a [[subculture]] within mainstream society. Being involved in BDSM or dominant/submissive relationships on a regular basis is often referred to as being "in the lifestyle". Some sources estimate the prevalence of BDSM behavior in countries such as the United States at around 5 to 10% of the adult population.{{fact}} While the stereotype of heterosexual BDSM is a male dominant and female submissive, the reality is almost evenly split between "[[maledom]]" and "[[femdom]]" couples. == Physiological == On a physical level, BDSM "[[sensation play (BDSM)\|sensation play]]" often involves inflicting pain, even if without actual injury. This releases [[endorphin\|endorphins]], creating a sensation somewhat like runner's high or the afterglow of orgasm, sometimes called "sub space", which some find enjoyable. Some writers use the term "body stress". This experience is the motivation for many in the BDSM community but is not the only motivating factor. Indeed, a strong minority of BDSM participants (especially "submissives") may well participate in a [[scene (BDSM)\|scene]] they do not derive any physical pleasure from in order to provide their "Dominant/Master" with an opportunity to indulge their desires or fetishes. In some kinds of BDSM play, the "top" (usually a dominant partner) applies sensation to the "bottom" (usually a submissive partner) by spanking, slapping, pinching, stroking or scratching with fingernails, or using implements like straps, whips, paddles, canes, knives, hot wax, ice, clothespins, bamboo skewers, etc. The sensation of being bound with rope, chains, straps, cling wrap, handcuffs or other materials can also be part of the experience. The tools of BDSM play encompass a wide variety of items from specifically designed implements to ordinary household items, known as "[[pervertible]]s." A pleasurable BDSM experience is thought to depend greatly upon a competent top and the bottom attaining the correct state of mind. Trust and sexual arousal help a person prepare for the intense sensation. Some have even gone so far as to compare adept BDSM play to musical composition and performance, each sensation like a musical note. Likewise, different sensations are combined in different ways to produce the total experience. == Other points == * BDSM may or may not involve [[human sexual behavior\|sex]] of any kind. * BDSM may or may not involve [[sexual roleplaying]]. * How dominant or submissive a person may be in their regular life does not always determine their preferred role in BDSM play though many people do manifest these tendencies. Often people who express one role in their regular life, such as at work, strongly desire to express the opposite role within their sexual life, as a kind of release. BDSM play often includes the psychological pleasure of [[sexual fetishism\|fetish]]es. Some BDSM players are [[polyamory\|polyamorous]] or are sexually [[monogamous]] but engage in non-sexual play with others. A couple may engage in BDSM sexuality within an otherwise non-D/S relationship dynamic. When there is [[abuse]] in the relationship, the dominant is not necessarily the abusive partner. == Terminology == See [[List of BDSM terms]] == Etymology == The term "S&M" was originally derived from the clinical terms [[sadism]] and [[masochism]]. The leather community of the day attempted to distance themselves from what was then classified as a mental illness and began to use the term "B&D" (Bondage & Discipline). This term was later linked back to "S&M" by the clinical community giving birth to the now common acronym BDSM. This term was then later broadened by some to include Dominance & submission. Although, D/s is more properly cultural dynamic than sexual practice, its common co-occurrence with BDSM has resulted in it being commonly viewed as linked behavior pattern. == History == The historical origins of BDSM are obscure. There are anecdotal reports of people willingly being bound or whipped as a prelude to, or substitute for, sex going back to the fourteenth century. The medieval phenomenon of [[courtly love]] in all of its slavish devotion and ambivalence has been suggested by some writers to be a precursor of BDSM. Some sources claim that BDSM as a distinct form of sexual behaviour originated at the beginning of the [[eighteenth century]] when Western civilization began medically and legally categorizing sexual behaviour. There are reports of brothels specializing in flagellation as early as 1769, and John Cleland's novel ''[[F
patterns, and the [[sunburst]] motif. Some of these motifs were ubiquitous — for example the sunburst motif was used in such varied contexts as a lady's shoe, a radiator grille, the auditorium of the [[Radio City Music Hall]] and the spire of the [[Chrysler Building]]. Art Deco was an opulent style and this opulence is attributed as a reaction to the forced austerity during the years of World War I. Art Deco was a popular style for interiors of cinema theatres and [[ocean liner]]s such as the [[SS Ile de France\|''Ile de France'']] and [[SS Normandie\|''Normandie'']]. A parallel movement following close behind, the [[Streamline]] or [[Streamline Moderne]], was influenced by manufacturing and streamlining techniques arising from science and the mass production shape of bullet, liners, etc., where aerodynamics are involved. Once the Chrysler Air-Flo design of [[1933]] was successful, "streamlined" forms began to be used even for objects such as pencil sharpeners and refrigerators. In architecture, this style was characterised by rounded corners, used predominantly for buildings at road junctions. Some historians see Art Deco as a type of or early form of [[Modernism]]. Art Deco slowly lost patronage in the West after reaching mass production, where it began to be derided as gaudy and presenting a false image of luxury. Eventually the style was cut short by the austerities of [[World War II]]. In colonial countries such as India, it became a gateway for Modernism and continued to be used well into the 1960s. A resurgence of interest in Art Deco came with graphic design in the 1980s, where its association with [[film noir]] and 1930s glamour led to its use in ads for jewelry and fashion. This is still the image of Art Deco held in the minds of most Americans. ==Noted Art Deco artists and designers== [[Image:Maurice_Ascalon_Art_Deco.jpg\|right\|156px\|thumb\|Vintage catalogue image of Art Deco metalwork designed by [[Maurice Ascalon]] and manufactured by his Pal-Bell Company.]] [[Maurice Ascalon]] [[Adolphe Mouron Cassandre]] [[Jean Dunand]] [[Jean Dupas]] [[Romain de Tirtoff\|Erté]] ([[Romain de Tirtoff]]) (1892-1990) [[Aleksandra Ekster\|Alexandra Exter]] [[Eileen Gray]] [[Georg Jensen]] [[René Lalique]] [[Jules Leleu]] [[Oscar Bach]] [[Joseph Kiselewski]] [[Tamara de Lempicka]] [[Paul Manship]] [[Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann]] [[Sue et Mar]] [[Walter Dorwin Teague]] [[Carl Paul Jennewein]] ==Noted Art Deco architects== [[Pablo Antonio]] [[George Coles]] [[Ernest Cormier]] [[Banister Fletcher\|Banister Flight Fletcher]] [[Oliver Hill]] [[Charles Holden]] [[Raymond Hood]] [[Ely Jacques Kahn]] [[Henry Vaughan Lanchester]] [[Edwin Lutyens]] [[James McKissack]] [[George Val Myer]] [[William van Alen]] [[Wirt C. Rowland]] [[Giles Gilbert Scott]] [[Clifford Strange]] [[Joseph Sunlight]] [[Ralph Walker]] [[Wallis, Gilbert and Partners\|Thomas Wallis]] [[Ernest A. Williams]] [[Owen Williams]] ==Noted Art Deco designs== [[Image:Carbon_jc01.jpg\|right\|156px\|thumb\|Chicago's Carbon and Carbide Building]] [[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg\|right\|230px\|thumb\|The Supreme Court Building in Ottawa, Canada]] [[Image:Nicanor reyes hall.jpg\|right\|thumb\|230px\|Far Eastern University Campus in downtown Manila, Philippines]] [[Image:IMG 0175.JPG\|thumb\|right\|230px\|The North Building of the Peace Hotel in Shanghai, China]] The [[Argyle Hotel]] in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]] * The Bullock's Wilshire Building in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]] (now home to Southwestern University School of Law) [[Empire State Building]] [[Chrysler Building]] [[Fair Park\|Dallas Fair Park]] [[Hall of State]] [[Golden Gate Bridge]] [[Fisher Building]] in [[Detroit, Michigan\|Detroit]] [[Guardian Building]] in [[Detroit, Michigan\|Detroit]] The [[Mapes Hotel]] in [[Reno, Nevada]] [[Peace Hotel]] in [[Shanghai]] [[Buffalo City Hall]] in [[Buffalo, New York]] [[Asmara]], the [[capital city]] of [[Eritrea]] * The [[ocean liner]]s [[SS Ile de France\|''Ile de France'']], [[SS Normandie\|''Normandie'']] and [[RMS Queen Mary]] * The [[Montreal Eaton 9th floor restaurant]] is a copy of the huge ''SS Ile de France'' first class dining room [[Napier, New Zealand]] - In 1931 the city of Napier was levelled by the [[Napier earthquake]] and ensuing fires. The city was rebuilt in the Art Deco style. The [[Hoover Building]], Perivale, London * The former [[Byrant and May]] match factory in [[Speke]], [[Liverpool]]. * The [[India of Inchinnan]] office block, [[Inchinnan]], [[Renfrewshire]], [[Scotland]] [[Anzac War Memorial]], [[Sydney]] built 1929-34 designed [[C Bruce Dellit]] (1900-1942), Sculptor: [[Rayner Hoff]]. [[Radio City Music Hall]] * [[Université de Montréal]] central building * [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]] * [[Marine Building]] in [[Vancouver]] * The East and West Stands at [[Arsenal Stadium]] in [[London]] * [[Eltham Palace]] extension, south-east London * The [[Colleen Moore]] Dollhouse at the [[Chicago, Illinois\|Chicago]] [[Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago\|Museum of Science and Industry]] * [[Boston Avenue Methodist Church]] in [[Tulsa]], [[Oklahoma]]. Designed by [[Bruce Goff]]. The city hall of [[Asheville]], [[North Carolina]], built 1926 - 28 [http://www.ci.asheville.nc.us/commune/history.htm]. The [[Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal]] in [[Cincinnati]], [[Ohio]]. [[Waterman pens\|Waterman]] [[Waterman Phileas\|Phileas]] [[fountain pen]] [[Chicago, Illinois\|Chicago]], [[Illinois]] [[Chicago Board of Trade Building]] [[Carbon and Carbide Building]] 720 and 730 Fort Washington Avenue, in the [[Hudson Heights, Manhattan\|Hudson Heights]] area of [[Manhattan]] in [[New York City]], [[New York]]. [[South Beach]] in [[Miami Beach, Florida\|Miami Beach]], [[Florida]]. Former [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] [[30th Street Station]] and [[Suburban Station]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] [[Far Eastern University\|Far Eastern University Campus]] in the [[Manila\|City of Manila]], Philippines * The [[Price Building]] (aka [[Édifice Price]]), Quebec City, Quebec, Canada, home to the Hotel Clarendon. The top floor is where the premier of Quebec stays while in the capital city. Originally built by Price Brothers (paper industry). ==External links== [http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/1157_art_deco/resources/ V & A Art Deco exhibition, 2003] [http://www.artdecoworld.com/gallery03.htm Article on Anzac Memorial with photos] [http://www.ci.chi.il.us/Landmarks/Tours/ArtDeco.html Art Deco architecture tour of Chicago landmarks] [http://www.decopix.com large collection of photographic examples] ==Further reading== * Duncan, Alastair. ''Art Deco Furniture: The French Designers'', Thames and Hudson, 1984. ISBN 0500234124 {{Westernart}} [[Category:Art Deco\|Art Deco]] [[de:Art Déco]] [[es:Art decó]] [[fa:آرت دکو]] [[fr:Art déco]] [[he:ארט דקו]] [[it:Art Decò]] [[nl:Art Deco]] [[ja:アール・デコ]] [[ka:არტ-დეკო]] [[no:Art deco]] [[pl:Art déco]] [[pt:Art Déco]] [[ro:Art Deco]] [[sv:Art déco]] [[zh:装饰艺术运动]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ASCII art</title> <id>1884</id> <revision> <id>42109434</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:03:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>82.33.121.92</ip> </contributor> <comment>/ Types and examples of ASCII art /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{\| align=right \| <pre><nowiki> _ ____ ____ ___ ___ _ /_\ / ___\| / ___\|_ _\|_ _\| __ _ _ __\| \|_ //_\\ \___ \\| \| \| \| \| \| / _` \| '__\| __\| / ___ \ ___) \| \|___ \| \| \| \| \| (_\| \| \| \| \|_ /_/ \_\____/ \____\|___\|___\| \__,_\|_\| \__\| </nowiki></pre> \|} '''ASCII art''', an artistic medium relying primarily on [[computer]]s for presentation, consists of pictures pieced together from the 95 printable [[character (computing)\|characters]] defined by [[ASCII]]. The term is also used more loosely to refer to [[#Other text based art\|text based art in general]]. They can be created with any [[text editor]], and are often used with [[free-form language]]s. Most examples of ASCII [[art]] require a [[typeface#Proportion\|fixed-width font]] (non-proportional [[typeface\|fonts]], like on a traditional [[typewriter]]) such as [[Courier (font)\|Courier]] for presentation. ASCII art is used wherever text can be more readily printed or transmitted than graphics, or in some cases, where the transmission of pictures is not possible. This includes typewriters, [[teletype]]s, non-graphic [[computer terminal]]s, in early [[computer network]]ing (e.g., [[bulletin board system\|BBSes]]), [[e-mail]], and [[Usenet]] news messages. ASCII art is also used within the [[source code]] of computer programs for representation of company or product logos, and flow control or other diagrams. In some cases, the entire source code of a program is a piece of ASCII art - for instance, an entry to one of the earlier [[International Obfuscated C Code Contest]] is a program that adds numbers, but visually looks like a binary adder drawn in logic ports. Taking the medium to extremes, there exists a video driver for the popular video game ''[[Quake]]'' that displays the game in ASCII art. ASCII art is also very commonly used amongst software piracy groups to display group logos inside text (.nfo) files containing the instructions for installing and cracking the software (though these commonly use PC text mode characters as well as just ASCII). Pop artist [[Beck]] has a music video "Black Tambourine" made up entirely of ASCII characters that approximate the original footage. ''Animated ASCII art'' is possible by embedding video terminal escape sequences such as ANSI X3.64 for cursor movement into the "picture". ==Types and examples of ASCII art== The simplest forms of ASCII art are combinations of two or three characters for expressing emotion in text. They are commonly referred to as '[[emoticon]
to the Qur'an: : At length she brought the (babe) to her people, carrying him (in her arms). They said: "O Mary! truly an amazing thing hast thou brought! O sister of Aaron! Thy father was not a man of evil, nor thy mother a woman unchaste!" But she pointed to the babe. They said: "How can we talk to one who is a child in the cradle? He said: "I am indeed a servant of Allah (God). He hath given me revelation and made me a prophet; And He hath made me blessed wheresoever I be, and hath enjoined on me Prayer and Charity as long as I live; (He) hath made me kind to my mother, and not overbearing or miserable; So peace is on me the day I was born, the day that I die, and the day that I shall be raised up to life (again)"! Such (was) Jesus the son of Mary: (it is) a statement of truth, about which they dispute. It is not befitting to (the majesty of) Allah (God) that He beget a son. Glory be to Him! when He determines a matter, He only says to it, "Be", and it is. ([[Maryam (sura)\|Mary]]:27-35) ===Paul and Barnabas=== Hajj Sayed argues that Galatians's description of the dispute between Paul and Barnabas supports the idea that the Gospel of Barnabas existed at the time of Paul. Blackhirst has suggested, by contrast, that Galatian's account of this argument could be the reason the gospel's writer attributed it to Barnabas.[http://www.depts.drew.edu/jhc/Blackhirst_Barnabas.html] Paul writes in ([http://www.bbintl.org/bible/niv/nivGal2.html Galatians Chapter 2]): : "When Peter came to Antioch, I opposed him to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong. Before certain men came from James, he used to eat with the Gentiles. But when they arrived, he began to draw back and separate himself from the Gentiles because he was afraid of those who belonged to the circumcision group. The other Jews joined him in his hypocrisy, so that by their hypocrisy even Barnabas was led astray." ([http://www.bbintl.org/bible/niv/nivGal2.html Galatians 2]:11-14) Paul was attacking Peter and Barnabas for "trying to satisfy the Jews" by sticking to their laws, such as circumcision. This shows that, at that point, Barnabas was following Peter and disagreeing with Paul. Some feel it also suggests that the inhabitants of Galatia at his time were using a gospel or gospels disagreeing with Paul's beliefs, which Gospel of Barnabas could be one of them (although the [[Gospel of Peter]] would seem a more natural candidate, as in the light of the second letter.) To Galatian's account we may compare the Introductory Chapter of Gospel of Barnabas, where we read: : "Dearly beloved the great and wonderful God hath during these past days visited us by his prophet Jesus Christ in great mercy of teaching and miracles, by reason whereof many, being deceived of Satan, under presence of piety, are preaching most impious doctrine, calling Jesus son of God, repudiating the circumcision ordained of God for ever, and permitting every unclean meat: among whom also Paul hath been deceived, whereof I speak not without grief; for which cause I am writing that truth which I have seen and heard, in the intercourse that I have had with Jesus, in order that ye may be saved, and not be deceived of Satan and perish in the judgment of God. Therefore beware of every one that preacheth unto you new doctrine contrary to that which I write, that ye may be saved eternally." ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP1.html Introduction To Gospel of Barnabas]) In this context, supporters also note that Peter was from the original 12 [[apostle\|disciples of Jesus]], and Barnabas was one of the early disciples of Jesus, while Paul, a Roman, haven't lived with Jesus, and had been accustomed to persecute his followers before his conversion. : [[Acts of the Apostles\|Acts]] 9:26: "And when Saul ( Paul ) was come to Jerusalem he assayed to join himself to the disciples, but they were all afraid of him and believed not that he was a disciple. But Barnabas took him and, brought him to the Apostles." From the previous passages, we can also infer that in the beginning, Paul and Barnabas were getting along with each other; however, at the end, they started to depart in their beliefs. In conclusion, some Muslim scholars believe that those differences between the Gospel of Barnabas and the belief of Paul might be the reason that the Gospel of Barnabas and other gospels were not added to the New Testament. ===Other Differences between GoB and the Bible=== * According to the following quote, Jesus talked to Barnabas and gave him a "secret": : Jesus, weeping, said: "O Barnabas, it is necessary that I should reveal to you great secrets, which, after that I shall be departed from the world, you shall reveal to it." Then answered he that writes, weeping, and said: "Suffer me to weep, O master, and other men also, for that we are sinners. And you, that are a holy one and prophet of God, it is not fitting for you to weep so much." : Jesus answered: "Believe me, Barnabas that I cannot weep as much as I ought. For if men had not called me God, I should have seen God here as he will be seen in paradise, and should have been safe not to fear the day of judgment. But God knows that I am innocent, because never have I harboured thought to be held more than a poor slave. No, I tell you that if I had not been called God I should have been carried into paradise when I shall depart from the world, whereas now I shall not go thither until the judgment. Now you see if I have cause to weep. : Know, O Barnabas, that for this I must have great persecution, and shall be sold by one of my disciples for thirty pieces of money. Whereupon I am sure that he who shall sell me shall be slain in my name, for that God shall take me up from the earth, and shall change the appearance of the traitor so that every one shall believe him to be me; nevertheless, when he dies an evil death, I shall abide in that dishonour for a long time in the world. But when Muhammad shall come, the sacred Messenger of God, that infamy shall be taken away. And this shall God do because I have confessed the truth of the Messiah who shall give me this reward, that I shall be known to be alive and to be a stranger to that death of infamy." * Also according to GoB, Jesus charged Barnabas to write the gospel: : Jesus turned himself to him who writes, and said: "Barnabas, see that by all means you write my gospel concerning all that has happened through my dwelling in the world. And write in a similar manner that which has befallen Judas, in order that the faithful may be undeceived, and every one may believe the truth." ==Anachronisms== Some readers have noted that the ''Gospel of Barnabas'' contains a number of apparent [[anachronism]]s and historical incongruities: * It has Jesus sailing across the Sea of [[Galilee]] to [[Nazareth]] - which is actually inland; and from thence going "up" to [[Capernaum]] - which is actually on the lakeside (chapters 20-21); though this is contested by [http://www.bendigo.latrobe.edu.au/sae/arts/barnabas/criticism.html Blackhirst], who says that the traditional location of Nazareth is itself questionable). * Jesus is said to have been born during the rule of [[Pontius Pilate]], which began after the year [[26]]. * Barnabas appears not to realize that '[[Christ]]' and '[[Messiah]]' are translations of the same word (''christos''), describing Jesus as "Jesus Christ" yet claiming that 'Jesus confessed and said the truth, "I am not the Messiah"' (ch. 42). * There is reference to a [[jubilee (Christian)\|jubilee]] which is to be held every hundred years (Chapter 82), rather than every fifty years as described in [[Leviticus]]: 25. This anachronism appears to link the Gospel of Barnabas to the declaration of a Holy Year in [[1300]] by [[Pope Boniface VIII]]; a Jubilee which he then decreed should be repeated every hundred years. In [[1343]] the interval between Holy Years was reduced by [[Pope Clement VI]] to fifty years. * Adam and Eve eat an apple (ch. 40); whereas the traditional association of the Fruit of the Tree of Good and Evil (Genesis: 2) with the apple, rests on the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Latin, where both 'apple' and 'evil' are rendered as 'malum'. * The Gospel talks of wine being stored in wooden casks - as characteristic of Gaul and Northern Italy (chapter 152); whereas wine in 1st Century Palestine was stored in wineskins and jars (Amphorae). The Pedunculate or English Oak (quercus robur) does not grow in Palestine; and the wood of other species is not sufficiently airtight to be used in wine casks, * In Chapter 91, the "Forty Days" is referred to as an annual fast. This corresponds to the Christain tradition of fasting for forty days in [[Lent]]; a practice that is not witnessed earlier than the [[Council of Nicea]] ([[325]]). Nor is there a forty days fast in Judaism of the period (see Mishnah, Tractate: Taanith "''Days of Fasting''") * Where the Gospel of Barnabas includes quotations from the Old Testament, these correspond to readings as found in the Latin [[Vulgate]]; rather than as found in either the Greek [[Septuagint]], or the Hebrew [[Masoretic Text]]. * Ch. 91 records three contending Jewish armies 200,000 strong at Mizpeh, totalling 600,000 men, at a time when the Roman army across the entire Empire had a total strength estimated as 300,000. Other readers point out that the canonical gospels are not without anachronisms (as in Luke 2:3, where [[Quirinius]]'s governorship of Syria overlaps unhistorically with the reign of [[Herod the Great]]); nor are they without comparable incongruities (as in the account of the Trial of Jesus before the [[Sanhedrin]] in the Gospels of Mark and Matthew, which both state this as taking place - unhistorically - on the night of the [[Passover]] festiva
er made some minor changes in the First Report and Order and added a major regulation. This was designed to protect UHF stations in large cities. The new rule disallowed the importation of distant signals into the top 100 markets, thus making CATV profitable only in cities with poor reception. In 1968 the Supreme Court upheld the FCC's right to make rules and regulations concerning CATV. In its decision on United States v. Southwestern Cable, the "San Diego Case", it said "the Commissions authority over 'all interstate ... communications by wire or radio' permits the regulation of CATV systems." === The birth of public access television === {{main\|Public-access television}} In [[1969]] the FCC issued rules requiring all CATV systems with over 3500 subscribers to have facilities for local origination of programming by [[April 1]], [[1971]]. The date was later suspended. In [[1972]], Dean Burch steered the FCC into a new area of regulation. It lifted its restrictions on CATV in large cities, but now put the burden of more local programming on CATV operators. In [[1976]], the FCC used its rule making power to require that new systems now had to have 20 channels, and that cable providers with systems of 3500 subscribers or more had to provide PEG ([[public-access television\|public]], education, and government access) channel capacity, and facilities and equipment necessary to use this capacity. ==Programming== ===United States=== In the [[United States]], cable television programming is often divided between basic and premium programming. Basic cable TV networks are generally transmitted without any [[Television encryption\|scrambling]] or other special methods and thus anyone connected to the cable TV system can receive them. Basic cable networks receive at least some funding through fees paid by the cable TV systems for the right to include the network in its channel lineup. Most basic cable TV networks also include advertising to supplement the fees, due to their programming cost being greater than the fees paid by cable TV systems. Premium cable refers to networks, such as [[HBO]] and [[Showtime]], that scramble or encrypt their signals so that only those paying additional monthly fees to their cable TV system can legally view them (via the use of cable box). Because these networks command much higher fees from cable TV systems, their programming is generally commercial free. There are several features of cable programming that distinguish it from broadcast television. Because cable television carries more bandwidth than broadcast TV (10 to 20 times as many channels), there is room for more specialized channels catering to particular demographics or interests. Also, because cable TV networks rely much less, or in some cases not at all, on revenue from commercials, they can feature programming (such as speciality sports or programming in foreign languages) that draws much smaller viewer numbers than what broadcast networks would find acceptable. And finally, since cable TV channels cannot be viewed by those (e.g., children) without the proper equipment, the FCC’s rules regarding acceptable content do not apply to cable TV networks, allowing greater freedom in the use of language, nudity, and violence. The lack of restrictions on content has led to cable TV programs with more adult-oriented content such as [[nudity]] and strong language, including some premium cable networks broadcasting [[soft-core porn]] programs. Premium cable networks have traditionally been the loosest with regard to content, since they require a cable box to view, making it easier to restrict children’s access to them. Thus, one can find nudity, foul language, and even soft-core pornography on these networks, though, so far, not [[hard-core pornography]], possibly due in part to such factors as the risk of cable TV systems dropping them or legal risk. Basic cable, on the other hand, has not traditionally been as loose with regard to content. While there are no FCC rules that apply to content on basic cable networks, because most such networks rely at least partly on advertising revenue, they have buckled to pressure from advertisers to keep their content more in line with that of broadcast TV. Thus, many basic cable networks voluntarily censor their programs, particularly with regard to language and nudity. In recent years though, some basic cable networks have begun to relax their self-imposed restrictions, particularly late at night. Thus, programs like [[Comedy Central]]’s [[South Park]] often contain content deemed unsuitable for U.S. broadcast TV. Some basic cable networks have also recently aired R-rated movies, uncut, late at night. There has been a recent push to create laws that force cable providers to allow consumers to purchase individual cable TV channels "a la carte," i.e. to allow them to pick and choose which channels they would like to have available in their homes. This is not likely to occur until digital cable television becomes popular, although technically, analog cable television would be sufficient if all channels were scrambled, as it is very difficult to notch out individual channels from a cable TV line without scrambling. For example, many cable providers have a "basic plan" consisting of local channels and a few national cable networks; and an "economy basic" plan consisting of local channels only. Both plans are supplied on the same cable, but the cable company can filter out the expanded channels to the "economy basic" subscribers using a low-pass filter which filters out higher channels. Notch filters are available which can filter out a "notch" of channels (for example, channels 45-50 can be "notched" out yet the subscriber can receive channels below 45 and higher than 50). However, to do this individually for a single subscriber who wants many "notches," would be very difficult unless a scrambling system is used requiring a set-top box. These problems are alleviated with the use of digital cable, which requires a set-top converter box. This converter can be programmed remotely to allow or disallow access to channels on an individual basis. The use of [[IPTV]] (i.e., delivery of television over an internet or IP-based network) makes it even easier, since the provisioning of channels can be fully automated. ==Cable television fees and programming lineups== Cable TV systems impose a monthly fee depending on the number and perceived quality of the channels offered. Cable TV subscribers are offered various packages of channels one can subscribe to. The cost of each package depends on the type of channels offered (basic vs. premium) and the quantity. These fees cover the fees paid to individual networks for the right to carry their network as well as the cost of operating and maintaining the cable TV system so that their signals can reach subscribers homes. Additional fees and taxes are often tacked on by local, state, and federal governments. The fee the cable TV system must pay to a cable TV network will vary depending on whether it is a basic or premium channel and the perceived popularity of that channel. Because cable TV systems are not required to carry any basic cable channels, they often try and negotiate the fee they will pay for carrying a channel. Thus more popular networks have been able to command much higher fees then less popular networks. The fees paid to basic cable networks has a benefit in that advertisement breaks on basic cable are either absent or their number and duration are far lower than on broadcast TV, where ads make up around 25% of programming in the U.S. Most cable systems divide their channel lineups into three or four basic channel packages. A must-carry rule requires all cable TV systems to carry local broadcast stations on their lineups. Cable TV systems are also required to offer a subscription package that provides these broadcast channels at a lower rate than the standard subscription rate. The basic programming package offered by cable TV systems is usually known as basic cable and provides access to a large number of basic cable TV networks, as well as broadcast channels, and [[local-access television]] channels. Some systems refer to this package as expanded basic, with their most minimal package being referred to as basic cable. In addition to the basic cable packages, all systems offer premium channel add-on packages offering either just one premium network (e.g. HBO) or several premium networks for one price (e.g. HBO and Showtime together). Finally, most cable systems offer pay-per-view channels where users can watch individual movies, live programs, sports, etc. for an additional fee for single viewing at a scheduled time. Some cable systems have begun to offer [[on-demand programming]], where customers can select programs from a list of offerings including recent releases of movies, concerts, sports, and reruns of TV shows and specials and start the program whenever they wish, as if they were watching a DVD or a VHS tape. Some of the offerings have a cost similar to renting a movie at a video store while others are free. Starting in the late [[1990s]], advances in digital signal compression (primarily Motorola's [[DigiCipher 2]] technology in [[North America]]) have given rise to wider implementation of [[digital cable]] services. Digital cable provides many more television channels over the same available bandwidth, by converting cable TV channels to a digital signal and then compressing the signal. Currently, most systems offer a hybrid analog/digital cable system. This means they offer a certain number of analog channels via basic cable service with additional channels being made available via digital cable service. Thus subscribers wishing to have access to digital cable channels must have a special cable box to receive them. Additiona
service]. See also [http://www.soldiersmothers.spb.org/eng/Reports/Testimonies.htm Dedovschina]. See also [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/01/26/ap/world/mainD8FCIRV80.shtml Russian draftee’s legs and genitals amputated after hazing incident] ===Singapore=== In [[Singapore]], the NS (Amendment) Act was passed on [[14 March]] [[1967]], under which all able-bodied male citizens of 18-21 years of age were required to serve a compulsory military service of two years (down from two and a half years, amended in 2005). Upon completion of full-time NS, they undergo [[reservist]] training cycles of forty days a year for the next ten years. Singapore, which currently has a mandatory service period of twenty four months, used to have one of the longest mandatory military service periods for males, at thirty months. It also has special policies for ethnic [[Malay people\|Malay]]s, because of possible conflicts in allegiances with neighbour [[Malaysia]]. Some of the Malays are drafted into the [[police]] or [[Civil Defense]]. See [[National Service]] ===Sweden=== In [[Sweden]] military service is mandatory for men only. As of 2002, Sweden's government asked the army to consider mandatory military service for women. Less than one third of the country's eligible 19-year-olds are actually drafted each year. See [http://www.news-star.com/stories/062703/New_8.shtml ''Sweden considers mandatory military service for women'']. Men may choose to do unarmed service, for instance as a [[firefighter]]. Generally, unarmed service is longer than armed. ===Switzerland=== [[Switzerland]] has the largest [[militia]] army in the world (220,000 including reserves). Military service for Swiss men is obligatory according to the Federal Constitution, and includes seventeen weeks of basic training as well as annual 3-week-refresher courses until a number of service days which increases with rank (260 days for privates) is reached. Service for women is voluntary, but identical in all respects. Conscientious objectors can choose 450 days of community service instead of military service. Medical deferments and dismissals from basic training (often on somewhat dubious grounds) have increased significantly in the last years. Therefore, only about 33% of Swiss men actually complete basic training. ===Taiwan (ROC)=== {{see also\|Conscription in the Republic of China}} The [[Republic of China]] has had mandatory military service for all males since [[1949]]. Females from the outlying islands of [[Fujian#Quemoy and Matsu\|Fuchien]] were also required to serve in a civil defense role, although this requirement has been dropped since the lifting of martial law. In October 1999, the mandatory service was shortened from twenty four months to twenty two months. From January [[2004]], the mandatory service was shortened further. At this point, the duration of mandatory military service is eighteen months. Beginning [[1 January]] [[2006]], the duration will decrease to sixteen months. The ROC Defense Ministry has announced that should voluntary enlistment reach sufficent numbers, the compulsory service period for draftees will be shortened to fourteen months in 2007. Should this trend continue, the service period will be further shortened to twelve months in 2008. ROC nationals with [[Overseas Chinese]] status are exempt from service. Draftees may also request alternative service, usually in community service areas, although the required service period would be longer than military service. Qualified draftees with graduate degrees in the sciences or engineering who pass officer candidate exams may also apply to fulfill their obligations in a national defense service option which involves three months of military training, followed by an officer commission in the reserves and four years working in technical jobs in the defense industry or government research institutions. The Ministry of Interior is responsible for administering the National Conscription Agency. [http://www.moi.gov.tw/outline/Conscription.asp Ministry of Interior site on Consciption Administration] ''See Also:'' [[Conscription in Turkey]] ===Turkey=== In [[Turkey]], compulsory military service applies to all male citizens from twenty to forty one years of age (with some exceptions). Those who are engaged in higher education or vocational training programs prior to their military drafting are allowed to delay service until they have completed the programs. The duration of the basic military service varies. As of July [[2003]], the reduced durations are as follows: fifteen months for privates (previously eighteen months), twelve months for reserve officers (previously sixteen months) and six months for short-term privates, which denotes those who have earned a university degree and not have been enlisted as reserve officers (previously eight months). For Turkish citizens who have lived or worked abroad of Turkey for at least three years, on condition that they pay a certain fee in foreign currencies, a basic military training of one month is offered instead of the full-term military service. Also, when the General Staff assesses that the military reserve exceeds the required amount, paid military service of one-month's basic training is established. Although women have in principle no military service, they are allowed to become officers. Refusing the obligatory military service due to conscientious objection is illegal in Turkey, and punishable with imprisonment by law. ===Ukraine=== The options are either reserve officer training for two years (offered in universities as a part of a program), or one year regular service. ===Venezuela=== Military service is mandatory and may last for up to two years. All men between eighteen - thirty five years of age are liable to be conscripted if not already registered as reserves or exempt from conscription by the local authority. Reasons for exemption include: being sole support for a family, studying college, being physically unfit. Some of these exemptions are based on subjective assessment by the local authorities and allegations of [[corruption]] and [[bribes]] periodically surface in the local media. In past decades the policy of conscription (''la recluta'') in [[Venezuela]] used to draw its manpower from the detention of males of military age, in a similar way to the [[press gangs]] of the pre-Industrial era. This is slowly evolving into a modern and voluntary conscription system. ==Countries that do not currently have mandatory military service (partial list)== ===Argentina=== [[Argentina]] abolished military conscription in [[1994]], yet those in service had to finish it. ===Australia=== :''See main article: [[Australian Conscription\|History of Australian conscription]]'' ===Belgium=== [[Belgium]] suspended military conscription in 1994. ===Canada=== :''See main articles: [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]] and [[Conscription Crisis of 1944]]'' In [[Canada]] conscription has never taken place in peacetime. Conscription became an extremely controversial issue during both [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], especially in the province of [[Quebec]]. ===Czech Republic=== The [[Czech Republic]] abolished compulsory military service on [[December 31]], [[2004]]. See [http://www.army.cz/scripts/detail.php?id=3041 announcement by the Minister of Defence] and related BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4118461.stm article]. ===France=== Modern conscription was invented during the [[French Revolution]], since the army needed men to stop Austrian and British invasions from destroying the newly founded [[French Republic\|Republic]]. The [[1798]] [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan\|Jourdan Act]] stated: "Any French is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the nation". Thus [[Napoleon I of France\|Napoleon Bonaparte]] could create afterward the ''[[Grande Armée]]'' which successfully battled European professional armies. France abolished peacetime military conscription in [[1996]], while those born before 1979 had to complete their service (see related BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1682777.stm article]); since the [[Algerian War of Independence]] (1954-62), conscripts had not been deployed abroad or in war zones, except those volunteering for such deployments. ===Hungary=== [[Hungary]] abolished mandatory military service by [[November]] [[2004]], after the [[National Assembly of Hungary\|parliament]] had modified the constitution, ending a long-standing political dispute. To restore drafting, a two-thirds vote in parliament is needed, which is unlikely in the short term. The country is currently developing a professional army, with strong emphasis on "contract soldiers" who voluntarily serve 4+4 years for a wage. ===India=== [[India]] has never had mandatory military service, either under [[British Raj\|British rule]] or since independence in [[1947]]. ===Iraq=== Saddam Hussein's large [[Iraq]]i army was largely composed of conscripts, except for the elite [[Iraqi Republican Guard\|Republican Guard]]. About 100,000 conscripts died during the [[Gulf War\|First Gulf War]], also known as Operation Desert Storm. In the intervening years, Iraq's military suffered from decay and poor leadership, but there was still compulsory service. One program of note was "Ashbal Saddam" known as "Saddam's Cubs" where children were trained to defend Iraq through "toughening" exercises such as firearms training and dismembering live chickens with their teeth. Following the [[2003 invasion of Iraq\|Second Gulf War]] where the original military was disbanded, the Iraqi Army was recreated as a volunteer force with training overseen at first by the [[Coalition Provisional Authority]] and later by the American presence. ===Ireland=== [[Ireland]] has always had a fully volunteer military. See the [http://www.military.ie/ Irish Defence Forces]. The [[Conscription Crisis of 1918 (Ireland)\|threat
ntitled [[A Species in Denial]], but it´s fair to say that Carl Sagan won the Pulitzer with the same idea (explayed twenty years before) in his book "Dragons of Eden". == Image gallery == <gallery> Image:Leda Cosmides.jpg\|Leda Cosmides Image:John Tooby.jpg\|John Tooby Image:StevePinker.jpg\|Steven Pinker Image:RDawkins.jpg\|Richard Dawkins </gallery> ==References== * Barkow, Jerome; Cosmides, Leda; Tooby, John (1992) ''The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and The Generation of Culture'' ISBN 0-19-510107-3. * Buss, David, ed. (2005) ''The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology''. ISBN 0471264032. * Buss, D.M. (2004). [http://www.ablongman.com/catalog/academic/product/0,1144,0205370713-TOC,00.html '''Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind.'''] Boston: Pearson Education, Inc. * Ghiselin, Michael T. (1973). Darwin and Evolutionary Psychology. ''Science'' '''179''': 964-968. == See also == * [[Behavioural genetics]] * [[Dual inheritance theory]] * [[Evolutionary developmental psychology]] * [[Human behavioral ecology]] * [[List of evolutionary psychologists]] * [[List of publications on evolution and human behavior]] == External links == * [http://www.hbes.com Human Behavior and Evolution Society (HBES)]- The main academic society of evolutionary psychology researchers * [http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/primer.html Evolutionary Psychology: A Primer] * [http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/projects/human/evpsychfaq.html The Evolutionary Psychology FAQ] * [http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/ Center for Evolutionary Psychology] * [http://www-personal.umich.edu/~kruger What is Evolutionary Psychology?] -A brief introduction to several areas in the field * Evolutionary Psychology by Russil Durrant and Bruce J. Ellis [http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/38/04713840/0471384038.pdf#search='evolutionary%20psychologypdf'] * [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/10905138 Evolution and Human Behavior] - The main academic journal of evolutionary psychology * [http://www.archaeoworld.com/journals/humanNature/ Human Nature] - Another academic journal devoted to EP * [http://human-nature.com/ep/ Evolutionary Psychology] - An open access [[peer-review]]ed journal * [http://www.human-nature.com Human Nature Review] * [http://itb.biologie.hu-berlin.de/~hagen/papers/Controversies.pdf ''Controversies Surrounding Evolutionary Psychology''] ([[PDF]]) * Buss reprints: [http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/Group/BussLAB/publications.htm] * Cosmides and Tooby reprints: [http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/publist.htm] * Daly, Wilson, et. al. reprints: [http://psych.mcmaster.ca/dalywilson/pubs.html] * Geary reprints: http://web.missouri.edu/~psycorie/ * [http://human-brain.org/evolpsy2.html Harsh criticism of Evolutionary Psychology] * [http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/L7-1EvolutionaryPsychology.html Evolutionary psychology: Psychological aspects of human evolution] * [[Evolutionary developmental psychology]] [http://www.missouri.edu/~psycorie/EvoDevPsy.pdf#search='evolutionary%20developmental%20psychology'] & [http://bernard.pitzer.edu/~dmoore/psych199s03articles/Bjorklund.pdf#search='evolutionary%20developmental%20psychology'] * [http://pinker.wjh.harvard.edu/articles/media/2004_10_29_religion.htm Evolutionary Psychology of Religion] by [[Steven Pinker]] [[Category: Branches of psychology]] [[category:Evolutionary biology\|psychology]] [[Category:Evolutionary psychology\| ]] [[Category: Psychology]] [[bn:বিবর্তনবাদী মনস্তত্ত্ববিদ্যা]] [[da:Evolutionær psykologi]] [[de:Evolutionäre Psychologie]] [[es:Psicología evolucionista]] [[fr:Psychologie évolutionniste]] [[ko:진화심리학]] [[he:פסיכולוגיה אבולוציונית]] [[hu:Evolúciós pszichológia]] [[nl:Evolutionaire psychologie]] [[pl:Psychologia ewolucyjna]] [[fi:Evoluutiopsykologia]] [[sv:Evolutionspsykologi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>European languages</title> <id>9705</id> <revision> <id>41633509</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:52:07Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Arne List</username> <id>49991</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* [[North Germanic language\|North Germanic]] /</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Most of the many [[indigenous]] [[language]]s of [[Europe]] belong to the [[Indo-European languages\|Indo-European]] [[language family]]. The scope of this article also includes languages spoken outside of continental Europe that linguistically belong to European language families (such as ''[[Afrikaans language\|Afrikaans]]'', ''[[Pennsylvania German language\|Pennsylvania German]]'' and ''[[Persian language\|Persian]]''). == [[Basque language\|Basque]] == The Basque language of the northern [[Iberian Peninsula]] is a [[language isolate]], and as such is not closely related to any other language. == [[Finno-Ugric languages]] == The Finno-Ugric languages are a subfamily of the [[Uralic languages\|Uralic language family]]. [[Estonian language\|Estonian]] * [[Finnish (language)\|Finnish]] * [[Hungarian language\|Hungarian]] * [[Ingrian language\|Ingrian]] * [[Karelian language\|Karelian]] * [[Khanty language\|Khanty]] * [[Komi-Zyrian language\|Komi]] * [[Livonian language\|Livonian]] * [[Mansi language\|Mansi]] * [[Mari language\|Mari]] * [[Mordvin language\|Mordvin]] * [[Komi-Permyak language\|Permian]] * [[Sami languages\|Sami]] * [[Udmurt language\|Udmurt]] * [[Veps language\|Veps]] * [[Võro language\|Võro]] * [[Votic language\|Votic]] == [[Indo-European languages]] == Most European languages are Indo-European languages. This large language-family is descended from a common language that was spoken thousands of years ago, which is referred to as ''[[Proto-Indo-European language\|Proto-Indo-European]]''. <blockquote> === [[Albanian language\|Albanian]] === === [[Armenian language\|Armenian]] === === [[Baltic languages]] === * [[Curonian language\|Curonian]] * [[Latgalian language\|Latgalian]] * [[Latvian language\|Latvian]] * [[Lithuanian language\|Lithuanian]] === [[Celtic languages]] === <blockquote> ==== [[Brythonic]] ==== * [[Cornish language\|Cornish]] - revived * [[Cumbrian language\|Cumbric]] - extinct * [[Breton language\|Breton]] * [[Welsh language\|Welsh]] ==== [[Goidelic]] (Gaelic) ==== * [[Irish language\|Irish]] * [[Manx language\|Manx]] * [[Scottish Gaelic language\|Scottish Gaelic]] </blockquote> === [[Germanic language]]s === <blockquote> ==== [[North Germanic language\|North Germanic]] ==== (descending from [[Old Norse]]) * West (Insular) Scandinavian [[Icelandic language\|Icelandic]] [[Faroese language\|Faroese]] ** [[Norn language\|Norn]] (extinct) * East (Continental) Scandinavian [[Danish language\|Danish]] [[Norwegian language\|Norwegian]] (Norwegian Bokmål) ** [[Swedish (language)\|Swedish]] ==== [[West Germanic language\|West Germanic]] ==== * [[High Germanic languages]] German * Middle German ** East Middle German * [[German language\|Standard German (Hochdeutsch, ''High German'')]] [[Luxembourgeois language\|Luxembourgeois]] West Middle German * [[Pennsylvania German language\|Pennsylvania German]] (spoken by the [[Amish]] and other groups in southeastern [[Pennsylvania]]) * Upper German ** [[Swiss German]], [[Austrian language\|Austrian]], etc [[Alsatian language\|Alsatian]] [[Hutterite German]] (aka "Tirolean") [[Yiddish language\|Yiddish]] * [[Low Germanic languages]] [[Low Franconian languages\|Low Franconian]] * [[Afrikaans language\|Afrikaans]] * [[Dutch language\|Dutch]] * [[West Flemish]] [[Low German]] * [[West Low German]] * [[East Low German]] * [[Rhinelandic]] ** [[Limburgisch]] ** [[Plautdietsch]] ([[Mennonite]] Low German) * [[Anglo-Frisian languages\|Anglo-Frisian]] [[Frisian language\|Frisian]] [[West Frisian language\|West Frisian]] [[Saterland Frisian language\|Saterland Frisian]] [[North Frisian language\|North Frisian]] * [[Anglic languages\|Anglic]] (descending from [[Old English language\|Anglo-Saxon]]) * [[English language\|Modern English]] * [[Scots language\|Modern Scots]] ==== [[East Germanic language\|East Germanic]] ==== (descending from [[Gothic language\|Gothic]]) * [[Burgundians\|Burgundian]] (extinct) * [[Crimean Gothic language\|Crimean Gothic]] (extinct in the [[1800s]]) * [[Lombardic language\|Lombardic]] (extinct) * [[Vandalic language\|Vandalic]] (extinct) </blockquote> === [[Greek language\|Greek]] === === [[Italic languages]] === * [[Latin]] <blockquote> ==== [[Romance languages]] ==== The Romance languages decended from the [[Vulgar Latin]] spoken across most of the lands of the [[Roman Empire]]. ===== [[Iberian Romance languages\|Ibero-Romance languages]] ===== * [[Aragonese language\|Aragonese]] * [[Asturian language\|Asturian]] [[Leonese language\|Leonese]] [[Mirandese language\|Mirandés]] * [[Catalan language\|Catalan, Valencian]] [[Eastern Catalan]] * [[Alguerese]] * [[Balearic]] * [[Central Catalan]] [[Western Catalan]] * [[North-Western Catalan]] *** [[Valencian]] * [[Mozarabic language\|Mozarabic]] * [[Portuguese language\|Portuguese]] [[European Portuguese]] [[Brazilian Portuguese]] [[African Portuguese]] * [[Angolan Portuguese]] * [[Capeverdean Portuguese]] * [[Guinean Portuguese]] * [[Mozambican Portuguese]] * [[São Tomean Portuguese]] [[Judeo-Portuguese]] [[Simple Portuguese]] [[Portuguese-based creole languages]] [[Galician language\|Galician]] * [[Eonaviegan dialect\|Eonaviegan]] (a Galician dialect with some traits of [[Asturian language\|Asturian]]) [[Fala language]] (spoken in a valley of the northwestern part of Spanish [[Extremadura]]) * [[Portuñol]] * [[Spanish language\|Spanish]] [[Extremaduran language\|Extremaduran]] [[Ladino language\|Ladino]] ** [[Spanish-based creole languages]] ===== [[Gallo-Romance languages]] ===== * [[Franco-Provençal language\|Franco-Provençal]] *[[Langue d'oïl\|Oïl langu
lationship between the ciliates, [[Apicomplexa]], and [[dinoflagellate]]s. These superficially dissimilar groups make up the [[alveolate]]s. ==Classification== Phylum '''Ciliophora''' * Class [[Karyorelictea]] * Class [[Heterotrich]]ea (e.g. ''[[Stentor (genus)\|Stentor]]'') [[Image:Stentor roeseli composite image.jpg\|thumb\|''[[Stentor roeseli]]'']] * Class [[Spirotrich]]ea Subclass [[Choreotrich]]ia (e.g. ''[[Tintinnidium]]'') Subclass [[Oligotrich]]ia (e.g. ''[[Halteria]]'') Subclass [[Stichotrich]]ia (e.g. ''[[Stylonychia]]'') Subclass [[Hypotrich]]ia (e.g. ''[[Euplotes]]'') * Class [[Litostomatea]] Subclass [[Haptoria]] (e.g. ''[[Didinium]]'') Subclass [[Trichostome\|Trichostomatia]] (e.g. ''[[Balantidium]]'') [[Image:Balantidium trophB.JPG\|thumb\|A [[trophozoite]] of ''[[Balantidium coli]]'']] * Class [[Phyllopharyngea]] Subclass [[Phyllopharyngia]] Subclass [[Rhynchodia]] Subclass [[Chonotrich]]ia Subclass [[Suctoria]] (e.g. ''[[Podophrya]]'') * Class [[Nassophorea]] * Class [[Colpodea]] (e.g. ''[[Colpoda]]'') * Class [[Prostomatea]] (e.g. ''[[Coleps]]'') * Class [[Oligohymenophorea]] Subclass [[Peniculid\|Peniculia]] (e.g. ''[[Paramecium]]'') Subclass [[Hymenostome\|Hymenostomatia]] (e.g. ''[[Tetrahymena]]'') Subclass [[Scuticociliate\|Scuticociliatia]] Subclass [[Peritrich]]ia (e.g. ''[[Vorticella]]'') Subclass [[Astome\|Astromatia]] Subclass [[Apostome\|Apostomatia]] * Class [[Plagiopylid\|Plagiopylea]] [[Category:Protista]] [[Category:Ciliates\|]] [[de:Wimpertierchen]] [[es:Ciliophora]] [[fr:Ciliata]] [[nl:Ciliophora]] [[nds:Ciliophora]] [[ja:繊毛虫]] [[pt:Ciliado]] [[sr:Трепљари]] [[sv:Ciliater]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ceuta</title> <id>6443</id> <revision> <id>41931222</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:30:59Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.122.144.70</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{\| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style="margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" \|+<big><big>'''Ciudad Autónoma de Ceuta'''</big></big> {\| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style="background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;" \| bgcolor="#ffffff" align=center colspan=2 \| {\| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 \| align="center" width="140px" \| [[Image:Flag of Ceuta.svg\|140px\|Ceuta official flag]] \| align="center" width="140px" \| [[Image:EscudoCeuta.gif\|80px\|Coat of Arms]] \|- \| align="center" width="140px" \| [[Flag of Ceuta\|Flag]] \| align="center" width="140px" \| [[Coat of Arms of Ceuta\|Coat of Arms]] \|} \|- \| bgcolor="#c6c6c6" align="center" colspan="2" \| [[Image:Locator map of Ceuta.png]] \|- \| [[Area]]<br>&nbsp;&ndash; Total \| &nbsp;<br> [[1 E7 m²\|28]] [[square kilometre\|km²]] \|- \| [[Population]]<br>&nbsp;&ndash; Total (2005)<br>&nbsp;&ndash; [[Density]] \| <br>&nbsp;75,276<br>&nbsp;2688.43/km² \|- \| [[Demonym]]<br>&nbsp;&ndash; [[English language\|English]]<br>&nbsp;&ndash; [[Spanish language\|Spanish]] \| <br>---<br>''ceutí'' \|- \| Statute of Autonomy \| [[March 14]], [[1995]] \|- \| [[ISO 3166-2]] \| ES-CE \|- \| [[Cortes Generales\|Parliamentary<br>representation]]<br>&nbsp;[[Spanish Congress\|Congress seats]]<br>&nbsp;[[Spanish Senate\|Senate seats]] \| valign=bottom \| 1<br>2 \|- \| [[List of Presidents of Ceuta\|President]] \| [[Juan Jesús Vivas Lara]] ([[Partido Popular\|PP]]) \|- \| align=center colspan=2 \| [http://www.ciceuta.es Ciudad Autónoma de Ceuta] \|- \|} \|} '''Ceuta''' is a [[Spain\|Spanish]] [[exclave]] in [[North Africa]], located on a northern tip of the [[Maghreb]], on the [[Mediterranean]] coast near the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]. It is known in [[Arabic language\|Arabic]] as سبتة ''Sebta''. Its area is approximately [[1 E7 m²\|28]] [[square kilometre\|km²]]. Ceuta is dominated by a hill called [[Monte Hacho]], on which there is a fort occupied by the Spanish army. Monte Hacho is one of the possible locations for the southern [[Pillars of Hercules]] of Greek Legend, the other possibility being [[Jebel Musa]]. ==History== Ceuta's strategic location has made it the crucial waypoint of many cultures' trade and military ventures &mdash; beginning with the [[Carthage\|Carthaginians]] in the [[5th century BC]] (They called the city ''Abyla''). It wasn't until the [[Roman Empire\|Romans]] took control in about AD [[42]], however, that the port city (named ''Septem'' at the time) assumed an almost exclusive military purpose. Approximately 400 years later, the [[Vandal]]s ousted the Romans for control, and later it fell to the [[Visigoth]]s of Spain or to the [[Byzantine Empire\|Byzantine]]s. In [[710]], as [[Muslim]] invaders approached the city, its Visigothic governor [[Julian, count of Ceuta\|Julian]] (also described as "king of the [[Ghomara]]") changed sides and urged them to invade Spain (for personal reasons, according to the Arab chroniclers; the Visigothic King [[Roderic\|Roderick]] is said to have mistreated his daughter). Under the leadership of [[Berber]] general [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]], Ceuta was used as a prime [[staging area\|staging ground]] for an assault on [[Visigoth]]-ruled [[Iberian Peninsula\|Iberia]] soon after. After Julian's death the Arabs took direct control of the city; this was resented by the surrounding indigenous [[Berber]] tribes, who destroyed it in a [[Kharijite]] rebellion led by [[Maysara al-Haqir]] in [[740]]. It lay waste until refounded in the [[9th century]] by [[Majakas]], chief of the [[Majkasa]] Berber tribe, who started the short-lived dynasty of the [[Banu Isam]]. Under his great-grandson they paid allegiance to the [[Idrisid\|Idrisids]] (briefly); the dynasty finally ended when he abdicated in favour of the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph of Cordoba]] [[Abd ar-Rahman III]] an-Nasir in [[931]]. Chaos ensued with the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in [[1031]], but eventually it was taken over by the [[Almoravid]]s in [[1084]], and again used as a base from which to invade Spain. They were succeeded by the [[Almohad]]s in [[1147]], who ruled it, apart from Ibn Hud's rebellion of [[1232]], until the [[Hafsid]]s took it in [[1242]]. The Hafsids' influence in the west rapidly waned, and the city expelled them in [[1249]]; after this, it went through a period of political instability. In 1309 was captured with aragonese help. <b>[[Kingdom of Fez]](1309-1415)</b> In [[1415]], Ceuta was taken by the [[Portugal\|Portuguese]] during the reign of [[John I of Portugal]]. The primary aim of the conquest was to expel Muslim influence from the area and further promote [[Christianity]]. In the Treaty of [[Lisbon]] ([[1 January]] [[1668]]), Don [[Alfonso VI of Portugal]] formally ceded the area of Ceuta to [[Carlos II of Spain]]. Culturally, modern Ceuta can be considered to belong to the Andalusian region. Indeed, it was untill recently attached to the provice of Cadiz -the coasts of Cadiz being only 12 miles away. It is a very cosmopolitan city, with a large ethnic berber muslim minority as well as jewish and hindu minorities. [[Image:Ceuta, as photographed from Morocco.JPG\|thumb\|right\|280px\|Eastern Ceuta, as photographed from [[Morocco]]. [[Monte Hacho]] is the hill to the right of the picture.]] [[Image:Ceuta fair.JPG\|thumb\|right\|280px\|The entrance to the fair at Ceuta. As in [[Andalucia]], the nightlife in Ceuta carries on until the early hours. In the first week of [[August]], Ceuta celebrates its [[patron saint]], [[Our Lady of Africa]]. These celebrations include a large and colourful funfair that stays open late into the night.]] [[Image:Ceuta - showing Royal Walls and Monte Hacho.JPG\|thumb\|right\|280px\|Ceuta's [[Royal Walls]] are in the foreground. Boats travel between the east and west sides of Ceuta. In the background is Monte Hacho. On top of the hill is a Spanish fort occupied by the Spanish army.]] [[Image:Spanish-Moroccan border (Ceuta-Sebta).JPG\|thumb\|right\|280px\|The border with Morocco. Passing through this border post usually takes one to two hours. ''Grands taxis'' leave from the other side for [[Tétouan]] and [[Tangier]].]] ==Administration== Ceuta is known officially in [[Spanish language\|Spanish]] as '''Ciudad Autónoma de Ceuta''', the '''Autonomous City of Ceuta''', having a rank between a standard Spanish city and an [[autonomous communities of Spain\|autonomous community]]. Before the Statute of Autonomy, Ceuta was administratively part of the [[Cádiz (province)\|Cádiz]] [[provinces of Spain\|province]]. Ceuta forms part of the territory of the [[European Union]]. The city was a [[free port]] before Spain joined the European Union in 1986. Now it has a low-taxes system inside the European Monetary System. As of [[1994]] its population was 71,926. The government of [[Morocco]] has called for the integration of Ceuta and [[Melilla]], along with uninhabited islands such as [[Isla Perejil]], into its national territory, drawing comparisons with Spain's territorial claim to [[Gibraltar]]. The Spanish government and both Ceuta's and Melilla's autonomous governments and inhabitants reject these comparisons on the ground that both Ceuta and Melilla are integral parts of the Spanish state whereas Gibraltar, a British [[Crown colony]], is not and never has been part of the [[United Kingdom]]. Morocco however dismisses this argument as an irrelevant domestic technical distinction. [[ISO 3166-1]] reserves ''EA'' as the country code for Ceuta and [[Melilla]]. ==See also== [[Ceuta border fence]] * [[Isla Perejil]] * [[Melilla]] ==External links== *[http://www.iespana.es/conoceceuta/0200-pagina%20principal%20ingles.htm Guide to Ceuta (in English) (stil

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