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ogists studying the remains of two men from [[Mehrgarh]], [[Pakistan]], made the discovery that the people of [[Indus Valley Civilization]], even from the early [[Harappa]]n periods (circa [[3300 BC]]), had knowledge of medicine and [[dentistry]]. The physical anthropologist who carried out the examinations, Professor Andrea Cucina from the University of Missouri-Columbia, made the discovery when he was cleaning the teeth from one of the men. (See [[Indus Valley Civilization#Science|Indus Valley Civilization: Science]]) ===Chinese medicine=== ''See main article: [[History of traditional Chinese medicine]].'' China also developed a large body of traditional medicine. Much of the philosophy of [[traditional Chinese medicine]] derived from empirical observations of disease and illness by [[Taoist]] physicians and reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. These causative principles, whether material, essential, or metaphysical, correlate as the expression of the natural order of the universe. During the golden age of his reign from 2696 to 2598 B.C, as a result of a dialogue with his minister Ch'i Pai, the [[Yellow Emperor]] is supposed by Chinese tradition to have composed his ''Neijing (內經) [[Suwen]] (素問)'' or ''Basic Questions of Internal Medicine''. During the Han dynasty, Chang Chung-Ching, who was mayor of Chang-sha near the end of the second century A.D., wrote a ''Treatise on Typhoid Fever'', which contains the earliest known reference to ''[[Neijing Suwen]]''. The Chin dynasty practitioner and advocate of [[acupuncture]] and [[moxibustion]], Huang-fu Mi (215-282 A.D), also quotes the [[Yellow Emperor]] in his ''Chia I Ching'', ca. 265 A.D. During the Tang dynasty, Wang Ping claimed to have located a copy of the originals of the '''Neijing Suwen''', which he expanded and edited substantially. This work was revisited by an imperial commission during the eleventh century A.D., and the result is our best extant representation of the foundational roots of traditional Chinese medicine. ===Hebrew medicine=== Most of our knowledge of ancient Hebrew medicine during the [[1st millennium BC]] comes from the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Bible]] which contain various health related laws and rituals, such as isolating infected people (Leviticus 13:45-46), washing after handling a dead body (Numbers 19:11-19) and burying excrement away from camp (Deuteronomy 23:12-13). Max Neuberger, writing in his "History of Medicine" says" :''"The commands concern prophylaxis and suppression of epidemics, suppression of venereal disease and prostitution, care of the skin, baths , food, housing and clothing, regulation of labour , sexual life , discipline of the people , etc. Many of these commands, such as Sabbath rest, circumcision, laws concerning food (interdiction of blood and pork), measures concerning menstruating and lying-in women and those suffering from gonorrhoea, isolation of lepers, and hygiene of the camp, are, in view of the conditions of the climate, surprisingly rational."''(Neuburger: History of Medicine, Oxford University Press, 1910, Vol. I, p. 38). ===Early European medicine=== ''See also [[Medieval medicine]].'' [[Image:Medical Astro-Man.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Astrology]] played a very important part in early Western medicine; most university-educated physicians were trained in at least the basics of astrology to use in their practice]] As societies developed in Europe and Asia, belief systems were replaced with a different natural system. The [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], from [[Hippocrates]], developed a humoral medicine system where treatment was to restore the balance of [[Classical element|humours]] within the body. ''[[Ancient Medicine]]'' is a treatise on medicine, written roughly [[400 BC]] by Hippocrates. Similar views were espoused in [[China]] and in [[India]]. See [[Ancient Greek medicine]] for more. From the ideas developed in Greece, through [[Galen]] until the [[Renaissance]] the main thrust of medicine was the maintenance of health by control of [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] and [[hygiene]]. [[Anatomy|Anatomical]] knowledge was limited and there were few surgical or other cures, doctors relied on a good relation with patients and dealt with minor ailments and soothing chronic conditions and could do little when epidemic diseases, growing out of [[urbanization]] and the [[domestication]] of animals, then raged across the world. Medieval medicine was an evolving mixture of the [[science|scientific]] and the spiritual. In the early [[middle ages]], following the fall of the [[Roman Empire]], standard medical knowledge was based chiefly upon surviving Greek and Roman texts, preserved in monasteries and elsewhere. Ideas about the origin and cure of [[disease]] were not, however, purely [[secular]], but were also based on a [[spirituality|spiritual]] world view, in which factors such as destiny, sin, and astral influences played as great a part as any physical cause. In this era, there was no clear tradition of scientific medicine, and accurate observations went hand-in-hand with spiritual beliefs as part of the practice of medicine. ===Arabic medicine=== {{Main|Islamic medicine}} The [[Arab world]] rose to primacy in medical science with such thinkers as [[Ibn Sina]] ([[Avicenna]]), [[Ibn Nafis]], and [[Rhazes]]. The first generation of Arabian superb physicians were trained at the [[Academy of Gundishapur]], where the teaching hospital was first invented. Rhazes, for example, became the first physician to systematically use alcohol in his practice as a physician. The ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'' (Large Comprehensive, Hawi or "al-Hawi" or "The Continence") was written by the Iranian chemist [[Rhazes]] (known in Arabic as [[Al-Razi]]), the "Large Comprehensive" was the most sought after of all his compositions. In it, Rhazes recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. The "''Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah''", with its introduction on [[measles]] and [[smallpox]] was also very influential in [[Europe]]. The [[Mutazilite]] philosopher and doctor [[Ibn Sina]] (known as [[Avicenna]] in the western world) was another influential figure. His ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', sometimes considered the most famous book in the history of medicine, remained a standard text in Europe up until its [[Age of Enlightenment]] and the renewal of the [[Arabic]] tradition of scientific [[medicine]]. [[Maimonides]], although a Jew himself, made various contributions to Arabic medicine in the 12th century. [[Ibn Nafis]] (d. 1288) described human [[blood circulation]]. This discovery would be rediscovered, or perhaps merely demonstrated, by [[William Harvey]] in [[1628]], who generally receives the credit in Western history. There was a persistent pattern of Europeans repeating Arabian research in medicine and [[Arabian astronomy|astronomy]], and some say [[Arabian science|physics]], and claiming credit for it. ===European Renaissance and Enlightenment medicine=== This idea of personalised medicine was challenged in Europe by the rise of experimental investigation, principally in dissection, examining bodies in a manner alien to other cultures. The work of individuals like [[Andreas Vesalius]] and [[William Harvey]] challenged accepted folklore with scientific evidence. Understanding and diagnosis improved but with little direct benefit to health. Few effective drugs existed, beyond [[opium]] and [[quinine]], folklore cures and almost or actually poisonous metal-based compounds were popular, if useless, treatments. Important figures: * [[Realdo Colombo]], anatomist and surgeon who contributed to understanding of lesser circulation. * [[Michael Servetus]], first to ''discover'' the pulmonary circulation of the blood. * [[William Harvey]] describes blood circulation. * [[John Hunter (surgeon)|John Hunter]], surgeon. * [[Amato Lusitano]] described venous valves and guessed their function. * [[Garcia de Orta]] first to describe [[Cholera]] and other tropical diseases and herbal treatments * [[Percivall Pott]], surgeon. * Sir [[Thomas Browne]] physician and medical neologist. *[[Thomas Sydenham]] physician and so-called "English Hippocrates." ===Modern medicine=== Medicine was revolutionized in the 18th century and beyond by advances in [[chemistry]] and laboratory techniques and equipment, old ideas of infectious disease epidemiology were replaced with [[bacteriology]]. [[Ignaz Semmelweis]] in [[1847]] dramatically reduced the death rate of new mothers from [[childbed fever]] by the simple experiment of requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in [[childbirth]]. His discovery predated the [[germ theory of disease]]. However, his discoveries were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries of British surgeon [[Joseph Lister]], who in [[1865]] proved the principles of [[antisepsis]]. His work is based on the very important discoveries made by French biologist [[Louis Pasteur]]. Pasteur was able to link some microorganisms with disease. This brought a revolution in [[medicine]]. He also devised one of the most important methods in [[preventive medicine]], when in [[1880]] he produced the [[vaccine]] against [[rabies]]. Pasteur also invented the process of [[pasteurization]] to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods. [[Robert Koch]] is considered one of the founders of bacteriology. He is famous for the discovery of the [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis|tubercle bacillus]] ([[1882]]) and the [[Vibrio cholerae|cholera bacillus]] ([[1883]]) and for his development of [[Koch's postulates]]. For the first time actual cures were developed for certain endemic infectious diseases. However the
e Valley Hospital]] == External links == *[http://fcgov.com Fort Collins City Government] *[http://www.coloradoan.com/ Fort Collins Coloradoan] *[http://www.fortnet.org Fort Collins Community Portal] *[http://www.colostate.edu Colorado State University] *[http://fortcollins.gennetten.com 3.7 Gigapixel '''aerial photo''' (much higher res than Terraserver)] {{Mapit-US-cityscale|40.559238|-105.078302}} {{Colorado}} [[Category:Cities in Colorado]] [[Category:Larimer County, Colorado]] [[Category:Fort Collins, Colorado| ]] [[de:Fort Collins (Colorado)]] [[fr:Fort Collins (Colorado)]] [[ja:フォート・コリンズ (コロラド州)]] [[pt:Fort Collins]] [[sv:Fort Collins]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Francis Drake</title> <id>11508</id> <revision> <id>42096363</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:25:43Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.237.227.247</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Drake in popular culture */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FrancisDrake.jpg|framed|Sir Francis Drake, c. [[1540]]&amp;ndash;[[1596]].]] '''Sir Francis Drake''', [[Vice Admiral|Vice Adm]], (c.[[1540]] &amp;ndash; [[January 28]], [[1596]]) was an [[England|English]] [[privateer]], [[Navigation|navigator]], naval pioneer and raider, [[politics|politician]], and [[civil engineering|civil engineer]], of the [[Elizabethan period]]. He was the first captain to completely [[circumnavigation|circumnavigate]] the globe ([[Magellan]] did not live to finish his. It was finished by Juan Sebastian Elcano). He was also second in command of the English fleet against the [[Spanish Armada]] in [[1588]]. He died while unsuccessfully attacking [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]] on [[1596]]. == Birth and early years == [[Image:sfdrake42.jpg|thumb|left|[[Portrait miniature|Miniature]] of Drake, age 42 by [[Nicholas Hilliard]] in [[1581]]]] Francis Drake was born in [[Tavistock]], [[Devon]], the son of Mary or Elizabeth Mylwaye (Mildmay?) and her husband Edmund Drake (1518&amp;ndash;1585), a [[Protestant]] farmer (who later became a [[preacher]]) and grandson of John Drake and Margret Cole. He is often confused with his nephew Francis Drake (1573&amp;ndash;1634) who was the son of Richard Drake and Ursula Stafford, grandson of John Drake (1500&amp;ndash;1558) &amp;ndash; Edmund's older brother &amp;ndash; and Amy Grenville (1510&amp;ndash;1577), and great-grandson of the same above-stated John Drake and Margaret Cole (cf. [[John White (surveyor)#endnote_Drake|John White, note. 2]]). His maternal grandfather was a [[Richard Mylwaye]]. Drake was reportedly named after his [[godfather]] [[Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford]], but throughout his cousins' lineages are direct connections to the [[The Crown|Royalty]] and famous persons such as [[Richard Grenville|Sir Richard Grenville]] through Amy Grenville and [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] through Ursula Stafford. Ursula's line may be traced to royalty within four generations. As with many of Drake's contemporaries, the exact date of his birth is unknown and could be as early as [[1535]], the [[1540]] date being extrapolated from two portraits: one, a [[Portrait miniature|miniature]] painted by [[Nicholas Hilliard]] in [[1581]] when he was allegedly 42, and the other painted in [[1594]] when he was alleged to be 53 according to the [[1921]]/[[1922|22]] edition of the [[Dictionary of National Biography]], which quotes a certain [[John Barrow (English statesman)|Barrow]], ''Life of Drake'' (1843) p. 5. Francis was the second eldest of twelve children; but as he was not granted legal right to his father's farm, he had to find his own career. During the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] uprising of [[1549]], the family was forced to flee to [[Kent]]. At about the age of 13 Francis took to the sea on a cargo [[barque]], becoming master of the ship at the age of twenty. He spent his early career honing his [[sailing]] skills on the difficult waters of the [[North Sea]], and after the death of the captain for whom he was sailing, becoming the master of his own barque. At age 23, Drake took his first voyage to the [[New World]] under the sails of the Hawkins family of [[Plymouth]], in company with his cousin, Sir [[John Hawkins]]. Together, Hawkins and Drake made the first English [[Atlantic slave trade|slave-trading]] expeditions. == Conflict in the Caribbean == Around [[1563]] Drake first sailed west to the [[Spanish Main]], drawn by the immense wealth accruing from [[Spain]]'s [[monopoly]] on [[New World]] [[silver]]. Drake took an immediate dislike to the Spanish, at least in part due to their mistrust of non-Spaniards and their [[Catholicism]]. His hostility is said to have been increased by an incident at San Juan de Ulua in [[1568]], when Spanish forces executed a surprise attack &amp;mdash; in violation of a truce agreed to a few days before &amp;mdash; nearly costing Drake his life. From then on, he devoted his life to working against the [[Spanish Empire]]; the Spanish considered him an outlaw [[pirate]], but to England he was simply a sailor and [[privateer]]. On his second such voyage, he fought a costly battle against Spanish forces, costing many English lives, but earning Drake the favour of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth]]. The most celebrated of Drake's [[Caribbean]] adventures is his capture of the Spanish Silver Train at [[Nombre de Dios]] in March of [[1573]]. With a crew including many [[France|French]] privateers and [[Cimaroons]] &amp;mdash; African slaves who had escaped the Spanish &amp;mdash; Drake raided the waters around [[Darién, Panama|Darien]] (in modern [[Panama]]) and tracked the Silver Train to the nearby port of Nombre de Dios. He made off with a fortune in gold, but had to leave behind another fortune in silver, because it was too heavy to carry back to England. It was during this expedition that he climbed a high tree in the central mountains of the [[Isthmus of Panama]] and thus became the first Englishman to see the Pacific Ocean. When Drake returned to [[Plymouth]] on [[August 9]], [[1573]], a mere thirty Englishmen returned with him, every one of them rich for life. However, Queen Elizabeth, who had up to this point sponsored and encouraged Drake's raids, signed a temporary truce with King [[Philip II of Spain]], and so was unable to officially acknowledge Drake's accomplishment. == Circumnavigation of the globe == [[Image:NPG_Drake.jpg|thumb|framed|Sir Francis Drake, circa [[1581]] (notice the shirt is the same as in [[Nicholas Hilliard|Hilliard's]] [[:Image:Sfdrake42.jpg|miniature]])]] In [[1577]], Drake was commissioned by Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]] to undertake an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas. He set sail from Plymouth, England, in December aboard the ''Pelican'', with four other ships and over 150 men. After crossing the Atlantic, two of the ships had to be abandoned on the east coast of South America. Drake crossed from the Atlantic to the Pacific through the [[Magellan Strait]], after which a storm blew his ship so far south, he realized that [[Tierra del Fuego]], the island seen to the south of the [[Magellan Strait]], was not part of a southern continent (as was believed at that time). The three remaining ships departed for the Strait of Magellan at the southern tip of the continent. This course established &quot;[[Drake's Passage]]&quot;, but the route south of [[Tierra del Fuego]] around the bottom of South America, where the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans meet at [[Cape Horn]], was not discovered until 1616. A few weeks later, Drake made it to the Pacific, however, violent storms destroyed one of the ships, and caused another to return to England. Drake pushed onward in his lone flagship, now renamed the ''[[Golden Hind]]'' in honour of Sir [[Christopher Hatton]] (after his [[heraldry|coat of arms]]). The ''Golden Hind'' sailed northward alone along the Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports like [[Valparaíso]] as it went. Some Spanish ships were captured, and Drake made good use of their more accurate charts. On his search for the [[Northwest Passage]], Drake may even have reached today's US-Canadian border. His account of the voyage describes icy waters. Unable to find the fabled route back into the Atlantic, he turned southward again. On [[June 17]], [[1579]], Drake landed ashore somewhere above Spain's most northerly claim at [[Point Loma]]. Drake found an excellent port, landed, repaired and restocked his vessels, then stayed for a time, keeping friendly relations with the natives. Drake named the port [[New Albion]] (New England), and claimed it for England. It is usually assumed that Drake's port was somewhere near the northern [[San Francisco Bay]] &amp;#8212; anywhere from Bodega to San Pablo Bay. A bronze plaque inscribed with Drake's claim to the new lands, fitting the description in Drake's own account, was discovered in [[Marin County]]. This so-called [[Drake's Plate of Brass]] was later declared a hoax. Drake's port has also been theorized to have been at [[Whale Cove (Oregon)]], and as far north as [[Comox, British Columbia]]. There is strong evidence, however, that Drake's &quot;Nova Albion&quot; was actually present day Vancouver Island. This evidence is consumately presented in Samuel Bawlf's &quot;The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake&quot;. From Nova Albion Drake and his men sailed north in search of a western opening to the Northwest Passage, a potentially valuable asset to the English at the time. During this venture the sailors accurately mapped the westward trend of the north-western corner of the North American continent, present day Alaska. They had a rough go among the islands of the Alaskan panhandle though, and were forced to turn back due to freezing weather. Bawlf argues that the furthest north that Drake's ship reached was fifty-six degrees latitude, much higher than was originally r
[[DNA microarray]]s used in genetics and [[radioactive]] tracers used in medicine. Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered [[microorganism]]s such as ''[[E. coli]]'' or [[yeast]] for the production of substances like [[insulin]] or [[antibiotics]]. It can also refer to [[transgenic animals]] or [[transgenic plants]], such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as [[Chinese Hamster]] Ovarian (CHO) cells, are also widely used to manufacture pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of [[plant-made pharmaceuticals]]. Biotechnology is also commonly associated with breakthroughs in new medical therapies and diagnostic devices. ==Sub-fields of biotechnology== There are a number of jargon terms for sub-fields of biotechnology. &lt;!-- there are many terms which are attributed to their field of study.i,e animal biotech, plant biotech, microbial biotechnology etc. &lt;- Ever tried grammar checker? --&gt; '''Red biotechnology''' is biotechnology applied to [[medical]] processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce [[antibiotic]]s, and the engineering of genetic cures to cure diseases through [[genome|genomic manipulation]]. '''White biotechnology''', also known as '''grey biotechnology''', is biotechnology applied to [[Industry|industrial]] processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes when used to produce industrial goods. '''Green biotechnology''' is biotechnology applied to [[agricultural]] processes. An example is the designing of an organism to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a [[pesticide]], thereby eliminating the need for external application of pesticides. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate. '''[[Bioinformatics]]''' is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques. The field is also often referred to as computational biology. It plays a key role in various areas like functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics amongst others, and forms a key component in biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector. The term '''blue biotechnology''' has also been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare. ==Biotechnology timeline== * 8000 BCE Collecting of [[seed]]s for replanting. Evidence that [[Mesopotamia]]n people used [[selective breeding]] ([[artificial selection]]) practices to improve [[livestock]]. * 6000 BCE Brewing [[beer]], [[fermenting]] [[wine]], baking [[bread]] with help of [[yeast]] * 4000 BCE Chinese made [[yoghurt|yogurt]] and [[cheese]] with [[lactic acid|lactic-acid-producing]] bacteria * 1500 CE Plant collecting around the world * 1590 CE The microscope is invented by [[Zacharias Janssen]]. * 1675 CE Microorganisms discovered (using first microscope) * 1857 CE [[Gregor Mendel]] discovered the [[laws of inheritance]] * 1919 CE [[Karl Ereky]], a Hungarian agricultural engineer, first used the word biotechnology * 1953 CE [[James D. Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] describe the structure of [[DNA]] * 1972 CE The DNA composition of humans is discovered to be 99% similar to that of chimpanzees and gorillas. * 1975 CE Method for producing [[monoclonal antibody]] developed by Kohler and Milstein * 1980 CE Modern biotech is characterized by [[recombinant DNA technology]]. The [[prokaryote]] model, ''[[E. coli]]'', is used to produce [[insulin]] and other medicine, in human form. (About 5% of diabetics are allergic to animal insulins available before) * 1980 CE A viable brewing yeast strain Saccharomyces cerevisiae 1026 acts a modifier of the microflora in the rumen of cows and digestive tract of horses) * 1984 CE Nutrigenomics as applied science in animal nutrition * 1990 CE Adam Williams was the first test tube baby made from the embryo of a mouse * 1994 CE FDA approves of the first GM food from [[Calgene]]: &quot;Flavr Savr&quot; tomato * 1997 CE British scientists from the Roslin Institute report cloning a sheep called [[Dolly]] using DNA from two adult sheep cells. [[Ian Wilmut]] led the team that cloned Dolly. * 2000 CE Completion of the [[Human genome Project]] * 2002 CE Researchers sequence the DNA of [[rice]], the main food source for two-thirds of the world's population. Rice is the first crop to have its genome decoded. * 2003 CE [[GloFish]], the first biotech pet, hits the North American market. Specially bred to detect water pollutants, the fish glows red under black light thanks to the addition of a natural [[bioluminescence]] gene. * 2006 CE Scientists in Asia implant the DNA of a jellyfish into a pig embryo, creating the first bioluminescent pig. ==Biotechnology firms== The top 10 publicly-traded biotechnology companies, ranked by 2008 sales, are: #[[Amgen]] #[[Genentech]] #[[Serono]] #[[Biogen Idec]] #[[Chiron Corporation]] #[[Genzyme]] #[[MedImmune]] #[[Pfizer]] #[[Millennium Pharmaceuticals]] #[[Applied Biosystems]] ==Key visionaries and personalities in biotechnology sector== [[Finland]] :[[Leena Palotie]] [[Iceland]] :[[Kari Stefansson]] Ireland :[[Dr. Thomas Peasre Lyons]]... USA :[[Kate Jacques]], [[David Botstein]], [[Craig Venter]], [[Sydney Brenner]], [[Eric Lander]], [[Leroy Hood]], [[Robert Langer]], [[Henry I. Miller]], [[Roger Beachy]], [[William Rutter]], [[George Rathmann]], [[Robert Swanson]], [[Michael West]], [[Thomas Okarma]]... Canada :To be updated... Europe :[[Paul D Kemp]]... :[[Soren Demin-Inst. of Biotechnology-Cambridge University]] Asia Pacific India :[[Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw]] ([[Biocon]]) ==See also== * [[Agrobacterium]] * [[Biochemistry]] * [[Bioengineering]] * [[Biomedical Engineering]] * [[Biopharmaceutical]]s * [[Bioreactor]] * [[Biorobotics]] * [[Cell culture]] * [[Directive on the patentability of biotechnological inventions|EU Directive on the patentability of biotechnological inventions]] * [[Eugenics]] * [[Expression vector]] * [[Genetic engineering]] * [[Genetically modified food]] * [[Industrial biotechnology]] * [[Intein]] * [[List of environment topics]] * [[List of publications in biology#biotechnology]] * [[Molecular biology]] * [[Tissue Engineering]] * [[Selective breeding]] * [[Substantial equivalence]] ===Compare with=== *[[Biomimetics]] == External links == *[http://www.buildingbiotechnology.com Building Biotechnology] *[http://www.biotecnologia.co.cr Costa Rican Biotechnology Society] *[http://www.nanoindian.com NanoBiotechnology in India] *[http://www.bioquimica.cl Chile's Biotechnology Society] *[http://www.fda.gov/ FDA Website] *[http://www.kriger.com/training/index.htm Biotech Research Training] *[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/biotech-news/ Biotech News] *[http://www.biorole.com/ Careers in Biotechnology] *[http://www.bigroup.co.il/ Tools and Solutions for biotechnology] *[http://www.clinqua.com/ Clinical Research Services] *[http://www.ibpassociation.com Biotechnology Companies Listings] *[http://www.kriger.com/ International Clinical Research Services and Corporate Trainings] *[http://www.krctraining.com/ACRONYMS/index.htm Biotechnology Abbreviations and Acronyms] *[http://www.krctraining.com/CRA%20Definitions/index.htm Biotechnology Glossary / Definitions] *[http://www.kriger.com/international_modules/index.htm List of Food and Drugs Regulatory Agencies] *[http://www.krctraining.com/faq/faq.htm Biotechnology: Frequently asked questions] *[http://www.arizonabiotech.com/ Arizona Biotech] *[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/biotechnology/ Biotechnology News - Biology News Net] *[http://www.gene-watch.org Council for Responsible Genetics] *[http://www-esbs.u-strasbg.fr/EN/index.html Trinational Biotechnology Degree: Ecole Supérieure de Biotechnologie de Strasbourg (ESBS)] * [http://www.fao.org/ag/ FAO Agriculture Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5160e/y5160e00.HTM SOFA report on Agricultural Biotechnology] focussing on the impacts of &quot;Green&quot; Biotechnology *[http://www.greenfacts.org/gmo/index.htm Agricultural Biotechnology] &amp;ndash; A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]]. *[http://dbtindia.nic.in/ Department of Biotechnology, Government of India] {{Technology}} [[Category:Biotechnology| ]] [[bn:জৈবপ্রযুক্তি]] [[ca:Biotecnologia]] [[cs:Biotechnologie]] [[de:Biotechnologie]] [[es:Biotecnología]] [[eo:Biotekniko]] [[fr:Biotechnologie]] [[hr:Biotehnologija]] [[id:Bioteknologi]] [[it:Biotecnologia]] [[he:ביוטכנולוגיה]] [[la:Biotechnologia]] [[hu:Biotechnológia]] [[nl:Biotechnologie]] [[ja:バイオテクノロジー]] [[pl:Biotechnologia]] [[ru:Биотехнология]] [[sl:Biotehnologija]] [[sr:Биотехнологија]] [[su:Biotéknologi]] [[ta:உயிரித் தொழில்நுட்பம்]] [[th:เทคโนโลยีชีวภาพ]] [[vi:Công nghệ sinh học]] [[tr:Biyoteknoloji]] [[uk:Біотехнологія]] [[zh:生物工程学]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Battle of Poitiers (1356)</title> <id>4503</id> <revision> <id>41863861</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:37:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Iamthejabberwock</username> <id>531901</id> </contributor> <comment>replaced secondary source with primary</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''The [[Battle of Tours]] (732) is sometimes also known as the &quot;Battle of Poitiers.&quot;'' {{Infobox Military Conflict |conflict=Battle of Poitiers |partof=the [[Hundred Years' War]] |image=[[Image:Battle-poitiers.jpg]] |caption=The French King during the battle, before being captured |date=[[Septemb
n sacraments may be received only once in a lifetime because they make an indelible [[sacramental character]] on the recipient's soul: baptism, confirmation, and ordination to a particular order (for example, a man who has been ordained a deacon can be ordained a priest, but cannot again receive the diaconal ordination). In case of uncertainty about whether a person has received one of those three sacraments at an earlier time, he or she may receive the sacrament conditionally. In a [[conditional baptism]], the minister of the sacrament, usually a deacon or a priest, rather than saying 'I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit,' says 'If you are not baptized, I baptize you' etc. The reason for this prohibition is that these three sacraments are held to imprint a [[sacramental character]] on the recipient's soul. == Baptism == ''Baptism'' is the sacrament by which one enters the Catholic church. Once baptized, a person is washed away of all the guilt for their past sins, especially [[original sin]]. It confers [[sanctifying grace]], and creates the responsibility to the baptized to live a holy life (see the [[Universal call to holiness]].) The ''form'' of baptism is washing some or all of the body with water while saying the words ''I baptize you in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost''. It is normally administered to infants in the Church, but may be administered to any person who is not yet validly baptized. Baptism is considered to be valid even if carried out in another Christian religion, as long as pouring of or immersion in natural water was accompanied by the [[Trinitarian formula]]. Adults who convert are thus only baptized if their previous baptism was not valid. In case of doubt, a convert may be baptized ''sub conditione'', using the word &quot;''If you are not baptized already, I baptize you...''.&quot; Sacraments are fundamentally different from what are called [[sacramentals]] (things such as normal blessings, crosses, medals, holy water). The usefulness of these depend on the subjective understanding of the people involved. Sacraments work under the system called [[ex opere operato]]. That is, 'by the work performed': a person intending to perform a baptism by sprinkling water in the name of the Trinity causes the grace of God to actually work, even though he might not fully understand the theology behind the sacrament. Indeed, by this doctrine, even a non-Christian can validly baptize. This distinction is illustrated thus: holy water, a sacramental, has no power in and of itself--it is the sacrement of baptism that holds the power. The usual minister of baptism is a deacon, a priest, or a bishop. == Eucharist == The ''Eucharist'' (Communion), is the unbloody sacrifice of [[Christ]], marked by partaking in the Body and Blood of Christ, which replace bread and wine. The changing of the bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ, held by Roman Catholic [[dogma]] to occur, is called [[transubstantiation]]. [[Viaticum]] is the Eucharist administered to a dying person for the purpose of strengthening him for his final journey. The minister of this sacrament is the priest (or bishop) who consecrates the eucharistic elements of bread and wine. == Penance and Reconciliation == ''Penance and Reconciliation'', also called ''confession'', involves the admitting of one's [[sins]] to a priest, who, by Christ, is given the power to absolve them. The priest (or Bishop) is acting ''[[Persona Christi]]'', in the person or place of Jesus. By this absolution, one is reconciled to Christ, from whom he has been separated due to his sins (and whom he has wounded by his sins). The priest also assigns penance, a task the penitent should complete in order to achieve [[absolution]] (forgiveness) from God. Absolution is not complete until the penance is performed. The penitent must also make reparations to anyone he may have sinned against, if this is possible. Absolution of one's sins does not remove the consequences that one might suffer due to his sins. the sacrament places emphasis on the restoration of the relationship between the sinner and Christ, and those the sinner has wounded through his sins. This sacrament is sometimes called a tribunal. The penitent is, at once, the accuser (as he admits his sins), the accused (as he accepts responsibility), and the witness (as he testifies to what has occurred). The priest acts for Christ as judge and intercessor; a priest will only give absolution if the penitent exemplifies true sorrow for his sins and resolves not to commit them again. However, all are encouraged to confess sins, even if sorrow for his sins are imperfect and only for fear of God, for those who die in ''[[mortal sin]], '' --as opposed to ''[[venial sin]]'' --will not reach heaven. The priest is bound by the ''seal of confession.'' This binds the priest to never speak of what he has heard in the confessional to anyone; if he does, he automatically incurs the punishment of excommunication, no matter the content of the revalation. Early [[21st century]] decisions by the Church prohibit the sacrament from being administered through any electronic communications medium such as email. == Confirmation == ''Confirmation'' is a sacrament received by the baptized to impart sanctifying grace and strength to be perfect Christians. The ''form'' is the Bishop putting his hands upon the person to be confirmed. The age for the reception of confirmation varies by country or even diocese; in Latin-rite Catholic churches it ranges from seven to fifteen; recipients must have attained the ''age of reason''. In Eastern-rite Catholic churches, as in other Eastern churches, [[neonate]]s are confirmed immediately after baptism (as was done historically in the Catholic church), via the rite of chrismation. Adult converts from [[Protestantism]] who were previously baptized with a [[trinitarian formula]] are received into communion in the Catholic Church by confirmation. Converts from [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] or [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] who were chrismated in those Eastern churches are not confirmed, because their [[chrismation]] in an Eastern church, unlike confirmation in Protestant churches, is held to be a valid confirmation, and confirming someone who has already been confirmed is forbidden by one of the doctrines of the [[Council of Trent]]. In Latin-Rite Catholic churches, usually the bishop is the ordinary minister of this sacrament. In certain circumstances a parish priest may administer it after having received permission from the bishop. In the case of adult converts, this permission is automatic. In [[Eastern Rites|Eastern-Rite]] Catholic churches, the usual minister of this sacrament is the parish priest. When the bishop does not administer the sacrament personally, his presence is represented by the sacred [[chrism]] or [[myron]], which the bishop blesses on [[Holy Thursday]] each year. == Matrimony == ''Holy Matrimony'' is the joining of a man and woman in marriage in the presence of the Church and of God. It is one of two sacraments that Catholics hold to be validly administered by one who is not a priest (the other is baptism), because the ministers of the sacrament are the two parties to the marriage. Catholics are required by Church discipline, however, to celebrate the sacrament with a priest or [[deacon]] as a witness. The administration of this sacrament also plays a more mundane role in providing a sense of how active a [[parish church]] is. Bishops sometimes use a [[sacramental index]] to measure parish activity, as they allocate priests and resources to serve the needs of their parishoners. == Holy Orders == ''Holy Orders'' is the entering into the [[priesthood]] and involves a [[clerical celibacy|vow of celibacy]] in the [[Latin Rite]], though in [[Eastern Rites]] men who married before they were ordained to the diaconate may be ordained; the sacrament of Holy Orders is given in three degrees: that of the deacon (even in the Latin Rite a permanent deacon may be married before becoming a deacon), that of the priest, and that of the bishop. Only a bishop can be the minister of this sacrament nowadays, although there is an ancient precedent for a cathedral chapter of priests consecrating one of their own. == Anointing of the Sick == The [[Anointing of the Sick]] is also known as ''extreme unction'' and involves the anointing with oil of the sick and dying (usually accompanied by the Eucharist), in order to confer special grace to spiritually strengthen the person. According to the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], anyone expecting to undergo a serious operation, the elderly, and anyone in danger of death is encouraged to receive this sacrament. Only a priest (or higher prelate) can administer this sacrament, and it may be given on more than one occasion. It is held that in some cases this sacrament effects a miraculous cure, but only if there are things God wishes the recipient of the sacrament to do before dying (known as [[divine providence]]). However, its essential purpose is for spiritual strengthening. == The ordinary ministers of the sacraments == {| border='1' cellpadding='2' |+ Ministers of sacraments in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] !Sacrament !Ordinary ministers !Extraordinary ministers |- | [[Baptism]] | clergy&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; | [[laity]] (illegal except in emergencies, but still valid) |- | [[Confirmation]] | bishop | priest (illegal except in emergencies or with permission of the bishop, but still valid) |- | [[Eucharist]] (consecration)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; | bishop or priest | none; always invalid |- | Eucharist (communion)&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; | clergy | acolyte (legal when not enough clergy are available)&lt;br&gt;other laity (legal when not enough clergy or acolytes) |- | [[Reconciliation]] | bishop or priest | none; always invalid |- | [[Anointing of the Sick]] | bishop or p
Bell Tower and Drum Tower]] * Historic [[Hutong]]s and [[Siheyuan]]s in many older neighborhoods * [[Lugou Bridge]] (Marco Polo Bridge) * [[Prince Gong's Mansion|Prince Gong Mansion]] (Gong Wang Fu) * [[Zheng Yici Peking Opera Theatre]] * [[Liulichang|Liulichang Culture Street]] * [[Beijing Ancient Observatory]] ===Temples, cathedrals, and mosques=== * [[Temple of Heaven]] ([[World Heritage Site]]), situated in the southern area of urban Beijing * [[Temple of Earth]], located in northern Beijing * [[Temple of Sun]], situated in the eastern area of urban Beijing * [[Temple of Moon]], located in western Beijing * [[Tanzhe Temple]] * [[Jietai Temple]] * [[Yunju Temple]] * [[Yonghegong]] (Lama Temple) * [[Guangji Temple]] * [[Confucius Temple]] * [[Great Bell Temple]] * [[Five Pagoda Temple]] * [[Temple of Azure Clouds]] * [[Temple of Recumbent Buddha]] * [[White Dagoba Temple]] in [[Beihai Park]] * [[Badachu]] * [[Immaculate Conception Cathedral]] * [[Holy Saviour Church]] * [[Niujie Mosque]] ===Parks and gardens=== * [[Beihai Park]] * [[Shichahai]] * [[Jingshan Park]] * [[Beijing World Park]] * The [[Fragrant Hills]] (Xiangshan) * [[The Grandview Garden]] (Daguanyuan) * [[Beijing Botanical Garden]] * [[Taoranting Park]] ===Shopping and commercial districts=== * [[Wangfujing]]: Beijing's most upscale, globalized shopping district * [[Xidan]] * [[Beijing CBD]] * [[Beijing Financial Street]] * [[Zhongguancun]] * [[Yizhuang]] See also [[Jin Yuan Mall]]. ===Hotels and lodging=== In first two decades following the PRC's foundation in 1949, Beijing had virtually no hotels (at least by Western standards), due to economic and social conditions at the time. One system of institution providing a place for individuals traveling to Beijing from other locations to spend the night was the ''[[zhaodaisuo]]'' (literally, &quot;accommodation centre&quot;). ''Zhaodaisuo'' were subordinate to state organisations or state organs. Older ones had communal public conveniences and amenities. Some ''zhaodaisuos'' still remain in use today. In the late 1970s, Beijing, alongside much of China during the period of reform and economic opening under [[Deng Xiaoping]], saw greater attempts at attracting and catering to international business. A large number of hotels and other facilities to accommodate business, tourist, and other visitors began to be constructed. Today, given Beijing's size and status as one of the most frequently visited and economically, politically, and culturally important cities in Asia, a great number of hotels exist, many rivalling the highest international standards. The most well-known hotel is the [[Beijing Hotel]], which is state-owned. Other notable hotels are the [[Great Wall Sheraton Hotel]], the [[Jianguo Hotel]], the [[China World Hotel]], the [[St. Regis]], [[Grand Hyatt at Oriental Plaza]] and the Peninsula Palace Hotel, operated by the Hong Kong-based [[Peninsula Group]]. [[Youth hostel|Youth hostels]] do exist but are few in number. There is one near the centre of Beijing, where accommodations are located four floors below ground level. ===Nightlife=== Nightlife in Beijing is varied. Most clubs are situated in the area around [[Sanlitun]] or in the region near the [[Workers Stadium]], especially to the north and to the west. New clubs opened on [[Gongrentiyuchang West Road]]. [[Wudaokou]], in northwestern Beijing, is also a bustling center of nightlife. There are more Koreans and other foreigners, mostly students, in the area. Bar-wise, the following areas of Beijing are known as hubs for bars which open until late: * [[Sanlitun]] * [[Houhai]] * [[Yuandadu]] ==Education== :''Main article: [[Colleges and Universities of Beijing]]'' Beijing is home to a great number of colleges and universities, including several well-regarded universities of international stature, especially including China's two most prestigious institutions, [[Peking University]] (&quot;Beida&quot;) and [[Tsinghua University]]. Other well known institutions, domestically and internationally, include [[Beijing Normal University]] and [[Renmin University of China]]. Owing to Beijing's status as the political and cultural capital of China, a larger proportion of tertiary-level institutions are concreated here than probably any other city in China, reaching at least 59 in number. Many international students from [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[North America]], [[Europe]], [[Southeast Asia]], and elsewhere come to Beijing to study every year, a growing trend, especially among Western students. The institutions listed here are administered by China's [[Ministry of Education]]. Best-known institutions: *[[Tsinghua University]] (清华大学) (founded 1911), typically considered one of the two best academic institutions in China along with Peking University *[[Peking University]] (北京大学) (founded 1898), typically considered one of the two best academic institutions in China along with Tsinghua University *[[Renmin University of China]] (中国人民大学) *[[Beijing Normal University]] (北京师范大学) (founded 1902) *[[Beijing Foreign Studies University]] (北京外国语大学) Other institutions include: *[[Beijing Language and Culture University]] (北京语言大学) *[[Beijing Forestry University]] (北京林业大学) *[[Beijing Institute of Technology]] (北京理工大学) *[[Beijing Jiaotong University]] (北京交通大学) *[[Beijing University of Chemical Technology]] (北京化工大学) *[[Beijing University of Chinese Medicine]] (北京中医药大学) *[[Beijing University of Petroleum]] (石油大学) *[[Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications]] (北京邮电大学) *[[Capital Normal University]] (首都师范大学) *[[Central University of Finance and Economics]] (中央财经大学) *[[China Agricultural University]] (中国农业大学) *[[China University of Political Science and Law]] (中国政法大学) *[[Communication University of China]] (中国传媒大学) *[[Beijing University Health Science Center]] (formally Beijing Medical University) (北京大学医学部, 原北京医科大学) *[[University of International Business and Economics]] (对外经济贸易大学) *[[University of International Relations]] (国际关系学院) *[[University of Science and Technology Beijing]] (北京科技大学) *[[Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics]] (北京航空航天大学) *[[Beijing University of Technology]] (北京工业大学) Arts-related institutions: *[[Central Academy of Drama]] (中央戏剧学院) *[[Central Conservatory of Music]] (中央音乐学院) *[[Central Institute of Fine Arts]] (中央美术学院) *[[Beijing Film Academy]] (北京电影学院) ==Media== [[Image:Xinhua News Agency.JPG|right|thumb|140px|[[Xinhua News Agency]].]] ===Television and radio=== [[Beijing Television]] (BTV) broadcasts on numbered channels 1 through 10. Unlike [[China Central Television]] (CCTV), there is at present no exclusive English-language TV channel on a citywide level in Beijing. Three radio stations feature programmes in English: ''Hit FM'' on FM 88.7, ''Easy FM'' by [[China Radio International]] (CRI) on FM 91.5, and the newly launched ''Radio 774'' on AM 774. ===Press=== The well-known ''[[Beijing Evening News]]'' (''Beijing Wanbao'') [[newspaper]] is distributed every afternoon, covering news about Beijing in Chinese. Other newspapers include ''The Beijing News'' (''Xin Jing Bao''), the ''Beijing Star Daily'', the ''Beijing Morning News'', the ''[[Beijing Youth Daily]]'' (''Beijing Qingnian Bao''), as well as English-language weeklies ''[[Beijing Weekend]]'' and ''[[Beijing Today]]'' (the English-language edition of ''Youth Daily''). ''[[People's Daily]]'' and ''[[China Daily]]'' (English) are also published in Beijing. Nationally-circulated Chinese newspapers are also available in Beijing. Publications primarily aimed at international visitors and the expatriate community include the English-language periodicals ''[[City Weekend]]'', ''[[Beijing This Month]]'', ''[[Beijing Talk]]'', ''[[that's Beijing]]'' and ''[[MetroZine]]''. [[Rolling Stone]] Magazine will base it China version's editorial staff in Beijing. The international press, including English- and Japanese-language newspapers and magazines, are available in major international hotels and [[Friendship Store]]s, and content often appears complete. == Sports == Beijing will host the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] and the [[2008 Summer Paralympics]]. Professional sports teams based in Beijing include: *[[Chinese Football Association Super League]] ** [[Beijing Xiandai]] *[[Chinese Basketball Association]] ** [[Beijing Ducks]] ** [[Beijing Olympians]] ==City and regional partnerships == Beijing maintains [[Town twinning|partnerships]] or &quot;sister city&quot; status with the following international locations. (''Note: some locations are [[province]]s or [[region]]al-level units, not cities properly. Beijing itself is not technically a city, being a [[municipality of China|municipality]]''). {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; ! City ! Country ! Sister City since: |- |[[Tokyo]] |[[Japan]] |[[March 14]], [[1979]] |- |[[New York City]] |[[USA]] |[[February 25]], [[1980]] |- |[[Belgrade]] |[[Serbia and Montenegro]] |[[October 14]], [[1980]] |- |[[Lima]] |[[Peru]] |[[November 21]], [[1983]] |- |[[Washington, D.C.]] |[[USA]] |[[May 15]], [[1984]] |- |[[Madrid]] |[[Spain]] |[[September 16]], [[1985]] |- |[[Rio de Janeiro]] |[[Brazil]] |[[November 24]], [[1986]] |- |[[Île-de-France (région)|Île-de-France]]{{ref|Ilede}} |[[France]] |[[July 2]], [[1987]] |- |[[Cologne]] |[[Germany]] |[[September 14]], [[1987]] |- |[[Ankara]] |[[Turkey]] |[[June 20]], [[1990]] |- |[[Cairo]] |[[Egypt]] |[[October 28]], [[1990]] |- |[[Islamabad]] |[[Pakistan]] |[[October 8]], [[1992]] |- |[[Jakarta]] |[[Indonesia]] |[[October 8]], [[1992]] |- |[[Bangkok]] |[[Thailand]] |[[May 26]], [[1993]] |- |[[Buenos Aires]] |[[Argentina]] |[[July 13]], [[1993]] |- |[[Seoul]] |[[South Korea]] |[[October 23]], [[1993]] |- |[[Kiev]] |[[Ukraine]] |[[December 13]], [[1993]] |- |[[Berlin]] |[[Germany]] |[[April 5]], [[1994]] |- |[[Brussels]] |[[Belgium]] |[[September 22]], [[1994]] |- |[[Hanoi]] |[[Vietnam]] |[[October 6]], [[1994]] |- |[[Amsterdam]] |[[Netherlands]] |[[October 2
lovers who met at the [[Berlin Wall]]. Also in 1977, Bowie appeared on the ITV music show '''Marc''', hosted by his close friend and fellow glam pioneer [[Marc Bolan]], with whom he had regularly socialised and jammed since before either became famous. He turned out to be the show's final guest, as Bolan was killed in a car crash shortly afterwards. Bowie was one of many superstars who attended the funeral. For [[Christmas]], [[1977]], Bowie joined [[Bing Crosby]], of whom he was an ardent admirer, in a recording studio to do a version of ''[[Little Drummer Boy]]'', with new lyrics added. The two had originally met on Crosby's Christmas television special two years earlier (on the recommendation of his children - Crosby had not heard of Bowie) and performed the song. One month after the record was completed, Crosby died. The song was a worldwide festive hit. Bowie later remarked jokingly that he was afraid of being a guest artist, because &quot;everyone I met dropped dead a month later&quot;, referring to Bolan and Crosby. There was a brief world tour in 1978 which featured the music of both ''Low'' and ''&quot;Heroes&quot;''. A live album of this tour was released, known as ''[[Stage (album)|Stage]]''. Songs from both ''&quot;Heroes&quot;'' and ''Low'' were later converted to symphonies by minimalist composer [[Phillip Glass]]. 1978 was also the year that featured Bowie releasing a narration recording of [[Sergei Prokofiev]]'s ''[[Peter and the Wolf]]'', which to this day is regarded as one of the best recordings of the work. ''[[Lodger (album)|Lodger]]'' (1979) was the final of Bowie's so-called &quot;[[Berlin Trilogy]]&quot; (this moniker has been debated as only ''&quot;Heroes&quot;'' was entirely recorded in Berlin, the collaboration with Brian Eno being the undisputed link amongst the three albums). ''Lodger'' featured the singles &quot;[[Boys Keep Swinging]]&quot;, &quot;[[DJ (song)|DJ]]&quot; and &quot;[[Look Back in Anger (song)|Look Back in Anger]]&quot;, and it did not contain any instrumentals. However, the album is renowned for being quite a contorted mix of [[New Wave music|New Wave]] and [[world music]], and pieces such as &quot;African Night Flight&quot; and &quot;Yassassin&quot; were surprising detours even by Bowie's standards. This was Bowie's last album with Eno until 1995's [[1.OUTSIDE| 1. Outside]]. In 1980, Bowie did an about-face, integrating the lessons learnt on ''Low'', ''&quot;Heroes&quot;'' and ''Lodger'' whilst expanding upon them with breakthrough success. ''[[Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)]]'' included the #1 hit &quot;[[Ashes to Ashes (song)|Ashes to Ashes]]&quot;, featuring the textural work of guitar-synthesist [[Chuck Hammer]], and revisiting the character of Major Tom from &quot;Space Oddity&quot;. The imagery Bowie used in the song's [[music video]] gave international exposure to the underground [[New Romantic]] movement and, with many of the followers of this phase being devotees, Bowie visited the London club &quot;Blitz&quot; - the main New Romantic hangout - to recruit several of the regulars (including Steve Strange of the band [[Visage]]) to act in the video, renowned as being one of the most innovative of all time. ''Scary Monsters'' clung to the principles that Bowie had learned in the Berlin era, however it was very fresh considering the brutal transformation Bowie had gone through during the experience. Bowie had [[divorce]]d his wife Angie, gone through [[withdrawal]] from the drugs of the &quot;Thin White Duke&quot; era, and his conception of how music should be written had totally changed. The album had a very hard rock sound with many innovations, and it laid much of the foundation for rock music in the 1980s. ===The 1980s: Bowie the superstar=== [[Image:David Bowie at Madame Tussaud.jpg|left|175px|frame|David Bowie's wax figure at [[Madame Tussauds]] dressed as in the &quot;Serious Moonlight Tour&quot;]] In 1981, Bowie released &quot;[[Under Pressure]]&quot;, co-written by and performed with [[Queen (band)|Queen]]. The song was a hit and became Bowie's third number one single as well as one of Queen's all time classics. The song appears on the Queen album ''Hot Space''. In the same year Bowie made a cameo appearance in the German movie ''[[Christiane F.|Christiane F, wir Kinder vom Bahnhof Zoo]]'', the real-life story of a 13 year-old girl in Berlin who becomes addicted to heroin and ends up prostituting herself. Bowie is credited with &quot;special cooperation&quot; in the credits and his music features prominently in the movie. The soundtrack was released in 1982 and contained a version of &quot;Heroes&quot; sung partially in German. Bowie then scored his first truly commercial blockbuster with ''[[Let's Dance]]'' (1983), a slick dance album with co-production by ''[[Chic]]'''s [[Nile Rodgers]]. It was a departure from ''Scary Monsters'' for which Bowie received a bit of inside criticism; rather than revolting against 1980s dance music, he had definitely joined the scene. The title track went to number one in the United States and United Kingdom: due to its popularity, many now consider it a standard. The album also featured the singles &quot;Modern Love&quot; and &quot;China Girl&quot;, the latter causing something of a stir due to its suggestive promotional video. &quot;China Girl&quot; a was remake of a song which Bowie co-wrote several years earlier with Iggy Pop, who recorded it for ''The Idiot''. ''Let's Dance'' is also notable as a stepping stone for the career of the late [[Texas|Texan]] guitarist [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]], who played on the album and was to have supported Bowie on his new world tour for the album ''The Serious Moonlight Tour''. The tour was a huge success, and one concert actually scored Bowie a million dollars on its own. Vaughan, however, never joined the tour after a pay dispute between Bowie and Vaughan's manager at the time. Vaughan was replaced by [[Earl Slick]]. The 1984 follow-up album ''[[Tonight (album)| Tonight]]'' was also dance-oriented, featuring collaborations with [[Tina Turner]] and a cover of [[The Beach Boys]]' &quot;[[God Only Knows]]&quot;. Critics slammed it as a lazy effort, dashed off by Bowie simply to recapture ''Let's Dance''&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;'s chart success. Yet the album bore the transatlantic top ten hit &quot;[[Blue Jean (song)|Blue Jean]]&quot; whose complete video, a 22-minute short film directed by [[Julien Temple]], reflected Bowie's long-standing interest in combining music with [[drama]]. It also featured the minor hit &quot;Loving the Alien&quot;. The album also has a pair of dance version rewrites of &quot;Neighbourhood Threat&quot; and &quot;Tonight&quot;, old songs Bowie wrote with Iggy Pop which had originally appeared on ''Lust for Life''. In 1985, Bowie performed several of his greatest hits in a memorable performance at the [[Wembley Stadium|Wembley]] leg of [[Live Aid]]. At the end of his set, he introduced a film of the [[Ethiopia]]n [[famine]], for which the event was raising funds, which was set to the song &quot;Drive&quot; by the [[the Cars|Cars]]. At the event, the video to a [[fundraising]] single was premiered &amp;ndash; Bowie duetting with [[Mick Jagger]] on a version of &quot;Dancing In The Street&quot;, which quickly went to Number 1 on release. In 1986 Bowie contributed the theme song to the film ''[[Absolute Beginners (movie)|Absolute Beginners]]''. The movie was not well reviewed but Bowie maintained for many years that the song, a UK Number 2 hit, was one of the best and most professional he'd ever written. He also took a role in the 1986 Jim Henson film &quot;[[Labyrinth (film)|Labyrinth]]&quot; as Jareth, the Goblin King, who steals the baby brother of a girl named Sarah (played by Jennifer Connelly), in order to turn him into a goblin. Bowie wrote songs for the film, some of which became singles. Bowie's final dance album was ''[[Never Let Me Down]]'' (1987), where he ditched the light dance of his two earlier albums, instead throwing himself into harder rock with a dance edge. The album, which 'only' scraped to a UK #6 peak, drew some of the harshest criticism of Bowie's career, condemned by critics as a faceless piece of product and ignored by the public &amp;mdash; Bowie himself openly apologised in an interview for the album's quality; defenders of the album maintain that many of its songs are underrated and that Bowie at this time was simply facing the inevitable backlash of an overexposed superstar. Opening on [[May 30]] [[1987]], The ''Glass Spider Tour'' sought to market the album; visiting fifteen countries and produced eighty six performances (mostly in stadiums), as well as nine promotional press shows. Musicians included: [[Carlos Alomar]] (guitar), [[Peter Frampton]] (lead guitar), Carmine Rojas (bass), Alan Childs (drums), Erdal Kizilcay (keyboards, trumpet, congas, violin) and Richard Cottle (keyboards, saxophone). Dancers included: Melissa Hurley, [[Viktor Manoel]], [[Constance Marie]], Craig Allen Rothwell (aka Spazz Attack), and Stephen Nichols. Some critics slammed it as being too silly, overproduced, and pandering in its special effects and dancers. However fans that saw the shows from that ''Glass Spider Tour'' were treated to many of Bowie's classics. ===1989 to 1991: Tin Machine=== In 1989, for the first time since the early 1970s, Bowie formed a regular band, [[Tin Machine]], a hard-rocking quartet, along with [[Reeves Gabrels]], [[Tony Sales]], and [[Hunt Sales]]. Obviously influenced by many ascendent [[alternative rock]]ers (including the [[Pixies]]), Tin Machine released two studio albums and a live record. The band received mixed reviews and a somewhat lukewarm reception from the public, but Tin Machine heralded the beginning of an ongoing collaboration between Bowie and Gabrels. The original album, ''[[Tin Machine (album)|Tin Machine]]'' (1989), was a success, holding the number 3 spot on the charts of t
dair.com/gaetano/index.htm ==References and further reading== ===Publications=== * ''Atlas Shrugged'', Ayn Rand; Signet; (September 1996) ISBN 0451191145 * ''Atlas Shrugged (Cliffs Notes)'', Andrew Bernstein; [[Cliffs Notes]]; (June 5, 2000) ISBN 0764585568 * ''The World of Atlas Shrugged'', Robert Bidinotto/The Objectivist Center; HighBridge Company; (April 19, 2001) ISBN 156511471X * ''Atlas Shrugged: Manifesto of the Mind (Twayne's Masterwork Studies, No. 174)'' Mimi Reisel Gladstein; Twayne Pub; (June 2000) ISBN 0805716386 * ''The Moral Revolution in Atlas Shrugged'', [[Nathaniel Branden]]; The Objectivist Center; (July 1999) ISBN 1577240332 * ''Odysseus, Jesus, and Dagny'', Susan McCloskey; The Objectivist Center; (August 1, 1998) ISBN 1577240251 === Foreign translations === * [[German language|German]]: ''Wer ist John Galt?'' (Hamburg, Germany: GEWIS Verlag), ISBN 3-932-56403-0. * [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''La rivolta di Atlante'', 2 vol. (Milano, Garzanti, 1958), Out of print. Translator: Laura Grimaldi * [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''肩をすくめるアトラス'' 　(ビジネス社), ISBN 4-8284-1149-6. Translator: 脇坂 あゆみ. * [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: ''De som beveger verden''. (Kagge Forlag, 2000), ISBN 8-248-90083-5 (hardcover), ISBN 8-248-90169-6 (paperback). Translator: John Erik Bøe Lindgren. * [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Atlas Zbuntowany'' (Zysk i S-ka, 2004), ISBN 83-7150-969-3 (Twarda). Translator: Iwona Michałowska. * [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''La Rebelion de Atlas.'' (Editorial Grito Sagrado), ISBN 9-872-09510-8 (hardcover), ISBN 9-872-09511-6 (paperback). * [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''Och världen skälvde.'' ([http://www.timbro.se/rand/ Timbro Förlag], 2005), ISBN 9-175-66556-5. Translator: Maud Freccero. * [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Atlas Vazgeçti.'' (Plato Yay&amp;#305;nlar&amp;#305;, 2003), ISBN 9-759-67726-1. Translator: Belk&amp;#305;s Çorapç&amp;#305;. ===Reviews=== *{{note|geoff}} [http://www.cix.co.uk/~morven/atlas.html Review] from a self-proclaimed non-Libertarian *{{note|weird-bookshelf}} [http://www.strangewords.com/archive/ayn.html Review] from the Weird Bookshelf (&quot;fine science fiction books&quot;). *{{note|Slade}} Slade, Robert M. [http://victoria.tc.ca/int-grps/books/techrev/bkatshrg.rvw Review] from the Internet Review Project (1998). *{{note|pierssen}} [http://www.pierssen.com/cfile/objectivist.htm A review] which, while attempting to address the environmentalist issues, claims that ''Atlas Shrugged'' is a sequel to ''[[The Lord of the Rings]].'' *{{note|analysis}} [http://atlasshruggednovel.blogspot.com A Review] and in-depth Chapter-by-Chapter, Motif-by-Motif, etc. analysis. ===Satires and parodies=== *[http://kamita.com/misc/illuminatus/illuminatus.html &quot;Telemachus Sneezed&quot;] within Robert Anton Wilson's [[Illuminatus! Trilogy]] (Search for &quot;Taffy Rhinestone&quot; in the former link to read the spoof.) *[http://www.spudworks.com/article/66/2/ The Abridged ''Atlas Shrugged''] - a thousand pages distilled into about a thousand words. *[http://www.modernhumorist.com/mh/0101/rand/ Atlas Shr], a look at [[parallel universe (fiction)|parallel universe]]s wherein all of Ayn Rand's books are four hundred pages shorter *''Elvis Shrugged'', an early '90s comic book miniseries published by Revolutionary Comics in which popular entertainers [[Elvis Presley]], a cyborg [[Frank Sinatra]], [[Frank Zappa]], [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], [[Spike Lee]], and others take the place of various ''Atlas Shrugged'' counterparts. *[http://www.mskousen.com/Books/Articles/shrugged.html Oscar Shrugged], a depiction of the first film festival held in Galt's Gulch *[http://www.angryflower.com/atlass.gif ''Atlas Shrugged 2: One Hour Later''], starring Bob the Angry Flower [[Category:1957 books]] [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Novels]] [[Category:Philosophical novels]] [[Category:Books critical of Christianity]] [[Category:Books by Ayn Rand]] [[de:Atlas wirft die Welt ab]] [[es:La Rebelion de Atlas]] [[he:מרד הנפילים]] [[sv:Och världen skälvde]] [[zh:阿特拉斯摆脱重负]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Anthropology</title> <id>569</id> <revision> <id>41967527</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:04:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>168.18.146.160</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anthropology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''άνθρωπος'', &quot;human&quot; or &quot;person&quot;) consists of the study of [[humanity]] (see genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''). It is [[holism|holistic]] in two senses: it is concerned with all humans at all times and with all dimensions of humanity. A primary trait that traditionally distinguished anthropology from other humanistic disciplines is an emphasis on cultural relativity, indepth examination of context, and cross cultural comparisons. In [[North America]], &quot;anthropology&quot; is traditionally divided into four sub-disciplines: * [[physical anthropology]] or [[biological anthropology]], which studies [[primatology|primate behavior]], [[human evolution]], [[osteology]], [[forensics]] and [[population genetics]]; * [[cultural anthropology]], (called [[social anthropology]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and now often known as [[socio-cultural anthropology]]). Areas studied by cultural anthropologists include social networks, [[diffusion (anthropology)|diffusion]], social behavior, [[kinship]] patterns, law, politics, [[ideology]], religion, beliefs, patterns in production and consumption, exchange, socialization, gender, and other expressions of culture, with strong emphasis on the importance of [[fieldwork]] or participant-observation (i.e living among the social group being studied for an extended period of time); * [[linguistic anthropology]], which studies variation in [[language]] across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture; and * [[archaeology]], that studies the material remains of human [[society|societies]]. Archaeology itself is normally treated as a separate (but related) field in the rest of the world, although closely related to the anthropological field of [[material culture]], which deals with physical objects created or used within a living or past group as mediums of understanding its cultural values. More recently, some anthropology programs began dividing the field into two, one emphasizing the [[humanities]] and [[critical theory]], the other emphasizing the [[natural science]]s and [[empiricism|empirical observation]]. ==Historical and institutional context== :''Main Article: [[History of anthropology]]'' The anthropologist [[T J Brewer]] once characterized anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences. Understanding how anthropology developed contributes to understanding how it fits into other academic disciplines. Contemporary anthropologists claim a number of earlier thinkers as their forebearers and the discipline has several sources. However, anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior. Traditions of [[jurisprudence]], [[history]], [[philology]] and [[sociology]] developed during this time and informed the development of the [[social sciences]] of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the [[romanticism|romantic]] reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as [[Herder]] and later [[Wilhelm Dilthey]] whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline. Institutionally anthropology emerged from [[natural history]] (expounded by authors such as [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Buffon]]). This was the study of human beings - typically people living in European [[colonialism|colonies]]. Thus studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was more or less equivalent to studying the flora and fauna of those places. It was for this reason, for instance, that [[Lewis Henry Morgan]] could write monographs on both ''The League of the Iroquois'' and ''The American Beaver and His Works''. This is also why the material culture of 'civilized' nations such as China have historically been displayed in fine arts museums alongside European art while artifacts from Africa or Native North American cultures were displayed in Natural History Museums with dinosaur bones and nature dioramas. This being said, curatorial practice has changed dramatically in recent years, and it would be wrong to see anthropology as merely an extension of colonial rule and European [[chauvinism]], since its relationship to [[imperialism]] was and is complex. Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history and by the end of the nineteenth century the discipline began to crystallize into its modern form - by 1935, for example, it was possible for T.K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled ''A Hundred Years of Anthropology''. Early anthropology was dominated by 'the comparative method'. It was assumed that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process from the most primitive to most advanced. Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary 'living fossils' that could be studied in order to understand the European past. Scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations which were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful. It was during this time that Europeans first accurately traced [[polynesia|Polynesian]] migrations across the [[Pacific Ocean]] for instance - although some of them believed it originated in [[Egypt]]. Finally, the concept of [[race]] was actively discussed as a way to classify - and rank - human beings based on inherent biological difference. In the twentieth century academic disciplines began to organize around three main domains. The &quot;[[sciences]]&qu
ation of the [[Unicode]] standard, which contains an APL character set, the eternal problem of obtaining the required particular fonts seems poised to go away. == APL symbols and keyboard layout== [[image:APL_keyboard.gif|center|frame|APL keyboard with special characters]] Note the mnemonics associating an APL character with a letter: ''question mark'' on ''Q'', ''power'' on ''P'', ''rho'' on ''R'', ''base value'' on ''B'', ''eNcode'' on ''N'', ''modulus'' on ''M'' and so on. This makes it easier for an English-language speaker to type APL on a non-APL keyboard providing one has visual feedback on one's screen. All APL symbols are present in [[Unicode]]:&lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;It may be required to significantly reconfigure your browser in order to display Unicode fonts.&lt;/small&gt; {| |- align=center |&amp;#x27; || ( || ) || + ||, || - || . || / || : || ; || &amp;lt; || = || &amp;gt; || ? || [ || ] |- align=center | \ || _ ||&amp;#xA8; || &amp;#xAF; || &amp;#xD7; || &amp;#xF7; || &amp;#x2190; || &amp;#x2191; || &amp;#x2192; || &amp;#x2193; ||&amp;#x2206; || &amp;#x2207; || &amp;#x2218; || &amp;#x2223; || &amp;#x2227; || &amp;#x2228; |- align=center | &amp;#x2229; || &amp;#x222A; || &amp;#x223C; || &amp;#x2260; || &amp;#x2264; || &amp;#x2265; || &amp;#x226C; || &amp;#x2282; || &amp;#x2283; || &amp;#x2308; ||&amp;#x230A; || &amp;#x22A4; || &amp;#x22A5; || &amp;#x22C6; || &amp;#9014; || &amp;#9015; |- align=center | &amp;#9016; || &amp;#9017; || &amp;#9018; || &amp;#9019; || &amp;#9020; || &amp;#9021; || &amp;#9022; || &amp;#9023; || &amp;#9024; || &amp;#9025; || &amp;#9026;||&amp;#9027; || &amp;#9028; || &amp;#9029; || &amp;#9030; || &amp;#9031; |- align=center | &amp;#9032; || &amp;#9033; || &amp;#9034; || &amp;#9035; || &amp;#9036; || &amp;#9037; || &amp;#9038; || &amp;#9039; || &amp;#9040; || &amp;#9041; || &amp;#9042; ||&amp;#9043; || &amp;#9044; || &amp;#9045; || &amp;#9046; || &amp;#9047; |- align=center | &amp;#9048; || &amp;#9049; || &amp;#9050; || &amp;#9051; || &amp;#9052; || &amp;#9053; || &amp;#9054; || &amp;#9055; || &amp;#9056; || &amp;#9057; || &amp;#9058; ||&amp;#9059; || &amp;#9060; || &amp;#9061; || &amp;#9062; || &amp;#9063; |- align=center | &amp;#9064; || &amp;#9065; || &amp;#9066; || &amp;#9067; || &amp;#9068; || &amp;#9069; || &amp;#9070; || &amp;#9071; || &amp;#9072; || &amp;#9073; || &amp;#9074; ||&amp;#9075; || &amp;#9076; || &amp;#9077; || &amp;#9078; || &amp;#9079; |-align=center | &amp;#9080; || &amp;#9081; || &amp;#9082; || &amp;#x2395; || &amp;#x25CB; |} ===See also:=== *[[APL function symbols]] for a list of built-in monadic and dyadic functions and their Unicode representation. *[[IBM]] [[3270]] [[Computer keyboard|Keyboard]] layout for '''APL'''[http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/pcomhelp/topic/com.ibm.pcomm.doc/kbd_reference05.htm#FIGTYPE1] ==Usage== APL has long had a small but fervent user base. It has been particularly popular in financial and insurance applications, in simulations, and in some mathematical applications. But APL has been used in a wide variety of contexts and for many and varied purposes. ==Standardization== APL has been standardized by the [[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]] [[working group]] X3J10 and [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]/[[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] Joint Technical Committee 1 Subcommittee 22 Working Group 3. The Core APL language is specified in ISO 8485:1989, and the Extended APL language is specified in ISO/IEC 13751:2001. ==Quotes== * &quot;APL, in which you can write a program to simulate shuffling a deck of cards and then dealing them out to several players in four characters, none of which appear on a standard keyboard.&quot; ** [[David Given]] * &quot;APL is a mistake, carried through to perfection. It is the language of the future for the programming techniques of the past: it creates a new generation of coding bums.&quot; ** [[Edsger Dijkstra]], [[1968]] * &quot;By the time the practical people found out what had happened; APL was so important a part of how IBM ran its business that it could not possibly be uprooted.&quot; ** [[Micheal S. Montalbano]] [[1982]] (see [http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/APL-hist.html A Personal History of APL]) ==Awards== There is an annual award for contributions to APL, the [[Iverson Award]] named after the language's creator. == See also== * [[IBM 1130]]: APL \ 1130 was an early implementation (circa 1970) of APL on the IBM 1130 * [[J programming language|J]]: APL's successor, by [[Kenneth E. Iverson]] and [[Roger Hui]] * [[K programming language|K]]: an alternative APL successor, by Arthur Whitney * [[Nial]] == References == * ''A Programming Language'' (1962), by [[Kenneth E. Iverson]] * ''A formal description of SYSTEM/360'', IBM Systems Journal 3:3, New York: 1964 * ''[[History of Programming Languages]]'', chapter 14 == External links to articles == *[http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/032/falkoff.pdf ''A Formal Description of SYSTEM/360''] (1964 article by Adin D. Falkoff, Kenneth E. Iverson, Edward H. Sussenguth) *[http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/slacreports/slac-r-114.html ''An APL Machine''] (1970 Stanford doctoral dissertation by Philip Abrams) *[http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/174/ibmrd1704F.pdf ''The Design of APL''] (1973 article by Adin D. Falkoff and [[Kenneth E. Iverson]]) *[http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/304/ibmsj3004C.pdf ''The IBM Family of APL Systems''] (1991 article by Adin D. Falkoff) *[http://elliscave.com/APL_J/IversonAPL.htm ''A Personal view of APL''] by [[Kenneth E. Iverson]] == External links == *[http://www-306.ibm.com/software/awdtools/apl/ APL2 available from IBM] *[http://www.users.cloud9.net/~bradmcc/APL.html APL - A Programming Language] *[http://www.rexswain.com/aplinfo.html Rex Swain's APL info] *[http://www.acm.org/sigs/sigapl/ SIGAPL Home Page] *[http://www.apl2c.de/home/ APL2C Compiler] *Sam Sirlin's [http://home.earthlink.net/~swsirlin/apl.faq.html APL FAQ] ([[FAQ|Frequently Asked Questions]] list) *[http://www.classiccmp.org/bitsavers/pdf/ibm/apl/ Scanned manuals for early APL implementations] (APL \ 360 and APL \ 1130) *[http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/APL-hist.html A Personal History Of APL] by Micheal S. Montalbano *[http://42mag.com/michael/apl/index.html Conway's Game of Life in one line of APL] *[http://www.jsoftware.com/ J] is Iverson's reworking of APL to use the standard ASCII font *[http://www.aplusdev.org/ A+] is an open source programming language with many commands identical to APL {{Major programming languages small}} ==Special characters== {{SpecialChars}} [[Category:Programming languages]] [[Category:Array programming languages]] [[Category:Functional languages]] [[Category:Dynamic programming languages]] [[Category:APL programming language family]] [[da:APL]] [[de:APL (Programmiersprache)]] [[es:APL]] [[eo:APL]] [[fr:APL (langage)]] [[it:APL]] [[nl:APL]] [[ja:APL]] [[pl:APL (język programowania)]] [[ru:АПЛ (язык программирования)]] [[fi:APL (ohjelmointikieli)]] [[sv:APL]] [[zh:APL]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ALGOL</title> <id>1453</id> <revision> <id>42020475</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:57:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DNewhall</username> <id>60806</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Bolded keyword in code example.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Algol}} '''ALGOL''' (short for '''ALGO'''rithmic '''L'''anguage) is a family of [[imperative programming|imperative]] [[computer programming|computer]] [[programming language]]s originally developed in the mid [[1950s]] which became the ''de facto'' standard way to report algorithms in print for almost the next 30 years. It was designed to avoid some of the perceived problems with [[FORTRAN]] &lt;!--using uppercase name because of the sentential context--&gt; and eventually gave rise to many other programming languages (including [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]). ALGOL uses bracketed statement blocks and was the first language to use '''begin''' '''end''' pairs for delimiting them. Fragments of ALGOL-like syntax are sometimes still used as a notation for [[algorithm]]s, so-called [[Pidgin Algol]]. There are three official main branches of ALGOL family: [[ALGOL 58]], '''ALGOL 60''', and [[ALGOL 68]]. Of these, ALGOL 60 was the most widely known in the [[United States]]. [[Niklaus Wirth]] based his own [[Algol-W]] on ALGOL 60, before moving to develop [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]. [[Algol-W]] was intended to be the next generation ALGOL, but the [[ALGOL 68]] committee decided on a design that was more complex and advanced rather than a cleaned, simplified ALGOL 60. The official ALGOL versions are named after the year they were first published. ALGOL 58 was originally known as the '''IAL''' (for '''I'''nternational '''A'''lgorithmic '''L'''anguage.) ''Note: '' throughout its effective life, the name of the programming language ALGOL was always presented in all-uppercase letters, and this is the practice adopted here. ==History== ALGOL was developed jointly by a committee of European and American computer scientists. It specified three different syntaxes: a reference syntax, a publication syntax, and an implementation syntax. The different syntaxes permitted it to use different keyword names and conventions for decimal points (commas vs. periods) for different languages. [[John Backus]] developed the [[Backus normal form]] method of describing programming languages specifically for ALGOL 58. It was revised and expanded by [[Peter Naur]] to the [[Backus-Naur form]] for ALGOL 60. Both [[John Backus]] and [[Peter Naur]] served on the committee which created ALGOL 60, as did [[Wally Feurzeig]] who later created [[Logo programming language|Logo]]. ALGOL 60 inspired many languages that followed it; the canonical quote in this regard is [[C.A.R. Hoare]]'s &quot;ALGOL
dies] *[http://www.gpiatlantic.org Genuine Progress Indicator Atlantic] *[http://www.moncton.net/info/townOfCityOf.aspx Atlantic Provinces Communities: Towns &amp; Cities. Basic Information, Facts, Figures, Pictures ] [[Category:New Brunswick]] [[Category:Nova Scotia]] [[Category:Prince Edward Island]] [[Category:Regions of Canada]] [[de:Seeprovinzen]] [[fr:Provinces maritimes]] [[pt:Províncias Marítimas]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cyril of Alexandria</title> <id>7383</id> <revision> <id>41210974</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:36:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>84.68.183.178</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">''See [[Saint Cyril (disambiguation)]] for other persons with this name.'' ---- '''Cyril I''' ([[376]] &amp;ndash; [[June 27]], [[444]]), surnamed '''The Pillar of Faith''', was [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Pope of Alexandria]]. He is revered as a [[saint]] by the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]. In [[1883]] the [[Holy See]] declared him a [[Doctor of the Church]]. ==Life and character== His early life is known only from notices in [[Socrates Scholasticus]] and a few elsewhere. He was a nephew of the archbishop [[Theophilus of Alexandria|Theophilus]], whom he accompanied in 403 to [[Constantinople]] to attend the synod ''Ad Quercum'' (see [[John Chrysostom]]). When his uncle and predecessor Theophilus died on [[October 15]], [[412]], Cyril succeeded him in his see. The government was not pleased with this choice. It feared, not without reason, that the new bishop would show too much independence; and, indeed, on every occasion Cyril proved that he was master in Alexandria. He closed the churches of the [[Novatian]]s, expelled the [[Judaism|Jews]] from the city in spite of the opposition of the prefect Orestes, and when Nitrian monks insulted the prefect in the open street, he praised their leader as a [[martyr]]. He may not have ordered the murder of [[Hypatia of Alexandria|Hypatia]], but his lector and the ''parabalani'' were well aware that the female philosopher was an irritant to the archbishop. His restless, violent conduct, which excited the masses, seems to have hurt him at the court. However, Emperor [[Theodosius II]] as well as [[Pulcheria]] listened to him rather than to the prefect. For the rest of the archbishop's life, which is closely connected with the dogmatic controversies of the times, see [[Nestorianism]]. From the very beginning Cyril opposed [[Nestorius]], which led to him being called ''Doctor of the Incarnation''. It was the climax in his life when the emperor confirmed the deposition of his opponent which he had decreed at the [[Council of Ephesus]] in [[431]], whereas he retained his office, though the Syrian bishops had declared him also deposed. His administration shows the Alexandrian bishops at the height of their power and influence, from which they were thrown by the able but short-sighted [[Dioscorus of Alexandria|Dioscorus]] (see [[Eutyches]]; [[Monophysites]]). Among the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox churches]], Cyril is commemorated on [[June 9]]; in the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]], on [[January 28]]. Roman Pope [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] named Cyril ''[[doctor ecclesiae]]'' in [[1883]]. ==Literary activities== In general Cyril's literary activity was in the dogmatic and exegetical field. In his homilies and epistles dogmatic subjects are often touched upon. As an apologist Cyril became famous by his refutation (''Against Julian'') of the attack of the emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] upon Christianity (''Against the Galileans''), in thirty books, of which only the first ten are extant entire, eleven to twenty in fragments. The dogmatico-polemical literary activity of the archbishop was very comprehensive. At the head stand the writings on the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] composed before the [[Christology|Christological]] controversy. The controversy itself caused a large number of treatises against Nestorianism. The results of the exegetical labor of the patriarch are contained in the seventeen books &quot;On Worship in Spirit and in Truth,&quot; in the thirteen books of &quot;Elegant Expositions&quot; on the Pentateuch, as well as in numerous commentaries on the [[Old Testament|Old]] and [[New Testament]]s. The typico-allegorical interpretation, characteristic of the Alexandrian school in opposition to the Antiochian school, is very prominent in Cyril's exegesis. The most important work in that direction is the comprehensive commentary on the [[Gospel of John]]. ==Cyril's teachings== Cyril not unjustly bears the title of &quot;Seal of the Fathers&quot;, as the one who finally fixed the doctrine of the [[Trinity]]. As important as his contribution was to that subject, the question has often been raised whether his [[Christology]] does not contain traces of a relationship with [[Apollinarianism]], which he himself opposed from conviction. At any rate, his Christology approaches very near the limit which separates orthodoxy from [[Monophysitism]]. It rests on the suppositions of the older Alexandrians (e.g., [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius]]) and the [[Cappadocian Fathers]] by which they knew themselves in agreement with Apollinaris against every theory that denied the substantial unity of the incarnate Redeemer with the second person of the Trinity. Looking at the personality of the Redeemer, the energetic assertion of the unity of the person resulted from it indeed, but also a reckless neglect of the individual man in him. The God-Logos remained, with the human nature which he has assumed, the same one inseparable subject which he was before. The &quot;physical union&quot; is &quot;not confounded&quot;, though both natures are to be distinguished &quot;in theory alone&quot;. The attacks to which this view was exposed on both sides Cyril could only meet by giving to the idea of &quot;nature&quot; a meaning which disregards everything individual. In this way alone does the assertion become explicable that before the incarnation two natures existed, the divine and the human, but after the incarnation only one, the definite divine-human nature, or, as Cyril expressed it in the words of the creed regarded by him as Athanasian, but in reality composed by the hated Apollinaris, &quot;one nature of God the Logos made flesh&quot;. The nature is here only thought of as &quot;common&quot;. Christ is no man like Paul and Peter; he is the author of a new humanity. Nevertheless, Cyril makes all dependent on the Redeemer's assuming the perfect human nature. But Cyril's assertions do not help over the contradiction that this Redeemer in spite of his &quot;rational soul&quot; had no free will, but was &quot;inflexible in mind&quot;. They are, indeed, not intended for that, because by his use of the idea of nature Cyril did not need to take exception to the &quot;perfect man&quot;, like Apollinaris. He could speak the easier in favor of a mutual communication of the properties of the divine and human nature in the Redeemer (''communicatio idiomatum''), and thus avoid the danger of a fusion at least for his belief. The &quot;in two natures&quot; of the Chalcedonian formula of [[451]] found no support in Cyril's Christology. But his Christology overcame that formula, for the Byzantine theologians who had to interpret it did so by explaining the doctrine of the two natures according to Cyril's teaching of one nature (see [[Leontius of Byzantium]]; [[Monophysites]]). ==References== * ''St. Cyril of Alexandria: The Christological Controversy'' (1994, and reprinted 2004) ISBN 0-88141-259-7 by [[John Anthony McGuckin]] ==External links== * Cyril of Alexandria, [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Five_tomes_against_Nestorius Five Tomes against Nestorius] - 1881 translation. * Cyril of Alexandria, [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Cyril_Scholia Scholia on the incarnation] - 1881 translation. * Cyril of Alexandria, [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Cyril_Commentary_on_the_Gospel_of_John Commentary on the gospel of John] - 1874-1885 translation. * Cyril of Alexandria, [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-67.htm 2nd Letter to Nestorius] - NPNF translation * Cyril of Alexandria, [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-70.htm 3rd Letter to Nestorius with the 12 anathemas] * Cyril of Alexandria, [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Cyril_Commentary_on_the_Gospel_of_John Commentary on John] {{start box}} {{succession box| before=[[Theophilus of Alexandria|Theophilus]]| title=[[List of Patriarchs of Alexandria|Patriarch of Alexandria]]| years=[[412]]—[[444]]| after=[[Dioscorus of Alexandria|Dioscorus]]}} {{end box}} {{Schaff-Herzog}} [[Category:Church Fathers]] [[Category:376 births]] [[Category:444 deaths]] [[Category:Coptic Saints]] [[Category:Saints]] [[Category:Patriarchs of Alexandria]] [[Category:Catholic philosophers]] [[Category:Medieval philosophers]] [[Category:Doctors of the Church]] [[Category:376 births|Cyril of Alexandria]] [[Category:444 deaths|Cyril of Alexandria]] [[cs:Cyril Alexandrijský]] [[de:Kyrill von Alexandria]] [[es:Cirilo de Alejandría]] [[fr:Cyrille d'Alexandrie]] [[it:Cirillo di Alessandria]] [[pl:Cyryl z Aleksandrii]] [[ru:Кирилл Александрийский]] [[zh:亞歷山大的區利羅]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Character set</title> <id>7385</id> <revision> <id>15905456</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Character encoding]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cyri of Jerusalem</title> <id
cism of Microsoft}} ==Market adoption== ===Usage share=== {{see|Usage share of web browsers}} The adoption rate of Internet Explorer seems to be closely related to that of Microsoft Windows, as it is the default web browser that comes with Windows. Since the integration of Internet Explorer 3.0 with Windows 95 OSR 2 in late 1996, the adoption was greatly accelerated: from below 20% in 1996 to about 40% in 1998 and over 80% in 2000. This effect, however, has recently been dubbed the &quot;Microsoft [[monoculture]]&quot;, by analogy to the problems associated with lack of [[biodiversity]] in an [[ecosystem]]. By 2002, Internet Explorer had almost completely superseded its main rival Netscape and dominated the market. After having fought and won the [[browser wars]] of the late 1990s, Internet Explorer began to see its [[usage share]] shrink. Having attained a peak of about 96% in 2002, it has since been in a steady decline. Statistics indicate the current most significant competition comes from [[Gecko (layout engine)|Gecko]]-based browsers, in particular [[Mozilla Firefox]]. Nevertheless, Internet Explorer remains the dominant web browser, with a usage share of around 85% (based on statistics reference) in United States. It's relatively high in Asia, and much lower in Europe, For instance, the share is around 93% in Japan, and around 70% in Germany.[http://www.websidestory.com/products/web-analytics/datainsights/spotlight/05-10-2005.html] ===Industry adoption=== ActiveX is used by many public websites and [[web application]]s, including [[eBay]]. Similarly, [[Browser Helper Object|BHO]]s are also used by many [[search engine]] companies and third parties for creating add-ons that access their services, for example, search engine toolbars. Because of the use of [[Component Object Model|COM]], it is possible to include web-browsing functionality in third-party applications. Hence, there are a number of [[Internet Explorer shell]]s, and a number of applications like [[RealPlayer]] (a [[media player]]) also use Internet Explorer's web browsing module for viewing the [[World Wide Web]] within the applications. ==&quot;Standalone&quot; Internet Explorer== While it is not officially possible to keep multiple versions of Internet Explorer on the same machine, some [[hacker]]s (Joe Maddalone, Ryan Parman, ''et al.'') successfully separated several versions of Internet Explorer making them standalone applications. These were referred as &quot;standalone&quot; IEs and included versions 3.0 to 5.5 SP2. *[http://labs.insert-title.com/labs/article795.aspx Multiple IEs In Windows Web Design] &amp;mdash; The web developer Joe Maddalone who found the solution. *[http://www.skyzyx.com/downloads/ Skyzyx.com - Standalone Internet Explorer] &amp;mdash; The web developer Ryan Parman who made the customized browsers files available. *[http://www.quirksmode.org/browsers/multipleie.html Multiple Explorers] &amp;mdash; Downloads of all the versions Microsoft has discontinued standalone installers for Internet Explorer to the general public. However, a blogger/web developer/programmer named Liew Cheon Fong has posted a procedure for downloading the complete install package. *[http://www.liewcf.com/blog/archives/2005/04/download-full-internet-explorer-6-sp1-standalone-installer/ Standalone Install Procedure for IE6 SP1] Be aware that unlike previous standalone versions of IE, running IE7 in standalone alongside a normal installation of IE6 may cause severe problems when using IE6 thereafter, owing to the insertion of at least one registry key. Some users have been unable to fix the resulting problems once IE7 has been run. It may be unwise to attempt running IE7 in standalone mode if you are not prepared for the possible consequences. See Jon Galloway's script for running IE7 more safely: *[http://weblogs.asp.net/jgalloway/archive/2005/12/28/434132.aspx IE7 Standalone Launch Script] ==Removal== {{main|Removal of Internet Explorer}} The idea of removing Internet Explorer from a Windows system was first proposed during the [[United States v. Microsoft]] case. Critics felt that users should have the right to uninstall Internet Explorer freely just like any other [[application software]]. One of Microsoft's arguments during the trial was that removing Internet Explorer from Windows may result in system instability. An Australian computer scientist [[Shane Brooks]] demonstrated that Windows 98 could in fact run with IE files removed {{ref|FindingsOfFacts}}. Brooks went on to develop software designed to customize Windows versions by removing &quot;undesired components&quot;, which is known as [[98lite]]. He later created [[XPLite]] to support NT based [[operating system]]s. Both of these pieces of software can remove IE after the installation of the operating system. There are a few popular methods for removing IE from a copy of the Windows install disc so it never touches the user's hard drive. A method developed by [[Fred Vorck]] involves the manual removal of IE from installation discs. [[nLite]], on the other hand, is an automated program that allows users to exclude IE and many other Windows components from installation as desired. It is also not possible to run Microsoft's [[Windows Update]] with any other browser because of its use of [[ActiveX]], therefore removing Internet Explorer will cause this to stop working. ==Footnotes== #{{note|sv1}} SV1 stands for &quot;Security Version 1&quot;, referring to the set of security enhancements made for that release.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2004/09/02/224902.aspx] This version of Internet Explorer is more popularly known as IE6 SP2, given that it is included with Windows XP Service Pack 2, but this can lead to confusion when discussing Windows Server 2003, which includes the same functionality in the SP1 update to that operating system. #{{note|SpyglassMosaic}} [http://biztech.ericsink.com/Browser_Wars.html Memoirs From the Browser Wars], [[May 12]] [[2005]]. #{{note|AbandonStandaloneIE}} [http://www.zone-h.org/en/news/read/id=2789/ Microsoft to abandon standalone IE], [[May 12]] [[2005]]. #{{note|search7default}} Some users have noted that Internet Explorer 7's default search engine appears to be Google or Yahoo; this is because the default search provider setting is inherited from Internet Explorer 6's settings, which various search engine toolbars override to provide search capabilities on the address bar. #{{note|RSAConference2005}} [http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/2005/feb05/02-15RSA05KeynotePR.asp Gates Highlights Progress on Security, Outlines Next Steps for Continued Innovation], [[May 12]] [[2005]]. #{{note|IE7PlatformsAndOutlookExpress}} [http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/02/28/382054.aspx IE7 Platforms and Outlook Express], [[May 12]] [[2005]]. #{{note|FindingsOfFacts}} [http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/cases/f3800/msjudgex.htm U.S. v. Microsoft: Court's Findings of Fact], [[May 12]] [[2005]]. ==References== *{{cite web | title=Microsoft Windows Family Home Page | work=Windows History: Internet Explorer History | url=http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryIE.mspx | accessdate=May 12 | accessyear=2005}} *{{cite web | title=Index DOT Html and Index DOT Css | work=Browser History: Windows Internet Explorer | url=http://www.blooberry.com/indexdot/history/ie.htm | accessdate=May 12 | accessyear=2005}} ==See also== *[[History of the Internet]] *[[Internet Explorer shell]] *[[List of web browsers]] *[[Comparison of web browsers]] ==External links== *[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/ Internet Explorer Home] *[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie IEBlog] &amp;mdash; The weblog of the Internet Explorer team *[http://channel9.msdn.com/wiki/default.aspx/Channel9.InternetExplorer Channel9 Wiki: InternetExplorer] &amp;mdash; The wiki for Internet Explorer *[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/community/ Internet Explorer Community] &amp;mdash; The official Microsoft Internet Explorer Community *[http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?id=293907 How to Uninstall Internet Explorer 6] &amp;mdash; A Microsoft support article for pre-XP versions of Windows *[http://secunia.com/product/11/ Secunia Vulnerability Report for Microsoft Internet Explorer 6.x] *[http://www.oldapps.com/internet_explorer.htm Old Version of Internet Explorer] *[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryIE.mspx Internet Explorer History] *[http://www.vorck.com/remove-ie.html Remove IE from Windows 2000 at install] — A guide to burning IE-free Windows installer discs *[http://www.nliteos.com/ nLite] — A program that disables installation of specified Windows components, including IE *[http://msdn.microsoft.com/ie/releasenotes/default.aspx Internet Explorer 7 release notes] {{Microsoft products}} [[Category:Internet Explorer]] [[Category:Windows web browsers]] [[Category:Microsoft Internet applications]] [[ar:متصفح إنترنت إكسبلورر]] [[ca:Internet Explorer]] [[cs:Microsoft Internet Explorer]] [[da:Internet Explorer]] [[de:Internet Explorer]] [[et:Internet Explorer]] [[es:Internet Explorer]] [[fa:اینترنت اکسپلورر]] [[fr:Internet Explorer]] [[gl:Internet Explorer]] [[ko:인터넷 익스플로러]] [[id:Internet Explorer]] [[it:Windows Internet Explorer]] [[he:Internet Explorer]] [[csb:Internet Explorer]] [[ku:Internet Explorer]] [[lv:Internet Explorer]] [[lt:Internet Explorer]] [[hu:Internet Explorer]] [[ms:Internet Explorer]] [[nl:Microsoft Internet Explorer]] [[ja:Internet Explorer]] [[no:Internet Explorer]] [[nn:Internet Explorer]] [[pl:Internet Explorer]] [[pt:Internet Explorer]] [[ro:Internet Explorer]] [[ru:Internet Explorer]] [[simple:Internet Explorer]] [[sk:Internet Explorer]] [[sl:Microsoft Internet Explorer]] [[fi:Internet Explorer]] [[sv:Internet Explorer]] [[th:อินเทอร์เน็ตเอ็กซ์พลอเรอร์]] [[vi:Microsoft Internet Explorer]] [[tr:Internet Explorer]] [[zh:Internet Explorer]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ideolect</title> <id>15217</id> <revision> <id>15912705</id>
of the best price. Tools, electrical parts, wires, microsized cameras and more are to be found in the cramped (some might say dangerously so) passageways of Soto Kanda 1 chome (near the station). Foreign tourists tend to visit the big name shops like Laox or other speciality shops near the station. The locals, of course, know where to find better variety and prices, a little farther away. ==Otaku Culture== [[Otaku]] culture in Akihabara is rather famous. Many people there have unique lifestyles, centered on technological enterprises and a love for Anime/Manga, that have made them outsiders in other sections of Japanese society. Otaku are afforded the chance to gather here and avoid alienation imposed by others who do not share their specific interests. The presence of such prolific &quot;geeky&quot; behavior has led to Akihabara being seen as a mecca of sorts for otaku. ==Brief history== *The area was originally referred to by the name of the lumber dealer who occupied the site. To this day the East side of Akihabara retains the name of the lumber dealer　- 佐久間　- as a memorial. *A major blaze which nearly destroyed the district brought about the decision to clear the land in order to keep future fires from approaching the imperial residence. *After this, the area then known as（鎮火社）was increasingly referred to by everybody as Akihabara（秋葉原）for the autumn leaves that adorned the tall pines in the area. *1888 – The removal of pine trees from Akihabara. *1890 – Extension of [[JR]] rail line (now the [[Tohoku Line]]) from [[Ueno]] to Akihabara. At first there was no passenger service, for south of the station was the Akihabara cargo docks, where goods from all over the world would flow into Kanda by river and be hauled up the east bank of the canal to be ticketed at the central cargo transport window. *From the [[Meiji]] to the [[Showa]] period, as the electric railway improved transport to Akihabara and the surrounds, and especially due to the growth in dealerships, the district was designated as Seika city (青果市 – lit. Produce Market Town). *1925 – Akihabara-Tokyo station connection opened as the Tohoku line extended to Tokyo. *1932 – As the Green Line station opened with an interconnection, Akihabara became an important transfer point. *1935 – Official establishment of Seika City. (Kanda/Seika city). *1936 – The site of the “Eternal Grand Central” railway station was cleared (now abandoned). Railway mania had reached its zenith. The area became the number 1 place for electricity supplies. *After [[World War Two]], a black market at Kanda developed around the first school of electrical manufacturing (now the Tokyo Technical College). Clustered around the Sobu underground line, what began as a host of electrical stores selling vacuum tubes, radio goods and electrical items to the students, has today come to be known as Electric Town. Called ‘Musen’ or ‘Wireless’ shops, they were the first to begin selling radios. With the advent of wireless and radio goods, people came to be much more connected. *1960’s – Thanks to superbly advanced technology, the rival Nipponbashi district of [[Osaka]] took its position as an equally prominent Electric Town, selling vast volumes of household consumer durables such as televisions, fridges and washing machines. *1980’s – Accompanying the spread of the PC in family homes (‘Famikon’), local shops increasingly began to deal in computer games, and major gaming chain stores appeared on the market. *1989 – Kanda-Seika city was redesignated as part of [[Taito-ku]]. *1990’s - With the Yamada and Kojima household chain stores appearing throughout the suburban outskirts of Tokyo, the sale of consumer durables at Akihabara was greatly reduced, however the sale of computer goods increased in equal measure. *1994 – The PC (‘Pasokon’) boom and accompanying computer store growth began. *It was also during the 1990s that the anime craze grew out of computer games, and the youth group known as [[Otaku]] began to pour into Akihabara. *Since 2000, with name-brand computer sales in decline, [[anime]] shops have arisen in their place, selling to the [[Otaku]] crowd. ==External links== {{commons|Category:Akihabara}} *{{Wikitravelpar|Tokyo/Akihabara}} *{{ja icon}} [http://www.akiba.or.jp/ Akihabara Official website] *{{en icon}} [http://www.akiba.or.jp/english/ Akihabara Official website] *{{en icon}} [http://www.dannychoo.com/ Akihabara toys, events and movies] *{{en icon}} {{Wikitravelpar|Tokyo/Akihabara}} *{{en icon}} [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/06/AR2005060601767.html Washington Post: In Tokyo, a Ghetto of Geeks] *{{en icon}} [http://www.mondophoto.net/asia/japan/tokyo/tokyo27.html#akihabara Mondophoto.net - more than 900 photos of Tokyo and Akihabara] [[Category:Neighborhoods of Tokyo]] [[de:Akihabara]] [[es:Akihabara]] [[fr:Akihabara]] [[it:Akihabara]] [[ja:秋葉原]] [[zh:秋葉原]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abandonware</title> <id>2803</id> <revision> <id>42134996</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:26:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.3.18.67</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Enforcement of copyright */ Red hat has always been OS</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sopwith-screenshot.png|thumb|right|350px|Screenshot of ''[[Sopwith (computer game)|Sopwith]]'', an example of abandonware]] '''Abandonware''' is [[computer software]] which is no longer being sold or supported by its [[copyright]] holder. Sometimes, it is used as a blanket category for any software over a certain age, usually five years. The term has no legal meaning. This means that labeling any kind of software 'abandonware' does not make it legal to distribute it. Unless the author puts the software in the [[public domain]], any and all abandonware remains covered under [[copyright]] law until its copyright term expires. Alternatively, the term is also used for software which is still available, but on which further support and development have been intentionally discontinued. This article discusses only the first meaning. ==History of abandonware== Abandonware was quite low-key until the advent of the Internet, which enabled games to be accessible to a large audience. Some of the early abandonware sites include [[Classic Trash]] and [[Home of the Underdogs]], which has survived to this day, and is one of the largest abandonware sites on the internet. In [[2001]], the [[Entertainment Software Association|ESA]] (or IDSA, as it was called then) began threatening lawsuits on sites that enabled illegal downloading of games belonging to its members. This resulted in many sites shutting down altogether. ==Abandonware and the Law== Signatories of the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) Treaty do not recognize a legal concept of abandonware in copyrights. There is a long held concept of &quot;abandonment&quot; in [[trademark law]], but it is a direct result of the infinite term of trademark protection. Currently, for copyrights to be abandoned, the owner must clearly release the copyright in a writing (which has been done). Non-owners of a copyright cannot merely claim the copyright &quot;abandoned&quot; and start using it without permission of the copyright holder, who would then have a legal remedy. ===United States=== In the United States, the concept of abandonware conflicts with the fundamental copyright concept of awarding a copyright creator a finite term where he/she may enjoy a monopoly on their expression. Under copyright law, a copyright owner has the right to profit or ''not'' profit on their creation. The basis for this right in the United States is the [[Copyright Clause]] of the [[United States Constitution]], which empowers the [[United States Congress]]: :''To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries'' Because Abandonware would conflict with the stated goal of granting &quot;exclusive right&quot; (irrespective of profit), it is not likely to be recognized in the United States. In [[2003]], the [[United States Supreme Court]] made copyright law more conservative in deciding ''[[Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'', 537 U.S. 186, which affirmed the legality of the [[Copyright Term Extension Act]], an act that extended the current copyright terms by an ''extra'' 20 years. The decision noted that, so long as a copyright term is finite, it is permissible under the Constitution. Thus, a copyright in the United States is protected by the full strength of the law until it expires, between 70 and 120 years after initial creation. ==Popular abandonware== The most common abandonware is old [[computer and video games]] that are often played through [[emulator|emulation]]. Some people feel various older games are more fun than newer games (hence [[old school]] [[video game player|gamer]]s), in part because their [[game designer|designers]] had to concentrate on game-play features rather than [[computer graphics|graphics]]. These games have gained a second life through [[Internet]] distribution. Old-school gamers are responsible for the popularity of console emulation. An '''abandonware fan''' is a video-game player who enjoys games that are no longer on the market. In some cases, [[nostalgia]] is a significant factor in the popularity of abandonware video games. ==Enforcement of copyright== Abandonware's copyright is frequently no longer defended. This can be due to intentional non-enforcement by its owners due to the software's age or obsolescence, but sometimes because the [[corporate]] copyright holder went out of business without transferring ownership, leaving no one to defend the copyright. (Copyrights on works created by an individual become the property of that person's [[estate (law)|estate]] after his/her death.) Nevertheless, some companies vehemently defend th
ought to capture the city, but a storm destroyed a great number of his ships, and his army of some 30,000, chiefly Spaniards, was defeated by the Algerians under their [[pasha]], Hassan. From the 17th century, Algiers, free of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] control and sited on the periphery of both the Ottoman and European economic spheres, and depending for its existence on a Mediterranean that was increasingly controlled by European shipping, backed by European navies, turned to piracy and ransoming. Repeated attempts were made by various nations to subdue the pirates that disturbed shipping in the western Mediterranean and engaged in slave raids as far north as Cornwall. The [[United States]] fought two wars (The [[First Barabary War|First]] and [[Second Barabary War|Second]] [[Barbary Wars]]) over Algiers' attacks on shipping. In [[1816]] the city was bombarded by a British squadron under [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]] (a descendant of Thomas Pellew, taken in an Algierian slave raid in [[1715]]), assisted by [[Netherlands|Dutch]] men-of-war, and the corsair fleet burned. On the 4th of July in [[1830]], on the pretext of an affront to their consul - whom the [[dey]] had hit with a fly-whisk when he said the French government was not prepared to pay its large outstanding debts to two Algerian Jewish merchants - a French army under [[Louis-Auguste-Victor, Count de Ghaisnes de Bourmont|General de Bourmont]] attacked the city, which capitulated on the following day. The history of Algiers from [[1830]] to [[1962]] is bound to the larger history of [[Algeria]] and its relationship to [[France]]. In [[1962]], after a bloody independence struggle in which hundreds of thousands of Algerians died (a million according to official Algerian history) at the hands of the French army and the Algerian [[Front de Libération Nationale]], Algeria finally gained its independence, with Algiers as its capital. Since then, despite losing its entire European or [[Pied-noir]] population, the city has expanded massively - it now has 3 million inhabitants, or 10% of Algeria's population - and its suburbs now cover most of the surrounding [[Metidja]] plain. [[Image:Algernuit.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Algiers by night]] * Algiers is hosting the [[2007 All-Africa Games]] for the 2nd time, they hosted the event in [[1978 All-Africa Games|1978.]] == Local architecture == There are many public buildings of interest, including the whole [[casbah]] quarter, Martyrs Square (''Sahat ech-Chouhada'' ساحة الشهداء), the government offices (formerly the [[United Kingdom|British]] consulate), the &quot;Grand&quot;, &quot;New&quot;, and Ketchaoua [[Mosque]]s, the [[Roman Catholic]] cathedral of [[Notre Dame d'Afrique]], the [[Bardo Museum]] (a former Turkish mansion), the old ''Bibliotheque Nationale d'Alger'' - a [[Turkey|Turkish]] palace built in [[1799]]-[[1800]] - and the new National Library, built in a style reminiscent of the [[British Library]]. The main building in the [[casbah]] was begun in [[1516]] on the site of an older building, and served as the palace of the deys until the [[France|French]] conquest. A road has been cut through the centre of the building, the mosque turned into [[barracks]], and the hall of audience allowed to fall into ruin. There still remain a [[minaret]] and some marble arches and columns. Traces exist of the vaults in which were stored the treasures of the dey. The Grand Mosque (''Jamaa-el-Kebir'' الجامع الكبير) is traditionally said to be the oldest mosque in Algiers. The pulpit (''[[minbar]]'' منبر) bears an inscription showing that the building existed in [[1018]]. The minaret was built by [[Abu Tachfin]], sultan of [[Tlemcen]], in [[1324]]. The interior of the mosque is square and is divided into aisles by columns joined by [[Moors|Moorish]] arches. [[Image:New Mosque (Jamaa el-Jedid) in Algiers 04968r.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The New Mosque (Jamaa el-Jedid) in Algiers - late 1800's]] [[Image:bfc_algiers_synagogue_02_02w.jpg|frame|Algiers. Stone synagogue. Photo early 1900's. [http://www.bfcollection.net/cities/algeria/algiers.html Boris Feldblyum Collection]]] The New Mosque (''Jamaa-el-Jedid'' الجامع الجديد), dating from the [[17th century]], is in the form of a [[Greek cross]], surmounted by a large white cupola, with four small cupolas at the corners. The minaret is 90 ft. high. The interior resembles that of the Grand Mosque. The church of the Holy Trinity (built in [[1870]]) stands at the southern end of the ''rue d'Isly'' near the site of the demolished Fort Bab Azoun باب عزون. The interior is richly decorated with various coloured marbles. Many of these marbles contain memorial inscriptions relating to the English residents (voluntary and involuntary) of Algiers from the time of John Tipton, British consul in [[1580]]. One tablet records that in [[1631]] two Algerine pirate crews landed in [[Ireland]], sacked [[Baltimore, County Cork|Baltimore]], and carried off its inhabitants to slavery; another recalls the romantic escape of Ida M`Donnell, daughter of Admiral Ulric, consul-general of [[Denmark]], and wife of the British consul. When Lord Exmouth was about to bombard the city in [[1816]], the British consul was thrown into prison and loaded with chains. Mrs M`Donnell - who was but sixteen - escaped to the British fleet disguised as a midshipman, carrying a basket of vegetables in which her baby was hidden. (Mrs M`Donnell subsequently married the duc de Talleyrand-Perigord and died at [[Florence]] in [[1880]]). Among later residents commemorated is Edward Lloyd, who was the first person to show the value of [[esparto]] grass for the manufacture of paper, and thus started an industry which is one of the most important in Algeria. The Ketchaoua mosque (''Djamaa Ketchaoua'' جامع كتشاوة), at the foot of the Casbah, was before independence in [[1962]] the cathedral of St Philippe, itself made in [[1845]] from a mosque dating from 1612. The principal entrance, reached by a flight of 23 steps, is ornamented with a [[portico]] supported by four black-veined marble columns. The roof of the nave is of [[Moorish Empire|Moorish]] [[plaster]] work. It rests on a series of arcades supported by white marble columns. Several of these columns belonged to the original mosque. In one of the chapels was a tomb containing the bones of [[San Geronimo]]. The building seems a curious blend of Moorish and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] styles. Algiers possesses a college with schools of law, medicine, science and letters. The college buildings are large and handsome. The [[Bardo]] museum holds some of the ancient sculptures and mosaics discovered in Algeria, together with medals and Algerian money. The port of Algiers is sheltered from all winds. There are two harbours, both artificial - the old or northern harbour and the southern or Agha harbour. The northern harbour covers an area of 235 acres (950,000 m&amp;sup2;). An opening in the south [[jetty]] affords an entrance into Agha harbour, constructed in Agha Bay. Agha harbour has also an independent entrance on its southern side. The inner harbour was begun in [[1518]] by Khair-ad-Din [[Khair ad Din|Barbarossa]] (see History, below), who, to accommodate his pirate vessels, caused the island on which was Fort Penon to be connected with the mainland by a [[mole (architecture)|mole]]. The lighthouse which occupies the site of Fort Penon was built in [[1544]]. Algiers was a walled city from the time of the deys until the close of the 19th century. The French, after their occupation of the city ([[1830]]), built a [[rampart]], [[parapet]] and [[ditch]], with two terminal forts, [[Bab Azoun]] باب عزون to the south and [[Bab-el-Oued]] باب الواد to the north. The forts and part of the ramparts were demolished at the beginning of the [[20th century]], when a line of forts occupying the heights of [[Bouzareah]] بوزريعة (at an elevation of 1300 ft. above the sea) took their place. Notre-Dame d'Afrique, a church built ([[1858]]-[[1872]]) in a mixture of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] styles, is conspicuously situated, overlooking the sea, on the shoulder of the [[Bouzareah]] hills, 2 m. to the north of the city. Above the altar is a statue of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin]] depicted as a black woman. The church also contains a solid silver statue of the [[archangel Michael]], belonging to the confraternity of [[Naples|Neapolitan]] fishermen. Villa Abd-el-Tif, former residence of the [[dey]], was used during the French period, to accommodate French artists, chiefly painters, and winners of the [[Abd-el-Tif prize]], for a while of two years. Nowadays, Algerian artists are back in the villa's studios. [[Image:Houbel.JPG|thumb|400px| the Monument of the Martyrs(Maquam E’chahid).]] ==References== *{{1911}} == See also == * [[List of Pasha and Dey of Algiers]] ==External links== {{Commons|Algiers|Algiers}} * [http://www.bfcollection.net/cities/algeria/algiers.html Historic images of Algiers] * [http://www.samasafia.dz/carte%20d'alger.gif Map of Algiers] {{Algeria}} [[Category:Capitals in Africa]] [[Category:Cities in Algeria]] [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[Category:Provinces of Algeria]] [[Category:Algiers| ]] [[ar:ولاية الجزائر]] [[bg:Алжир (град)]] [[da:Algier]] [[de:Algier]] [[eo:Alĝero]] [[es:Argel]] [[fi:Alger]] [[fr:Alger]] [[ko:알제]] [[he:אלג'יר]] [[id:Algiers]] [[io:Aljer]] [[is:Algeirsborg]] [[it:Algeri]] [[ja:アルジェ]] [[la:Algeria]] [[lb:Algier]] [[lt:Alžyras (miestas)]] [[nl:Algiers]] [[pl:Algier]] [[pt:Argel]] [[ro:Alger (oraş)]] [[ru:Алжир (город)]] [[simple:Algiers]] [[sk:Alžír]] [[sr:Алжир (град)]] [[sv:Alger]] [[zh:阿爾及爾]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alhazen</title> <id>1645</id> <revision> <id>41211710</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:42:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MB</username> <id>510460</id> </contributor> <co
d Stockings, baseball's first openly all-professional team, were founded in [[1867]], turning professional in [[1869 in sports|1869]]. The Red Stockings won 81 games in a row between 1869 &amp; [[1870]], before the [[Brooklyn Atlantics]] defeated them. Early stars for the Red Stockings included the Wrights, George and Harry. (In 1871, Harry Wright took most of his best players to Boston, and founded the Boston Red Stockings, now known as the [[Atlanta Braves]].) The Red Stockings disbanded after the [[1870]] season, but reconstituted to become a charter member of the [[National League]] in [[1876]]. The team was expelled from the league after the [[1880]] season, in part for violating league rules by serving beer to fans at games. Following the expulsion, Cincinnati became a founding member of the [[American Association (19th century)|American Association]], a rival league that began play in [[1882]], and retained the nickname Red Stockings. By some accounts, the AA team switched leagues in [[1890]]; by other accounts, the AA team folded the same year the new NL team started, and the new team simply signed many of the AA team's star players. The Red Stockings wandered through the remainder of the [[1890s]] signing local stars &amp; aging veterans. At the turn of the century, the Reds (shortened from the Red Stockings so not to be confused with the Boston AL entry, now shortened to Red Sox) had hitting stars like [[Sam Crawford]] and [[Cy Seymour]]. Seymour's .377 average in 1905 was the first individual batting crown won by a Red. In [[1911]], [[Bob Bescher]] stole 81 bases which is still a team record. ===Redland Field to the Great Depression=== In [[1912]] [[Redland Field]], built on the corner of Findlay and Western on the city's west side opened for the Reds. By the late [[1910s]] the Reds began to come out of the second division. The [[1918]] team finished 4th, and then new manager [[Pat Moran]] led the Reds to a NL [[pennant]] in [[1919]]. The 1919 team had hitting stars led by [[Edd Roush]] and [[Heinie Groh]] while the pitching staff was led by [[Hod Eller]] and [[Harry Sallee|Harry &quot;Slim&quot; Sallee]], a lefthander. The Reds finished ahead of [[John McGraw (baseball)|John McGraw]]'s [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]], and then won the [[world championship]] in 8 games over the [[Chicago White Sox]]. By [[1920]], the [[Black Sox Scandal|&quot;Black Sox&quot; scandal]] put an asterisk by the Reds first championship. In the remainder of the [[1920s]] and early [[1930s]] the Reds were second division dwellers for most of those years. [[Eppa Rixey]], [[Dolf Luque]] and [[Pete Donohue]] were pitching stars; the offense never quite lived up to the pitching. By [[1931]] the team was bankrupt, thanks to the [[Great Depression]], and Redland Field was in a state of disrepair. ===Revival of 1930s=== [[Powel Crosley Jr.]], an [[electronics]] [[business magnate|magnate]] who with his brother [[Lewis M. Crosley]] produced [[radio]]s, [[refrigerator]]s and other [[household]] items, bought the Reds out of bankruptcy in [[1933]] and hired [[Larry MacPhail]] to be the General Manager. Powell Crosley Jr. had also started [[WLW]] radio and the [[Crosley Broadcasting Company]] in Cincinnati and was doing quite well as a civic leader. (WLW has been the Reds' radio flagship for decades.) MacPhail began to develop the Reds' [[minor league baseball|minor league system]] and expanded the Reds' base. The Reds throughout the [[1930s]] became a team of &quot;firsts&quot;. [[Crosley Field]] (formerly Redland Field) became the host of the first night game in [[1935]]. [[Johnny Vander Meer]] became the only pitcher in major league history to throw back-to-back no-hitters in [[1938]]. Thanks to Vander Meer, [[Paul Derringer]], and [[shortstop]]-turned-[[pitcher]] [[Bucky Walters]], the Reds had a solid pitching staff. The offense came around in the late 1930s. [[Ernie Lombardi]] was named the National League's Most Valuable Player in 1938, [[First baseman]] [[Frank McCormick]] was the 1940 NL MVP. Other position players included [[Harry Craft]], [[Lonny Frey]], [[Ival Goodman]] and [[Lew Riggs]]. By 1938 the Reds, now led by manager [[Bill McKechnie]], were out of the second division finishing fourth. By [[1939]] they were National League champions. The Reds were swept by the [[New York Yankees]] in four straight. In 1940, they repeated as NL Champions and for the first time in 21 years, the Reds captured a World Series beating the [[Detroit Tigers]] 4 games to 3. ===From WWII through the 1960s=== [[World War II]] and age finally caught up with the Reds. Throughout the remainder of the [[1940s]] and the early [[1950s]], Cincinnati finished mostly in the second division. In 1944, [[Joe Nuxhall]], age 15, pitching for the Reds on loan from Hamilton High School, became the youngest person ever to play in a major league game -- a record that still stands today. Ewell &quot;The Whip&quot; Blackwell was the main pitching stalwart before arm problems cut short his career. [[Ted Kluszewski]] was the NL home run leader in 1954. The rest of the offense was a collection of over-the-hill players and not-ready-for-prime time youngsters. In [[1956]], led by NL [[Rookie of the Year]] [[Frank Robinson]], the Reds hit 221 HR to tie the NL record. By 1961, Robinson was joined by [[Vada Pinson]], [[Wally Post]], [[Gordy Coleman]] and [[Gene Freese]]. Pitchers [[Joey Jay]], [[Jim O'Toole]] and [[Bob Purkey]] led the staff. The Reds captured the [[1961]] NL pennant, holding off the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] and the [[San Francisco Giants]], only to be defeated by the perennially powerful [[New York Yankees]] in the [[1961 World Series|World Series]]. The Reds had many successful teams during the rest of the [[1960s]], but didn't produce any championships. They won 98 games in 1962 (paced by Purkey's 23), but finished 3rd. In 1964, they lost the pennant by one game. The farm system produced players such as [[Jim Maloney]] (the Reds pitching ace of the 1960s), [[Pete Rose]], [[Tony Pérez]], [[Johnny Bench]] and [[Gary Nolan (baseball player)|Gary Nolan]], and the team finally reached its potential during the [[1970s]]. The Reds' final game at Crosley Field, home to over 4500 baseball games, was played on [[June 24]] [[1970]]. In its place, a new stadium, and a new Reds dynasty. ===The Big Red Machine=== In [[1970 in baseball|1970]], little known [[Sparky Anderson|George &quot;Sparky&quot; Anderson]] was hired as manager, and the Reds embarked upon a decade of excellence, with a team that came to be known as &quot;[[The Big Red Machine]]&quot;. Playing in brand-new [[Riverfront Stadium]], a 52,000 seat multi-purpose venue on the shores of the [[Ohio River]], the Reds began the [[1970s]] with a bang by winning 70 of their first 100 games. [[Johnny Bench]], [[Tony Pérez]], [[Pete Rose]], [[Lee May]] and [[Bobby Tolan]] were the early Red Machine offensive leaders; [[Gary Nolan (baseball player)|Gary Nolan]], [[Jim Merritt]] and [[Jim McGlothlin]] led a pitching staff which also contained veteran [[Tony Cloninger]] and youngsters [[Wayne Simpson]] and [[Don Gullett]]. The Reds breezed through the 1970 season, won the NL West and captured the NL pennant. By time the club got to the [[1970 World Series|World Series]], however, the Reds pitching staff had run out of gas and the veteran [[Baltimore Orioles]] beat the Reds in five games. After the disastrous [[1971 in baseball|1971]] season (the only season of the '70s during which the Reds finished with a losing record) the Reds reloaded by trading veterans May and [[Tommy Helms]] for [[Joe Morgan]], [[César Gerónimo]], [[Jack Billingham]] and [[Denis Menke]]. Meanwhile, [[Dave Concepción]] blossomed at [[shortstop]]. The [[1972 in baseball|1972]] Reds won the NL West and defeated the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in an exciting five-game playoff series, then faced the [[Oakland Athletics]] in the [[1972 World Series|World Series]]. Six of the seven games were won by one run, but Oakland won in Game 7. The Reds won a third NL West crown in [[1973 in baseball|1973]] but lost the NL pennant to the [[New York Mets]]. The Reds won 98 games in [[1974 in baseball|1974]] but finished in second place. In the [[1975|1975]] season, Cincinnati clinched the NL West with 108 victories. Then swept the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in three games to win the NL pennant. In the [[1975 World Series|World Series]], the [[Boston Red Sox]] were the opponents. After splitting the first four games, the Reds took Game 5. Game 6 is still one of the most memorable baseball games ever played. The Reds were ahead 6-3 with 5 outs left, when the Red Sox tied the game on former Red [[Bernie Carbo]]'s three-run [[home run]]. After a few close-calls either way, [[Carlton Fisk]] hit a [[home run]] off the [[foul pole]] in left field to give the Red Sox a 7-6 win and force a deciding Game 7. Cincinnati prevailed the next day, however, when Morgan's [[run batted in|RBI]] [[single (baseball)|single]] won Game 7 and gave the Reds their first championship in 35 years. In [[1976 in baseball|1976]], the Reds swept throughout the NL West and proceeded to go undefeated in the postseason. They swept the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] (winning Game 3 in their final at-bat) to return to the [[1976 World Series|World Series]], then continued to dominate by sweeping the [[New York Yankees|Yankees]], who never really challenged the powerhouse Reds. In winning the Series, the Reds became the first NL team in over 50 years to win back-to-back World Series championships. The later years of the '70s brought turmoil and change. After two consecutive runner-up seasons, manager Anderson was fired. By [[1979 in baseball|1979]], players Gullett, Nolan, Pérez and Rose, among others, had left the club. The Reds did manage to win the 1979 NL West behind the pitching of [[Tom Seaver]] but were dispatched in the NL playoffs by Pittsburgh. In [[1981 in baseba
d on many Chinese [[gold coin]]s. Despite being [[taxonomy|taxonomically]] a [[Carnivora|carnivore]], the panda has a [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] that is overwhelmingly [[herbivore|herbivorous]]. The Giant Panda eats [[shoot]]s and [[leaf|leaves]], living almost entirely on [[bamboo]]. Pandas are also known to eat [[egg (food)|eggs]], the occasional fish, and some [[insect]]s along with their bamboo diet. These are necessary sources of [[protein]]. Some zoos also feed their pandas specially formulated biscuits, fruitsicles or other treats to supplement their bamboo intake. For many decades the precise taxonomic classification of the panda was under debate as both the Giant Panda and the distantly related [[Red Panda]] share characteristics of both bears and [[raccoon]]s. However, [[genetics|genetic testing]] has revealed that Giant Pandas are true bears and part of the Ursidae family. Its closest bear relative is the [[Spectacled Bear]] of [[South America]]. (Disagreement remains about whether or not the Red Panda belongs in Ursidae; the raccoon family, [[Procyonidae]]; or in its own family, Ailuridae.) Giant Pandas are an [[endangered species]], threatened by continued [[habitat loss]] and by a very low birthrate, both in the wild and in captivity. About 1,600 are believed to survive in the wild. Poaching is uncommon; killing a panda was punishable in China by death until a 1997 law changed the penalty to 20 years imprisonment. The Giant Panda has an unusual [[paw]], with a &quot;[[thumb]]&quot; and five fingers; the &quot;thumb&quot; is actually a modified [[sesamoid bone]]. [[Stephen Jay Gould]] wrote an essay about this, then used the title ''The Panda's Thumb'' for a book of collected essays. The Giant Panda has a short tail, approximately 15&amp;nbsp;cm long. The Giant Panda has long been a favourite of the public, at least partly on account of the fact that the species has an appealing baby-like [[cuteness]] that makes it seem to resemble a living [[teddy bear]]. The fact that it is usually depicted reclining peacefully eating bamboo, as opposed to hunting, also adds to its image of innocence. Though the Giant Panda is often assumed docile because of their cuteness, they have been known to attack humans, usually assumed to be out of irritation rather than predatory behavior. Giant Pandas can usually live to be 20-30 years old while living in captivity. == Natural history == No fossils of pandas have been found earlier than a few million years ago. However, [[DNA]] analysis of the Giant Panda compared with other bears shows a very early split from the main bear lineage 18 or 15 million years ago. That was about the time when the &quot;dawn bear&quot; (''Ursavus'') roamed the subtropics of [[Europe]]. Like a subtropical mammal, the Giant Panda does not hibernate. [[Fossil]]s from [[Pleistocene]] sites throughout East Asia prove the success of the Giant Panda. In the Lang Trang [[cave]]s of northern [[Vietnam]], fossils of pandas were found, far away from the typical mountain forests where pandas are found presently. Other fossils have been found as far south as Thailand and Burma, going as far north as where [[Beijing]] stands today. Fossils also show a second [[extinct]] panda species. This species, ''Ailuropoda minor'', was half the size of the modern Giant Panda. According to a paper published in [[2002]], the genome of the panda shows evidence of a severe [[population bottleneck]] which took place about 43,000 years ago&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[population bottleneck#Notes|1]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; and the age of the most recent common ancestor of the current panda populations is estimated to be 43,000 years before present. == Uses and conservation history == [[Image:Lightmatter panda.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gao Gao, an adult male Giant Panda at San Diego Zoo]] Unlike many other animals in [[Ancient China]], pandas were rarely thought to have medical uses. The only considered medical use was probably of panda urine, to melt needles accidentally swallowed in the throat. In the past, pandas were thought to be rare and noble creatures; the mother of [[Emperor Wen of Han]] was buried with a panda skull in her tomb. [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]] was said to have given [[Japan]] two pandas and a sheet of panda skin as a sign of goodwill. Panda skin was considered a sign of courage afterwards, and thus pandas became a target for poachers. The Giant Panda was first made known to the West in [[1869]] by the [[France|French]] [[missionary]] [[Armand David]], who received a skin from a hunter on [[11 March]] 1869. The first westerner known to have seen a living Giant Panda is the German zoologist [[Hugo Weigold]], who purchased a cub in [[1916]]. [[Kermit Roosevelt|Kermit]] and [[Theodore Roosevelt, Jr.]] became the first foreigners to shoot a panda, on an expedition funded by the [[Field Museum of Natural History]] in the 1920s. In 1936, [[Ruth Harkness]] became the first Westerner to bring back a live Giant Panda, a cub named Su-Lin who went to live at the Brookfield Zoo in Chicago. These activities were halted in [[1937]] because of wars; and for the next half of the century, the West knew little of the pandas. [[Image:Babypanda.jpg|thumb|right|250px| A baby Giant Panda atop a tree San Diego Zoo]] Because of the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] and the [[Chinese Civil War]] afterwards, foreigners were unable to poach pandas in China, but pandas remained a source of soft furs for the locals. The population boom in China after [[1949]] created stress on the pandas' habitat, and the subsequent famines led to the increased hunting of wildlife, including pandas. During the [[Cultural Revolution]], all studies and conservation activities on the pandas were stopped. After the [[Chinese economic reform]], demands for panda skin from [[Hong Kong]] and Japan led to illegal poaching for the [[black market]], acts generally ignored by the local officials at the time. Though the [[Sichuan]] Wolong Reserve was set up by the PRC government in [[1958]] to save the declining pandas, few advances in the conservation of pandas were made, due to inexperience and insufficient knowledge in ecology. Many believed that the best way to save the pandas was to cage them, and as a result, the pandas were caged for any sign of decline, and they suffered from terrible conditions. Because of pollution and destruction of their natural habitat, along with segregation due to caging, reproduction of wild pandas was severely limited. In the [[1990s]], however, several laws (including gun controls and moving residents out of the reserves) helped the chances of survival for pandas. With the ensued efforts and improved conservation methods, wild pandas have started to increase in numbers in some areas. Loans of Giant Pandas to [[United States|American]] and Japanese zoos formed an important part of the [[diplomacy]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] in the [[1970s]] as it marked some of the first cultural exchanges between the PRC and the West. This practice has been termed &quot;[[Panda diplomacy|Panda Diplomacy]]&quot;. By the year [[1984]], however, pandas were no longer used as agents of diplomacy. Instead, China began to offer pandas to other nations only on 10-year loans. The standard loan terms include a fee of up to [[United States dollar|US$]]1,000,000 per year and a provision that any cubs born during the loan are the property of the People's Republic of China. Since [[1998]], due to a WWF [[lawsuit]], the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] only allows a U.S. [[zoo]] to import a panda if the zoo can ensure that China will channel more than half of its loan fee into [[conservation movement|conservation]] efforts for wild pandas and their habitat. By [[2005]], political tensions had eased between mainland China (People's Republic of China) and [[Taiwan]] (Republic of China), causing the mainland to suggest giving Taiwan two pandas as a diplomatic gift. This proposed gift was met by polarized opinions from Taiwan.([http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/06/china.taiwan.ap/index.html]. At this time (February 2006), it is unclear whether Taiwan will accept the two panda cubs, now called Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan. ==Reproduction== Giant pandas reproduce very slowly, and infant mortality is high. Growth is slow and pandas may not reach sexual maturity until they are five to seven years old. The mating season usually takes place from mid-March to mid-May. During this time, two to five males can compete for one female; the male with the highest rank gets the female. When mating, the female is in a crouching, head-down position as the male mounts from behind. Copulation time is short, ranging from thirty seconds to five minutes, but the male may mount repeatedly to ensure successful fertilization. Mating is also a very noisy time, accompanied by moaning and squealing. The whole gestation period ranges from 83 to 163 days, with 135 days being the average. Baby pandas weigh only 90 to 130 grams, which is about 1/900th of the mother’s weight. Usually, the female panda gives birth to one or two panda cubs. Since baby pandas are born very small and helpless, they need the mother’s undivided attention, so she is able to care for only one of her cubs. She usually abandons one of her cubs, and it dies soon after birth. At this time, scientists do not know how the female chooses which cub to raise, and this is a topic of ongoing research. The father has no part in helping with raising the cub. When the cub is first born, it is pink, naked and blind. It nurses from its mother's breast 6&amp;ndash;14 times a day for up to 30 minutes each time. For three to four hours, the mother might leave the den to feed, which leaves the panda cub defenseless. One to two weeks after birth, the cub's skin turns gray where its hair will eventually become black. A month after birth, the color pattern of the cub’s fur is fully developed. The cu
f the Empire. The immediate occasion for the war was the uprising of the Protestant nobility of Bohemia against the emperor ([[Defenestration of Prague]]), but the conflict was widened into a European War by the intervention of [[Christian IV of Denmark|King Christian IV of Denmark]] (1625-29), [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]] (1630-48) and France under [[Cardinal Richelieu]], the regent of the young [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] (1635-48). Germany became the main theatre of war and the scene of the final conflict between France and the Habsburgs for predominance in Europe. The war resulted in large areas of Germany being laid waste, in a loss of something like a third of its population, and in a general impoverishment. The war ended in 1648 with the [[Peace of Westphalia]], signed in [[Münster]] and [[Osnabrück]]: German territory was lost to France and Sweden and the [[Netherlands]] left the Holy Roman Empire. The imperial power declined further as the states' rights were increased. ===End of the Holy Roman Empire=== [[Image:Ac.prussiamap2.gif|thumb|350px|right|After the Peace of Hubertsburg in 1763, Prussia became a European great power. The rivalry between Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany began]] From 1640, [[Brandenburg-Prussia]] had started to rise under the Great Elector, [[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick William]]. The Peace of Westphalia strengthened it even further, through the acquisition of East Pomerania. A system of rule based on [[Political absolutism|absolutism]] was established. In 1701 [[Frederick I of Prussia|Elector Frederick of Brandenburg]] was crowned &quot;king ''in'' [[Prussia]]&quot;. From 1713 to 1740, [[Frederick William I of Prussia|King Frederick William I]], also known as the &quot;Soldier King&quot;, established a highly centralised state. Meanwhile [[Louis XIV of France]] had conquered parts of [[Alsace]] and [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]] (1678-1681), and had invaded and devastated the [[Palatinate]] (1688-1697). Louis XIV benefitted from the Empire's problems with the Turks, which were menacing Austria. He ultimately had to relinquish the Palatinate, though. In 1683 the Turks were defeated outside [[Battle of Vienna|Vienna]] by a Polish relief army led by [[John III of Poland|King Jan Sobieski of Poland]] while the city itself was defended by German and Austrian troops under the command of [[Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine]]. Hungary was reconquered, and later became a new destination for German settlers. Austria, under the Habsburgs, developed into a great power. In the [[War of Austrian Succession]] (1740-1748) [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] fought successfully for recognition of her succession to the throne. But in the [[Silesian Wars]] and in the [[Seven Years' War]] she had to cede [[Silesia]] to [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia]]. After the [[Peace of Hubertsburg]] in 1763 between [[Austria]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] and [[Saxony]], Prussia became a European great power. This gave the start to the rivalry between Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany. From 1763, against resistance from the nobility and citizenry, an &quot;[[enlightened absolutism]]&quot; was established in Prussia and Austria, according to which the ruler was to be &quot;the first servant of the state&quot;. The economy developed and legal reforms were undertaken, including the abolition of torture and the improvement in the status of [[Jew]]s; the emancipation of the peasants began. Education was promoted. In 1772-1795 Prussia took part in [[partitions of Poland]], occuping western territories of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], which led to centuries of Polish resistance against German rule and persecution. The [[French Revolution]] sparked a new war between the France several of its Eastern neighbours, including Prussia and Austria. Following the [[Peace of Basle]] in 1795 with Prussia, the left bank of the Rhine was ceded to France. [[Napoleon I of France]] relaunched the war against the Empire. In 1803, under the ''&quot;[[Reichsdeputationshauptschluss]]&quot;'' (a resolution of a committee of the Imperial Diet meeting in [[Regensburg]]), he abolished almost all the ecclesiastical and the smaller secular states and most of the imperial free cities. New medium-sized states were established in south-western Germany. In turn, Prussia gained territory in north-western Germany. The [[Holy Roman Empire]] was formally dissolved on [[6 August]] [[1806]] when the last Holy Roman Emperor [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]] (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of [[Austrian Empire|Austria]]) resigned. Francis II's family continued to be called Austrian emperors until 1918. In 1806 the [[Confederation of the Rhine]] was established under Napoleon's protection. After the Prussian army was defeated by the French revolutionary forces at [[Jena]] and Auerstedt, the [[Treaties of Tilsit|Peace of Tilsit]] was signed in 1807: Prussia ceded all its possessions west of the [[Elbe]] to France and the kingdom of [[Westphalia]] was established under Napoleon's brother Jérome. Some of the territories Prussia conquered from [[Poland]] were regained by [[Duchy of Warsaw]]. From 1808 to 1812 Prussia was reconstructed, and a series of reforms were enacted by Freiherr vom Stein and Freiherr von Hardenberg, including the regulation of municipal government, the liberation of the peasants and the emancipation of the Jews. A reform of the army was undertaken by the Prussian generals [[Gerhard von Scharnhorst]] and [[August von Gneisenau]]. In 1813 the Wars of Liberation began, following the destruction of Napoleon's army in [[Russia]] (1812). After the [[Battle of Leipzig|Battle of the Nations]] at [[Leipzig]], Germany was liberated from French rule. The Confederation of the Rhine was dissolved. In 1815 Napoleon was finally defeated at [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]] by the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]] and by Prussia's [[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher]]. ==German Confederation== ===Restoration and Revolution=== ''Main articles: [[German Confederation]], [[Revolutions of 1848 in the German states]]'' [[Image:Barricades - 1848 Germany.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Liberal and nationalist pressure led to the [[The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|Revolution of 1848 in the German states]]]] After the fall of Napoleon, European monarchs and statesmen convened in the [[Vienna]] in 1814 for the reorganization of European affairs, under the leadership of the [[Klemens Wenzel von Metternich|Austrian Prince Metternich]]. The political principles agreed upon at this [[Congress of Vienna]] included the restoration, legitimacy and solidarity of rulers for the repression of revolutionary and nationalist ideas. On the territory of the former &quot;Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation&quot;, the [[German Confederation]] (''Deutscher Bund'') was founded, a loose union of 39 states (35 ruling princes and 4 free cities) under Austrian leadership, with a Federal Diet (''Bundestag'') meeting in [[Frankfurt am Main]]. In 1817, inspired by liberal and patriotic ideas of a united Germany, student organisations gathered for the &quot;Wartburg festival&quot; at [[Wartburg Castle]], at [[Eisenach]] in [[Thuringia]], on the occasion of which reactionary books were burnt. In 1819 the student [[Karl Ludwig Sand]] murdered the writer [[August Friedrich Ferdinand von Kotzebue|August von Kotzebue]], who had scoffed at liberal student organisations. Prince Metternich used the killing as an occasion to call a conference in Karlsbad, which Prussia, Austria and eight other states attended, and which issued the [[Carlsbad Decrees|Karlsbad Decrees]]: censorship was introduced, and universities were put under supervision. The decrees also gave the start to the so-called &quot;persecution of the demagogues&quot;, which was directed against individuals who were accused of spreading revolutionary and nationalist ideas. Among the persecuted were the poet [[Ernst Moritz Arndt]], the publisher Johann Joseph Görres and the &quot;Father of Gymnastics&quot; Ludwig Jahn. In 1834 the [[Zollverein]] was established, a customs union between Prussia and most other German states, but excluding Austria. Growing discontent with the political and social order imposed by the Congress of Vienna led to the outbreak, in 1848, of the [[The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|March Revolution]] in the German states. In May the German National Assembly (the [[Frankfurt Parliament]]) met in [[Frankfurter Paulskirche|St. Paul's Church]] in [[Frankfurt am Main]] to draw up a national German constitution. But the 1848 revolution proved abortive: [[Frederick William IV of Prussia|King Frederick William IV of Prussia]] refused the imperial crown, the Frankfurt parliament was dissolved, the ruling princes repressed the risings by military force and the German Confederation was re-established by 1850. In 1862 [[Otto von Bismarck|Prince Bismarck]] was nominated chief minister of Prussia - against the opposition of liberals and socialists, who saw in him a reactionary. In 1864, disputes between Prussia and [[Denmark]] grew over [[Schleswig]], which - unlike [[Holstein]] - was not part of the German Confederation, and which Danish nationalists wanted to incorporate into the Danish kingdom. The dispute led to the [[Second War of Schleswig]], in the course of which the Prussians, joined by Austria, defeated the Danes. Denmark was forced to cede both the duchy of Schleswig and the duchy of Holstein to Austria and Prussia. In the aftermath, the management of both duchys provoked growing tensions between Austria and Prussia, which ultimately led to the [[Austro-Prussian War]] (1866). The war was decided in favour of the Prussians, who carried the decisive victory at the [[Battle of Königgratz]], under the command
uot; |- ! # ! Chinese name ! Long. ! Zodiac sign |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''11''' | &amp;#x5341;&amp;#x4E00;&amp;#x6708; shíy&amp;#299;yuè | align=&quot;right&quot; | 270° | [[Capricorn]] |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''12''' | &amp;#x5341;&amp;#x4E8C;&amp;#x6708; shí'èryuè | align=&quot;right&quot; | 300° | [[Aquarius]] |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''1''' | &amp;#x6B63;&amp;#x6708; zh&amp;#275;ngyuè | align=&quot;right&quot; | 330° | [[Pisces]] |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''2''' | &amp;#x4E8C;&amp;#x6708; èryuè | align=&quot;right&quot; | 0° | [[Aries]] |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''3''' | &amp;#x4E09;&amp;#x6708; s&amp;#257;nyuè | align=&quot;right&quot; | 30° | [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''4''' | &amp;#x56DB;&amp;#x6708; sìyuè | align=&quot;right&quot; | 60° | [[Gemini]] |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''5''' | &amp;#x4E94;&amp;#x6708; w&amp;#468;yuè | align=&quot;right&quot; | 90° | [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]] |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''6''' | &amp;#x516D;&amp;#x6708; liùyuè | align=&quot;right&quot; | 120° | [[Leo]] |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''7''' | &amp;#x4E03;&amp;#x6708; q&amp;#299;yuè | align=&quot;right&quot; | 150° | [[Virgo]] |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''8''' | &amp;#x516B;&amp;#x6708; b&amp;#257;yuè | align=&quot;right&quot; | 180° | [[Libra]] |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''9''' | &amp;#x4E5D;&amp;#x6708; ji&amp;#468;yuè | align=&quot;right&quot; | 210° | [[Scorpius|Scorpio]] |- | align=&quot;right&quot; | '''10''' | &amp;#x5341;&amp;#x6708; shíyuè | align=&quot;right&quot; | 240° | [[Sagittarius]] |} Some believe the above correspondence to be always true, but there are exceptions, which, for example, prevent [[Chinese New Year]] from always being the second new moon after the winter solstice, or that cause the holiday to occur after the ''Rain Water'' jieqi. An exception will occur in 2033-2034, when the winter solstice is the second solar term in the eleventh month. The next month is a no-entry month and so is intercalary, and a twelfth month follows which contains both the Aquarius and Pisces solar terms (''deep cold'' and ''rain water''). The Year of the Tiger thus begins on the third new moon following the Winter Solstice, and also occurs after the Pisces (''rain water'') jieqi, on [[February 19]]. Another occurrence was in 1984-85, after the sun had entered both Capricorn at 270° and Aquarius at 300° in month 11, and then entered Pisces at 330° during the next month, which should have caused it to be month 1. The sun did not enter any sign during the next month. In order to keep the winter solstice in month 11, the month which should have been month 1 became month 12, and the month thereafter became month 1, causing Chinese New Year to occur on [[20 February]] [[1985]] after the sun had already passed into Pisces at 330° during the previous month, rather than during the month beginning on that day. On those occasions when a dual-entry month does occur, it always occurs somewhere between two months that do not have any entry (non-entry months). It usually occurs alone and either includes the winter solstice or is nearby, thus placing the winter solstice in month 11 (rule 4) chooses which of the two non-entry months becomes the intercalary month. In 1984-85, the month immediately before the dual-entry month 11 was a non-entry month which was designated as an intercalary month 10. All months from the dual-entry month to the non-entry month that is not to be intercalary are sequentially numbered with the nearby regular months (rule 2). The last phrase of rule 5, choosing the first of two non-entry months between months 11, has not been required since the last calendar reform, and will not be necessary until the 2033-34 occasion, when two dual-entry months will be interspersed among three non-entry months, two of which will be on one side of month 11. The leap eleventh month produced is a very rare occasion. See [http://www.chinesecalendar.net/] for details. Exceptions such as these are rare. Fully 96.6% of all months contain only one entry into a zodiacal sign (have one principal term or cusp), all obeying the numbering rules of the [[#Jieqi|jiéqì]] table, and 3.0% of all months are intercalary months (always non-entry months between principal terms or cusps). Only 0.4% of all months either are dual-entry months (have two principal terms or cusps) or are neighboring months that are renumbered. It is only after the 1645 reform that this situation arose. Then it became necessary to fix one month to always contain its principal term and allow any other to occasionally not contain its principal term. Month 11 was chosen, because its principal term (the winter solstice) forms the start of the Chinese Solar year (the sui). The Chinese lunar calendar and the Gregorian Calendar often sync up every 19 years ([[Metonic cycle]]). Most Chinese people notice that their Chinese and Western birthdays often fall on the same day on their 19th, 38th birthday etc. However, a 19-year cycle with an certain set of intercalary months is only an approximation, so an almost identical pattern of intercalary months in subsequent cycles will eventually change after some multiple of 19 years to a quite different 19-year cycle. The [[Chinese zodiac]] (see [[#Nomenclature|Nomenclature]] and [[#Twelve Animals|Twelve Animals]] sections) is only used in naming years&amp;mdash;it is not used in the actual calculation of the calendar. In fact, the Chinese have a very different [[Chinese constellation|constellation system]]. The twelve months are closely connected with agriculture, so they are alternatively named after plants: # Primens (first month) 正月: Latin &quot;primus mensis&quot;. # Apricomens (apricot month) 杏月: [[apricot]] blossoms. # Peacimens (peach month) 桃月: [[peach]] blossoms. # Plumens (plum month) 梅月: [[plum]] ripens. # Guavamens (guava month) 榴月: [[guava]] blossoms. (should be pomegranate, not guava.) # Lotumens (lotus month) 荷月: [[Nelumbo|lotus]] blossoms. # Orchimens (orchid month) 蘭月: [[orchid]] blossoms. # Osmanthumens (osmanthus month) 桂月: [[osmanthus]] blossoms. # Chrysanthemens (chrysanthemum month) 菊月: [[chrysanthemum]] blossoms. # Benimens (good month) 良月: good month. # Hiemens (hiemal month) 冬月: [[hiemal]] month. # Lamens (last month) 臘月: last month. ==Year markings== ===Regnal years=== Traditional Chinese years were not continuously numbered in the way that the BC/AD system is. More commonly, official year counting always used some form of a [[regnal year]]. This system began in 841 BC during the Zhou dynasty. Prior to this, years were not marked at all, and historical events cannot be dated exactly. In 841 BC, the Li King Hu of Zhou (周历王胡) was ousted by a civilian uprising (国人暴动), and the country was governed for the next fourteen years by a council of senior ministers, a period known as the Regency (共和行政). In this period, years were marked as First (second, third, etc) Year of the Regency. Subsequently, years were marked as regnal years, e.g. the year 825 BC was marked as the 3rd Year of the Xuan King Jing of Zhou (周宣王三年). This system was used until early in the Han dynasty, when the Wen Emperor of Han (汉文帝刘恒) instituted [[nian hao|regnal names]]. After this, most emperors used one or more regnal names to mark their reign. Usually, the emperor would institute a new name upon accession to the throne, and then change to new names to mark significant events, or to end a perceived cycle of bad luck. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, however, each emperor usually used only one regnal name for their reign. This sytem continued until the [[Republic of China]], which counted years as Years of the Republic, beginning in 1912. Thus, 1912 is the 1st Year of the Republic, and 1948 the 37th. This system is still used for official purposes in Taiwan. For the rest of China, in 1949 the [[People's Republic of China]] chose to use the [[Common Era]] system (equivalently, AD/BC system), in line with international standards. ===The stem-branch cycle=== The other system by which years are marked historically in China was by the stem-branch or [[sexagenary cycle]]. This system is based on two forms of counting: a cycle of 10 [[Heavenly Stems]] and a cycle of 12 [[Earthly Branches]]. Each year is named by a pair of one stem and one branch called a Stem-Branch (&amp;#24178;&amp;#25903; g&amp;#257;nzh&amp;#299;). The Heavenly Stems are associated with [[Yin Yang]] and the [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|Five Elements]]. Recent 10-year periods began in 1984, 1994, and 2004. The Earthly Branches are associated with the twelve signs of the [[Zodiac]]. Each Earthly Branch is also associated with an animal, collectively known as the [[#Chinese Zodiac|Twelve Animals]]. Recent 12-year periods began in 1984 and 1996. Since the numbers 10 (Heavenly Stems) and 12 (Earthly Branches) have a common factor of 2, only 1/2 of the 120 possible stem-branch combinations actually occur. The resulting 60-year (or sexagesimal) cycle takes the name ''ji&amp;#462;z&amp;#464;'' (&amp;#30002;&amp;#23376;) after the first year in the cycle, being the Heavenly Stem of &quot;ji&amp;#462;&quot; and Earthly Branch of &quot;z&amp;#464;&quot;. The term &quot;ji&amp;#462;z&amp;#464;&quot; is used figuratively to mean &quot;a full lifespan&quot;&amp;mdash;one who has lived more than a ji&amp;#462;z&amp;#464; is obviously blessed. (Compare the Biblical &quot;three-score years and ten.&quot;) At first, this system was used to mark days, not years. The earliest evidence of this were found on [[oracle bone]]s dated c.1350 BC in [[Shang Dynasty]]. This system of date marking continues to this day, and can still be found on Chinese calendars today. Although a stem-branch cannot be used to deduce the actual day in historical events, it can assist in converting Chinese dates to other calendars more accurately. Around the [[Han Dynasty]], t
arty leader [[Spyros Kyprianou]]) and one from the [[United Democrats]]. However national unity government was not achieved because leftist wing party [[AKEL]] and Democratic Party rejected that offer and preferred to remain oppositioning parties. Under this administration negotiations continued in earnest in order to secure a deal before Cypriot admission to the [[European Union]] in [[2004]], but Clerides was defeated in the 2003 [[Elections in Cyprus|presidential elections]] by relative hard-liner [[Tassos Papadopoulos]], who saw out the negotiations on the [[Annan Plan]] and the [[Cyprus reunification referendum, 2004|subsequent referendum]]. While the plan was accepted on the Turkish Cypriot side of the Green Line, the Greek Cypriots rejected it by a large majority. Accordingly Cyprus remained divided on entry to the EU, and although some trade restrictions were lifted on the north to alleviate economic isolation for the Turkish Cypriots, further negotiations have not been a priority. There is now a focus on convincing Turkey to recognise the government of Cyprus, a requirement for Turkish admission advocated most strongly by Cyprus and [[France]]. ==Constitution== The [[16 August]] [[1960]] constitution envisioned power sharing between the Greek Cypriots and [[Turkish Cypriots]]. Efforts to ammends the constitution sparked the intercommunal strife in 1963. This constitution is still in force, though there is no Turkish Cypriot presence in the Cypriot government. ==Executive branch== {{office-table}} |President |[[Tassos Papadopoulos]] |[[Democratic Party (Cyprus)|DIKO]] |[[1 March]] [[2003]] |- |Vice-president |vacant | | |} The president, elected by popular vote for a five-year term, is both the chief of state and head of government; post of vice president is currently vacant; under the 1960 constitution, the post is reserved for a Turkish Cypriot. The Council of Ministers is appointed jointly by the president and vice president. ==Legislative branch== The [[House of Representatives of Cyprus|House of Representatives]] (''Vouli Antiprosópon/Temsilciler Meclisi'') has 59 members elected for a five year term, 56 Greek Cypriot members by [[proportional representation]] and 3 observer members representing the [[Maronite]], [[Roman-Catholic]] and [[Armenians|Armenian]] minorities. 24 seats are allocated to the Turkish community. ==Political parties and elections== {{elect|List of political parties in Cyprus|Elections in Cyprus}} {{Cyprus presidential election, 2003}} {{Cyprus legislative election, 2001}} ==Political pressure groups and leaders== Confederation of Cypriot Workers or SEK (pro-West); Confederation of Revolutionary Labor Unions or Dev-Is; Pan-Cyprian Labor Federation or PEO (Communist controlled) ==Administrative divisions== 6 districts; [[Famagusta]] (Ammochostos), [[Kyrenia]], [[Larnaca]], [[Limassol]] (Lemesos), [[Nicosia]] (Lefkosia), [[Paphos]]; note - occupied area's administrative divisions include Kyrenia, all but a small part of Famagusta (Ammochostos), and small parts of Lefkosia (Nicosia) and Larnaca. ==International organization participation== [[Commonwealth of Nations|C]], [[CCC]], [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[EBRD]], [[ECE]], [[European Patent Organisation|EPO]], [[European Union|EU Member]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]] (associate), [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[IMO]], [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[IOM]], [[ISO]], [[ITU]], [[NAM]](member since 1961, observer after 2004), [[OAS]] (observer), [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[PCA]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[WFTU]], [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]] ==See also== *[[Cyprus]] *[[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] {{Europe_in_topic|Politics of}} [[Category:Politics of Cyprus| ]] [[bg:&amp;#1044;&amp;#1098;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086; &amp;#1091;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1081;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1086; &amp;#1085;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1050;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1098;&amp;#1088;]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Economy of Cyprus</title> <id>5598</id> <revision> <id>38670159</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T21:50:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RexNL</username> <id>241337</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.237.180.61|198.237.180.61]] ([[User talk:198.237.180.61|talk]]) to last version by KRBN</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Economy - overview:''' Economic affairs in [[Cyprus]] are dominated by the division of the country into the southern area controlled by the Cyprus Government and the [[TRNC|northern Turkish Cypriot-administered area]]. The Greek Cypriot economy is prosperous but highly susceptible to external shocks. Erratic growth rates in the [[1990s]] reflect the economy's vulnerability to swings in tourist arrivals, caused by political instability on the island and fluctuations in economic conditions in [[Western Europe]]. Economic policy in the south is focused on meeting the criteria for admission to the [[European Union]]. As in the Turkish sector, water shortage is a growing problem, and several [[desalination plant]]s are planned. The Turkish Cypriot economy has about one-fifth the population and one-third the per capita GDP of the south. Because it is recognized only by [[Turkey]], it has had much difficulty arranging foreign financing, and foreign firms have hesitated to invest there. The economy remains heavily dependent on agriculture and government service, which together employ about half of the work force. Moreover, the small, vulnerable economy has suffered because the [[Turkish lira]] is [[legal tender]]. To compensate for the economy's weakness, Turkey provides direct and indirect aid to tourism, education, industry, etc. ===Economy--in greater depth=== Cyprus has an open, free-market, service-based economy with some light [[manufacturing]]. The Cypriots are among the most prosperous people in the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] region. Internationally, Cyprus promotes its geographical location as a &quot;bridge&quot; between West and East, along with its educated [[English language|English-speaking]] population, moderate local costs, good airline connections, and telecommunications. Throughout the post-Independence period, Cyprus has had a record of successful economic performance, reflected in rapid growth, full employment conditions and external and internal stability. The underdeveloped economy, inherited from Colonial Rule in [[1960]], has been transformed into a modern economy, with dynamic services, industrial and agricultural sectors and advanced physical and social infrastructure. Cyprus is classified among the high-income countries, with a per capita income of CY£9,477 in [[2004]] . It has a standard of living that is even higher than some European Union member-states and the performance of the economy compares favourably with that of most EU countries. Cyprus holds 16th place worldwide in terms of per capita income. The average annual rate of growth in the past five years was about 3,8%, while inflation stood at 2,9% and unemployment at 3,4% over that period. These achievements appear all the more striking, bearing in mind the severe economic and social dislocation created by the [[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus|Turkish invasion]] of [[1974]] and the continuing occupation of the northern part of the island by [[Turkey]]. The Turkish invasion inflicted a serious blow to the Cyprus economy and in particular to agriculture, tourism, mining and quarrying: 70 percent of the island’s rich producing resources were lost, the tourist industry lost 65 percent of its hotels and tourist accommodation, the industrial sector lost 46 percent, and mining and quarrying lost 56 percent of production. The loss of the Port of [[Famagusta]], which handled 83 percent of the general cargo, and the closure of the [[Nicosia]] International Airport, in the [[UN Buffer Zone in Cyprus|buffer zone]], were additional blows. The success of Cyprus in the economic sphere is attributed, inter alia, to the adoption of a market oriented economic system, the pursuance of sound macroeconomic policies by the government as well as the existence of a dynamic and flexible entrepreneurship and a highly educated labour force. Moreover, the economy benefited from the close cooperation between the public sector and the social partners. In the past 20 years, the economy has shifted from agriculture to light manufacturing and services. The service sector, including tourism, contributes 70% to the GDP and employs 62% of the labor force. Industry and construction contribute 24% and employ 25% of labor. Manufactured goods account for approximately 69% of domestic exports. Agriculture is responsible for 6% of GDP and 12% of the labor force. Potatoes and citrus are the principal export crops. After robust growth rates in the [[1980s]] (average annual growth was 6.1%), economic performance in the [[1990s]] has been mixed: Real GDP growth was 9.7% in [[1992]], 1.7% in 1993, 6.0% in [[1994]], 6.0% in [[1995]], 1.9% in [[1996]] and 2.3% in [[1997]]. This pattern underlines the economy's vulnerability to swings in tourist arrivals (i.e., to economic and political conditions in Cyprus, [[Western Europe]], and the [[Middle East]]) and the need to restructure the economy. Declining competitiveness in tourism and especially in manufacturing will act as a drag on growth until structural changes are effected. Overvaluation of the Cypriot pound has kept inflation in check in recent years (3
e]] whom he sought after when he first arrived in [[New York]]. Unfortunately they were all on tour. He integrated some elements of their music, still never compromising his own musical visions. He later formed a new band with [[saxophone]], [[trumpet]], [[piano]], [[double bass|bass]] and [[drums]]. He continued composing, and is regarded as among the most advanced guitar players of [[jazz music]]. In [[1951]], he retired to [[Samois sur Seine]], [[France]], near [[Fontainebleau]]. He lived there for two years until [[May 16]], [[1953]], when, while returning from the [[Avon, Seine-et-Marne|Avon]] train station, he collapsed outside of his house from a brain [[hemorrhage]]. It took one day for a doctor to arrive and he was declared [[dead on arrival]] at the hospital in [[Fontainebleau]]. ==Trivia== *The Concept of &quot;Lead Guitar&quot; (Django) and backing &quot;Rhythm Guitars&quot; (Joesph Reinhardt/Roger Chaput) was born with the [[Quintette Du Hot Club of France]] , without percussion instruments they used the &quot;Rhythm Guitars&quot; to serve this purpose. *Reinhardt is portrayed in the opening sequence of the 2003 cartoon ''[[Les Triplettes de Belleville]]'', playing a mean guitar with his three fingers and puffing cigarette smoke out of his ears. He is also portrayed by guitarist John Jorgenson in the movie ''[[Head in the Clouds]]''. *Reinhardt is the idol of the fictional 1930's guitarist, [[Emmet Ray]]([[Sean Penn]]),who passes out upon meeting Django in the [[Woody Allen]] film ''[[Sweet and Lowdown]]'' ([[1999]]). *The song [[Johnny Depp]] plays in the river party scene in [[Lasse Hallström]]'s ''[[Chocolat (film)|Chocolat]]'' was Django and Grapelli's great hit, &quot;Minor Swing&quot;. *Django's &quot;Minor Swing&quot; can also be heard in the background during the oracle scene in ''[[The Matrix]]''. *Djangos compositions ''Rhythm Futur'' (95 minute mark) and ''I Cant Give You Anything But Love'' (41 minute mark) are both portrayed in the movie ''[[The Aviator]]''. *His song ''Nuages'' is also in the movie ''[[Gattaca]]'' during a scene where [[Ethan Hawke]] demonstrates the clouds of [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] in a wine glass using smoke from his cigar. * The movie [[Head in the Clouds]] portrays Django playing guitar *[[The Beatles]] tune [[Piggies]] allegedly steals a melody from Grappelli's &quot;Eveline&quot; as recorded by Django. *[[Black Sabbath]] guitarist [[Tony Iommi]] was inspired by Reinhardt to keep playing guitar after an accident which cost him his fingertips.Thus Toni Iommis' music and [[Black Sabbath]] were also influenced by Django. *[[George Benson]] cites Django as an influence on him *[[Carlos Santana]] is influenced by Django *The [[Allman Brothers Band]] song [[Jessica (song)|Jessica]] was written by guitarist Dickey Betts in tribute to Reinhardt. He wanted to write a song that could be played using only two fingers. *[[B.B King]], cites Django as one of his main influences. *[[Jerry Garcia]] of the Grateful Dead is influenced by Django *[[Trey Anastasio]] formerly of [[Phish]] , his favorite guitarist is Django *[[Willie Nelson]] cites Django as an influence on him *[[Bob Wills]] and Western Swing was influenced by Django and Stephane Grappelli,Thus in turn influencing country music of today *[[David Lee Roth]] covered &quot;Limehouse Blues&quot; and &quot;Excatly like You&quot; on his Video &quot;[[No Holds Bar-Be-Que]]&quot; *[[Charlie Christian]] is influenced by Django *[[David Crosby]] named one of his sons &quot;Django&quot; *Famed classical guitarist [[Julian Bream]] began playing guitar as a result of hearing Reinhardt. *[[Les Paul]] was influenced by Django *The [[Django web framework]], a Python web framework, was named after Reinhardt. *The 2002 video game Mafia used songs &quot;Minor Swing&quot;, &quot;Rhythm Futur&quot;, &quot;Vendredi&quot;, &quot;Oiseaux des Iles&quot;, &quot;Belleville&quot;, &quot;Lentement, Mademoiselle&quot;, &quot;Douce Ambiance&quot;, &quot;Manoir de mes Rêves&quot; and &quot;Cavalerie&quot; as the majority of the soundtrack. *[[Sealab 2021]] paid tribute to Django in the episode &quot;Bebop Cola&quot;. In it, Captain Murphy comments on a drink dispensed from the Bebop Cola machine: &quot;Ahh, Mango Rheinhardt! The thinking man's pop!&quot; *[[Harlan Ellison]]'s short story &quot;Django&quot; is a fantasia about a guitarist, with similarities to Reinhardt. ==Discography== Releases *[[2004]] Le Génie Vagabond *[[2003]] Jazz in Paris: Nuits de Saint-Germain des-Prés *[[2003]] Jazz in Paris: Nuages *[[2001]] All Star Sessions *[[1996]] Imagine *[[1959]] Django Reinhardt and His Rhythm *[[1955]] Django's Guitar *[[1954]] The Great Artistry of Django Reinhardt *[[1953]] Django Reinhardt et Ses Rythmes *[[1951]] At Club St. Germain *[[1951]] Django Reinhardt and the Hot Club Quintet *[[1945]] Paris [[1945]] Compilations *Rétrospective Django Reinhardt 1934/53 (''probably the most complete one'') *The Django -- The Unforgettable *Django Reinhardt [Forlane] *Stardust Records Presents Django Reinhardt: Anthology [[1934]]-[[1937]] *Django *The Art of Django *Quintet of the Hot Club of France [GNP] *Vol. 6: Nuages *Django Reinhardt and the Quintet *Django, Vol. 2 [ITI] *Djangologie/USA, Vols. 3 &amp; 4 == See also == *[[Gypsy_jazz|Gypsy Jazz]] *[[Golden Django]] *[[Django Reinhardt Jazz Festival]] ==External links== *[http://django.samois.free.fr/ Django Reinhardt Jazz Festival] holding in [[Samois-sur-Seine]] in [[France]] *[http://www.djangostation.com All information relating to Django reinhardt and Jazz manouch (in French)] *[http://www.djangobooks.com Django Reinhardt / Gypsy Jazz resources] *[http://www.gainsbourg.org/vrsn3/html/zooms/djangoreinhardt/ A Tribute to Gainsbourg, zoom sur Django Reinhardt] *[http://www.jazzguitar.be/django_reinhardt_licks.html Django Reinhardt guitar tab] *[http://hotclub.co.uk HotClub UK Forum] *[http://www.redhotjazz.com/django.html A biography] *[http://www.newyorker.com/critics/books/?041206crbo_books A long review by Adam Gopnik of Michael Dregni’s biography, “Django: The Life and Music of a Gypsy Legend”] *[http://www.guitar-poll.com/DR.php Guitar-Poll] *[http://blog.wfmu.org/freeform/2006/02/videos_france_g.html Film of Django playing alone and with his quintet, courtesy of WMFU's Beware of the Blog] [[Category:1910 births|Reinhardt, Django]] [[Category:1953 deaths|Reinhardt, Django]] [[Category:Jazz guitarists|Reinhardt, Django]] [[Category:Belgian jazz musicians|Reinhardt, Django]] [[Category:Belgian guitarists|Reinhardt, Django]] [[Category:Roma people|Reinhardt, Django]] [[de:Django Reinhardt]] [[eo:Django REINHARDT]] [[fi:Django Reinhardt]] [[fr:Django Reinhardt]] [[it:Django Reinhardt]] [[he:ג'אנגו ריינהארדט]] [[nl:Django Reinhardt]] [[sv:Django Reinhardt]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Digit</title> <id>9041</id> <revision> <id>39694940</id> <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:06:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SimonP</username> <id>1591</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.183.42.18|210.183.42.18]] ([[User talk:210.183.42.18|talk]]) to last version by Enochlau</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Digit''' may refer to: * A [[finger]] or a [[toe]] * [[Numerical digit]], as used in mathematics or computer science * [[Digit (unit)]], an ancient meterological unit * [[Digit (magazine)]], an Indian information technology magazine {{disambig}} [[es:Dígito]][[sl:števka]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Downy O'Drake</title> <id>9042</id> <revision> <id>28602135</id> <timestamp>2005-11-17T16:47:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Supermorff</username> <id>239586</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Downy O'Drake''' is a [[fictional character]] of the [[Scrooge McDuck universe]]. She was born in [[Ireland]] in [[1840]]. She married [[Fergus McDuck]] and became the mother of three children: *[[Scrooge McDuck]] ([[1867]]-[[1967]]). *[[Matilda McDuck]] ([[1871]]-[[1971]]). *[[Hortense McDuck]] ([[1876]]-[[1976]]). She was a very devoted [[homemaker|housewife]] and mother. She settled in Dismal Downs, [[the Clan McDuck]]'s old castle, along with her family on [[1885]]. She died in [[1897]], aged 57, and was buried in the McDucks' cemetery. [[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|O'Drake, Downy]] [[Category:Fictional ducks|O'Drake, Downy]] [[it:Piumina O'Drake]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Dingus McDuck</title> <id>9043</id> <revision> <id>37486155</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T07:28:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bryan Derksen</username> <id>66</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>sequence template</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dingus McDuck''', nicknamed &quot;Dirty,&quot; is a [[fictional character]] of the [[Scrooge McDuck universe]]. He was a descedant of Captain [[Hugh McDuck|Hugh &quot;Seafoam&quot; McDuck]] and younger brother of [[Quagmire McDuck]]. He was a [[coal]] miner in [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]]. He married fellow coal miner [[Molly Mallard]] and became the father of three sons: *[[Angus McDuck]] ([[1829]]-[[1901]]). *[[Jake McDuck]] ([[1832]]- after [[1952]] ?). *[[Fergus McDuck]] ([[1835]]&amp;ndash;[[1902]]). Through his sons he is the paternal grandfather of [[Rumpus McFowl]], [[Scrooge McDuck]], [[Matilda McDuck]], [[Hortense McDuck]] and [[Gideon McDuck]], a great-grandfather of [[Donald Duck]] and [[Della Thelma Duck]] and great-great-grandfather to [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]]. {{Sequence| prev=[[Hugh McDuck]]| list=Important members of [[the Clan McDuck]]| next=[[Fergus McDuck]] }} [[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|McDuck, Dingus]] [[Category:Fictional duck
, he helped give voice to the black consciousness. Ridenhour also contributed (as Chuck D) to several episodes of the [[PBS]] [[Television documentary|documentary]] series ''[[The Blues]]''. In 1996 he released [[Autobiography Of Mistachuck]] on [[Mercury Records]]. In September, 1999, he launched a multi-format &quot;supersite&quot; on the Web, Rapstation.com. A home for the vast global Hip Hop community, the site boasts a TV and radio station with original programming, a slew of Hip Hop's most prominent DJs, celebrity interviews, free [[MP3]] downloads (the first was contributed by multi-platinum rapper [[Coolio]]), social commentary, current events, and regular features dedicated to empowering rap artists with the knowledge to turn their craft into a viable living. Since [[2000]], he has been one of the most vocal supporters of Internet music [[file sharing]] in the music industry. Chuck has been increasingly involved politically. He co-hosted ''[[Unfiltered]]'' on [[Air America Radio]], he has testified before [[Congress]] about [[P2P]], and was involved in a [[2004]] rap political convention. He continues to be an [[activism|activist]], publisher, lecturer, and producer. He is the co-writer of the essay book ''Fight the Power: Rap, Race, and Reality'', along with [[Yusuf Jah]] (ISBN 0385318685) and film director [[Spike Lee]]. He loaned his voice to ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'' as DJ Forth Right MC for the radio station [[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas soundtrack#Playback FM|Playback FM]]. On [[June 5]], [[2005]], Chuck D returned to [[Air America Radio]] with a new show, [[On The Real]]. In anger at the New Orleans [[Hurricane Katrina]] disaster, Public Enemy came back with the song 'Hell No We Ain't All Right!' and a new album ''[[New Whirl Odor]]''. == [[Discography]] == with Public Enemy: * ''[[Yo! Bum Rush The Show]]'' (1987) * ''[[It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back]]'' (1988) * ''[[Fight the Power...Live!]]'' (video and album, 1989) * ''[[Fear of a Black Planet]]'' (1990) * ''[[Apocalypse '91...The Enemy Strikes Black]]'' (1991) * ''[[Greatest Misses]]'' 1986-1992 (1992) * ''[[Muse Sick-n-Hour Mess Age]]'' (1994) * ''[[He Got Game]]'' (1998) * ''[[BTN 2000]]'' (online released mega-mix which initialized PE's leaving [[Def Jam]] records) (1999) * ''[[There's A Poison Goin On]]'' (1999) * ''[[Revolverlution]]'' (2002) * ''[[There's A Poison Goin On]]'' (worldwide re-release via [[Slamjamz.com]]) (2004) * ''[[New Whirl Odor]]'' (2005) In addition, before the 2004 Presidential Election, Public Enemy released the highly anti-Bush EP SON OF A BUSH that contained the songs &quot;Son of a Bush&quot;, &quot;Get Your Shit Together&quot; and the song featuring Fine Arts Mililia (featuring Chuck D) entitled &quot;Twisted Sense of God&quot;. He also brought out a very soulful [[1996]] solo record, ''[[The Autobiography of Mistachuck]]'' (on [[Mercury Records]]) and founded the record company Slam Jamz. with Fine Arts Militia: * ''[[Fine Arts Militia]]'' ([[2003]]) ==External links== * [http://www.rapstation.com/ rapstation.com, Chuck D's official site] * {{imdb name|id=0195982|name=Chuck D}} * [[Rolling Stone]]'s [http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/bio.asp?oid=3771&amp;cf=3771 Chuck D] * [http://www.robertchristgau.com/xg/music/chuckd-91.php Chuck D interview] with the Village Voice. October 22, 1991. * [http://www.publicenemy.com/ Public Enemy Official Website] * [http://www.splangy.com/realaudio/chuckd.ram Realaudio interview] with Chuck D on public radio program / podcast [[The Sound of Young America]] {{AAR}} [[Category:1960 births|Chuck D]] [[Category:Living people|Chuck D]] [[Category:American activists]] [[Category:Air America Radio|Chuck D]] [[Category:Alternative hip hop musicians]] [[Category:American radio personalities|Chuck D]] [[Category:American rappers]] [[Category:Musical activists]] [[Category:Long Islanders|Chuck D]] [[de:Chuck D]] [[es:Chuck D]] [[no:Chuck D]] [[sv:Chuck D]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cutaway (film)</title> <id>5719</id> <revision> <id>31727669</id> <timestamp>2005-12-17T13:17:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>193.251.135.124</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">In film, a '''cutaway''' is the interruption of a continuously-filmed action by inserting a view of something else. It is usually followed by a cutback to the first shot. Probably its most common uses in dramatic films are to adjust the pace of the main action, to conceal the deletion of some unwanted part of the main shot, or to allow the joining of parts of two versions of that shot. For example, a scene may be improved by cutting a few frames out of an actor's pause; a brief view of some listener can help conceal the break. Or the actor may fumble some of his lines in a group shot; rather than discarding a good version of the shot, the director may just have the actor repeat the lines &quot;in one&quot; and cut to that solitary view when necessary--some actors have fumbled their lines deliberately to get that treatment. These are [[journeyman]] techniques. Cutaways can also be used for reasons of art. One example of a cutaway being used deliberately to break continuity, for comedic effect, appears in ''[[Shoot the Piano Player]]'' ''(Tirez sur le pianiste)'', by [[François Truffaut]]: the pianist and his female companion are being followed; she opens her compact and uses it to show him the two gangsters behind them, impossibly large in the reflection. [[The Simpsons]] and [[Family Guy]] both used cutaways widely to introduce brief gags before returning to the episode's main storyline, although The Simpsons cut back and eventually eliminated cutaways when the technique was adopted by Family Guy. [[Cross cutting]] is a series of cutaways and cutbacks. In news and documentary work, the cutaway is used much as it would be in fiction. On location, there is usually just one camera to film an interview, and it's usually trained on the interviewee. Often there is only one microphone. After the interview, the interviewer will usually repeat his questions while he himself is being filmed, with pauses as he pretends to listen to the answers. (The comedy ''[[Micki and Maude]]'' shows this process quite accurately.) These shots can be used as cutaways. They may be necessary just to ensure that the audience can hear the questions correctly. ''Compare with:'' [[Insert (film)|Insert]] ---- In [[graphic art]], a '''cutaway''' is used to show the insides of an object by cutting away its outside layers or parts. ---- In [[clothing]], a '''cutaway''' another name for a man's [[morning coat]]. [[Category:Film techniques]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Coma</title> <id>5721</id> <revision> <id>42108898</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:59:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Header - references plural</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Expert}} {{cleanup-date|August 2005}} :''For other meanings of the word &quot;coma&quot;, especially in [[astronomy]], see [[coma (disambiguation)]]'' {{SignSymptom infobox | Name = Coma | ICD9 = 780.01 | ICD10 = R40.2 | }} In [[medicine]], a '''coma''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''koma'', meaning deep sleep) is a profound state of [[unconsciousness]]. A comatose patient cannot be awakened, fails to respond properly or at all to stimuli such as pain or light, does not have sleep-wake cycles, and does not take voluntary actions (BAIUSA). Coma may result from a variety of conditions, including [[intoxication]], [[metabolism|metabolic]] abnormalities, central nervous system diseases, and [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]]. ==Causes== An impairment that affects a large part of the brain, called [[diffuse pathology]], is the most common cause of coma, accounting for about 60% of the cases. To maintain consciousness, the brain requires the correct temperature, pressure, [[pH]], oxygenation, and nutrients; denying the brain any of these necessities will lead to coma. A variety of common causes of coma can be classified as diffuse pathologies. For example, head trauma associated with an increased [[intracranial pressure]] can lead to coma by compressing delicate brain tissue, as can [[subarachnoid hemorrhage]]. Various toxins can also lead to coma, including [[poison]]s, [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[barbiturate]]s, [[opiate]] narcotics, [[sedative]]s, [[amphetamine]]s, [[cocaine]] and [[aspirin]]. Metabolic abnormalities that lead to either elevated or reduced glucose levels in the blood, liver or kidney failure, [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]] (poor oxygenation), and [[electrolyte]] imbalances can also produce unconsciousness. [[Seizure]] disorders and [[central nervous system]] [[infection]]s, such as [[meningitis]] and [[encephalitis]], are further examples. Coma can also be caused by focal lesions, those that affect only a small part of the brain and may be either supratentorial or infratentorial. Focal [[tentorium|supratentorial]] injuries account for 30% of coma cases, and can be caused by problems with [[Vascular System|blood vessels]] or by expansive lesions such as [[neoplasia]] or [[hydrocephalus]]. Focal infratentorial lesions account for the remaining 10% of comas, and can be of vascular nature, expansive or [[myelin|demyelinating]] lesions. Medical professionals may intentionally [[induced coma|induce a coma]] with drugs to reduce swelling of the brain after injury. ==Contrasts to other conditions== Some conditions share characteristics with coma and must be ruled out in a [[differential diagnosis]] before coma is conclusively diagnosed. These include [[locked-In syndrome]], [[Akinesia|akinetic mutism]] and [[catatonic stupor]]. The difference between coma and
ince]]'' by [[Machiavelli]] ==External links and resources connected with Cesare Borgia== *[http://www.classicreader.com/booktoc.php/sid.2/bookid.873/ The Prince] (html format) *[http://www.classicreader.com/read.php/sid.2/bookid.873/sec.29/ Description of the Methods Adopted by the Duke Valentino When Murdering Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, the Signor Pagolo, and the Duke di Gravina Orsini] (html format) [[Category:1475 births|Borgia, Cesare]] [[Category:1507 deaths|Borgia, Cesare]] [[Category:Cardinals|Borgia, Cesare]] [[Category:Italian nobility|Borgia, Cesare]] [[ar:سيزار بورجيا]] [[ca:Cèsar Borja]] [[da:Cesare Borgia]] [[de:Cesare Borgia]] [[es:César Borgia]] [[fr:César Borgia]] [[hr:Cesare Borgia]] [[io:Cesare Borgia]] [[it:Cesare Borgia]] [[nl:Cesare Borgia]] [[ja:チェーザレ・ボルジア]] [[no:César de Borja]] [[pl:Cezar Borgia]] [[pt:César Bórgia]] [[fi:Cesare Borgia]] [[sv:Cesare Borgia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cellular telephone</title> <id>7505</id> <revision> <id>15905569</id> <timestamp>2002-11-18T13:26:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>213.253.40.136</ip> </contributor> <comment>redir</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[mobile phone]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Chronicle</title> <id>7507</id> <revision> <id>41888824</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:12:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>GrinBot</username> <id>411872</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: ca</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">Generally a '''chronicle''' ([[Latin]] ''chronica'') is historical account of facts and events in [[chronology|chronological]] order. Typically equal weight is given for important events and less important events, the purpose being the recording of events that occurred. This is in contrast to a narrative or history, which focuses on important events and excludes those the author does not see as important. [[Image:nabonidus chronicle.jpg|thumb|200px|right| [[Nabonidus Chronicle]], [[British Museum]], London]] Scholars categorize the [[genre]] of chronicle into two subgroups: live chronicles, and dead chronicles. A ''dead'' chronicle is one where the author gathers his list of events up to the time of his writing, but does not record further events as they occur. A ''live'' chronicle is where one or more authors add to a chronicle in a regular fashion, recording contemporary events shortly after they occur. Because of the immediacy of the information, [[historian]]s tend to value live chronicles over dead ones. The term often refers to a [[book]] written by a chronicler in the [[Middle Ages]] describing historical events in a country, or the lives of a nobleman or a clergyman, although it is also applied to a record of public events. Various contemporary [[newspaper]]s or other [[periodical]]s have adopted &quot;chronicle&quot; as part of their name. Various [[fictional]] stories have also adopted &quot;chronicle&quot; as part of their title, to give an impression of epic proportion to their stories. ==List of notable chronicles== *[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] *[[Annals of Inisfallen]] *[[Annals of the Four Masters]] *[[Annals of Spring and Autumn]] *[[Croyland Chronicle]] *[[Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja|Dioclean Priest's Chronicle]] *[[Froissart's Chronicles]] *[[Galician-Volhynian Chronicle]] *[[Chronicle of Henry of Livonia|Henry of Livona Chronicle]] *[[Chronicon (Jerome)|Jermone Chronical]] *[[Kano Chronicle]] *[[Chronicon Lethrense|Lethrense Chronicle]] *[[Maha Wamsa]] or [[Mahavamsa]] *[[Chronicon Paschale|Paschale Chronicle]] *[[Primary Chronicle|Russian Primary Chronicle]] *[[Sanguo Zhi]] *[[Chronicon Slavorum|Slavorum Chronicle]] *[[Swiss illustrated chronicles]] ==See also== *'''Chronicles''' are two canonical books of the [[Old Testament]]. See [[Books of Chronicles]]. *[[List of English chronicles]] *[[English historians in the Middle Ages]] *[[Weblog]] [[Category:Chronicles|*]] [[Category:Medieval literature]] [[ca:Crònica]] [[cs:Kronika]] [[de:Chronik]] [[et:Kroonika]] [[es:Crónica]] [[hu:Krónika]] [[ja:年代記]] [[no:Krønike]] [[pl:Kronika]] [[ro:Letopiseţ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Colonization of Africa</title> <id>7510</id> <revision> <id>41413574</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:57:16Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Warofdreams</username> <id>20855</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.8.20.72|24.8.20.72]] ([[User talk:24.8.20.72|talk]]) to last version by That Guy, From That Show!</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''colonization of Africa''' has a long history, the most famous phase being the European [[Scramble for Africa]] of the [[nineteenth century]]. ==Ancient Colonization== [[North Africa]] in particular experienced colonization from [[Europe]] and [[Asia Minor]] in the early historical period. The city of [[Carthage]] was established in what is now [[Tunisia]] by [[Phoenicia]]n colonists, becoming a major power in the [[Mediterranean]] by the [[4th century BC]]. Over time the city changed hands, falling to the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s after the [[Third Punic War]], where it served as the capital city of the Romans' African province. Gothic [[Vandals]] briefly established a kingdom there in the [[5th century]], which shortly thereafter fell to the Romans again, this time the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]]. The [[Ancient Egypt]]ian civilization also fell under the sway of the [[Hellenic civilization|Greeks]], later passing to the Romans. The whole of Roman/Byzantine North Africa eventually fell to the [[Arab]]s in the [[7th century]], who brought the [[Islam]]ic religion and [[Arabic language]] (see [[History of Islam]]). ==Early modern period== From the seventh century, Arab trade with sub-Saharan Africa led to a gradual colonization of [[East Africa]], around [[Zanzibar]] and other bases. Although [[trans-Saharan trade]] led to a small number of [[West Africa]]n cities developing Arab quarters, these were not intended as colonies and even the pillage of the [[Moroccan war]] in the Sahel finished with [[Morocco|Moroccan]] forces returning home. Early European expeditions concentrated on colonizing previously uninhabited islands such as the [[Cape Verde]]s and [[Sao Tome Island]], or establishing coastal [[fort]]s as a base for trade. These forts often developed areas of influence along coastal strips, but (with the exception of the [[River Senegal]]), the vast interior of Africa was not colonized and indeed little known to Europeans until the late [[nineteenth century]]. ==The Scramble for Africa== :''Main article: [[Scramble for Africa]]'' Established empires, notably Britain, Portugal and France, had already expropriated vast areas of Africa and Asia, and emerging imperial powers like Italy and Germany had done likewise on a smaller scale. With the dismissal of the aging [[Otto von Bismarck|Chancellor Bismarck]] by [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Kaiser Wilhelm II]], the relatively orderly colonization became a frantic scramble. The [[1885]] Congress of Berlin, initiated by Bismarck to establish international guidelines for the acquisition of African territory, formalized this &quot;[[New Imperialism]]&quot;. Between the [[Franco-Prussian War]] and the [[World War I|Great War]], [[Europe]] added almost 9 million square miles (23,000,000 km&amp;sup2;) &amp;#8212; one-fifth of the land area of the globe &amp;#8212; to its overseas colonial possessions. == Decolonization == :''Main article: [[Decolonization of Africa]]'' The main period of decolonization in Africa began after [[World War II]]. Growing independence movements, indigeneous political parties and trade unions coupled with pressure from within the imperialist powers and from the [[United States]] ensured the decolonization of virtually the whole of the continent by [[1980]]. While some areas, in particular [[South Africa]], retain a large population of European descent, only the Spanish [[enclave]]s of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]] and the islands of [[Reunion]], the [[Canary Islands]] and [[Madeira]] remain under European control. ==See also== *[[Colonialism]] *[[New Imperialism]] *[[Neocolonialism]] *[[Third world]] ==References== {{unreferenced}} ==External links== * [http://www.africana.com/articles/daily/index_20021014.asp Germany Refuses to Apologize for Herero Holocaust] - from Africana.com * [http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4460659-103681,00.html Belgium exhumes its colonial demons] - from guardian.co.uk [[Category:Colonialism]] [[Category:History of Africa]] [[Category:History of colonialism]] [[pt:História da colonização de África]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Concentration</title> <id>7512</id> <revision> <id>42067570</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:16:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Bomac</username> <id>466515</id> </contributor> <comment>+mk</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''for other uses of this word, see [[Concentration (disambiguation)]]'' In [[chemistry]], '''concentration''' is the measure of how much of a given [[chemical substance|substance]] there is mixed with another substance. This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most frequently is used in relation to [[solution]]s, where it refers to the amount of ''solute'' dissolved in a ''solvent''. To '''concentrate''' a solution, one must add more solute, or reduce the amount of solvent (for instance, by selective [[evaporation]]). By contrast, to '''[[dilute]]''' a solution, one must add more solvent, or reduce the amount of solute. There exists a concentration at which no further solute will dissolve in a solution. At this point, the solution is said to be [[Saturation (chem
ave been built in areas that are depressed economically. This means that the companies get cheap land and labour, and can often benefit from grants to encourage them to improve employment in a given area. There has also been a trend to move call centres to [[India]], where there is a large pool of cheap English-speaking labour. This phenomenon has led to media reports of poor telephone connections and operators with insufficient local knowledge to do their job. But, call centres in India may be more professionally managed than their counterparts elsewhere in the world. Whereas a typical call centre employee in the developed world may be a high school drop-out, the typical employee in an Indian call centre is a graduate. Another popular call centre site is the [[Philippines]], owing to its abundant English speakers that are college graduates and Americanized when it comes to English accent and cultural affinities. The Philippines was an American colony for almost 50 years. Filipinos are said to be the best outsourcing site outside North America since the accent is nearer to that of American consumers. For the Asia Pacific region, from India to Australia and New Zealand, [[Malaysia]] is emerging as one of the top locations for setting up call centres. The country has a history of ties with the English-speaking world and English-language education, as a former British colony. Canada is also a popular call centre site, with the relatively low [[Canadian dollar]] and low telecommunication rates. [[Sitel Corporation|SITEL Corporation]], which operates call centres in [[Ottawa]] and [[St. Catharines, Ontario|St. Catharines]], [[Ontario]] is one such company. However the [[BPO Industry]] in India is booming at a much faster rate, owing to the fact that not only is the Indian Economy booming and it's basic infrastructure becoming much better, but that [[scalability]] in terms of Human Resource is more easily delivered by Indian Call Centers then those run in any other country. Around the world, there are a number of professional organisations forming to develop and promote call centre best practice management and operation, to overcome the negative aspects of a call centre. ==Management of call centres== Management of call centres involves balancing the requirements of cost effectiveness and service. Callers do not wish to wait in exorbitantly long [[teletraffic queuing theory|queues]] until they can be helped and so management must provide sufficient staff and inbound capacity to ensure that the quality of service is maintained. However, staff costs generally form more than half the cost of running a call centre and so management must minimise the number of staff present. To perform this balancing act, call centre managers make use of demand estimation, Telecommunication forecasting and dimensioning techniques to determine the level of staff required at any time. Managers must take into account staff tea and lunch breaks and must determine the number of agents required on duty at any one time. ==Forecasting demand== [[telecommunication forecasting|Forecasting]] results are vital in making management decisions in call centres. Forecasting methods rely on data acquired from various sources including historical data, trend data and so on. Forecasting methods must predict the traffic intensity within the call centre in quarter-hour increments and these results must be converted to staffing rosters. Special attention must be paid to the [[busy hour]]. Forecasting methods must be used to pre-empt a situation where equipment needs to be upgraded as traffic intensity has exceeded the maximum capacity of the call centre. ==Call centre performance== There are many standard [[traffic measurement (telecommunications)|traffic measurement]]s that can be performed on a call centre to determine its [[network performance|performance]] levels. However, the most important performance measures are: *The average delay a caller may experience whilst waiting in a queue *The mean conversation time, otherwise referred to as Average Talk Time (ATT) *The mean dealing time, otherwise referred to as Average Handling Time (equal to ATT plus wrap up time) *The percentage of calls answered within a determined time frame (referred to as a Service Level or SL%) *The percentage of calls which completely resolve the customer's issue (if the customer does not call back about the same problem for a certain period of time, it is considered a successful resolution). ==Refinements of call centres== There are many refinements to the generic call centre model. Each refinement helps increase the efficiency of the call centre thereby allowing management to make better decisions involving economy and service. The following list contains some examples of call centre refinements: *''Predictive Dialling'' &amp;#8211; Computer software attempts to predict the time taken for an agent to help a caller. The software begins dialling another caller before the agent has finished the previous call. This, because not every call will be connected (think of busy or not answered calls) and also because of the time it takes to set up the call (usually around 20 seconds before someone answers). Frequently, predictive dialers will dial more callers than there are agents, counting on the fact that not every line will be answered. When the line is answered and no agent is available, it is held in a retention queue for a short while. When still no agent has become available, the call is hung up and classified as a nuisance call. The next time the client is called an agent will be reserved for the caller. *''Multi-Skilled Staff'' &amp;#8211; In any call centre, there will be members of staff that will be more skilled in areas than others. A Voice Response Unit can be used to allow the caller to select the reason for his call. Management software, called an Automatic Call Distributor, must then be used to route calls to the appropriate agent. Alternatively, it has been found that a mix of general and specialist agent creates a good balance. *''Queuing Systems'' &amp;#8211; The selection of a [[teletraffic queuing theory|queuing]] system type is a very important decision in a call centre as it determines the level of quality of service. Queueing systems in call centres are usually described as M/M/N type queues where N is the number of agents. The preferred method of queuing is a FIFO (First In First Out) model, as it causes minimum delay to callers. *''Prioritisation of Callers'' &amp;#8211; Classification of callers according to priority is a very important refinement. Emergency calls or callers that are reattempting to contact a call centre are examples of callers that could be given a higher priority. *''Automatic Number Identification'' &amp;#8211; This allows agents to determine who is calling before they answer the call. Greeting a caller by name and obtaining his/her information in advance adds to the quality of service and helps decrease the conversation time. ==Additional issues in call centres== There are many other issues that have to be planned for when managing a call centre. A few of these issues are listed below: *Planning for failure of equipment *Need for flexibility in meal-times *Need for job variety and training *Job exhaustion and stress *Staff turnover ==Variations on the generic call centre model== The various components in a call centre discussed in the previous sections are the generic form of a call centre. There are many variations on the model developed above. A few of the variations are listed below: *''Remote Agents'' &amp;#8211; An alternative to housing all agents in a central facility is to use remote agents. These agents work from home and use a Basic Rate ISDN access line to communicate with a central computing platform. Remote agents are more cost effective as they don&amp;#8217;t have to travel to work, however the call centre must still cover the cost of the ISDN line. *''Temporary Agents'' &amp;#8211; Temporary agents are useful as they can be called upon if demand increases more rapidly than planned. They are offered a certain number of quarter hours a month. They are paid for the amount they actually work, and the difference between the amount offered and the amount guaranteed is also paid. Managers must use forecasting methods to determine the number of hours offered so that the difference is minimised. *''Virtual Call Centres'' &amp;#8211; Virtual Call Centres are created using many smaller centres in different locations and connecting them to one another. The advantage of virtual call centres is that they improve service levels, provide emergency backup and enable extended operating hours over isolated call centres. There are two methods used to [[Routing in the PSTN|route]] traffic around call centres: pre-delivery and post-delivery. Pre-delivery involves using an external switch to route the calls to the appropriate centre and post-delivery enables call centres to route a call they&amp;#8217;ve received to another call centre. *''Interaction Centres'' &amp;#8211; As call centres evolve and deal with more media than [[telephony]] alone, some have taken to the term, &quot;interaction centre&quot;. [[Email]], [[Web Callback]] and more are gradually being added to the role. == Criticism of call centres == Criticisms of call centres generally follow a number of common themes: From Callers: ** operators working from a script. ** non-expert operators (call screening). ** overseas location, with language and accent problems. ** automated queuing systems. From Staff: ** close scrutiny by management. ** low pay. ** restrictive working practices. As detailed above, none of these are inherent in the call centre model, although many companies will experience some or all of the above while implementing a call centre approach. As the science suggests, done properly, a call centre can offer the quickest route to resolution of c
ish at Mechon-Mamre.org) *[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations: ** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et09a01.htm 1 Kings at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation) ** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et09b01.htm 2 Kings at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation) ** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15753 Melachim I - Kings I (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org ** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15754 Melachim II - Kings II (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org *[[Christianity|Christian]] translations: ** {{biblegateway|1|Kings}} ** {{biblegateway|2|Kings}} Related article: * [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=226&amp;letter=K&amp;search=Kings Books of Kings article] (Jewish Encyclopedia) {{eastons}} [[Category:Nevi'im|Kings, Books of]] [[Category:Old Testament books|Kings]] [[zh-min-nan:Lia̍t-ông-kí]] [[cs:1. kniha královská]] [[de:1. Buch der Könige]] [[fr:Premier livre des Rois]] [[ko:열왕기 상]] [[id:1 Raja-Raja]] [[he:ספר מלכים]] [[jv:I Para Raja]] [[nl:I en II Koningen]] [[ja:列王記]] [[ru:Третья книга Царств]] [[sk:Knihy kráľov]] [[fi:Ensimmäinen kuninkaiden kirja]] [[sv:Första Kungaboken]] [[yi:מלכים]] [[zh:列王紀上]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Book of Ruth</title> <id>4381</id> <revision> <id>41301629</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T11:22:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>JzG</username> <id>760284</id> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */ Link added at the top, not in alpha order, ALL CAPS, and by an anon. Scepticism engaged.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}} {{Books of Ketuvim}} The '''Book of Ruth''' is a book in the [[Hebrew Bible]] known to Jews as the [[Tanakh]] and to Christians as the [[Old Testament]]. == The story == '''Ruth''' ('''&amp;#1512;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1468;&amp;#1514;''' &quot;Compassion&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Rut''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''Rû&amp;#7791;''') is a [[Moabite]] woman whose [[father-in-law]] and [[mother-in-law]], Elimelech and Naomi had settled in the land of [[Moab]]. Elimelech died there, and his two sons married, Mahlon taking Ruth as his wife, and Chilion taking Orpah, both women of Moab; both sons likewise died. [[Naomi (Bible)|Naomi]] heard that the famine in Judah had passed, and determined to return. Ruth accompanied her mother-in-law to Bethlehem, at the beginning of barley harvest, in a state of poverty. Elimelech had had an inheritance of land among his brethren, but, unless a ''Go'el'', a redeemer, could be found, Naomi would be compelled to sell it. Elimelech had a prosperous relative in Bethlehem whose name was [[Boaz]], and who was engaged in the harvest. Ruth went to glean in his fields, and, after he had spoken kindly to her and shown her some favors, she, acting on the advice of her mother-in-law, approached Boaz. Boaz was attracted to her, but informed her that there was a kinsman nearer than he who had the first right to redeem the estate of Elimelech, and that it would be necessary for that kinsman to renounce his right before he (Boaz) could proceed in the matter. Accordingly Boaz called this kinsman, and told him of the situation, and of the kinsman's right to redeem the estate and to marry Ruth. The kinsman declared that he did not desire to do so, and drew off his shoe, the ritual way of showing that he had renounced his rights in favor of Boaz. Boaz thereupon bought the estate from Naomi, married Ruth, and became by her the father of Obed, who in due time became the father of Jesse, the father of [[King David]]. == Origin of the book == There is some debate about when and why the book was written. According to many scholars, it was originally a part of the [[Book of Judges]], but it was later separated from that book and made independent. It is the shortest book in the Hebrew Bible, the books of the [[Minor Prophets]] being considered a single book. The language and description seem to make the authorship contemporary with that of Judges, and its opening verse explicitly places it in that period. On the other hand, the message of the book, which shows acceptance of marrying converts to [[Judaism]], has been used to suggest that the book was written during the early days of the Persian period. At that time, [[Ezra]] condemned intermarriages and, according to his eponymous book, forced the Israelites to abandon their non-Jewish wives. According to this theory, the book was written in response to Ezra's reform and in defense of these marriages by alleging that [[David]] (commonly seen as Israel's greatest king) is a descendant of one. The lineage connection between Ruth and David is very important in the Christian faith for [[Jesus Christ]] was born of the [[virgin]] [[Mary]] who was of the lineage of David thus making Ruth connected to Jesus Christ. == Ruth in the rabbinic Jewish tradition == The opinions of some rabbis in the [[Talmud]]ic tradition claim that Ruth was the daughter of the Moabite king [[Eglon]], who figured briefly in the [[Book of Judges]]. Like many other Rabbinic exegetic identifications of certain Biblical characters with other Biblical characters, this assertion has no support from the plain meaning of the text. ==External links== *[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations: ** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et2901.htm ''Ruth'' at Mechon Momre] ([[Jewish Publication Society of America Version]]) ** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15778 Rut - Ruth - Job (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org *[[Christian]] translations: ** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/08_ruth.htm ''Ruth'' at The Great Books] ([[New Revised Standard Version]]) ** {{biblegateway||Ruth}} Related articles: *[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=483&amp;letter=R Jewish Encyclopedia]: ''Ruth'' *[http://www.hypertextbible.org/ruth/ Study notes on ''Ruth''] by Tim Bulkeley, University of Auckland *[http://plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp?passage_id=8 Ruth from the Biblical Resource Database] *[http://www.biblaridion-online.net/zine-online/zine05q2/bibzine05q2_p3.html ''Biblaridion magazine'':] Ruth and the law of kindness ----- {{eastons}} [[Category:Converts to Judaism|Ruth, Book of]] [[Category:Ketuvim|Ruth, Book of]] [[Category:Moab]] [[Category:Old Testament books|Ruth]] [[zh-min-nan:Lō·-tek-kì]] [[cs:Kniha Rút]] [[de:Buch Rut]] [[fr:Livre de Ruth]] [[ko:룻기]] [[he:מגילת רות]] [[nl:Boek Ruth]] [[ja:ルツ記]] [[no:Ruts bok]] [[nn:Ruts bok]] [[pl:Księga Rut]] [[sk:Rút]] [[fi:Ruutin kirja]] [[sv:Ruts bok]] [[zh:路得記]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Book of Esther</title> <id>4382</id> <revision> <id>40491979</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T23:29:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kuratowski's Ghost</username> <id>117863</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Historical reading */ source</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}} {{Books of Ketuvim}} The '''Book of Esther''' is a book of the [[Tanakh]] ([[Hebrew Bible]]) and of the [[Old Testament]]. The ''Book of Esther'' or the '''Megillah''' is the basis for the [[Jewish]] celebration of [[Purim]]. Its full text is read aloud twice during the celebration. ==Setting== The Biblical ''Book of Esther'' is set in the third year of [[Ahasuerus]], a king of Persia usually identified with [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes I]], although other identifications have been suggested. It tells a tale of palace intrigue, attempted [[genocide]] and a brave Jewish queen. ==Plot Summary== [[Image:Göttingen-Esther.Rolle.0.JPG|thumb|left|Book of Esther (Megillah)]] In the story, Ahasuerus is married to [[Vashti]], whom he puts aside after she rejects his offer to visit him during a feast. [[Mordecai]]'s cousin Hadassah is selected from the candidates to be Ahasuerus's new wife and assumes the &quot;throne name&quot; of [[Esther]]. His prime minister [[Haman (Judaism)|Haman]] (an [[Agagite]]) and Haman's wife [[Zeresh]] plot to have Ahasuerus kill all the [[Jew]]s, without knowing that Esther is Jewish. Esther saves the day for her people: at the risk of endangering her own safety, she warns Ahasuerus of Haman's plot to kill all the Jews. Haman is hanged on the gallows he had had built for Mordecai, and Mordecai becomes prime minister in Haman's place. However, Ahasuerus's edict decreeing the murder of the Jews cannot be rescinded, so he issues another edict allowing the Jews to take up arms and kill their enemies, which they do. ==Authorship and date== ''Esther'' is usually dated to the 3rd or 4th century B.C.E. Jewish tradition regards it as a redaction by the [[Great Assembly]] of an original text written by [[Mordecai]]. The Greek additions to Esther are dated to the 2nd century B.C.E. ==Debate over historicity== The historical accuracy of the ''Book of Esther'' is disputed. As early as the eighteenth century, the lack of corroboration of any of the details of the story of the Book of Esther with what was known of Persian history from classical sources led some scholars to doubt that the book was historically accurate. It was argued that the form of the story seems closer to that of a romance than a work of history, and that many of the events depicted therein are implausible and unlikely. In the late nineteenth century, some critics developed the theory that the Book of Esther actually was a story out of [[Babylonian mythology]], representing the triumph of the Babylonian deities Marduk and Ishtar over the deities of [[Elam]]. Although this view is not widely held by scholars today, it remains well known. Traditionalists have fought back, arguing that Esther can be seen to derive from real history. To do this, a variety of theories have b
Likewise, biological systems require multiple parts working together in order to function. Intelligent design advocates claim that natural selection could not create from scratch those systems for which science is currently not able to find a viable evolutionary pathway of successive, slight modifications, because the selectable function is only present when all parts are assembled. Behe's original examples of irreducibly complex mechanisms included the bacterial [[flagellum]] of ''[[E. coli]]'', the [[blood clotting]] cascade, [[cilia]], and the adaptive [[immune system]]. ===Criticism=== The irreducible complexity argument also assumes that the necessary parts of a system have always been necessary, and therefore could not have been added sequentially. But something which is at first merely advantageous can later become necessary. For example, one of the clotting factors that Behe listed as a part of the clotting cascade was later found to be absent in whales,{{ref|whale_clotting}} demonstrating that it is not essential for a clotting system. Many purportedly irreducible structures can be found in other organisms as simpler systems that utilize fewer parts. These systems may have had even simpler precursors that are now extinct. Perhaps most importantly, potentially viable evolutionary pathways have been proposed for allegedly irreducibly complex systems such as blood clotting, the immune system{{ref|evolving_immunity}} and the flagellum,{{ref|matzke_flag}} which were the three examples Behe used. Even his example of a mousetrap was shown to be reducible by John H. McDonald.{{ref|mcdonald_mousetrap}} If irreducible complexity is an insurmountable obstacle to evolution, it should not be possible to conceive of such pathways&amp;mdash;Behe has remarked that such plausible pathways would defeat his argument. Niall Shanks and Karl H. Joplin have shown that systems satisfying Behe's characterization of irreducible biochemical complexity can arise naturally and spontaneously as the result of self-organizing chemical processes.{{ref|shanks_joplin}} They also assert that what evolved biochemical and molecular systems actually exhibit is redundant complexity&amp;mdash;a kind of complexity that is the product of an [[evolution|evolved]] biochemical process. They claim that Behe overestimated the significance of irreducible complexity because his simple, linear view of biochemical reactions results in his taking snapshots of selective features of biological systems, structures and processes, while ignoring the redundant complexity of the context in which those features are naturally embedded and an overreliance of overly simplistic metaphors such as his mousetrap. In addition, it has been claimed that computer simulations of evolution demonstrate that it is possible for irreducible complexity to evolve naturally.{{ref|nature_complex}} It is illustrative to compare a mousetrap with a cat, in this context. Both normally function so as to control the mouse population. The cat has many parts that can be removed leaving it still functional; for example, its tail can be bobbed or it can be spayed. Evolution has endowed it with redundant eyes, so if one eye goes blind, the cat can still catch mice. Comparing the cat and the mousetrap, then, one sees that the mousetrap (which is not alive) offers better evidence, in terms of irreducible complexity, for intelligent design than the cat. == Definitions == {{Intelligent Design}} The term &quot;irreducible complexity&quot; was originally defined by Behe as: : ''A single system which is composed of several interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, and where the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning''&quot;. (''[[Darwin's Black Box]]'' p9) Supporters of intelligent design use this term to refer to biological systems and organs that they [[belief|believe]] could not have come about by any series of small changes. They argue that anything less than the complete form of such a system or organ would not work ''at all'', or would in fact be a ''detriment'' to the organism, and would therefore never survive the process of natural selection. Although they accept that some complex systems and organs ''can'' be explained by evolution, they claim that organs and biological features which are ''irreducibly complex'' cannot be explained by current models, and that an intelligent designer must have created life or guided its evolution. Accordingly, the debate on irreducible complexity concerns two questions: whether irreducible complexity can be found in nature, and what significance it would have if it did exist in nature. A second definition given by Behe (his &quot;evolutionary definition&quot;) is as follows: :''An irreducibly complex evolutionary pathway is one that contains one or more unselected steps (that is, one or more necessary-but-unselected mutations). The degree of irreducible complexity is the number of unselected steps in the pathway. Intelligent design advocate [[William Dembski]] gives this definition: :''A system performing a given basic function is irreducibly complex if it includes a set of well-matched, mutually interacting, nonarbitrarily individuated parts such that each part in the set is indispensable to maintaining the system's basic, and therefore original, function. The set of these indispensable parts is known as the irreducible core of the system. (No Free Lunch, 285) == Stated examples == Behe and others have suggested a number of biological features that they believe may be irreducibly complex. === Flagella === The [[flagella]] of certain bacteria constitute a [[molecular motor]] requiring the interaction of about 40 complex protein parts, and the absence of any one of these proteins causes the flagella to fail to function. Behe holds that the flagellum &quot;engine&quot; is irreducibly complex because if we try to reduce its complexity by positing an earlier and simpler stage of its evolutionary development, we get an organism which functions improperly. Mainstream scientists regard this argument as having been largely disproved in the light of fairly recent research [http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/design2/article.html]. The basal body of the [[flagella]] has been found to be similar to the Type III secretion system (TTSS), which many bacteria use to secrete [[toxin]]s. This example of cooption is regarded as strong evidence against Behe's most developed example of irreducible complexity. However, a genetic study of ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' bacteria has shown their TTSS is a degenerated flagellum. The bacteria have lost the ability to completely build the flagellum, though they own the complete set of genes for it. Additionally, the argument regarding the complexity of the flagellum is being disproven by additional scientific experiments. Kenneth Miller, a professor of cell biology at [[Brown University]] and other evolutionary researchers have noticed that the flagellum resembled a needle-like structure that bacteria such as salmonella use to inject toxins into living cells. The needle's base has many elements in common with the flagellum, but it is missing most of the proteins that make a flagellum work. Thus, this system seems to negate the claim that taking away any of the flagellum's parts would render it useless. It also suggests how the marvelously complex flagellum could have evolved from simpler forms. This has caused miller to note that, &quot;The parts of this supposedly irreducibly complex system actually have functions of their own.”{{ref|flag_not}} This topic is discussed in the article on the [[Evolution of flagella]]. === Blood clotting cascade === The [[coagulation|blood clotting cascade]] in vertebrates is another complex biological pathway that is given as an example of irreducible complexity. For a detailed discussion see the article &quot;Behe and the Blood Clotting Cascade&quot; by George Acton [http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/postmonth/feb97.html]. == Forerunners == The argument from irreducible complexity is a descendant of the [[teleological argument]] for God (the argument from design or argument from complexity). This states that because certain things in nature are very complicated, they must have been designed, just as the existence of a watch implies the existence of a watchmaker (in [[William Paley]]'s [[watchmaker_analogy|famous argument]] of [[1802]]). This argument has a long history and can be traced back at least as far as [[Cicero]]'s ''De natura deorum'', ii. 34 (see Hallam, Literature of Europe, ii. 385, note). While he did not originate the term, [[Charles Darwin]] identified the argument as a [[Falsifiability|testable]] prediction of the theory of [[evolution]] at the outset. In [[The Origin of Species]], he wrote, &quot;If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. But I can find out no such case.&quot; Darwin's theory of evolution challenges the teleological argument by postulating an alternative explanation to that of an intelligent designer: namely evolution by natural and sexual selection. The argument from irreducible complexity attempts to demonstrate that certain biological features cannot be purely the product of Darwinian evolution. == Criticisms of irreducible complexity == There has been much scientific opposition to the irreducible complexity, with one science writer calling it a &quot;full-blown intellectual surrender strategy.&quot; [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00022DE1-0C15-11E6-B75283414B7F0000] It may be that irreducible complexity does not actually exist in nature: that the examples given by Behe and others are not in fact irreducibly complex, but can be explained in terms of simpler precursors. Thus they would either be merely ''very comp
proclaimed a pardon to those who had taken part in the '45 [[Jacobite Rising]]. ==Related uses of the term== * '''Amnesty''' is sometimes now the term used to denote cases of pardon by a country where offenses are not stricken from the record and individuals proclaimed innocent. Instead, those individuals receive some lesser sentence in response to an admission of guilt. * The term '''amnesty''' is also used to describe any initiative where individuals are encouraged to turn over illicit items to the authorities, on the understanding that they will not be prosecuted for having been in possession of those items. A common use of such amnesties, is to reduce the number of firearms or other weapons in circulation. * '''Amnesty''', when used in the context of [[immigration]], is a law or regulation which allows [[illegal immigrant]]s to obtain legal residency. Amnesties can be created by a number of mechanisms, whether by executive order, or statute passed by the legislature. The amnesty need not be called &quot;amnesty&quot; to have the effect. ==References== *{{1911}} [[bg:Амнистия]] [[da:Amnesti]] [[es:Amnistía]] [[eo:amnestio]] [[de:Amnestie]] [[fr:Amnistie]] [[he:חנינה]] [[it:Amnistia]] [[pl:Amnestia]] [[pt:Anestia]] [[ru:Амнистия]] [[nl:Gratie]] [[zh:特赦令]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amicable number</title> <id>3259</id> <revision> <id>29626147</id> <timestamp>2005-11-29T21:24:29Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>203.200.95.130</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amicable numbers''' are two [[number]]s so related that the [[addition|sum]] of the proper [[divisor]]s of the one is equal to the other, [[1 (number)|unity]] being considered as a proper divisor but not the number itself. Such a pair is ([[Two hundred twenty|220]], [[Two hundred eighty-four|284]]); for the proper divisors of 220 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55 and 110, of which the sum is 284; and the proper divisors of 284 are 1, 2, 4, 71, and 142, of which the sum is 220. Amicable numbers were known to the [[Pythagoreans]], who accredited them with many mystical properties. A pair of amicable numbers constitutes an [[aliquot sequence]] of [[Periodic function#Periodic sequences|period]] [[2 (number)|2]]. A general formula by which these numbers could be derived was invented circa [[850]] by [[Thabit ibn Qurra]] ([[826]]-[[901]]): if :''p'' = 3&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;''n''-1&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;&amp;nbsp;1, :''q'' = 3&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;&amp;nbsp;1, :''r'' = 9&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;2''n''-1&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;&amp;nbsp;1, where ''n'' &gt; 1 is an [[integer]] and ''p'', ''q'', and ''r'' are [[prime number]]s, then 2''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;pq'' and 2''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;r'' are a pair of amicable numbers. This formula gives the amicable pair (220, 284), as well as the pair (17,296, 18,416) and the pair (9,363,584, 9,437,056). The pair (6232, 6368) are amicable, but they cannot be derived from this formula. In fact, this formula produces amicable numbers for ''n'' = 2, 4, and 7, but for no other values below 20,000. In every known case, the numbers of a pair are either both [[even]] or both [[odd]], though there is no known reason why an even-odd pair could not exist. Also, every known pair shares at least one common [[factor]]. It is not known whether a pair of [[coprime]] amicable numbers exist, though if they do, their [[Product (mathematics)|product]] must be greater than 10&lt;sup&gt;67&lt;/sup&gt;. Also, a pair of coprime amicable numbers cannot be generated by Thabit's formula (above), nor by any similar formula. Amicable numbers have been studied by [[Al Madshritti]] (died [[1007]]), Abu Mansur Tahir [[al-Baghdadi]] ([[980]]-[[1037]]), [[René Descartes]] ([[1596]]-[[1650]]), to whom the formula of Thabit is sometimes ascribed, C. Rudolphus and others. Thabit's formula was generalized by [[Leonhard Euler|Euler]]. If a number equals the sum of ''its own'' proper divisors, it is called a [[perfect number]]. == See also == *[[Sociable number]]s == External links == *[http://amicable.homepage.dk/knwnc2.htm All known amicable numbers] [[Category:Number theory]] {{Link FA|zh}} [[ca:Nombres amics]] [[da:Venskabstal]] [[de:Befreundete Zahl]] [[es:Números amigos]] [[fr:Nombres amicaux]] [[is:Vingjarnlegar tölur]] [[it:Numeri amicabili]] [[he:מספרים ידידותיים]] [[la:Numeri amicabiles]] [[hu:Barátságos számok]] [[nl:Bevriende getallen]] [[ja:友愛数]] [[pl:Liczby zaprzyjaźnione]] [[ru:Дружественные числа]] [[sl:Prijateljsko število]] [[sv:Vänskapliga tal]] [[zh:相亲数]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>America Islands</title> <id>3260</id> <revision> <id>15901619</id> <timestamp>2002-11-04T16:50:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eclecticology</username> <id>372</id> </contributor> <comment>Line Islands are south of Hawaii; America Islands are south of the Sandwich Islands</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Line Islands]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aryan</title> <id>3261</id> <revision> <id>42145909</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:03:37Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>SouthernComfort</username> <id>200195</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Iranian */ fix link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Bollywood]] movie called Aryan, see [[Aryan (movie)]].'' '''Aryan''' is an [[English language|English]] word derived from the [[Indian languages|Indian]] [[Vedic Sanskrit]] and [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] [[Avestan]] terms ''ari-'', ''arya-'', ''ārya-'', and/or the extended form ''aryāna-''. The [[Sanskrit]] and [[Old Persian]] languages both pronounced the word as ''arya-''. Beyond its use as the ethnic self-designation of the [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]]s, the meaning ''&quot;noble&quot;'' has been attached to it in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Persian language|Persian]]. == Etymology == Indo-Iranian ''arya-'' descends from [[PIE]] {{PIE|*ar-yo-}}, a ''yo-''adjective to a root {{PIE|*ar}} &quot;to assemble skillfully&quot;, present in Greek ''harma'' &quot;chariot&quot;, Latin ''ars'' &quot;art&quot; etc. In later times &quot;Arya&quot; referred to Indo-Iranian holy Kings and holy warriors [[raja]], [[kshatriya]] or [[Shah]] and thus &quot;nobles&quot; or of the &quot;nobility&quot; the protectors of [[Dharma]]. In the Rig Veda: 1:51 8 Discern thou well Aryas and [[Dasyu]]s; 9 Indra gives up the lawless to the devout man, destroying by the Strong Ones those who have no strength. Here it tells us to discern the true Aryan, the Aryan is a devout man who follows the Aryan holy laws and so is victorious. The Dasyu is akin to the &quot;unbeliever&quot; and undevout. The important Sanskrit lexicon [[Amarakosha]] (c. 450) defines ''[[Arya]]'' as: &quot;An Arya is one who hails from a noble family, of gentle behavior and demeanor, good-natured and of righteous conduct. (''महाकुल कुलीनार्य सभ्य सज्जन साधवः'')&quot; However it does earlier seem to have been used to identify certain populations in distinction from others, in particular those clans who accepted proto-[[Vedic religion|Vedic]] and proto-[[Zoroastrian]] beliefs. ==Origins== By the first half of the [[2nd millennium BC]], [[Indo-Aryans]] are believed to have arrived on the Iranian plateau and the Indian subcontinent (see [[Indo-Aryan migration]]). Indeed, the term Iran – in full ''Iran Shahr'' – is the modern outcome of an ancient ''Aryānām Xšaθra-'' meaning &quot;realm of the Aryans.&quot; Similarly, Northern India was referred to as [[Aryavarta]] in ancient times. The Aryan, or [[Indo-Iranian]] group of languages is divided into three branches: Indo-Aryan, Nuristani, and Iranian. In [[Middle Persian]], we find the term &quot;Aryāna-&quot; as &quot;Ērān&quot; and in [[Modern Persian]] as &quot;Īrān.&quot; However, there is much speculation as to origins of the Aryans as the land they supposedly entered first [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and their scripts remain undeciphered. ===Aryans: Religious Initiates=== The Hindu usage of the term &quot;Aryan&quot; has its roots in a tribe of people who received initiation of the [[Navjote]] in [[Zoroastrianism]] or [[Vedic]] [[upanayanam]]. In Vedic Hinduism the [[Brahmin]], [[Kshatriya]], [[Vaishya]]s who recieved this initiation were also called 'Aryan.' This allowed them to attain ''spiritual perfection'' and self mastery. When an Aryan was called &quot;pure&quot;, it meant spiritual purity. In the Vedic religion, those who no longer received this initiation from Brahmin priests were considered &quot;fallen&quot; and were no longer considered &quot;Aryan&quot;. This led to various movements like [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] whose converts were also called 'Aryan' due to their purification rites through practice of meditation, self control and acts of virtue. Collectively modern [[Hinduism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] are sometimes termed ''Aryan religions'', as conversion and initiation into them allows one to become Aryan or Noble. ===Uncertain Linguistic Derivations=== The adjective ''*aryo-'' was suggested as ascending to Proto-Indo-European as the self-designation of the speakers of Proto-Indo-European itself, and ''[[Éire]]'', the Irish name of [[Ireland]], was considered a cognate. It was also suggested that the Greek word &quot;aristos&quot;, as in &quot;[[aristocracy]]&quot; and other words such as &quot;[[heir]]&quot; and &quot;ehre&quot; (German for &quot;honour&quot;) were related to it, but these are now widely regarded as untenable, and while ''{{PIE|*ar-yo-}}'' is certainly a well-formed PIE adjective, there is no evidence that it was used as an ethnic self-designat
ouse of Assembly|House of Assembly]] began meeting in [[1639]]. Among the initial important British figures was Sir [[William Courten]]. Large numbers of [[Celts |Celtic]] people, mainly from [[Ireland]] and [[Scotland]], went to Barbados as [[indentured servants]]. Over the next several centuries the Celtic population was used as a buffer between the [[Anglo-Saxon]] plantation owners and the larger [[African]] population, variously serving as members of the Colonial militia and playing a strong role as allies of the larger African slave population in a long string of colonial rebellions. The modern descendants of this original slave population are sometimes derisively referred to as [[Red Legs]] and are some of the poorest inhabitants of modern Barbados. There has also been large scale intermarriage between the African and Celtic populations on the islands. Because the Africans could withstand tropical diseases and the climate much better than the white slave population, and also because those poor whites who had or acquired the means to emigrate often did so, Barbados turned from mainly Celtic in the 17th century to overwhelmingly black by the 20th century. As the [[sugar]] industry developed into the main commercial enterprise, Barbados was divided into large plantation estates that replaced the small holdings of the early British settlers. Some of the displaced farmers relocated to British colonies in North America, most notably [[South Carolina]]. To work the plantations, West Africans were transported and enslaved on Barbados and other Caribbean islands. The [[slave trade]] ceased in 1804. Thirty years later slavery was abolished in the British Empire in [[1834]]. In Barbados and the rest of the British West Indian colonies, full emancipation from slavery was preceded by an apprenticeship period that lasted six years. Plantation owners and merchants of British descent dominated local politics. It was not until the 1930s that the descendants of emancipated slaves began a movement for political rights. One of the leaders of this movement, Sir [[Grantley Adams]], founded the [[Barbados Labour Party]] in [[1938]]. Progress toward more democratic government for Barbados was made in [[1951]], when universal adult suffrage was introduced, followed by steps toward increased self-government, and in [[1961]], Barbados achieved internal autonomy. From [[1958]] to [[1962]], Barbados was one of the ten members of the [[West Indies Federation]], and Sir [[Grantley Adams]] served as its first and only prime minister. When the federation was dissolved, Barbados reverted to its former status as a [[self-governing colony]]. Following several attempts to form another federation composed of Barbados and the Leeward and Windward Islands, Barbados negotiated its own independence at a constitutional conference with the United Kingdom in June [[1966]]. After years of peaceful and democratic progress, Barbados became an independent state within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] on [[November 30]], [[1966]] On an interesting sidenote, Bados resides here. You may know him if you've chilled here. ==Politics== {{main|Politics of Barbados}} [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is nominally recognized as Queen of Barbados, [[head of state]] as represented by a [[Governor General]]. In Barbados the Queen is styled &quot;By the Grace of God, Queen of Barbados and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth.&quot; The present government is proposing that Barbados become a [[republic]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], with a ceremonial [[president]] replacing the Queen. This issue still being hotly debated as the island has been governmentally autonomous for decades. Barbados has been an independent state in the Commonwealth since [[November 30]], [[1966]], and as such functions as a parliamentary democracy modelled after the British [[Westminster system]]. Control of the government is held by the Cabinet and is responsible to the Parliament, which comrpises a 30-seat [[Barbados House of Assembly|House of Assembly]] and a 21-seat [[Senate of Barbados|Senate]]. Barbados is one of the most secure democracies in the Caribbean{{fact}}. [[Executive branch|Executive power]] is in the hands of the [[prime minister]] and his [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]]. The prime minister is usually the leader of the winning party in the elections for the House of Assembly, whose members are elected every five years. The Senate has 21 members, and its members are appointed by the governor general. Barbados is a full and participating member of the [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM). ==Geography== {{main|Geography of Barbados}} [[Image:Barbados map.png|right|Map of Barbados]] Barbados is a relatively flat island, rising gently to central highland region, the highest point being [[Mount Hillaby]] at 336 [[metre]]s (1,100 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) above sea level. The island is located in a slightly eccentric position in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] compared to other [[Caribbean]] islands. The [[climate]] is tropical, with a rainy season from June to October. Though one might assume the island deals with severe tropical storms and hurricanes during the rainy season it actually does not. The island gets brushed or hit every 3.09 years and the average number of years between direct hurricane hits is once every 26.6 years. In the parish of [[Saint Michael Parish, Barbados|Saint Michael]] lies Barbados' chief city [[Bridgetown]], which is the nation's capital. Locally [[Bridgetown]] is sometimes referred to as &quot;The City&quot; or &quot;B-town&quot;, and the most common reference is simply &quot;'Town&quot;. Other towns include [[Holetown]], in the parish of [[Saint James Parish, Barbados|Saint James]] [[Oistins]], in the parish of [[Christ Church]] and [[Speightstown, Barbados|Speightstown]], in the parish of [[Saint Peter Parish, Barbados|Saint Peter]]. The island is 23 kilometres (14 [[mile|mi]]) at its widest point, and about 34 kilometres (21&amp;nbsp;mi) long. ==Parishes== {{main|Parishes of Barbados}} Barbados is divided into eleven [[parish]]es: [[Christ_Church_Parish,_Barbados|Christ Church]], [[Saint_Andrew_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Andrew]], [[Saint_George_Parish,_Barbados|Saint George]], [[Saint_James_Parish,_Barbados|Saint James]], [[Saint_John_Parish,_Barbados|Saint John]], [[Saint_Joseph_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Joseph]], [[Saint_Lucy_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Lucy]], [[Saint_Michael_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Michael]], [[Saint_Peter_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Peter]], [[Saint_Philip_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Philip]], and [[Saint_Thomas_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Thomas]]. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; ==Economy== {{main|Economy of Barbados}} Historically, the economy of Barbados had been dependent on [[sugarcane]] cultivation and related activities, but production in recent years has been diversified into the [[manufacturing]] and [[tourism]] sectors. Offshore finance and information services have become increasingly important foreign exchange earners, and there is also a healthy interest into the island's light manufacturing sector. In the last ten years the Government has been seen as business-friendly and economically sound. Since the late 1990s the island has seen an increasing construction boom, the island began to see new hotels, redevelopments, new homes, office complexes, condominiums, and mansions being developed across the island. The government continues its efforts to reduce [[unemployment]], encourage direct foreign investment, and privatize remaining state-owned enterprises. Unemployment has been reduced from high levels of around 14 percent in the past to under 10%. The economy contracted in [[2001]] and [[2002]] due to slowdowns in tourism, consumer spending and the impact of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], but the economy rebounded in [[2003]] and showed growth for [[2004]]. Traditional trading partners include [[Canada]], the [[Caribbean Community]] (especially [[Trinidad and Tobago]]), the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]]. Business links and investment flows have become substantial, as of 2003 the island saw from [[Canada]] CAN$25 Billion in investment holdings, placing it as one of Canada's top five destinations of Canadian [[Foreign Direct Investment]] (FDI). Businessman [[Eugene Melnyk]] of [[Toronto]] in [[Ontario]], [[Canada]], is said to be Barbados' richest permanent resident. In 2004 it was announced that Barbados' [[Kensington Oval|Kensington Oval]] will be one of the final venues hosting the [[2007 cricket World Cup|2007 Cricket World Cup]]. It is thought the year 2006 will be one of the busiest years for building construction ever in Barbados, as the building-boom on the island has entered a final stage for several multi-million dollar projects across the island. [http://www.nationnews.com/story/285076846570648.php]. ==Characteristics and tourist information== The island of Barbados has a single major [[airport]], the ''[[Grantley_Adams_International_Airport| Sir Grantley Adams International Airport (GAIA)]] ''([[IATA]] identifier [[BGI]]). The ''Grantley Adams'' Airport receives daily flights by several major airlines, from points around the globe, as well as several smaller regional commercial airlines and charters. The airport serves as the main air-transportation hub for the Eastern Caribbean. The airport is currently under-going a US$100 million upgrade and expansion. The island is well developed and there are many local quality-hotels known internationally which offer world-class accommodations. Timeshares are available, and many of the smaller local hotels and private villas which dot the island have space available if booked months in advance. The southern and western coasts of Barbados are popular, with its calm light blue Caribbean sea and fine white and pinkish sandy beaches. Along the island's east coast the [[Atlantic Ocean]] side are tumbling waves whi
used when modal or mineralogic data is unavailable: * ''acid'' igneous rocks containing a high silica content, greater than 63% SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (examples [[rhyolite]] and [[dacite]]) * ''intermediate'' igneous rocks containing between 52 - 63% SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (example [[andesite]]) * ''basic'' igneous rocks have low silica 45 - 52% and typically high iron - magnesium content (example [[basalt]]) * ''ultrabasic'' igneous rocks with less than 45% silica. (examples [[picrite]] and [[komatiite]]) * ''alkalic'' igneous rocks with 5 - 15% alkali (K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O) content (examples [[phonolite]] and [[trachyte]]) :Note: the acid-basic terminology is used more broadly in older geological literature. Chemical classification also extends to differentiating rocks which are chemically similar according to the TAS diagram, for instance;&lt;br&gt; *[[ultrapotassic igneous rocks|Ultrapotassic]]; rocks containing molar K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &gt;3&lt;br&gt; *[[peralkaline igneous rocks|Peralkaline]]; rocks containing molar K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/ Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &gt;1 *[[peraluminous igneous rocks|Peraluminous]]; rocks containing molar K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/ Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;1 ==Mineralogical Classification== For volcanic rocks, mineralogy is important in classifying and naming lavas. The most important criteria is the [[phenocryst]] species, followed by the groundmass mineralogy. Often, where the groundmass is [[aphanitic]], chemical classification must be used to properly identify a volcanic rock. '''Mineralogic contents - felsic versus mafic''' * ''[[felsic]]'' rock, with predominance of quartz, alkali [[feldspar]] and/or [[feldspathoid]]s: ''the felsic minerals''; these rocks (e.g., granite) are usually light coloured, and have low density. * ''[[mafic]]'' rock, with predominance of mafic minerals [[pyroxene]]s, [[olivine]]s and calcic [[plagioclase]]; these rocks (example, basalt) are usually dark coloured, and have higher density than felsic rocks. * ''[[ultramafic]]'' rock, with more than 90% of mafic minerals (e.g., [[dunite]]) For intrusive, plutonic and usually [[phaneritic]] igneous rocks where all minerals are visible at least via microscope, the mineralogy is used to classify the rock. This usually occurs on ternary diagrams, where the relative proportions of three minerals are used to classify the rock. The following table is a simple subdivision of igneous rocks according both to their composition and mode of occurrence. {| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; |- | ! bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot; colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Composition |- ! bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot; | Mode of occurrence | bgcolor=&quot;#c0ffc0&quot; | Acid | bgcolor=&quot;#c0ffc0&quot; | Intermediate | bgcolor=&quot;#c0ffc0&quot; | Basic | bgcolor=&quot;#c0ffc0&quot; | Ultrabasic |- | bgcolor=&quot;#c0ffc0&quot; | Intrusive | [[Granite]] | [[Diorite]] | [[Gabbro]] | [[Peridotite]] |- | bgcolor=&quot;#c0ffc0&quot; | Extrusive | [[Rhyolite]] | [[Andesite]] | [[Basalt]] | [[Komatiite]] |} For a more detailed classification see [[QAPF diagram]]. ===Example of classification=== [[Granite]] is an igneous, intrusive rock (crystallized at depth), with felsic composition (rich in silica and with more than 10% of felsic minerals) and phaneritic, subeuedral texture (minerals are visible for the unaided eye and some of them retain original crystallographic shapes). Granite is the most abundant intrusive rock that can be found in the continents. ==Etymology== Volcanic rocks are named after [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]], the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] name for the god of fire.&lt;br&gt; Intrusive rocks are also called plutonic rocks, named after [[Pluto (god)|Pluto]], the Roman god of the underworld. ==Reference== * Le Maitre, L.E., ed., (2002) ''Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms'' 2nd edition, Cambridge. ==See also== * [[List of minerals]] * [[List of rocks]] * [[Large igneous province]] ==External links== {{commons|Igneous rock}} *[http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/LivingWith/VolcanicPast/Notes/igneous_rocks.html USGS Igneous Rocks] *[http://www.geol.lsu.edu/henry/Geology3041/lectures/02IgneousClassify/IUGS-IgneousClassFlowChart.htm Igneous rock classification flowchart] [[Category:Petrology]] [[Category:Igneous rocks]] [[Category:Volcanology]] [[sv:Magmatisk bergart]] [[cs:Magmatická hornina]] [[cy:Creigiau Igenaidd]] [[de:Magmatisches Gestein]] [[et:Tardkivim]] [[es:Roca ígnea]] [[fr:Roche magmatique]] [[ko:화성암]] [[it:Roccia magmatica]] [[he:סלע יסוד]] [[hu:Magmás kőzetek]] [[nl:Stollingsgesteente]] [[ja:火成岩]] [[pl:Skały magmowe]] [[pt:Rocha ígnea]] [[simple:Igneous rock]] [[sk:Vyvreté horniny]] [[sl:Magmatske kamnine]] [[sr:Магматске стене]] [[th:หินอัคนี]] [[vi:Đá lửa (địa chất)]] [[uk:Вулканічні гірські породи]] [[zh:岩浆岩]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>JarsOfClay</title> <id>15541</id> <revision> <id>15913011</id> <timestamp>2002-06-01T20:24:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>64.34.161.145</ip> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Jars of Clay]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jars of Clay]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>JohnnyCash</title> <id>15544</id> <revision> <id>17818334</id> <timestamp>2005-06-29T08:57:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Susvolans</username> <id>94325</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Johnny Cash]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>JohannSebastianBach</title> <id>15546</id> <revision> <id>15913013</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>JohnAbbott</title> <id>15548</id> <revision> <id>38176853</id> <timestamp>2006-02-04T18:55:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eskimbot</username> <id>477460</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot: Fixing double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[John Abbott]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>JulianSimon</title> <id>15549</id> <revision> <id>15913015</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Julian Simon]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> 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<revision> <id>15913024</id> <timestamp>2002-07-18T20:17:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeronimo</username> <id>108</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Constitution of Japan]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>JapanConstitution/ChapterFour</title> <id>15560</id> <revision> <id>15913025</id> <timestamp>2002-07-18T20:16:28Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jeronimo</username> <id>108</id
'University of the State of Pennsylvania''', to become the [[University of Pennsylvania]], today a member of the [[Ivy League]]. In 1753, both [[Harvard University|Harvard]] and [[Yale University|Yale]] awarded him honorary degrees [http://www.gophila.com/Go/PressRoom/pressreleases/ben300/Resume_Ben_Franklin_Fact_Sheet.aspx]. In 1751, Franklin and Dr. Thomas Bond obtained a charter from the [[Pennsylvania]] legislature to establish a hospital. [[Pennsylvania Hospital]] was the first hospital in what was to become the [[United States|United States of America]]. [[Image:joinordie.png|left|frame|This political cartoon by Franklin urged the colonies to join together during the [[French and Indian War]] ([[Seven Years' War]]).]] Franklin became involved in Philadelphia politics, and progressed rapidly. In October 1748 he was selected as a councilman, in June 1749 he became a [[Justice of the Peace]] for Philadelphia, and in 1751 he was elected to the [[Pennsylvania General Assembly|Pennsylvania Assembly]]. On [[August 10]], [[1753]] Franklin was appointed joint deputy postmaster-general of North America. His most notable service in domestic politics was his reform of the postal system, but his fame as a statesman rests chiefly on his subsequent diplomatic services in connection with the relations of the colonies with Great Britain, and later with [[France]]. In 1754 he headed the Pennsylvania delegation to the [[Albany Congress]]. This meeting of several colonies had been requested by the [[Board of Trade]] in England to improve relations with the Indians and defense against the [[France|French]]. Franklin proposed a broad Plan of Union for the colonies. While the plan was not adopted, elements of it found their way into the [[Articles of Confederation]] and the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]. In 1757, he was sent to [[England]] by the Pennsylvania Assembly as a colonial agent to [[protest]] against the political influence of the Penn family, the proprietors of the colony. For five years he remained there, striving to end the proprietors' prerogative to overturn legislation from the elected Assembly, and their exemption from paying taxes on their land. His lack of influential allies in [[Whitehall]] led to the failure of this mission. In 1762, [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] awarded Franklin an honorary doctorate for his scientific accomplishments and from then on went by &quot;Doctor Franklin.&quot; He also managed to secure a post for his illegitimate son, [[William Franklin]], as [[Governor of New Jersey|Colonial Governor of New Jersey]]. During his stay in London, Franklin became involved in liberal politics. He was a member of the Club of Honest Whigs, alongside radical thinkers such as [[Richard Price]]. In 1756, Franklin became a member of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures &amp; Commerce (now [[Royal Society of Arts]] or RSA, which had been founded in 1754), whose early meetings took place in coffee shops in London's [[Covent Garden]] district, close to Franklin's main residence in Craven Street (the only one of his residences to survive and which is currently undergoing renovation and conversion to a Franklin museum). After his return to America, Franklin became the Society's Corresponding Member and remained closely connected with the Society. The RSA instituted a Benjamin Franklin Medal in 1956 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of Franklin's birth and the 200th anniversary of his membership of the RSA. [[Image:Benjamin Franklin by Benjamin Wilson, 1759.jpg|thumb|Benjamin Franklin by [[Benjamin Wilson (painter)|Benjamin Wilson]], 1759.]] ===Later years=== On his return to America (1762), Franklin became involved in the [[Pontiac's Rebellion#The Paxton Boys' Uprising|Paxton Boys' affair]], writing a scathing attack on their massacre of Christian American Indians, and eventually persuading them to disperse.[http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/massacre.htm]. Many of the Paxton Boys' supporters were Scotch-Irish [[Presbyterians]] and German [[Reformed]] or [[Lutherans]] from the rural west of Pennsylvania, leading to claims that Franklin was biased in favour of the urban [[Quaker]] elite of the East. Because of these accusations, and other attacks on his character, Franklin lost his seat in the 1764 Assembly elections. This defeat, however, allowed him the opportunity to return to London, where he would seal his reputation as a pro-American radical. In 1764, Franklin was dispatched to England as an agent for the colony, this time to petition [[George III of the United Kingdom|the King]] to resume the government from the hands of the proprietors. During this visit he would also become colonial agent for [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[New Jersey]] and [[Massachusetts]]. In [[London]], he actively opposed the proposed [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]], despite accusations by opponents in America that he had been complicit in its creation. His principled opposition to the Stamp Act, and later to the [[Townshend Acts]] of 1767, would lead to the end of his dream of a career in the British Government, and his alliance with proponents of [[American independence|colonial independence]]. It also led to an irreconcilable break with his son, William who remained loyal to the British. [[Image:Franklin-Benjamin-LOC.jpg|thumb|left|Franklin, an engraving from a painting by Duplessis]] In September 1767, Franklin visited [[Paris]] with his usual travelling partner, Sir [[John Pringle]]. News of his electrical discoveries was widespread in [[France]]. His reputation meant that he was introduced to many influential scientists and politicians, and also to King [[Louis XV]]. The good will that was built up between Franklin and the French would later prove useful in the [[American War of Independence]], during which he was a United States commissioner there. While living in [[London]] in 1768, he developed a [[Phonetic alphabet]] in ''A Scheme for a new Alphabet and a Reformed Mode of Spelling''. This reformed alphabet discarded six letters Franklin regarded as redundant, and substituted six new letters for sounds he felt lacked letters of their own; however, his new alphabet never caught on and he eventually lost interest. [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/franklin.htm] In 1771 Franklin travelled extensively around the British Isles staying with, among others, [[Joseph Priestley]] in [[Leeds]] and [[David Hume]] in [[Edinburgh]]. In [[Dublin]], Franklin was invited to sit with the members of the [[Irish Parliament]] rather than in the gallery. He was the first American to be given this honor.[http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/biography/chap05.htm] 1773 saw the publication of two of Franklin's most celebrated pro-American satirical essays: ''Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One'', and ''An Edict by the King of Prussia''.[http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/pa-1773.htm] He also published an ''Abridgement of the Book of Common Prayer'', anonymously with [[Francis Dashwood]]. Among the unusual features of this work is a funeral service reduced to six minutes in length, &quot;to preserve the health and lives of the living&quot;. Franklin obtained some private letters from Massachusetts governor [[Thomas Hutchinson]] and lieutenant governor [[Andrew Oliver]] which proposed restrictions on colonists' freedoms, and sent them to America. The discovery that it was he who had illegally distributed the letters meant the end of his political career in London, and the end of hopes for a peaceful solution to the escalating trans-Atlantic dispute. He was dismissed as deputy postmaster-general for North America, and left London in March 1775. By the time Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on [[May 5]], the War of Independence had begun. The Pennsylvania Assembly unanimously chose him as their delegate to the [[Second Continental Congress]]. In 1776 he assisted in writing the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], radically editing [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]]'s draft. In December of 1776, he was dispatched to France as [[commissioner]] for the United States. He lived in a home in the Parisian suburb of [[Passy]], donated by [[Jacques-Donatien Le Ray|Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont]] who would become a friend and the most important foreigner to help the United States win the War of Independence. Franklin remained in France until 1785, and was such a favorite of French society that it became fashionable for wealthy French families to decorate their parlors with a painting of him. He conducted the affairs of his country towards the French nation with great success, which included securing a critical military alliance and negotiating the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]]. When he finally returned home in 1785, he received a place only second to that of [[George Washington]] as the champion of American independence. Le Ray honored him with a commissioned portrait painted by [[Joseph Siffred Duplessis]], that now hangs in the National Portrait Gallery of the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in [[Washington, DC]]. After his return from France, Franklin became an [[abolitionist]], freeing both of his slaves. He eventually became [[president]] of [[The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage]]. [http://www.pbs.org/benfranklin/l3_citizen_abolitionist.html] In 1787, while in [[retirement]], he agreed to attend as a delegate the meetings that would produce the [[United States Constitution]] to replace the [[Articles of Confederation]]. He is the only [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Father]] who is a signatory of all three of the major documents of the founding of the United States: [[The Declaration of Independence]], The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] and the [[United States Constitution]]. Franklin also has the distinction of being the oldest signer of
rican F-14s shot down 2 [[Libya]]n [[Su-22]]s is sometimes thought to have involved AIM-54. However, the engagement was conducted at short ranges using the [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]. The other US F-14 fighter to fighter engagement, the [[Gulf of Sidra incident (1989)]] used [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] and Sidewinder missiles, not the Phoenix. In training, the Phoenix hit a target drone at a range of 212 km (in January 1979, in Iran). Actual ranges at which the Phoenix has successfully hit targets in tests: * longest shot to kill: ~ 140 km * average engagement ranges: 20 to 70 km * the shortest shot to kill: 7.5 km Other than the possible Iranian firings, the only confirmed combat use of the Phoenix was the use of it by 2 F-14Ds engaging [[Iraq]]i [[MiG-25]]s. Both missiles missed. One reportedly followed a MiG-25 into the ground that possibly crashed when it ran out of fuel. ==Characteristics== *Primary function: Long-range air-launched air intercept missile *Contractor: [[Hughes Aircraft Company]] and [[Raytheon Corporation]] *Unit cost: US$ 477,131 *Power Plant: Solid propellant rocket motor built by Hercules *Length: 3.9 m (13 ft) *Weight: 460 kg (1,024 lb) *Diameter: 380 mm (15 in) *Wing span: 900 mm (3 ft) *Range: 184 km (114.3 miles, 99.4 nautical miles) *Speed: &gt;1300 m/s (3,000 mph) *Guidance system: Semi-active and active radar homing *Warheads: [[Proximity fuze]], high explosive *Warhead weight: 60 kg (135 lb) *Users: USA ([[US Navy]]), Iran *Date deployed: [[1974 in aviation|1974]] *Date retired (US): Sep 30th 2004 == See also == *[[AIM-47 Falcon]] *Medium range air-to-air missiles: [[AIM-7 Sparrow]], [[MBDA Meteor]], [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] *Short range air-to-air missiles: [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] * [[List of missiles]] {{airlistbox}} ==External links== * http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/missile/aim-54.htm [[Category:Air-to-air missiles of the United States|AIM-054]] [[Category:Air-to-air missiles of Iran|AIM-054]] [[Category:Iran-Iraq War guided missiles|AIM-054]] [[Category:Raytheon products]] [[de:AIM-54 Phoenix]] [[ko:AIM-54 피닉스]] [[ja:フェニックス (ミサイル)]] [[zh:AIM-54]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>A-10 Thunderbolt II</title> <id>3153</id> <revision> <id>42114517</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:40:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>EagleWSO</username> <id>606547</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Operational service */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout. --&gt; [[Image:Thunderbolt_II_flight_above.jpg|thumb|300px|A-10 Thunderbolt II]] [[Image:A10Thunderbolt2 990422-F-7910D-517.jpg|thumb|right|300px|USAF A-10A Thunderbolt II]] [[Image:Thunderbolt - Closeup.jpg|thumb|right|300px|USAF A-10 Thunderbolt from 1975]] The '''A-10/OA-10 Thunderbolt II''', nicknamed and universally known as the &quot;Warthog&quot;, is the first [[US Air Force]] aircraft designed for [[close air support]](CAS) of ground forces. It is a simple, effective and hardy single-seat, twin-engine [[jet aircraft]] designed to attack [[tank]]s, [[armored vehicle]]s, and other ground targets. It is named after the [[P-47 Thunderbolt]] of World War II, a plane that was particularly good at the CAS mission. ==Origins== The A-10 was developed in response to the increasing vulnerability of ground attack-planes as evidence by the large number that were shot down to small arms fire, surface-to-air missiles, and low level anti-aircraft gunfire druing the Vietnam War. This led to a need for a specialized, heavily armed, heavily armored aircraft. Previous aircraft used in the CAS mission had been bombers or fighters pressed into the job. On [[6 March]] [[1967 in aviation|1967]] the US Air Force released a request for information to 21 companies. Their objective was to create a design study for a low cost attack aircraft designated A-X, or &quot;Attack Experimental&quot;. In May [[1970 in aviation|1970]], the USAF issued a modified, yet much more detailed request for proposals (RFP). Six companies submitted contestants to the USAF, with [[Northrop]] and [[Fairchild-Republic]] selected to build prototypes: the [[Northrop YA-9|YA-9A]] and YA-10A, respectively. First flight of the A-10 was in May [[1972 in aviation|1972]]. After trials and a flyoff against the A-9, the Air Force selected Fairchild-Republic's A-10 as the winner on [[10 January]] [[1973 in aviation|1973]]. The first production A-10 flew in October [[1975 in aviation|1975]], and deliveries to the Air Force commenced in March [[1976 in aviation|1976]]. The first squadron to use the A-10 went operational in October [[1977 in aviation|1977]]. 715 aircraft were produced, ending in [[1984 in aviation|1984]]. One experimental two-seat version was built. ==Description== [[Image:Thunderbolt - Formation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Four A-10 Thunderbolt IIs fly in formation during a refueling mission.]] ===Features=== The A-10/OA-10 has excellent maneuverability at low speeds and altitude, thanks to wide, straight wings. These also allow short takeoffs and landings, permitting operations from airfields near front lines. The plane can loiter for extended periods of time and operate under 1,000 foot (300 m) ceilings with 1.5-mile (2.4 km) visibility. It can fly at a relatively slow speed of 200 mph (320&amp;nbsp;km/h), which makes it better at ground-attack than fast [[fighter-bomber]]s, which often have difficulty targeting small and slow-moving targets. The 'Warthog' is exceptionally hardy, with a strong airframe that can survive direct hits from armor-piercing and high-explosive projectiles up to 23mm. The aircraft has triple redundancy in its flight systems, with mechanical systems to back up double-redundant [[Hydraulics|hydraulic]] systems. This permits pilots to fly and land when hydraulic power or part of a wing is lost. The aircraft is designed to fly with one engine and a wing torn off. Self-sealing fuel tanks are protected by fire-retardant foam. The cockpit and parts of the flight-control system are protected by 900 pounds (400 kg) of [[titanium]] [[armor]], referred to as a &quot;titanium bathtub.&quot; Its engine exhaust passes over the aircraft's [[Stabilizer (aircraft)|horizontal stabilizer]] and between the [[twin tail]]s, decreasing the A-10's infrared signature and lowering the likelihood that the aircraft can be targeted by heatseeking missiles. The placement of the engines partially shields them from anti-aircraft fire behind the wings and tail. The A-10 can fly even after the loss of one side of the tail, 2/3 of a single wing, and one engine. The Thunderbolt II can be serviced and operated from bases with limited facilities near battle areas. An unusual feature is that many of the aircraft's parts are interchangeable between the left and right sides, including the engines, main [[landing gear]], and vertical stabilizers. A built-in ladder allows the pilot to enter or exit the aircraft without assistance. The sturdy landing gear, low-pressure tires and large, straight wings allow operation from short rough strips even with a heavy ordnance load. These also allow the aircraft to operate from damaged airbases. The aircraft is designed to be re-fueled, re-armed, and serviced with minimal equipment. Operating from a forward area is both useful for close air support and necessary due to the A-10's relatively low cruise and top speeds. Although the A-10 can carry a considerable weight of disposable stores, its primary built-in weapon is the 30&amp;nbsp;mm [[GAU-8 Avenger|GAU-8/A Avenger]] [[Gatling gun]]. One of the most powerful aircraft cannon ever flown, it fires large, [[depleted uranium]] armor-piercing shells at a rate of 4,200 rounds per minute. The massive shells and high muzzle velocity allow the Avenger to destroy heavily armored [[main battle tank]]s in as little as 6 direct hits. The gun is accurate as well, capable of placing 80% of its shots within a 30 ft. wide circle from a distance of 1 mile while the aircraft is in flight. The chassis of the plane is actually built around the gun. Despite the power of the GAU-8, the principal weapon of the A-10 is the [[AGM-65 Maverick]] air-to-surface missile, with electro-optical targeting. The Maverick allows targets to be engaged at much greater ranges than the cannon, a safer proposition in the face of modern anti-aircraft systems. Other weapons include [[cluster bomb]]s and rocket pods. Although the A-10 is equipped to deliver conventional and [[laser-guided bomb]]s, their use is relatively uncommon. A-10s usually fly with an [[Electronic countermeasures|ECM pod]] under one wing and two [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] [[air-to-air missile]]s under the other for self-defense. ===Criticisms=== The A-10 has been criticized for its minimal avionics fit. It was originally intended purely for close air support, for which it was felt that complex electronics would be unnecessary (and would have an undesirable effect on serviceability and cost). Initial fit provided basic communications, a [[RWR|radar-warning system]], and [[TACAN]] navigation, early aircraft lacking even an [[autopilot]]. As [[United States Air Force|USAF]] emphasis shifted towards the anti-armor role, presumably in a conflict with the [[Warsaw Pact]] in Western [[Europe]], where weather is frequently poor, there was pressure for improved sensors and electronics. Fairchild-Republic offered a two-seat NAW (Night and Adverse Weather) variant beginning in 1977, but it was not adopted. Aircraft were eventually upgraded with [[inertial navigation]] and a [[Pave Penny]] laser sensor (marked target seeker) pod that allowed the pilot to detect laser energy for PID (Positive Identification) of an illuminated target. The Pave Penny is a passive seeker and cannot self-designate a target for an LGB (Laser Guided Bomb). However, the A-10 ca
omes the offensive team, but before they can score, the disc must pass through at least part of the &quot;take-back&quot; zone. This is done by throwing the disc to someone in the &quot;take-back&quot; zone or on the other side of it. If the disc is lying in the &quot;take-back&quot; zone after a turnover, there's no need to take it back. After a score, the defensive team immediately becomes the offensive team, just like after a turnover. The only difference is that before they can begin play any cones that were knocked over must be reset. There are no &quot;pulls&quot;. Most of the normal rules of Ultimate apply, e.g. fouls, traveling, etc. However, we generally avoid making calls unless it's very blatant. ==Strategy== Both offense and defense require an amazing amount of strategy. It's a very heady game. Below is the very basic strategy, but there's lots more to learn as you play. The basic offensive strategy is to create 2-on-1's and then take advantage of them with very quick give-and-go's. Because there is only one defender trying to defend two cones, one cone will be open. However, if the 2-on-1 becomes a 2-on-2 because the middle defender hustles back, that end of the field should be abandoned and you should try to create a 2-on-1 to the other end of the field. It's almost impossible to score on 2 defenders because they can each defend one cone. Under no circumstances should you bring in the third offensive player to help because when you turn the disc over (either by a turnover or a score), you'll have no one back to defend the cones at the other end of the field. A zone defense is the most effective defense. One player acts as goalie at each end and one person plays the &quot;take-back zone. The main objective is to stop the 2-on-1 and that's primarily the responsibility of the middle defender. Once two offensive players start moving the disc towards one end, the middle defender needs to move with them to help out his goalie, but he has to be careful not to over-commit or the offense will reverse direction and have a 2-on-1 in the other direction. ==Original source== * http://www.swsdesign.com/ultimate/boot.htm [[Category:Frisbee]] [[Category:Team sports]] [[fr:Durango Boot]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Day of the Triffids</title> <id>8020</id> <revision> <id>15906043</id> <timestamp>2002-07-28T03:24:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tarquin</username> <id>83</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>moving to The Day of the Triffids</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Day of the Triffids]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Foreign relations of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title> <id>8021</id> <revision> <id>37650349</id> <timestamp>2006-02-01T08:48:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Choalbaton</username> <id>509658</id> </contributor> <comment>new category</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo}} Its location in the center of Africa has made the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] a key player in the region since independence. Because of its size, [[mineral]] wealth, and strategic location, [[Zaire]] was able to capitalize on [[Cold War]] tensions to garner support from the West. In the early [[1990s]], however, in the face of growing evidence of [[human rights]] abuses, Western support waned as pressure for internal reform increased. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is in the grip of a civil war that has drawn in military forces from neighboring states, with [[Uganda]]n, [[Burundi]]an, and [[Rwanda]]n forces helping the rebel movement which occupies much of the eastern portion of the state. One problem is the continuing theft of mineral resources, such as [[coltan]], by occupying forces. One estimate has the Rwandan army making $250 million in 18 months from the sale of coltan, even though Rwanda has no coltan deposits. Not only can the DROC not make any money from its mineral wealth, due to its inability to tax anything in rebel-held areas, but the wealth is also used itself to finance insurgent activities. Troops from [[Zimbabwe]], [[Angola]], [[Namibia]], [[Chad]], and [[Sudan]] intervened to support the Kinshasa regime. Furthermore, relations with surrounding countries have often been driven by security concerns. Intricate and interlocking alliances have often characterized regional relations. Conflicts in [[Sudan]], [[Uganda]], [[Angola]], [[Rwanda]], and [[Burundi]] have at various times created bilateral and regional tensions. The current crisis in DROC has its roots both in the use of The Congo as a base by various insurgency groups attacking neighboring countries and in the absence of a broad-based political system in the Congo. ==Disputes - international== Democratic Republic of the Congo is in the grip of a [[Second Congo War|civil war]] that has drawn in military forces from neighboring states, with [[Uganda]] and [[Rwanda]] supporting the rebel movements that occupy much of the eastern portion of the state - [[Tutsi]], [[Hutu]], [[Lendu]], [[Hema (ethnicity)|Hema]] and other conflicting ethnic groups, political rebels, and various government forces continue fighting in [[Great Lakes region (Africa)|Great Lakes region]], transcending the boundaries of [[Burundi]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Rwanda]], and [[Uganda]] - heads of the Great Lakes states pledge to end conflict, but localized violence continues despite [[UN]] peacekeeping efforts; most of the [[Congo River]] boundary with the [[Republic of the Congo]] is indefinite (no agreement has been reached on the division of the river or its islands, except in the [[Pool Malebo]]/[[Stanley Pool]] area). On December 19, 2005, the [[International Court of Justice]] found against [[Uganda]], in a case brought by the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], for illegal invasion of its territory, and violation of human rights. ==Illicit drugs== The DRC has some illicit production of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], mostly for domestic consumption. While rampant [[political corruption|corruption]] and inadequate supervision leaves the banking system vulnerable to [[money laundering]], the lack of a well-developed financial system limits the country's utility as a money-laundering center. ==See also== *[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[Category:Foreign relations by country|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]] [[Category:Foreign relations of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]] [[fr:Affaires étrangères de la République démocratique du Congo]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title> <id>8022</id> <revision> <id>41337849</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:11:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.230.59.254</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* War (1996&amp;ndash;) */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of the DRC}} The area now known as the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] was populated as early as 10,000 years ago and settled in the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. by [[Bantu]]s from present-day [[Nigeria]]. During its history the area has also been known as ''[[Congo Free State]]'', ''Belgian Congo'' and ''Zaire''. The most important events in the history of the area (from the point of view of its current situation) occurred in the fifty years or so from about 1870, when European exploration and exploitation took place. Some believe that the rape of the Congo stands alone as the single most brutal and greedy episode of colonisation in modern history. It is described in the entry on the [[Congo Free State]]. ==The Belgian Congo== ''See also [[Belgian Congo]]'' On [[November 15]], [[1908]], [[Léopold II of Belgium|King Léopold II of Belgium]] formally relinquished personal control of the ''Congo Free State'' and the renamed '''Belgian Congo''' came under the administration of the [[Belgium|Belgian]] parliament, a system which lasted until independence was granted in [[1960]]. The Belgian administration might be most charitably characterized as [[Paternalism|paternalistic]] [[colonialism]]. The educational system was dominated by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and [[Protestant]] churches and the curricula reflected [[Christianity|Christian]] and Western values. For example, in [[1948]] fully 99.6% of educational facilities were controlled by Christian missions. There was little regard for native culture and beliefs. Native schooling was mainly religious and vocational. Political administration fell under the total and direct control of the mother country; there were no democratic institutions. Native curfews and other restrictions were not unusual. Following [[World War II]] some democratic reforms began to be introduced, but these were complicated by ethnic rivalries among the native population. ==Changes in Congolese Society (brief overview)== At the time the multinational concessionary companies under Léopold's auspices and the Congolese had two very different concepts of land and labor. Understanding the contrasting patterns of production between the traditional Congolese tribal states and modern, industrial Belgium is essential. [[Capitalism]] revolutionized the region's traditional economies, inducing social changes and political consequences that revolutionized Congolese society to this day. Balanced, subsistence-based economies shifted to specialization and accumulation of surpluses. These changes revolutionized production patterns because maximizing production and minimizing cost (the specialization of capitalist production) did not necessarily coincide with traditional, seasonal patterns of agricultural production. Rather than specializing in a particular product according to the concept of comparative advantage, and th
[Thomas Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page *[[Tyler Hamilton]], American cyclist *[[Walter Kerr Hamilton]], English bishop *[[William Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page ===Fictional people=== *[[Carl Hamilton]], the fictional spy created by Jan Guillou *[[Marcus Hamilton]], a character from the TV series ''Angel'' *[[Professor Hamilton]], a supporting character from Superman comics ==Places== ===United States of America=== ====Cities==== *[[Hamilton, Alabama]] *[[Hamilton, Georgia]] *[[Hamilton, Indiana]] *[[Hamilton, Illinois]] *[[Hamilton, Iowa]] *[[Hamilton, Kansas]] *[[Hamilton, Massachusetts]] *[[Hamilton, Michigan]] *[[Hamilton, Mississippi]] *[[Hamilton, Missouri]] *[[Hamilton, Montana]] *[[Hamilton, Nevada]] *[[Hamilton (village), New York]] *[[Hamilton (town), New York]] *[[Hamilton, North Carolina]] *[[Hamilton, North Dakota]] *[[Hamilton, Ohio]] *[[Hamilton, Texas]] *[[Hamilton, Virginia]] *[[Hamilton, Washington]] *[[Hamilton, Wisconsin]] *[[Hamilton City, California]] ====Counties==== *[[Hamilton County, Florida]] *[[Hamilton County, Illinois]] *[[Hamilton County, Indiana]] *[[Hamilton County, Iowa]] *[[Hamilton County, Kansas]] *[[Hamilton County, Nebraska]] *[[Hamilton County, New York]] *[[Hamilton County, Ohio]] *[[Hamilton County, Tennessee]] *[[Hamilton County, Texas]] ====Townships==== *Arkansas **[[Hamilton Township, Arkansas]] *Indiana **[[Hamilton Township, Delaware County, Indiana]] **[[Hamilton Township, Jackson County, Indiana]] **[[Hamilton Township, Sullivan County, Indiana]] *Iowa **[[Hamilton Township, Decatur County, Iowa]] **[[Hamilton Township, Franklin County, Iowa]] **[[Hamilton Township, Hamilton County, Iowa]] *Illinois **[[Hamilton Township, Lee County, Illinois]] *Michigan **[[Hamilton Township, Clare County, Michigan]] **[[Hamilton Township, Gratiot County, Michigan]] **[[Hamilton Township, Van Buren County, Michigan]] *Missouri **[[Hamilton Township, Caldwell County, Missouri]] **[[Hamilton Township, Harrison County, Missouri]] *Nebraska **[[Hamilton Township, Nebraska]] *New Jersey **[[Hamilton Township, Atlantic County, New Jersey]] **[[Hamilton Township, Mercer County, New Jersey]] *North Carolina **[[Hamilton Township, North Carolina]] *North Dakota **[[Hamilton Township, North Dakota]] *Ohio **[[Hamilton Township, Franklin County, Ohio]] **[[Hamilton Township, Jackson County, Ohio]] **[[Hamilton Township, Lawrence County, Ohio]] **[[Hamilton Township, Warren County, Ohio]] *Pennsylvania **[[Hamilton Township, Adams County, Pennsylvania]] **[[Hamilton Township, Franklin County, Pennsylvania]] **[[Hamilton Township, McKean County, Pennsylvania]] **[[Hamilton Township, Monroe County, Pennsylvania]] **[[Hamilton Township, Tioga County, Pennsylvania]] *South Dakota **[[Hamilton Township, Charles Mix County, South Dakota]] **[[Hamilton Township, Marshall County, South Dakota]] **[[William Hamilton Township, Hyde County, South Dakota]] ===Elsewhere in the world=== *[[Hamilton, South Lanarkshire]], Scotland, the original one and location of [[Hamilton Palace]] *[[Hamilton, Bermuda]] *[[Hamilton_Parish|Hamilton Parish]], Bermuda *[[Hamilton, Leicester]], England *[[Hamilton, New Zealand]] *[[Hamilton, Ontario]], Canada *[[Hamilton, Ontario (township)]], Canada (unrelated township) *[[Hamilton, Tasmania]], Tasmania, Australia *[[Hamilton, Victoria]], Victoria, Australia *[[Hamilton Island]], [[Queensland]], [[Australia]] *[[Hamilton]], New South Wales, Australia === Education === *[[Hamilton College]], New York, USA *[[Hamilton Boys' High School]], New Zealand === Companies === *[[Hamilton Watch Company]] ==Miscellaneous== *[[Hamilton (movie)]], a Swedish-produced movie based on the character [[Carl Hamilton]] *[[Hamilton (Schooner)]] Schooner class ship during the [[War of 1812]] [[Category:Scottish families]] [[Category:Surnames]] {{disambig}} [[af:Hamilton]] [[de:Hamilton]] [[fr:Hamilton]] [[io:Hamilton]] [[it:Hamilton]] [[nl:Hamilton]] [[ja:ハミルトン]] [[pl:Hamilton]] [[pt:Hamilton]] [[ru:Гамильтон]] [[sv:Hamilton]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hamilton, Ontario</title> <id>14288</id> <revision> <id>41989363</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:53:30Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username> <id>665998</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>neigbouring---&gt;neighbouring, neigbourhoods---&gt;neighbourhoods</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article refers to the '''City of Hamilton''', Ontario. For the Township of Hamilton in Northumberland County see [[Hamilton, Ontario (township)]]. For the history of the current City of Hamilton before 1946, please see [[History of Hamilton, Ontario]].}} {| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300px&quot; |+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''City of Hamilton, Ontario, Canada'''&lt;/font&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; |- | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:hamiltonflag.PNG|135px]] | [[image:hamiltoncoa.jpg|135px]] |} |- | align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot; | &lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;''[[Motto]]: Together Aspire - Together Achieve''&lt;/font&gt; |- | style=&quot;background:#dcdcdc;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;center&gt;[[Image:ontham.PNG|300px]]&lt;/center&gt; |- | [[Area]]: | 1,117.11 sq. km. |- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; |[[Population]] &amp;nbsp;- City ([[2001]]) &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Canadian [[Census division|CD]] Rank &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Canadian Municipal Rank &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Density]] | &lt;br&gt; 490,268 &lt;br&gt; 662,401 (metropolitan area) &lt;br&gt; 710,300 (2005 est.) &lt;br&gt;Ranked 12th &lt;br&gt;[[List of the 100 largest cities in Canada|Ranked 10th]] &lt;br&gt;438.9/km² &lt;br&gt; |- | [[Time zone]] | [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[UTC]]-5 |- | Latitude &lt;br&gt;Longitude &lt;br&gt; | 43°16' N&lt;br&gt;79°54' W |- | td align = &quot;center&quot; colspan = &quot;2&quot; | [[Canadian House of Commons|MP]]s |- | td align = &quot;center&quot; colspan = &quot;2&quot; | [[Dean Allison]], [[Chris Charlton]], [[David Christopherson]], [[Wayne Marston]], [[David Sweet]] |- | td align = &quot;center&quot; colspan = &quot;2&quot; | [[Legislative Assembly of Ontario|MPP]]s |- | td align = &quot;center&quot; colspan = &quot;2&quot; | [[Marie Bountrogianni]], [[Andrea Horwath]], [[Judy Marsales]], [[Ted McMeekin]], [[Jennifer Mossop]] |- | [[List of mayors of Hamilton, Ontario|Mayor]] | [[Larry Di Ianni]] |- | Governing body | [[Hamilton City Council]] |- | td align = &quot;center&quot; colspan = &quot;2&quot; | [http://www.myhamilton.ca/myhamilton/CityandGovernment/ City of Hamilton] |} '''Hamilton''' is a city with over half a million inhabitants located in the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Ontario]]. It is the 10th largest city in Canada. Its nicknames &amp;mdash; all relating to its waning days as a major industrial centre &amp;mdash; include the Ambitious City, Steeltown, the Hammer, Hammertown, and the Lunchbucket City. However, health care has outstripped heavy industry &amp;mdash; exemplified by the twin steel giants of [[Stelco]] and [[Dofasco]] &amp;mdash; as the largest employer. Moreover, the education, government, services and technology sectors have all dramatically developed as heavy industry has declined. Also belying its unfounded reputation as cultural wasteland, Hamilton has built on its historical and social background. Unusual and interesting attractions include a flying museum ([http://www.warplane.com Canadian Warplane Heritage]), a stately residence of a premier of the Province of Canada ([[Dundurn Castle]]), a functioning [[nuclear reactor]] at [[McMaster University]], a horticultural haven ([[Royal Botanical Gardens, Ontario|Royal Botanical Gardens]]) and the [[Canadian Football Hall of Fame]]. ==Geography and Climate== Hamilton is located on the western end of the [[Niagara Peninsula]] and [[Lake Ontario]], and as such is sometimes known as ''Head of the Lake'' (not to be confused with [[Thunder Bay, Ontario|''Lakehead'']]). The two major physical features are [[Burlington Bay]] marking the northern limit of the city and the [[Niagara Escarpment]] running through the middle of the city across its entire breadth, bisecting the city into 'upper' to 'lower' parts. The escarpment is in many places an almost vertical wall of limestone shale with many waterfalls and creeks falling over it; including [[Stoney Creek]], Redhill Creek, Grindstone Creek, Spencer Gorge Waterfall and Chedoke Creek &amp;mdash; flow over the Escarpment and into the Harbour or Lake Ontario. On average the mountain is 4-5km inland from the Lake Ontario shoreline and at its edge affords some spectacular views of the city and harbour. Outside of the city this feature is more commonly known as Hamilton Mountain, or to locals just &quot;the mountain&quot;. [[Burlington Bay]], part of Lake Ontario, also known as Hamilton Harbour, separates Hamilton from neighbouring [[Burlington, Ontario|Burlington]]. The harbour is enclosed, except for the ship canal entrance, by the land below the [[Burlington Skyway Bridge]] which are the Hamilton and Burlington beaches respectively. The climate of Hamilton is humid continental and relatively mild compared with most of Canada, albeit cold enough in winter. The average January temperature is -3.6C (26.5F) but most days rise just above freezing making for slushly conditions when snow is present. Winter snowfall averages 113cm (44&quot;) with great year-to-year variation. The average July temperature is 22.5C (72.5F) and humidity is us
cts only the mean of the underlying normal distribution of the &quot;response variable&quot;. == Random-effects model == Random effects models are used to describe situations in which incomparable differences in experimental material occur. The simplest example is that of estimating the unknown mean of a population whose individuals differ from each other. In this case, the variation between individuals is ''confounded'' with that of the observing instrument. == Degrees of freedom == Degrees of freedom indicates the effective number of observations which contribute to the sum of squares in an ANOVA, the total number of observations minus the number of linear constraints in the data. == Tests of significance == Analyses of variance lead to tests of [[statistical significance]] using [[Ronald Fisher|Fisher]]'s [[F-distribution]]. ==See also== *[[ANCOVA]] *[[MANOVA]] *[[list of publications in statistics#Analysis of variance |Important publications in analysis of variance]] *[[Multiple comparisons]] *[[Duncan's new multiple range test]] == External links == *[http://www.sixsigmafirst.com/anova.htm Analysis Of Variance (sixsigmafirst)] [[Category:Statistics]] [[de:Varianzanalyse]] [[es:Análisis de varianza]] [[fr:Analyse de la variance]] [[gl:Análise da varianza]] [[it:Analisi della varianza]] [[nl:Variantie-analyse]] [[pl:Analiza wariancji]] [[sl:Analiza variance]] [[su:Analisis varian]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ANOVA</title> <id>635</id> <revision> <id>15899164</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ANOVA/Fixed</title> <id>636</id> <revision> <id>15899165</id> <timestamp>2003-01-17T05:40:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ANOVA/DegreesOfFreedom</title> <id>637</id> <revision> <id>15899166</id> <timestamp>2003-01-17T05:41:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>ANOVA/Random</title> <id>638</id> <revision> <id>15899167</id> <timestamp>2003-01-17T05:41:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ellmist</username> <id>2214</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alkane</title> <id>639</id> <revision> <id>41703306</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:09:54Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Chobot</username> <id>259798</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: el, ko Removing: no</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|List of alkanes}} :''For [[Saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] [[hydrocarbon]]s containing one or more rings, see [[Cycloalkane]].'' An '''alkane''' in [[organic chemistry]] is a [[Saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] [[hydrocarbon]] without cycles, that is, an acyclic [[hydrocarbon]] in which the [[molecule]] has the maximum possible number of [[hydrogen]] atoms and so has no [[double bond]]s. Alkanes are [[aliphatic]] compounds. The general formula for alkanes is '''C&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2n+2&lt;/sub&gt;'''; the simplest possible alkane is therefore [[methane]], CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;. The next simplest is [[ethane]], C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;; the series continues indefinitely. Each carbon atom in an alkane has sp³ [[Orbital hybridisation|hybridization]]. Alkanes are also known as [[Paraffin|paraffins]], or collectively as the ''paraffin series''. These terms also used for alkanes whose carbon atoms form a single, unbranched chain. Such branched-chain alkanes are called ''[[isoparaffins]]''. ==Isomerism== The atoms in alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in multiple ways, forming different [[isomer]]s. &quot;Normal&quot; alkanes have a linear, unbranched configuration. The number of isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms; for alkanes with 1 to 12 carbon atoms, the number of isomers equals 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 18, 35, 75, 159, and 355, respectively {{OEIS|id=A000602}}. ==Nomenclature of alkanes== The names of all alkanes end with '''-ane'''. ===Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains=== The first four members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows: :[[methane]], CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; :[[ethane]], C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; :[[propane]], C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; :[[butane]], C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; Alkanes with [[five]] or more carbon atoms are named by adding the [[suffix]] '''-ane''' to the appropriate [[IUPAC numerical multiplier|numerical multiplier]] with elision of a terminal ''-a-'' from the basic numerical term. Hence, [[pentane]], C&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;; [[hexane]], C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;14&lt;/sub&gt;; [[heptane]], C&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;; [[octane]], C&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;; etc. For a more complete list, see [[List of alkanes]]. Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix ''n-'' (for ''normal'') to distinguish them from branched-chain alkanes having the same number of carbon atoms. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers: e.g. [[hexane|''n''-hexane]] is a [[neurotoxin]] while its branched-chain isomers are not. ===Alkanes with branched carbon chains=== Branched alkanes are named as follows: * Identify the longest straight chain of carbon atoms. * Number the atoms in this chain, starting from 1 at one end and counting upwards to the other end. * Examine the groups attached to the chain in order and form their names. * Form the name by looking at the different attached groups, and writing, for each group, the following: ** The number, or numbers, of the carbon atom, or atoms, where it is attached. ** The prefixes ''di-'', ''tri-'', ''tetra-'', etc. if the group is attached in 2, 3, 4, etc. places, or nothing if it is attached in only one place. ** The name of the attached group. * The formation of the name is finished by writing down the name of the longest straight chain. To carry out this algorithm, we must know how to name the substituent groups. This is done by the same method, except that instead of the longest chain of carbon atoms, the longest chain starting from the attachment point is used; also, the numbering is done so that the carbon atom next to the attachment point has the number 1. For example, the compound [[image:isobutane.png]] is the only 4-carbon alkane possible, apart from butane. Its formal name is 2-methylpropane. Pentane, however, has two branched isomers, in addition to its linear, normal form: [[image:dimethylpropane.png]]&lt;br /&gt; 2,2-dimethylpropane and [[image:2-methylbutane.png]] &lt;br /&gt; 2-methylbutane. ===Trivial names=== The following nonsystematic names are retained in the IUPAC system: :[[isobutane]] for 2-methylpropane :[[isopentane]] for 2-methylbutane :[[neopentane]] for 2,2-dimethylpropane The name ''isooctane'' is very widely used in the [[Petrochemistry|petrochemical industry]] to refer to [[2,2,4-trimethylpentane]]. ==Occurrence== &lt;!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --&gt; [[Image:Jupiter.jpg|thumb|right|Methane and ethane make up a large proportion of Jupiter's atmosphere]] Alkanes occur both on [[Earth]] and in the solar system, however only the first hundred or so, and even then mostly only in traces. The light hydrocarbons, especially [[methane]] and [[ethane]] for example, have been detected both in the tail of the comet [[Hyakutake]] and in some [[meteorite]]s such as [[carbonaceous chondrite]]s. They also form an important portion of the [[Celestial body atmosphere|atmospheres]] of the outer gas planets [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]]. On [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], the satellite of Saturn, it is believed that there were once large oceans of these and longer chain alkanes: smaller seas of liquid ethane are thought still to exist there. Traces of methane (about 0.0001% or 1 ppm) occur in the Earth's atmosphere, produced primarily by forms of [[Archaea]]. The content in the oceans is negligible due to the low solubility in water: however, at high pressures and low temperatures, methane can co-crystallize with water to form a solid [[methane hydrate]]. Although they cannot be commercially exploited at the present time, the calorific value of the known methane hydrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put together&amp;mdash;methane extracted from methane hydrate is considered therefore a candidate for future fuels. [[Image:Oil well3419.jpg|thumb|right|Extraction of alkanes in Ontario]] Today, the most important commercial sources for alkanes are clearly [[natural gas]] and [[Petroleum|oil]], which are the only [[organic compound]]s to occur as minerals in nature. Natural gas contains primarily methane and ethane, with some [[propane]] and [[butane]]: oil is a mixture of liquid alkanes and other hydrocarbons. Both we
d and the early history of Islam were passed down orally for more than a hundred years after the death of Muhammad in 632. Muslim historians say that it was the [[caliph]] [[Uthman]] (the third caliph, or successor of Muhammad, who had formerly been Muhammad's secretary), who first urged Muslims both to write down the Qur'an in a fixed form, and to write down the hadith. Uthman's labors were cut short by his assassination, at the hands of aggrieved soldiers, in 656. The Muslim community (''[[ummah]]'') then fell into a prolonged civil war, termed the ''[[First Islamic civil war|Fitna]]'' by Muslim historians. After the fourth caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib, was assassinated, control of the Islamic empire was seized by the [[Umayyad|Umayyad dynasty]] in 661. Ummayad rule was interrupted by a second civil war (the ''[[Second Islamic civil war|Second Fitna]]''), re-established, then ended in 758, when the [[Abbasid|Abbasid dynasty]] seized the caliphate, to hold it, at least in name, until 1258. Muslim historians say that hadith collection and evaluation continued during the first Fitna and the Umayyad period. However, much of this activity was presumably oral transmission from early Muslims to later collectors, or from teachers to students. If any of these early scholars committed any of these collections to writing, they have not survived. The histories and hadith collections we possess today were written down at the start of the Abbasid period, more than one hundred years after the death of Muhammad. The scholars of the Abbasid period were faced with a huge corpus of miscellaneous traditions, some of them flatly contradicting each other. Many of these traditions supported differing views on a variety of controversial matters. Scholars had to decide which hadith were to be trusted as authentic narrations and which had been invented for various political or theological purposes. For this purpose, they used a number of techniques which Muslims now call the [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/scienceofhadith/atit.html &amp;#8220;science of hadith&amp;#8221;]. The commonest technique consisted of a careful examination of the [[isnad]], or chain of transmission. Each hadith was accompanied by an isnad: A heard it from B who heard it from C who heard it from a companion of Muhammad. Isnads were carefully scrutinized to see if the chain was possible (for example, making sure that all transmitters and transmittees were known to be alive and living in the same area at the time of transmission) and if the transmitters were reliable. The scholars rejected as unreliable people reported to have lied (at any point), as well as people reputed to be stupid (and thus likely to misunderstand the saying), and sometimes [[ascetic]]s (in [[Imam Malik]]'s words, &quot;an ascetic who doesn't know what he is narrating&quot;.) Sunni scholars regard affiliation to some extreme [[Shia]] and [[Qadariya]] sects as sometimes reducing a narrator's reliability, due to these sects' alleged propensity for fabricating hadith; [[Kharijites]] are seen as less likely to fabricate. However, they generally accept these narrators too as long as they were not engaged in actively spreading their views. Shi'a scholars, conversely, doubt the impartiality of the Sunni scholars, and privilege narrators known to have followed Ali and his descendants. Hadith that were not thrown out as clearly spurious ([[Maudu']]) were usually sorted into three categories: * &quot;genuine&quot; (''[[sahih]]'', the best category) * &quot;fair&quot; (''[[hasan]]'', the middle category) * &quot;weak&quot; (''[[da'if]]''). Some of the sahih hadith were further distinguished as ''[[Mutawatir|mutawatir]]'', or agreed upon. The sayings or events reported in these hadith were attested by so many witnesses, though different isnads, that it was thought inconceivable that these hadith could be forgeries. Many contemporary Muslims who have not been trained in the sciences of hadith regard the collections of Bukhari and Muslim as particularly reliable, and tend to accept them as sure and certain. Trained Islamic scholars are much more likely to adopt a critical stance towards even the sahih collections, and caution that hadith have to be weighed and evaluated, not accepted as true without further consideration. Hence the [[Muslim Student Association|MSA]] collection of hadith, warns: : ''Today, the situation is different. The collections of ahadeeth have for the most part stabilized, and with the advent of the printing press, the collections are easily mass-produced. There is a blessing in all this of course, but there is a real danger that Muslims will fall under the impression that owning a book or having a database is equivalent to being a scholar of ahadeeth. This is a great fallacy. Therefore, we would like to warn you that this database is merely a tool, and not a substitute for learning, much less scholarship in Islam.'' [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/reference/searchhadith.html] Shi'a Muslims also believe that training is required to evaluate hadith. In religious matters, lay Shi'a usually defer to the Shi'a clergy with the proper training, the [[mujtahid]] and [[marja]]. == Western academic views of hadith == Early Western exploration of Islam consisted primarily of translation of the Qur'an and a few histories, often supplemented with disparaging commentary. In the nineteenth century, scholars made greater attempts at impartiality, and translated and commented upon a greater variety of texts. By the beginning of the twentieth centuries, Western scholars of Islam started to critically engage with the Islamic texts, subjecting them to the same agnostic, searching scrutiny that had previously been applied to Christian texts (see [[higher criticism]]). [[Ignaz Goldziher]] is the best known of these turn-of-the-century iconclasts, who also included D.S. Margoliuth, Henri Lammens, and Leone Caetani. Goldziher writes, in his ''Muslim Studies'', :''... it is not surprising that, among the hotly debated controversial issues of Islam, whether political or doctrinal, there is not one in which the champions of the various views are unable to cite a number of traditions, all equipped with imposing ''isnads''. The next generations of Western scholars were also sceptics, on the whole: [[Joseph Schacht]], in his ''Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence'' (1959), argued that isnads going back to Muhammad were in fact ''more'' likely to be spurious than isnads going back to the companions. [[John Wansbrough]], in the 1970s, and his students [[Patricia Crone]] and [[Michael Cook]] were even more sweeping in their dismissal of Muslim tradition, arguing that even the Qur'an was likely to have been collected later than claimed. Contemporary Western scholars of hadith include: * Herbert Berg, ''The Development of Exegesis in Early Islam'' (2000) * Fred M. Donner, ''Narratives of Islamic Origins'' (1998) * [[Wilferd Madelung]], ''Succession to Muhammad'' (1997) It should be noted that Madelung has immersed himself in the hadith literature and has made his own selection and evaluation of tradition. Having done this, he is much more willing to trust hadith than many of his contemporaries. == Bridges between Muslim and Western scholars == Currently there is little communication between the world of Muslim hadith scholarship and Western academia. Muslim scholars reject the Westerners as '[[Orientalism|Orientalists]]' who are hostile to religion in general and Islam in particular. Western academics tend to dismiss Muslim scholars as irrelevant, bound as they are to millennia-old technique of hadith evaluation by chain of transmission which non-Muslims scholarship regards with skepticism. However, some Muslim scholars have undergone Western academic training and taken up positions between the traditional Muslim and the secular Western view. Notable among these was [[Fazlur Rahman]] (1911-1988) who argued that while the chain of transmission of the hadith may often be spurious, the content, the [[matn]], can still be used to understand how Islam can be lived in the modern world. [[Liberal movements within Islam]] tend to agree with Rahman's views to varying degrees. ==See also== * [[Islam]] * [[oral law]] * [[sira]] * [[isnad]] * [[early Muslim philosophy]] * [[list of Islamic terms in Arabic]] *[[List of notable Muslim reports]] *[[Sharia]] ==External links== ===Hadith collections=== *[http://www.ihsanetwork.org/ The Seven Canonical Hadith Collections] *[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/ Sahih al-Bukhari] *[http://cwis.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/ Sahih Muslim] *[http://cwis.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/ Abu Dawud] *[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/ Muwatta Imam Malik] *[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/reference/searchhadith.html Searchable hadith Database] ===Other links=== *[http://www.ihsanetwork.org/ The International Hadith Study Association Network (The IHSAN Network)] *[http://hadith.rationalreality.com/ The Hadith Conspiracy &amp; the Distortion of Islam- Critical Views] *[http://www.thesaurus-islamicus.li/ Thesaurus Islamicus Foundation (The Sunna Project)] *[http://hadeeth.blogspot.com Hadeeth Blog: A daily hadeeth and commentary] *[http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/hadeeth/sh_ish/index.htm An Introduction to the Science of Hadith] *[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/historyandhadeeth/azzamcomparison.html A Comparison between Modern Historical Methodology and Hadeeth Methodology] *[http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/Q_SSC/default.htm The Sunnah: A Source of Civilization By Prof. Yusuf Al-Qaradawi] *[http://al-islam.org/al-tawhid/hadith-science/index.htm Shi'a Perspective on Hadith: Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith] *[http://www.nebras.net Collections of some Sunni Hadiths] *[http://www.free-minds.org
a bit of a catchphrase for UK Radio 1's R&amp;B Guru [[Trevor Nelson]] in his pirate days, who used it to describe the deeper, rougher funk and &quot;rare groove&quot; sound that was popular in London at the time. A formal station ID jingle used on legendary London pirate [[Kiss 100|Kiss FM]] from the late 1980s would proclaim &quot;Drum and Bass style on Kiss&quot;). Since the term jungle was so closely related to the raggae influenced sound, DJs and producers who did not incorporate raggae elements began to adopt the term &quot;drum and bass&quot; to differentiate themselves and their musical styles. The mid 1990s also saw a large splintering of the scene. Each sub-genre would tend to be known by its name as opposed to either jungle or drum and bass, though today all sub-genres are usually grouped by the umbrella term ''drum and bass''. As intelligent drum and bass gained in popularity, the [[ragga jungle]] sound became more stripped-down; The complex chopped beats were dropped in favor of simplified rhythms featuring loud, aggressive-sounding snare drums. This hard percussive style eventually became known as [[hardstep]]. Simultaneously, certain producers developed a more hiphop and funk influenced style known as [[jump-up]], which was exemplified by artists like Mickey Finn and [[Aphrodite (artist)|Aphrodite]] (with their [[Urban Takeover]] label), and the releases on the [[Ganja Kru]]'s [[True Playaz]] label. Outside these genres, which became the most popular styles, other artists pushed a smoother, dubby style of music which had more in common with the jazzy and soulful interests of intelligent drum and bass. Records in this style were often referred to as ''rollers''. Through 1996, hardstep and jump-up sounds were very popular in clubs and at raves, whereas intelligent drum and bass was pushing a sound which was considered more accessible to the home listener. This resultied in the popularity of the style with mainstream music magazines, as CD album releases by [[4 Hero]] and [[Goldie]] were more readily-available than the underground dubplates which characterised the club-based styles. Stylistically, drum and bass began to adopt an ever more diverse range of influences, crossbreeding with many other forms of dance music to produce a series of hybrid sounds. In 1997, a sound which was influenced by the double-bass work of jazz musicians came to the forefront, producing a funky, accessible style which achieved mainstream success for artists such as [[Roni Size]] and [[Reprazent]]. The group's ''New Forms'' album won the UK's [[Mercury Prize]], and their innovative live band helped drum and bass to break out of the DJ circuit, winning acclaim for performances at music festivals and on television shows. Around this time, drum and bass also sealed its popularity by winning a Friday night slot on [[Radio One]], the [[BBC]]'s flagship radio station. Initially presented by a revolving groups of jungle luminaries, hosted by [[MC Navigator]], the station eventually secured the presenting services of [[Fabio (DJ)|Fabio]] and [[Grooverider]], two of the oldest and most-respected DJs in the scene. ===The birth of techstep=== As a lighter sound of drum and bass began to win over the musical mainstream, many producers continued to work on the other end of the spectrum, resulting in a series of releases which highlighted a dark, technical sound which drew more influence from [[techno music|Techno]] and the soundscapes of [[science fiction]] and [[anime]] films. This style was championed by the labels Emotif and [[No U-Turn]], and artists like Trace, [[Ed Rush]] and [[Optical (artist)|Optical]], and [[Dom and Roland]], and is commonly referred to as [[techstep]]. Techstep focused intensely on studio production and applied new techniques of sound generation and processing to older jungle appraoches. Self-consciously underground, and lacking the accessible influences of much other drum and bass, techstep is deeply atmospheric, often characterized by sinister or science-fiction themes, cold and complex percussion, and dark, distorted basslines. As the 1990s drew to a close, drum and bass withdrew from mainstream popularity and concentrated on sounds which were popular in clubs, rather than on mainstream radio. Techstep came to dominate the drum and bass genre, with artists like [[Konflict]] and [[Bad Company (drum and bass artist)|Bad Company]] amongst the most visible. As time went on, techstep was becoming more minimal, and increasingly dark in tone, and the funky, commercial appeal represented by Roni Size back in 1997 was waning. However, 2000 saw an increasing movement to &quot;bring the fun back into drum and bass&quot;, heralded by the chart success enjoyed by singles from [[Andy C]] and [[Shimon]] (''Bodyrock'') and [[Shy FX]] and [[T Power]] (''Shake UR Body''). In the clubs there was a new revival of rave-oriented sounds, as well as remixes of classic jungle tunes that capitalised on nostalgia and an interest in the origins of the music. Many felt that jungle music had weathered the support, and then hostility, of the mainstream media (which had declared that &quot;Drum and bass is dead&quot; in the late 90s), and that the revival of chart success indicated that the style was more than a passing fashion. ===Since 2000=== Since the revival in popularity in 2000, the drum and bass scene has become very diverse, despite its relatively-small size, to the point where it is difficult to point to any one subgenre as the dominant style. In 2000, [[Fabio (DJ)|Fabio]] began championing a form he called [[Liquid funk]], with a compilation release of the same name on his [[Creative Source]] label. This was characterised by influences from [[disco]] and [[house (music)|house]], and widespread use of vocals. Although slow to catch on at first, the style grew massively in popularity around 2002-2004, and by 2004 it was established as one of the biggest-selling subgenres in Drum &amp; Bass, with labels like [[Hospital Records]] and [[Soul:R]] and artists including [[High Contrast]], [[Calibre (artist)|Calibre]], [[Nu:Tone]], [[London Elektricity]] and [[Logistics (artist)|Logistics]] among its main proponents. The decade also saw the revival of [[Jump-Up]]. Referred to as &quot;Nu Jump Up&quot;, or pejoratively as [[Clownstep]], this kept the sense of fun and the simplistic, bouncing basslines from the first generation of Jump Up, but with tougher, harder production values. Prominent Nu Jump Up artists include [[Twisted Individual]], [[Generation Dub]], and [[DJ Hazard]]. Sales figures for 2004 suggest that liquid funk and Nu Jump Up combined probably account for a significant majority of the drum and bass market. The period also saw the rise of a style known as [[Dubwise]], which returned drum and bass to its reggae-influenced roots, combined with modern production techniques which had advanced immeasurably since the early days of jungle. Although the dub-influenced sound was not new, having long been championed by artists like [[Digital (artist)|Digital]] and [[Spirit (artist)|Spirit]], 2003-2004 saw a significant increase in its popularity and visibility, with new artists like [[Amit]] at the forefront. Similarly, whilst there had long been a niche dedicated almost entirely to detailed drum programming and manipulation, championed by the likes of [[Paradox (artist)|Paradox]], the first half of this decade saw a revival and expansion in the subgenre known variously as [[Drumfunk]], &quot;Edits&quot;, or &quot;Choppage&quot;. Major labels include [[Inperspective]] and the new wave of artists in this style include [[Fanu]], [[Breakage]], and [[Fracture and Nepture]]. The new millennium also saw a fresh wave of live drum and bass bands. The likes of [[Reprazent]] and [[Red Snapper]] had performed live drum and bass during the 1990s, but the re-creation of [[London Elektricity]] as a live band focussed renewed interest on the idea, with acts like [[The Bays]], [[Keiretsu (band)|Keiretsu]], [[Deadsilence Syndicate]] and [[Ultra-Violet]] pursuing this avenue. ===The global scene in 2005=== The other major development largely occurring since the turn of the millennium is geographical: from UK-oriented beginnings, drum and bass has firmly established itself worldwide. There are strong scenes in other English-speaking countries including the [[USA]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[South Africa]]. It is popular across [[Europe]], especially in [[Germany]] and in [[The Netherlands]], [[Baltics]], [[Russia]], and [[Ukraine]]. It is also popular in [[South America]]. Asia also has a drum and bass scene in places like Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and Hong Kong. São Paulo is sometimes called the drum and bass Ibiza. Brazilian drum and bass is sometimes called [[Sambass]], although in [[Venezuela]], artists have created Industrial forms of Drum and bass, and also [[Drill N Bass]] / [[intelligent dance music|IDM]], mixing also with Latin rhythms like [[Salsa music|Salsa]] or [[Latin Jazz]].ok [[List of notable drum and bass artists]] ==Musicology of drum and bass== There are many views of what constitutes &quot;real&quot; drum and bass as it has many scenes and styles within it, from heavy pounding bass lines to the relaxed vibes of [[Liquid funk]]. It has been compared with [[jazz]] where the listener can get very different sounding music all coming under the same [[music genre]], because like drum and bass, it is more of an approach, or a tradition, than a style. As such, it is difficult to precisely define; however, the following key features may be observed: ===Defining characteristics=== ====Basslines==== Regarded by many as being the most important musical element in drum and bass. Basslines exist in many forms, but most notably they originate from [[Sampling (music)|sampled]] sources or [[Synthesizer|synthesizers]]. Live played basslines are rare. Samp
visions related to their probable evolutionary descent. Most evolutionary biologists assert a hierarchy extending from the level of the specimen (an individual living organism -- say, a single newt), to the species of which it is a member (perhaps the [[Eastern Newt]]), outward to further successive levels of [[genus]], family, order, class, phylum, and kingdom. (A newt is a kind of salamander (family), and all salamanders are types of amphibians (class), which are all types of invertebrates (phylum).) Essential to this kind of reasoning is the proof that members of a division on one level are more closely related to one another than to members of a different division on the same level; they must also share ancestry in the level above. Thus, the system is hierarchical because it forbids the possibility of overlapping categories. For example, it will not permit a 'family' of beings containing some examples that are amphibians and others that are reptiles--divisions on any level do not straddle the categories of structure that are hierarchically above it. (Such straddling would be an example of [[heterarchy]].) *PHYSIOLOGY: [[Organisms]] are also commonly described as assemblies of parts (organs) which are themselves assemblies of yet smaller parts. When we observe that the relationship of cell to organ is like that of the relationship of organ to body, we are invoking the hierarchical aspects of physiology. (The term &quot;organic&quot; is often used to describe a sense of the small imitating the large, which suggests hierarchy, but isn't necessarily hierarchical.) The analogy of organ to body also extends to the relationship of a living being as a system that might resemble an [[ecosystem]] consisting of several living beings; physiology is thus hierarchically nested in [[ecology.]] *PHYSICS: In [[physics]], the [[standard model]] of reasoning on the nature of the physical world decomposes large bodies down to their smallest [[particle]] components. Observations on the subatomic (particle) level are often seen as fundamental constituent axioms, on which conclusions about the atomic and molecular levels depend. The relationships of energy and gravity between celestial bodies are, in turn, dependent upon the atomic and molecular properties of smaller bodies. * LANGUAGE and SEMIOTICS: In [[linguistics]], especially in the work of Noam [[Chomsky]], and of later [[generative linguistics]] theories, such as [[Ray Jackendoff]]'s, words or sentences are often broken down into hierarchies of parts and wholes. Hierarchical reasoning about the underlying structure of language expressions leads some linguists to the hypothesis that the world's languages are bound together in a broad array of variants subordinate to a single [[Universal Grammar]]. *MUSIC: In music, the structure of a composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich [[Schenker]] (1868-1935), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion. The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic &quot;long-range counterpoint&quot; structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature. [[Susan McClary]] connects formal hierarchies in music, specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]], to a hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, pointing out that primary themes were often previously called &quot;masculine&quot; and secondary themes &quot;feminine.&quot; (Although this hierarchy suggests male dominance, she also points out that in order to complete the form by unifying the themes in a single key in the [[recapitulation]], the masculine theme is usually truncated, in a possible metaphor for castration.) *ETHICS, BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGY, PHILOSOPHIES of IDENTITY: In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]]. In all of these examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts. In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842-1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926-1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced. James famously asserts in his work &quot;Radical Empiricism&quot; that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved. A hesitation to declare success upon the discovery of ambiguities leaves [[heterarchy]] at an artificial and subjective disadvantage in the scope of human knowledge. This bias is an artifact of an aesthetic or pedagogical preference for hierarchy, and not necessarily an expression of objective observation. == Hierarchies in programming == The concept of hierarchies plays a large part in [[object oriented programming]]. For more information see [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)]] and [[memory hierarchy]]. == Containment hierarchy == {{main|containment hierarchy}} A containment hierarchy is a collection of strictly nested sets. Each entry in the hierarchy designates a set such that the previous entry is a strict superset, and the next entry is a strict subset. For example, all rectangles are quadrilaterals, but not all quadrilaterals are rectangles, and all squares are rectangles, but not all rectangles are squares. (See also: [[Taxonomy]].) * In geometry: [[shape]], [[polygon]], [[quadrilateral]], [[rectangle]], [[Square (geometry)|square]] * In biology: [[animal]], [[bird]], [[bird of prey|raptor]], [[eagle]], [[golden eagle]] * The [[Chomsky hierarchy]] in formal languages: recursively enumerable, context-sensitive, context-free, and regular * In physics: [[particle]], [[elementary particle]], [[fermion]], [[lepton]], [[electron]] == Social hierarchies == {{main|Social hierarchy}} Many human [[organization]]s, such as [[business]]es, churches, armies and political movements are [[hierarchical organization]]s, at least officially; commonly superiors, called &quot;bosses&quot;, have more [[power (sociology)|power]] than their subordinates. Thus the relationship defining this hierarchy is &quot;commands&quot; or &quot;has power over&quot;. (Some analysts question whether power &quot;really&quot; works as the traditional organizational chart indicates, however.) See also [[chain of command]]. Some social insect species (bees, ants, termites) depend on matrilineal hierarchies centred on a queen with undeveloped female insects as attendants and workers. Many social criticisms include a questioning of social hierarchies seen as being unjust. [[Feminism]], for instance, often discusses a hierarchy of gender, in which a culture sees males or masculine traits as superior to females or feminine traits. In the terms above, some feminism criticizes a hierarchy of only two nodes, &quot;masculine&quot; and &quot;feminine&quot;, connected by the asymmetrical relationship &quot;is more valuable to society&quot;, for example: :The hierarchical nature of the dualism - the systematic devaluation of females and whatever is metaphorically understood as &quot;feminine&quot; - is what I identify as sexism. (Nelson 1902p. 106) Note that in this context and in other social criticisms, the word ''hierarchy'' usually is used as meaning ''power hierarchy'' or ''power structure.'' Feminists may not take issue with inanimate objects being organized in a hierarchical fashion, but rather with the specific asymmetrical organization of unequal value and power between men and women and, usually, other social hierarchies such as in [[racism]] and [[anti-gay bias]]. == Alternatives == Hierarchies and hierarchical thinking has been criticized by many people, as above in [[#Social hierarchies]] and [[#Hierarchical nomenclatures in the arts and sciences]]. Possible alternatives include: * [[Democracy]] - [[Command hierarchy]] and [[Workplace democracy]] * [[Anarchy (word)|Anarchy]] as a social/political theory and practice * [[selective hierarchy]] whereby discrete entities may be placed 'under' or 'over' any number of other entities. For information managers that use this type of organization, see [http://www.mdesoft.com Infohandler] or [http://www.webbrain.com/ The Brain] == References == * Julie Nelson (1992). &quot;Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics&quot;. ''Economics and Philosophy'', 8:103-125. == See also == * [[Linnaean taxonomy]] * [[Tree structure]] * [[Classes (computer science)|Classes]] * [[Chomsky hierarchy]] * [[Confucianism]] * [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] * [[Hierarchy of roads]] * [[Heterarchy]] * [[Holarchy]] * [[Unity of command]] * [[Outliner]] software * [[Degrees of consanguinity]] == External links == * [http://www.isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory] * [http://www.nbi.dk/~natphil/salthe/hierarchy_th.html Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] - S.N. Salthe [[Category:Structure]] [[Category:Sociology]] [[Category:Patterns]] [[Category:Hierarchy|*]] [[ca:Jerarquia]] [[da:Hierarki]] [[de:Hierarchie]] [[et:Hierarhia]] [[es:Jerarquía]] [[fr:Hiérarchie]] [[it:Gerarchia]] [[he:היררכיה]] [[hu:Hierarchia]] [[nl:Hiërarchie]] [[ja:ヒエラルキー]] [[no:Hierarki]] [[pl:Hierarch
]&lt;br&gt;(resigned [[December 20]], [[2005]])'' |} ==Notes== # {{note|TalkingPoints051217}} [http://www.talkingpointsmemo.com/archives/007280.php Here are some more details on the record of the FISA Court], ''[[Talking Points Memo]]'', [[December 17]] [[2005]] # {{note|WaPo020823}} [http://foi.missouri.edu/secretcourts/seccrtrebuffs.html Secret Court Rebuffs Ashcroft: Justice Dept. Chided On Misinformation], ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[August 23]], [[2002]] page A01 # {{note|Nyt051216}} [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00F1FFF3D540C758DDDAB0994DD404482 Bush Lets U.S. Spy on Callers Without Courts], ''[[New York Times]]'', [[December 16]] [[2005]] - [http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article11315.htm mirror] # {{note|WaPo051221}} [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/20/AR2005122000685.html Spy Court Judge Quits In Protest: Jurist Concerned Bush Order Tainted Work of Secret Panel], ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[December 21]] [[2005]] == References == * {{cite web| url=http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/court2005.html| title=Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court 2005 Membership| work=Website of the Federation of American Scientists| accessdate=December 19| accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web| url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2005-12-18-nsa-70s_x.htm| title=NSA's surveillance of citizens echoes 1970s controversy| work=USA Today| accessdate=December 18| accessyear=2005}} * [http://www.epic.org/privacy/wiretap/stats/fisa_stats.html FISA orders 1979-2004] * {{cite web| author=[[John Ashcroft|Ashcroft, John]]| year=2001| url=http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/2000rept.html| title=''(Untitled DOJ memo summarizing FISA applications for calendar year 2000)''| accessdate=December 17| accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web| author=[[John Ashcroft|Ashcroft, John]]| year=2002| url=http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/2001rept.html| title=''(Untitled DOJ memo summarizing FISA applications for calendar year 2001)''| accessdate=December 17| accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web| author=[[John Ashcroft|Ashcroft, John]]| year=2003| url=http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/2002rept.html| title=''(Untitled DOJ memo summarizing FISA applications for calendar year 2002)''| accessdate=December 17| accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web| author=Moschella, William E.| year=2004| url=http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/2003rept.pdf| title=''(Untitled DOJ memo summarizing FISA applications for calendar year 2003)''| format=PDF| accessdate=December 17| accessyear=2005}} * {{cite web| author=Moschella, William E.| year=2005| url=http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/2004rept.pdf| title=''(Untitled DOJ memo summarizing FISA applications for calendar year 2004)''| format=PDF| accessdate=December 17| accessyear=2005}} ==External links== * [http://www.aclu.org/patriot_foia/2003/court_rules.pdf Rules of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court] [[Category:Judicial Branch of the United States Government|Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>First past the post</title> <id>11406</id> <revision> <id>31208644</id> <timestamp>2005-12-13T17:03:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Joshuapaquin</username> <id>49254</id> </contributor> <comment>fix double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[plurality voting system]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>FC Den Bosch</title> <id>11407</id> <revision> <id>40210018</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:53:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sherool</username> <id>260314</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] redundant image replacement and/or clean up</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox | clubname = Den Bosch | image = [[Image:Denbosch.gif]]| fullname = Football Club Den Bosch | nickname = ''The Blue White Dragons'' | founded = [[August 18]], [[1965]] | ground = [[ECCO Stadion]],&lt;br&gt;[['s-Hertogenbosch]] | capacity = 9,000 | chairman = [[Bert Kersten]] | manager = [[Theo Bos]] | league = [[Eerste Divisie]] | season = 2004-05 | position = [[Eredivisie]], 18th&lt;br&gt;(relegated) | shirtsupplier= | shirtsponsors= | pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=_thinwhitesides|pattern_ra1=| leftarm1=0000AA|body1=0000AA|rightarm1=0000AA|shorts1=0000AA|socks1=FFFFFF| pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=| leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=FFFFFF|shorts2=000000|socks2=FFFFFF| }} '''FC Den Bosch''' is [[Football (soccer)|football]] club from [['s-Hertogenbosch]], [[the Netherlands]]. It was founded [[August 18]], [[1965]] as FC Den Bosch/BVV. It is the successor of BVV ([[1906]]) and Wilhelmina ([[1890]]) Its stadium is called '[[De Vliert]]', a 9,000 all-seater. [[Ruud van Nistelrooy|Ruud van Nistelrooij]] started his professional career at this club. In 2005 they finished bottom of the Eredivisie and were relegated. *Dutch champion: [[1947]] (as BVV) *Champion [[Eerste Divisie]] (the Dutch Second Division): [[1966]], [[1971]], [[1999]], [[2001]] and [[2004]]. ==Current squad== {| |valign=&quot;top&quot;| *1 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Martijn van Strien]] *2 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Paul Verhaegh]] *3 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Peter Uneken]] *5 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Ferne Snoyl]] *8 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Mounir Biyadat]] *9 [[Image:Flag of Belgium.svg|20px|Belgian]] [[Jochen Janssen]] *11 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Berry Powel]] *14 [[Image:Flag of Belgium.svg|20px|Belgian]] [[Rob Haemhouts]] *15 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Gijs Cales]] *17 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Paul Beekmans]] |width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp; |valign=&quot;top&quot;| *- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Danilo Verus]] *- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Tom Rietberg]] *- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Marcel Cas]] *- [[Image:Flag of Belgium.svg|20px|Belgian]] [[Wim Raymaekers]] *- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Lorenzo Rimkus]] *- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Prince Rajcomar]] *- [[Image:Netherlands_antilles_flag_large.png|20px|Netherlands Antilles]] [[Richal Leitoe]] *- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Michel Vorm]] *- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Jaap Davids]] |} ==See also== *[[List of football clubs in the Netherlands|Dutch football league teams]] ==External links== *[http://www.fcdenbosch.nl/ Website of FC Den Bosch] {{Eerste divisie}} [[Category:Dutch football clubs|Den Bosch]] [[nl:FC Den Bosch]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Female genital cutting</title> <id>11408</id> <revision> <id>41981806</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:55:51Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RussBot</username> <id>279219</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Husband</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Female genital cutting''' (FGC) refers to a number of procedures performed for [[Culture|cultural]], rather than [[Surgery|medical]], reasons on the female [[genitals|genitalia]]. Although occasionally practiced by some doctors in the [[United States]] until 1958, in recent years it is only common in parts of [[Africa]] and by minority groups in some countries of the [[Middle East]]. Less frequently, it occurs among some immigrant communities in parts of [[Asia]] and the [[Pacific]], [[North America|North]] and [[Latin America]], and [[Europe]]. Opponents of these practices use the term '''female genital mutilation (FGM)'''. The official term '''female circumcision''' is also in common usage, though advocates of male [[circumcision]] argue that this results in unwanted associations between the two practices, while [[genital integrity]] advocates might refer to all child genital cutting as '''mutilation'''. Most [[Human rights]] organizations in [[western civilization|the West]], [[Africa]], and Asia consider female genital cutting rituals a violation of women's human rights. Among these groups and governments, they are regarded as unacceptable and illegal forms of [[body modification]] and [[mutilation]] of those believed to be too young or otherwise unable to give [[informed consent]]. ==Different forms== There are several distinct practices that are all generally referred to by this name. In particular, while female genital cutting is generally thought of in the West as involving the complete destruction of the female sexual organs in an effort to eliminate the female's sexual pleasure, in some forms female circumcision is claimed to be analogous to [[male circumcision]], in that both procedures can involve the removal of the [[prepuce]] and the [[frenulum]]. In other cases, the procedure has no tissue removal at all, but is simulated with a knife as part of a ceremony, or with a symbolic drop of blood released with a needle. Those that involve tissue removal are usually divided into three major types. ===Clitoridotomy=== &quot;Clitoridotomy&quot; (which is also called &quot;hoodectomy&quot; as a slang term) involves the removal or splitting of the [[clitoral hood]]. The [[United Nations Population Fund]] states that this is comparable to male circumcision.[http://www.unfpa.org/gender/faq_fgc.htm#4] In the [[United States]] and other Western countries, clitoridotomy is usually performed on adult women rather than on children. Sunna circumcision (named after the Arabic word for anything approved by Islamic law and centred in Islamic tradition: in fact, there is no genuine approval for this, and some Muslim cl
fore the opening. If the parachute is deployed while the jumper is tumbling, there is a high risk of entanglement or malfunction. Beginner BASE jumpers often make the error of rotating forwards by jumping with a swimming-pool type of diving motion, leading to an involuntary forward loop. Better technique is to exit without any rotational motion. On higher BASE jumps, those which allow a free fall of five seconds or more, it may be necessary to use freefall tracking technique to move away from the jump object (especially on cliff jumps). Jump platforms providing an overhang, such as arch bridges or naturally overhung cliffs, are more forgiving in this respect and so are more suitable for beginner BASE jumpers. ==Legal issues== In the United States, skydiving from an airplane involves regulations set by the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]], notably the requirement of an airplane jumper to carry two parachutes. Since BASE jumping does not involve an airplane, the FAA has no jurisdiction. [[Image:NewRiverBridge West virginia.jpg|right|thumb|200px|New River Gorge Bridge]] The legal issues that a BASE jumper must consider concern permissions to use the object that is being jumped, and the area used for landing. The general reluctance of the owners of jumpable objects to allow their object to be used as a platform leads many BASE jumpers to covertly attempt jumps. This is legal in jurisdictions in which it is permissible to use land until specifically told not to. However, at [[Perrine Bridge]] in [[Twin Falls]], [[Idaho]], and, once a year, on the third Saturday in October ('Bridge Day') at the [[New River Gorge Bridge]] in Fayetteville, [[West Virginia]], permission to BASE jump has explicitly been granted. The New River Gorge Bridge deck is 876 feet (267 m) above the river. A rock dropped from the deck will hit the water in 8.8 seconds. This annual event attracts about 450 BASE jumpers, and nearly 200,000 spectators. If the conditions are good, in the 6 hours that it is legal, there may be over 800 jumps at Bridge Day. For many skydivers who would like to try BASE jumping, this will be the only fixed object from which they ever jump. [[Image:El_Capitan,_Yosemite_NP.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[El Capitan]] and the [[Merced River]] ]] Covert BASE jumps are often made from tall buildings and antenna towers. BASE jumping itself is not illegal, but jumpers who are caught in the act may face charges of trespass or reckless endangerment. However the National Park Service has the authority to ban specific activities in US National Parks, and has done so for BASE jumping as a result of jumping activity in Yosemite. In the early days of BASE jumping, the Service ran a permit scheme under which jumpers could get authorisation to jump El Capitan. This scheme ran for 3 months in 1980 and then collapsed amid allegations of abuse by unauthorised jumpers. Since then, the Service has vigorously enforced a ban, charging jumpers with &quot;aerial delivery into a National Park&quot;. One jumper was drowned in the Merced river while being chased by Park Rangers intent on arresting him. Despite this, illegal jumps continue in Yosemite at a rate estimated at a few hundred per year, often at night or dawn. [[El Capitan]], [[Half Dome]] and [[Glacier Point]] are all used as jump sites. The legal position is better at other sites and in other countries. For example, in Norway's [[Lysefjord]], BASE jumpers are made welcome. Many sites in the European Alps, near Chamonix and on the Eiger, are also open to jumpers. ==BASE Ethics== {{cleanup-tone}} BASE jumping has its own peculiar set of ethical guidelines. These ethics have evolved (and continue to do so) over time. The underlying motivation for BASE ethics is a shared desire to jump, and to do so while avoiding arrest or injury. The bottom line aim of BASE ethics is to allow jumpers to continue making as many jumps as possible in the long run. It follows then, that actions which make it harder for others to jump are generally viewed as unethical, to some (varying) degree. The nuances of BASE ethics vary from place to place, and especially vary depending on the legal status of a site. Sometimes there are established guidelines for a site (true at an increasing number of popular legal sites). The guidelines have been established for good reasons, and often in conjunction with local authorities. Jumpers breaking these rules (through ignorance or otherwise) undermine the legalization efforts of the entire BASE community. The guiding principle of BASE ethics is respect. BASE jumpers should respect the sport, the sites, and other people (both jumpers and non-jumpers). Failing to respect the serious nature of BASE will quickly alienate many experienced jumpers, who have learned to respect BASE through hard personal experiences. Lack of respect for the sport can be shown in many ways. Dismissing the inherent dangers of the sport is one. Putting unprepared people off for a &quot;BASE thrill ride&quot; is another. Instructing students who lack appropriate preparation is a third. The bottom line is that BASE can be a fun game--but it can also turn deadly serious in a heartbeat. Remembering this is one of the keys to a long, healthy life, and also to a long, healthy jumping career. Failing to respect sites, and the guidelines for jumping them (formal or otherwise) will almost certainly anger jumpers who established, and continue to jump, those sites. Site guidelines and procedures vary from simple (&quot;don’t land by the farmhouse&quot;), to Byzantine (&quot;drive up the left side of the dirt road, park behind the loading dock, and keep your lights on until you reach the third door&quot;), to downright bizarre. Respecting other people is a basic guideline of human interaction we all learned in kindergarten. This nicety of human interaction is even more important in BASE. Jumpers depend on each other for instruction, assistance and mutual aid. While this is most obvious in simple things, like carpooling to a jump site, it also applies to opening and maintaining site access, avoiding arrest, and providing medical assistance to injured jumpers. In the most extreme, jumpers rely on each other for emotional support when tragedy occurs. While they sometimes like to think of themselves as rugged individualists, in the end, BASE is a team sport. Jumpers should also respect the non-jumping people who live or work around BASE sites. Many jumpers travel to jump, and it is important to understand and respect the culture (and wishes) of the local people. There are some popular cliffs in Europe, for example, where jumpers are asked to land in specific areas so as not to disrupt local agriculture. The popular legal span in the western US is located in a small, conservative, rural community, which has little tolerance for public nudity or profanity. Understanding and respecting the culture of local residents helps protect site access, as well as conveying a positive image of BASE jumpers to the general public. ==BASE jumping today== It is not known how many people have tried at least one BASE jump; however, when a jumper completes a jump from '''each of the four categories''' of objects, they may choose to apply for a &quot;BASE number&quot;. These are awarded sequentially. In [[1981]], Phil Smith of [[Houston]], [[Texas]], was awarded BASE-1. In March 2005 the 1000th application for a BASE number had been filed. [[Image:IMG_0133(Eiffel_in_Evening).jpg|150px|left|thumb|Eiffel Tower]] BASE jumping is often featured in action movies, like the [[2002]] [[Vin Diesel]] film [[XXX (movie)|xXx]] where Diesel's character catapults himself off a bridge in an open-topped car, landing safely as the car crashes on the ground. After the 1976 Mt Asgard jump, the James Bond movies continued to feature BASE jumps, including one from the [[Eiffel Tower]] in 1985's ''[[A View to a Kill]]'', the [[Rock of Gibraltar]] in 1987's ''[[The Living Daylights]]'', and in ''[[Die Another Day]]'', 2002, [[Pierce Brosnan]] as [[James Bond]] jumps from a melting iceberg. Of the James Bond jumps, though, only the Mt Asgard and Eiffel Tower jumps were filmed in reality; the rest were special effects. The 1990s surge of interest in extreme sports saw many developments in BASE jumping and increasing acceptance of it generally, though it is still widely seen as a daredevil stunt rather than a sport. Even though it is a highly skilled activity, the lack of an objective way to measure skill as the basis for records and competitions, hinders acceptance as a true sport; and it remains as dangerous as it looks, prompting some, with typically black humor, to say that BASE stands for &quot;Bones And S**t Everywhere&quot;. Through the availability of specialised equipment and wider knowledge of techniques, it is safer today than in the early days, though the occasional fatalities and injuries occur. Some deaths through ground impact in freefall or object strike do occur, but most incidents are due to hazardous landing sites or other problems which develop after the parachute has opened. Because of the covert nature of much of BASE jumping, no reliable figures are available to assess the statistical risks of the activity. [[Image:Trango_Towers_Pakistan.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Trango Towers]] The Guinness Book of Records first listed a BASE jumping record with Carl Boenish's 1984 leap from Trollveggen ([[Troll Wall]]) in Norway. It was described as the highest BASE jump. (The jump was made two days before Boenish's death at the same site.) This record category is still in the Guinness book and is currently held by Nic Feteris and Glenn Singleman with a jump from the 19,000ft [[Great Trango Tower|Trango]] cliff in Pakistan, which seems unlikely to be beaten. However, the sheer variety of the nature of the challenge at different jump sites means that direct comparisons of different jumps are often meaningless.
ittle presence in Egypt, but is headed by a Patriarch of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. There is also a [[List of Orthodox Patriarchs of Alexandria|Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria]]. Small [[Protestant]] and [[Anglican]] denominations also exist. By some accounts there are about 60 million Coptic Orthodox Christians in the world: they are found primarily in [[Egypt]] (roughly 15 million), [[Ethiopia]] (roughly 38 million [http://www2.wcc-coe.org/pressreleasesen.nsf/index/pr-05-55.html]), and [[Eritrea]] (roughly 2 million), but there are significant numbers in [[North America]], [[Europe]], [[Australia]], [[Sudan]] and [[Israel]], and in diaspora throughout the world making approximately another 3 to 4 million. However, as applied to the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], which in 1959 was granted her first own Patriarch by Coptic [[Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria]], the word ''Coptic'' can be considered a misnomer because it means ''Egyptian''. The [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church]] similarly became independent of the Ethiopian Tewahedo Church during the 1990s. These three churches remain in [[full communion]] with each other and with the other [[Oriental Orthodox]] churches. Since the 1980s theologians from the Oriental Orthodox and Chalcedonian Orthodox churches have been meeting in a bid to resolve the theological differences, and have concluded that many of the differences are caused by the two groups using different terminology to describe the same thing (see [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Agreed_Official_Statements_on_Christology_with_the_Catholic_and_Eastern_Orthodox_Churches Agreed Official Statements on Christology with the Eastern Orthodox Churches]). In the summer of 2001, the Coptic Orthodox and Greek Orthodox Patriarchates of Alexandria [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Pastoral_Agreement_between_the_Coptic_Orthodox_and_Greek_Orthodox_Patriarchates_of_Alexandria_%282001%29 agreed] to mutually recognize baptisms performed in each other's churches, making rebaptisms unnecessary, and to recognize the sacrament of marriage as celebrated by the other. Previously, if a Coptic and Greek wanted to marry, the marriage had to be performed twice, once in each church, for it to be recognized by both. Now it can be done in only one church and be recognized by both. In the Coptic Church only men may be ordained, and they must be married before they are ordained, if they wish to be married. In this respect they follow the same practices as does the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]. Traditionally, the [[Coptic language]] was used in church services, and the scriptures were written in the [[Coptic alphabet]]. However, due to the arabisation of Egypt, service in churches started to witness increased use of Arabic, while preaching is done entirely in Arabic. Native languages are used, in conjunction with Coptic, during services outside of Egypt. Coptic Christians celebrate [[Christmas]] on the 7th of January which, since 2002, is an official national holiday in Egypt. ==Prominent Copts== [[Image:Coptic Church.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A Coptic Church in [[Amman]], [[Jordan]]]] *'''Some Coptic saints''' **[[Abanoub|St. Abanoub]] **[[St. Philopateer Mercurius]] **[[Abdel Messih El-Makari|St. Abdel Messih El-Makari]] **[[Abraam Bishop of Fayoum|St. Abraam Bishop of Fayoum]] الأنبا إبرآم أسقف الفيوم **[[Anthony the Great|St. Anthony the Great]] القديس الأنبا أنطونيوس أب الرهبان **[[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius the Apostolic]] البابا أثناسيوس الرسوليي **[[Bishoy|St. Pishoy]] **[[Cyril of Alexandria|St. Cyril of Alexandria]] القديس البابا كيرلس السكندري عامود الدين **[[Cyril VI|Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria]] قداسة البابا كيرلس السادس **[[Demiana|St. Demiana]] الشهيدة دميانة **[[Didimos|St. Didimos]] القديس ديديموس الضرير **[[Dioscorus of Alexandria|St. Dioscores]] البابا ديسقوروس **[[Mary of Egypt|St. Mary of Egypt]] القديسة مريم المصرية **[[Saint Mina|St. Mina]] الشهيد مارمينا العجايبي **[[Saint Maurice|St. Maurice]] القديس موريس قائد الكتيبة الطيبية **[[Moses the Black|St. Moses the Black]] القديس موسى الأسود **[[Pakhom|St. Pakhom]] القديس باخوم أب الشركة **[[Parsoma|St. Parsoma]] الأنبا برسوم العريان **[[Pavly the Anchorite|St. Pavly the Anchorite]] **[[Saint Mercurius|St. Philopatyr Mercurius]] **[[Samuel the Confessor|St. Samuel the Confessor]] **[[Saint Shenouda the Archimandrite|St. Shenouda the Archimandrite]] **[[Simon the Shoemaker|St. Simon the Shoemaker]] **[[Takla Haymanot|St. Takla Haymanot]] القديس الأنبا تكلا هيمانوت الحبشي القس **[[Tigy|St. Tigy]] **[[Verena|St. Verena]] القديسة **[[St. Karas]] *'''Clergymen''' **[[Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria|HH Pope Shenouda III]], the current Pope of Alexandria قداسة البابا شنوده الثالث *'''Politicians''' **[[Boutros Ghali]], Prime Minister of Egypt بطرس غالي **[[Boutros Boutros-Ghali|Boutros Boutros Ghali]], Former [[Secretary General of the United Nations]] بطرس بطرس غالي **[[Makram Ebeid]] مكرم عبيد **[[Kamal Stino]], Former Vice Prime Minister of Egypt كمال ستينو **[[Youssef Boutros Ghali]] يوسف بطرس غالي *'''20th-century prominent Copts''' **[[Professor Naguib Pasha Mahfouz]] (1882-1974), Obstetric fistula pioneer and the father of Obstetrics and Gynaecology in Egypt **[[Sir Magdi Yacoub]], leading cardiologist in the world مجدي يعقوب **[[Isaac Fanous]], the father of modern [[Coptic Art|Coptic]] [[iconography]] ايزاك فانوس **[[Hany Ramzy]], football player **[[Mary Moneib]] ماري منيب **[[Ester Fanous]] إستر فانوس **[[Sobhi Gergis]] صبحي جرجس **[[Margret Nakhla]] مرجريت نخلة **[[Sally Bishai]] Director **[[Sandra Nashaat]] ساندرا نشأت **[[Michel Bakhoom]] ميشيل باخوم **[[Nabih Youssef]] Leading structural engineer in the U.S. **[[Professor Alfy Morcos Fanous]] Leading civil engineer and one of the coastal engineering pioneers in the world **[[Youssef Sidhom]] Prominent Journalist **[[Onsi Sawiris]] Founder of Orascom Corp. and richest man in Egypt **[[Fayez Sarofim]] Billionaire Houston financier ==See also== *[[Copt|The Copts]] *[[Coptic Alphabet]] *[[Coptic Art]] *[[Coptic Calendar]] *[[Coptic Language]] *[[Coptic Music]] *[[List of Coptic Popes]] **[[List of Patriarchs of Alexandria]] &amp;ndash; prior to Chalcedon *[[Coptic Catholic Church]] *[[Egypt]] ==External links== * [http://www.CopticPope.org Official Website of HH Pope Shenouda III] * [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/copticchristians.htm An Overview of the Coptic Christians of Egypt by Lara Iskander and Jimmy Dunn] * [http://www.zeitun-eg.org Holy Virgin Mary Apparitions over the domes of Her Coptic Orthodox Church in Zeitun, Cairo, Egypt, 1968 - seen by millions] * [http://www.zeitun-eg.net/stcyril6/ The late Pope Kyrillos VI (Cyril the Sixth), 116th Pope of Alexandria and See of St. Mark (Coptic Orthodox Patriarch, 1959-1971)] * [http://www.stmina-monastery.org St. Mina (Menas) Coptic Orthodox Monastery in Mariut, near Alexandria, Egypt] * [http://st-takla.org/Coptic-church-1.html Coptic Church History at www.St-Takla.org] * [http://www.copticchurch.net More Information on the Coptic Church, its Beliefs, Practices, and Liturgical Life] * [http://www.coptic.net CoptNet - The Christian Coptic Orthodox Church Of Egypt] * [http://www.france-copte.net Réseau des Coptes en France] (French) * [http://tasbeha.org Ancient Hymns of the Coptic Orthodox Church] * [http://www.coptichymns.net Coptic Hymns] * [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#History_of_the_Patriarchs_of_the_Coptic_Church_of_Alexandria History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria - to 849 A.D.] * [http://www.tasbeha.org Coptic Midnight Praises] * [http://www.agpeya.org/index.html Agpeya: Coptic Book of Hours] - also see [[Canonical hours]] * [http://www.copticwiki.org CopticWiki] * [http://online.mq.edu.au/pub/AHPG856/coptic_mq.html The MA Program in Coptic Studies at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia] ==Bibliography== * [http://aucpress.com/cgi-aucpress/auc02/pager.cgi?catno=757_4 ''Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity'' by Dr. Otto F. A. Meinardus (368 pages - Cairo: AUC Press, 2002)] * [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0965239608/002-6112676-3430426 ''Traditional Egyptian Christianity: A History of the Coptic Orthodox Church'' by Rev. Fr. Prof. Theodore H. Partrick (226 pages - Fisher Park Press, 1996)] * [http://www.stmina-monastery.org/ButcherEL/ ''Story of the Church of Egypt'' - by Edith L Butcher (1897)] * [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/arbible/message/25832 Selected Bibliography about Coptic Christianity] * [http://www.ambassadors.net/opinions2.htm From Paris to Cairo: Resistance of the Unacculturated] {{Eastern Christianity}} [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Coptic Orthodox Church|*]] [[Category:Religion in Egypt]] [[ar:كنيسة قبطية أرثوذوكسية]] [[de:Koptische Kirche]] [[es:Iglesia Copta]] [[he:קופטים]] [[it:Chiesa Copta]] [[lb:Koptesch Kierch]] [[nl:Koptisch Christendom]] [[no:Den koptiske kirke]] [[ja:コプト正教会]] [[pt:Igreja Copta]] [[ru:Коптская Православная Церковь]] [[sv:Koptisk-ortodoxa kyrkan]] [[zh:科普特教派]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Children of God</title> <id>7602</id> <revision> <id>41973240</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:48:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cmdrjameson</username> <id>101935</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>sp (4): Millenium→Millennium, refered→referred, televison→television</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Children of God''' (COG), later known as the '''Family of Love''', the '''Family''', and now '''The Family International''', is a [[new religious movement]] that started in 1968 in [[Huntington Beach, California|Huntington Beach]], [[California]], [[United States|USA]]. It was a fringe element of the [[Jesus Movement]] of the late 1960s, with many of its early [[Religious conversion|converts]] drawn from the [[hippies|hippie movement]]. It was among the movements prompting the [[cult]] controversy of
ages]] **[[Burgundian|Bourguignon-Morvandiau]] **[[Champenois]] **[[Franc-Comtois]] **[[French language|French]] *** [[Belgian French]] *** [[Cajun French]] *** [[Quebec French]] *** [[Swiss French]] *** [[Zarphatic]]/[[Judæo-French]] (extinct since the late 1300s) **[[Gallo language]] **[[Lorrain]] **[[Norman language|Norman]] ***[[Jèrriais]] ***[[Dgèrnésiais]] **[[Picard language|Picard]] **[[Poitevin-Saintongeais]] **[[Walloon language|Walloon]] * [[Occitan language|Occitan]] ** [[Gascon]] *** [[Aranese]] ** [[Auvergnat]] ** [[Languedocien]] ** [[Limousin language|Limousin]] ** [[Provençal]] *** [[Shuadit language|Shuadit]] (Judæo-Provençal) (extinct since 1977) ===== [[Italo-Romance languages]] ===== * [[Corsican language|Corsican]] * [[Dalmatian language|Dalmatian]] ** [[Istriot language|Istriot]] * [[Italian language|Italian]] ** [[Emilio-Romagnolo language|Emilio-Romagnolo]] ** [[Italkian|Judeo-Italian]] ** [[Ligurian language|Ligurian]] ***[[Monegasque language|Monegasque]] ** [[Lombard language|Lombard]] ** [[Napoletana-Calabrese language|Napoletana-Calabrese]] ** [[Piemontese language|Piemontese]] * [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] ** [[Sardo campidanese|Campidanese]] ** [[Gallurese]] ** [[Sardo logudorese|Logudorese]] ** [[Sassarese]] * [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] * [[Venetian language|Venetian]] ===== [[Rhaetian languages|Rhaeto-Romance languages]] ===== * [[Friulian language|Friulian]] * [[Ladin language|Ladin]] * [[Romansh]] ===== [[Eastern Romance languages]] ===== * [[Daco-Romanian]] ** [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ** [[Moldovan language|Moldovan]] * [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]] * [[Istro-Romanian language|Istro-Romanian]] * [[Megleno-Romanian language|Megleno-Romanian]] &lt;/blockquote&gt; === [[Indo-Iranian languages]] === &lt;blockquote&gt; ==== [[Indo-Aryan languages]] ==== * [[Romany language|Romany]] ==== [[Iranian languages]] ==== * [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] * [[Ossetic language|Ossetian language]] * [[Persian language|Persian]] &lt;/blockquote&gt; === [[Slavic languages]] === &lt;blockquote&gt; ==== [[West Slavic languages]] ==== * [[Czech language|Czech]] * [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]] * [[Polish language|Polish]] * [[Slovak language|Slovak]] * [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]] ==== [[East Slavic languages]] ==== * [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] * [[Russian language|Russian]] * [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]] ** [[Carpatho-Rusyn (Ruthenian)]] ** [[Pannonian-Rusyn (Rusnak)]] * [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] ==== [[South Slavic languages]] ==== * [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] * Old [[Church Slavonic]] * [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] * [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] (previously part of [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]) * [[Croatian language|Croatian]] (previously part of [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]) * [[Serbian language|Serbian]] (previously part of [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]) * [[Slovene language|Slovene]] * [[Romano-Serbian language|Romano-Serbian]] (a [[mixed language]]) &lt;/blockquote&gt; ==See also:== * [[Alphabetic list of living languages in Europe]] {{Europe_in_topic|Languages of}} [[Category:Languages by geographical region]] [[sv:Europas språk]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Eindhoven University of Technology</title> <id>9706</id> <revision> <id>40363131</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:48:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rich Farmbrough</username> <id>82835</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>External links per MoS.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Dutch University | name = Eindhoven University of Technology | latin_name = (None) | dutch_name = Technische Universiteit Eindhoven| image = [[Image:LogoEindhovenniversityOfTechnology.png|right|Logo of the Eindhoven University of Technology]] | motto = Mens Agitat Molem (''The mind moves matter'') | established = [[1956]] | type = [[Public university|Public]], technical | head = Prof.dr. ir. C.J. van Duijn | city = [[Eindhoven]] | country = [[The Netherlands]] | data_from = 2004 | students = 6800 | faculty = 220 | membership = [[CESAER Association|CESAER]], Santander and CLUSTER | homepage = [http://www.tue.nl/ www.tue.nl] }} The '''Eindhoven University of Technology''' (in Dutch: Technische Universiteit Eindhoven or TU/e, and formerly '''Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven''' or '''THE''') is a technical university located in [[Eindhoven]], the [[Netherlands]]. The motto of the university is: ''Mens agitat molem'' (The mind moves matter). It was founded as the ''Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven'' (THE) on [[June 15]], [[1956]] by the Dutch government. It was the second institution of its kind in the [[Netherlands]], preceded only by the [[Delft University of Technology]]. It is located on its own campus in the centre of Eindhoven, just north of the central station. It is currently home to about 300 professors, 6000 students, 450 Ph.D. students, 200 post-doc students and 3000 regular employees. It also supports 100 student associations and 15 alumni associations. One of the former students of the university is Gerard Kleisterlee, the current [[CEO]] of [[Philips]]. The university is located in an area where several companies that lead in technology are doing their research, like [[Philips]], [[ASML]] and [[DAF Trucks|DAF]]. The university maintains close contacts with these companies. As of April 29, 2005, Prof.dr.ir. C.J. van Duijn has the position of rector magnificus. ==Distinguished alumni== * [[Kees A. Schouhamer Immink|Kees Schouhamer Immink]], scientist and president Turing Machines Inc. * [[Gerard Kleisterlee]], president [[Philips]] since 2001 ==Distinguished faculty== * [[Edsger Dijkstra]] ==External links== * [http://www.tue.nl TU/e] * [http://w3.chem.tue.nl Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry] {{Template:Dutch universities}} [[Category:Technical universities]] [[Category:Universities in the Netherlands]] [[de:Technische Universiteit Eindhoven]] [[nl:Technische Universiteit Eindhoven]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Electronegativity</title> <id>9707</id> <revision> <id>42011629</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:14:04Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>TeejK</username> <id>1021755</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Electronegativity''' is a measure of the ability of an atom or molecule to attract electrons in the context of a chemical bond. The type of bond formed is largely determined by the difference in electronegativity between the atoms involved. Atoms with similar electronegativities will share an electron with each other and form a [[covalent bond]]. However, if the difference is too great, the electron will be permanently transferred to one atom and an ionic bond will form. Furthermore, in a covalent bond if one atom pulls slightly harder than the other, a [[Polar_covalent_bond|polar covalent bond]] will form. The reverse of electronegativity, the ability of an atom to lose electrons, is known as '''electropositivity'''. Two scales of electronegativity are in common use: the Pauling scale (proposed in [[1932]]) and the [[Mulliken scale]] (proposed in [[1934]]). Another proposal is the [[Allred-Rochow scale]]. == Pauling scale == The '''Pauling scale''' was devised in [[1932]] by [[Linus Pauling]]. On this scale, the most electronegative [[chemical element]] ([[fluorine]]) is given an electronegativity value of 3.98 (textbooks often state this value to be 4.0); the least electronegative element ([[francium]]) has a value of 0.7, and the remaining elements have values in between. On the Pauling scale, [[hydrogen]] is arbitrarily assigned a value of 2.1 or 2.2. '''&amp;delta;'''EN'''''' is the difference in electronegativity between two atoms or elements. Bonds between atoms with a large electronegativity difference (greater than or equal to 1.7) are usually considered to be [[ionic bond|ionic]], while values between 1.7 and 0.4 are considered polar [[covalent bond|covalent]]. Values below 0.4 are considered non-polar [[covalent bond]]s, and electronegativity differences of 0 indicate a completely non-polar covalent bond. == Mulliken scale == The Mulliken scale was proposed by [[Robert S. Mulliken]] in [[1934]]. On the Mulliken scale, numbers are obtained by averaging [[ionization potential]] and [[electron affinity]]. Consequently, the Mulliken electronegativities are expressed directly in [[energy]] units, usually [[electron volt]]s. == Electronegativity trends == Each [[chemical element|element]] has a characteristic electronegativity ranging from 0 to 4 on the Pauling scale. The most strongly electronegative element, [[fluorine]], has an electronegativity of 3.98 while weakly electronegative elements, such as [[lithium]], have values close to 1. The least electronegative element is [[francium]] at 0.7. ''In general'', the degree of electronegativity decreases down each group and increases across the periods, as shown below. Across a period, non-metals tend to gain electrons and metals tend to lose them due to the atom striving to achieve a stable [[octet rule|octet]]. Down a group, the nuclear charge has less effect on the outermost shells. Therefore, the most electronegative atoms can be found in the upper, right hand side of the periodic table, and the least electronegative elements can be found at the bottom left. Consequently, ''in general'', [[atomic radius]] decreases across the periodic table, but [[ionization energy]] increases. &lt;center&gt; {| WIDTH=&quot;80%&quot; align=&quot;CENTER&quot; ! colspan=20 | &amp;rarr; [[Atomic radius]] decreases &amp;rarr; [[Ionization energy]] increases &amp;rarr; [[Electronegativity]] increases &amp;rarr; |- align=&quot;CEN
nt does not attempt to prove anything about God besides existence. Scholastic philosophers believed, however, that further arguments can be used to prove to anyone via logic some attributes of God, such as his [[omniscience]], simplicity (i.e., total lack of composition), and more. However, they believed other things can not be known about God by deduction and can only be known by [[divine revelation.]] ==The argument== Framed as a formal proof, the first cause argument can be stated as follows: # Everything has a cause. # Nothing can cause itself. # Everything is caused by another thing. # A causal chain cannot be of infinite length. # There must be a first cause. # God was the first cause. The cosmological argument infers the existence of God from claims about ''the entire universe''. Fundamentally, the argument is based on the claim that God must exist due to the fact that the universe needs a cause. In other words, the existence of the universe requires an explanation, and an active creation of the universe by a being outside of the universe&amp;mdash;generally assumed to be [[God]]&amp;mdash;is that explanation. The cosmological argument rests on the assumption that there need be a first cause. This assumption is made because of the conceptual difficulty of imagining an [[infinite regress]]. Aquinas' version does not assume that the first cause is an omnipotent, omniscient, and all-benevolent God, but later attempts to prove also that this is true. In light of the [[Big Bang theory]], a stylized version of the basic cosmological argument (sometimes called the [[Kalam cosmological argument]], most recently defended by [[William Lane Craig]]) for the existence of God has emerged: # Whatever begins to exist has a cause. # The universe began to exist. # Therefore, the universe had a cause, i.e., God. ===A more detailed version of the argument=== A more detailed explanation might go something like this: Consider some event in the universe. Whatever event you choose, it will be the result of some ''cause'', or more likely a very complex set of causes. Of course each of those causes would be events, which were the result of some other set of causes. Thus, there is an enormous chain of events in the universe, with the earlier events causing the later events. Now, either this chain of events has a beginning, or it does not. Currently, the theory of the cosmological history of the universe most widely accepted by [[astronomy|astronomers]] arguably includes an apparent first event&amp;mdash;the Big Bang&amp;mdash;the immense explosion of all known matter and energy from a superdense point at some finite time in the past. If this really is the ''first'' event in the universe, this explosion could not be the result of any prior event. According to the cosmological argument, the cause of the first event would necessarily be a being which is capable of causing other events, but which is not itself caused. Aristotle called this the Uncaused Cause, and left it at that, but Aquinas went on to argue that this ''Uncaused Cause'' is just another name for ''God''. Though contemporary versions of the cosmological argument assume that there was a beginning to this chain of causes, Aquinas' formulation did not make such an assumption, due to his view that it was impossible to prove that the universe did have a beginning. According to Aquinas, it is logically possible that the universe has already existed for an infinite amount of time, and will continue to exist for an infinite amount of time. Even if the universe has always existed, (a notion which Aquinas rejected on other grounds) there is still a question as to why this infinite chain of causes exists. Aquinas follows Aristotle in claiming that there must be something which explains why the universe exists. Since the universe could exist or not exist, that is to say it is [[contingent]], its existence must have a cause. And that cause cannot simply be another contingent thing, it must be something which exists by necessity, that is, it must be something which must exist. In other words, even if the universe has always existed, it still owes that existence to Aristotle's ''Uncaused Cause.'' So Aquinas comes to the same conclusion, that God exists, whether there was a first event in the universe or not. Since either the universe has always existed, or it had a first event, Aquinas says that this argument definitively proves the existence of God. The German philosopher [[Gottfried Leibniz]] made the same point with his Principle of Sufficient Reason in 1714. He wrote: &quot;There can be found no fact that is true or existent, or any true proposition, without there being a sufficient reason for its being so and not otherwise, although we cannot know these reasons in most cases.&quot; He formulated the cosmological argument succinctly: &quot;Why is there something rather than nothing? The sufficient reason...is found in a substance which...is a necessary Being bearing the reason for its existence within itself.&quot; ==Critique and Objections== The cosmological argument depends on several assumptions. Most objections center on two of them: * Everything has a cause (1). * A causal chain cannot be of infinite length (4) and therefore also on &quot;There must be a first cause&quot; (5). The cosmological argument attempts to prove that a First Cause exists. One objection is that this does not even attempt to ascribe this First Cause with attributes necessary to call it &quot;God,&quot; not even with extremely basic prerequisites such as [[self-awareness]] and [[will (philosophy)|will]] (though there are some theists who actually do make such attempts when using this argument [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/craig-smith1.html]). It simply names the First Cause as &quot;God&quot; without proving that it has the characteristics that that name implies. Furthermore, the argument only requires God as a first cause, but fails to prove that God continued to exist after serving that purpose. Some [[Deism|deists]] agree that the argument proves that God created the universe, but nevertheless maintain that God then ceased to exist, or ceased to interact with the material universe. Opponents point out that the cosmological argument applies temporal concepts to situations where time does not exist. For example, &quot;cause&quot; is a temporal concept - by definition, it requires time; things which exist outside of time do not have to be caused. (Indeed, this is the excuse given for God's unrequirement to be caused.) However, time is merely a property of the universe, and so the laws of time (ie. cause) cannot be logically applied to the universe itself as a whole. Similarly, time can begin, but not require a cause, since all human concepts of a caused beginning have something before that beginning (including the cause); this is not true of time itself. An assumption in some cosmological arguments (e.g., the [[Kalam cosmological argument|Kalam]] argument, but not [[Aquinas]]' arguments) is that there has to be a &quot;First Cause&quot;, ie. that our universe has not &quot;always&quot; existed. This is still an open question, although the standard Big Bang cosmology is consistent with it. Defenders of cosmological arguments that do not assume the finite age of the universe insist that eternal existence, the &quot;always there&quot; assumption, does not eliminate the problem of origin. On a similar note, one could also claim that the universe has always existed and its &quot;creation&quot; is thus not causal in nature, so no &quot;first cause&quot; is necessary. If one believes that time is infinite, then indeed there is no need for a &quot;first cause&quot; and therefore no need for God. However, this view is not compatible with the current scientific understanding of the origins of the universe. [[Gottfried Leibniz]] stated the problem in his conclusion, although his terminology included some assumptions. If his [[Principle of Sufficient Reason]] is indeed universally applicable, then the First Thing must either (1) be its own cause or (2) have a non-causal explanation. The non-causal explanation would either (a) make the First Thing's existence be in some way self-explanatory or (b) make it follow in an explanatory way from self-explanatory truths, such as the truths of logic. All three options have had defenders. Thus, option (1), the ''causa sui'' option, is defended by [[Descartes]]. Option (2a) is held by some of those like [[Aquinas]] who think that God's essence is identical with God's existence, or by those who hold, more weakly, that God's existence follows from his essence. Option (2b) essentially holds that there is a sound [[ontological argument]] for the existence of God, albeit we may not have discovered it yet. It follows from the [[Principle of Sufficient Reason]] that one of the three options holds, but a defender of the Principle does not need to give an independent proof of any one of these options. It is, after all, the ''conclusion'' of the argument that one of these holds. In fact, this conclusion might be the starting point for responding to the problem of identifying the First Thing with God--that is how it is in [[Aquinas]], for instance. Thus, if one could show the premises of the cosmological argument to be true and show that options (1) and (2a) were not tenable, then the cosmological argument would turn into an argument for the existence of an ontological argument. We would then know that there ''is'' a sound ontological argument, even if we did not know ''what'' it is. Alternately, the defender of the cosmological argument can restrict the Principle of Sufficient Reason in such a way that it does not require us to give an explanation of the existence of the First Thing. One such restriction would be to restrict the Principle only to require the explanation of ''contingent'' facts. Another is t
ointwise. * An example of a non-unitary associative algebra is given by the set of all functions ''f'': '''R''' &amp;rarr; '''R''' whose [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] as ''x'' nears infinity is zero. * The [[Clifford algebra]]s are useful in [[geometry]] and [[physics]]. * [[Incidence algebra]]s of locally finite [[partially ordered set]]s are unitary associative algebras considered in [[combinatorics]]. == Algebra homomorphisms == If ''A'' and ''B'' are associative algebras over the same field ''K'', an ''algebra homomorphism'' ''h'': ''A'' &amp;rarr; ''B'' is a ''K''-[[linear transformation|linear map]] which is also multiplicative in the sense that ''h''(''xy'') = ''h''(''x'') ''h''(''y'') for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''A''. With this notion of morphism, the class of all associative algebras over ''K'' becomes a [[category theory|category]]. Take for example the algebra ''A'' of all real-valued continuous functions '''R''' &amp;rarr; '''R''', and ''B'' = '''R'''. Both are algebras over '''R''', and the map which assigns to every continuous function ''f'' the number ''f''(0) is an algebra homomorphism from ''A'' to ''B''. == Index-free notation == In the above definition of an associative algebra, the definition of associativity was made with regard to all of the elements of ''A''. It is sometimes more convenient to have a definition of associativity that does not need to refer to the elements of ''A''. This can be done as follows. An algebra is defined as a map ''M'' (multiplication) on a vector space ''A'': :&lt;math&gt;M: A \times A \rightarrow A&lt;/math&gt; An associative algebra is an algebra where the map ''M'' has the property :&lt;math&gt;M \circ (\mbox {Id} \times M) = M \circ (M \times \mbox {Id})&lt;/math&gt; Here, the symbol &lt;math&gt;\circ&lt;/math&gt; refers to functional composition, and Id is the identity map: &lt;math&gt;Id(x)=x&lt;/math&gt; for all ''x'' in ''A''. To see the equivalence of the definitions, we need only understand that each side of the above equation is a function that takes three arguments. For example, the left-hand side acts as :&lt;math&gt;( M \circ (\mbox {Id} \times M)) (x,y,z) = M (x, M(y,z))&lt;/math&gt; Similarly, a unital associative algebra can be defined in terms of a unit map :&lt;math&gt;\eta: K \rightarrow A&lt;/math&gt; which has the property :&lt;math&gt;M \circ (\mbox {Id} \times \eta ) = s = M \circ (\eta \times \mbox {Id})&lt;/math&gt; Here, the unit map &amp;eta; takes an element ''k'' in ''K'' to the element ''k1'' in ''A'', where ''1'' is the unit element of ''A''. The map ''s'' is just plain-old scalar multiplication: &lt;math&gt;s:K\times A \rightarrow A&lt;/math&gt;; thus, the above identity is sometimes written with Id standing in the place of ''s'', with scalar multiplication being implicitly understood. == Generalizations == One may consider associative algebras over a commutative ring ''R'': these are [[module (mathematics)|modules]] over ''R'' together with a ''R''-bilinear map which yields an associative multiplication. In this case, a unital ''R''-algebra ''A'' can equivalently be defined as a [[ring (algebra)|ring]] ''A'' with a ring homomorphism ''R''&amp;rarr;''A''. The ''n''-by-''n'' matrices with [[integer]] entries form an associative algebra over the integers and the polynomials with coefficients in the ring '''Z'''/''n'''''Z''' (see [[modular arithmetic]]) form an associative algebra over '''Z'''/''n'''''Z'''. == Coalgebras == An associative unitary algebra over ''K'' is based on a [[morphism]] ''A''&amp;times;''A''&amp;rarr;''A'' having 2 inputs (multiplicator and multiplicand) and one output (product), as well as a morphism ''K''&amp;rarr;''A'' identifying the scalar multiples of the multiplicative identity. These two morphisms can be dualized using [[categorial duality]] by reversing all arrows in the [[commutative diagram]]s which describe the algebra [[axiom|axioms]]; this defines the structure of a [[coalgebra]]. There is also an abstract notion of [[F-coalgebra]]. == Representations == A [[group representation|representation]] of an algebra is a linear map &lt;math&gt;\rho:A\rightarrow gl(V)&lt;/math&gt; from ''A'' to the general linear algebra of some vector space (or module) ''V'' that preserves the multiplicative operation: that is, &lt;math&gt;\rho(xy)=\rho(x)\rho(y)&lt;/math&gt;. Note, however, that there is no natural way of defining a [[tensor product]] of representations of associative algebras, without somehow imposing additional conditions. Here, by ''tensor product of representations'', the usual meaning is intended: the result should be a linear representation on the product vector space. Imposing such additional structure typically leads to the idea of a [[Hopf algebra]] or a [[Lie algebra]], as demonstrated below. ===Motivation for a Hopf algebra=== Consider, for example, two representations &lt;math&gt;\sigma:A\rightarrow gl(V)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\tau:A\rightarrow gl(W)&lt;/math&gt;. One might try to form a tensor product representation &lt;math&gt;\rho: x \mapsto \rho(x) = \sigma(x) \otimes \tau(x)&lt;/math&gt; according to how it acts on the product vector space, so that :&lt;math&gt;\rho(x)(v \otimes w) = (\sigma(x)(v)) \otimes (\tau(x)(w))&lt;/math&gt;. However, such a map would not be linear, since one would have :&lt;math&gt;\rho(kx) = \sigma(kx) \otimes \tau(kx) = k\sigma(x) \otimes k\tau(x) = k^2 (\sigma(x) \otimes \tau(x)) = k^2 \rho(x)&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;k \in K&lt;/math&gt;. One can rescue this attempt and restore linearity by imposing additional structure, by defining a map &lt;math&gt;\Delta:A \rightarrow A \times A&lt;/math&gt;, and defining the tensor product representation as :&lt;math&gt;\rho = (\sigma\otimes \tau) \circ \Delta&lt;/math&gt;. Here, &amp;Delta; is a [[comultiplication]]. The resulting structure is called a [[bialgebra]]. To be consistent with the definitions of the associative algebra, the coalgebra must be co-associative, and, if the algebra is unital, then the co-algebra must be unital as well. Note that bialgebras leave multiplication and co-multiplication unrelated; thus it is common to relate the two (by defining an antipode), thus creating a [[Hopf algebra]]. ===Motivation for a Lie algebra === One can try to be more clever in defining a tensor product. Consider, for example, :&lt;math&gt;x \mapsto \rho (x) = \sigma(x) \otimes \mbox{Id}_W + \mbox{Id}_V \otimes \tau(x)&lt;/math&gt; so that the action on the tensor product space is given by :&lt;math&gt;\rho(x) (v \otimes w) = (\sigma(x) v)\otimes w + v \otimes (\tau(x) w)&lt;/math&gt;. This map is clearly linear in ''x'', and so it does not have the problem of the earlier definition. However, it fails to preserve multiplication: :&lt;math&gt;\rho(xy) = \sigma(x) \sigma(y) \otimes \mbox{Id}_W + \mbox{Id}_V \otimes \tau(x) \tau(y)&lt;/math&gt;. But, in general, this does not equal :&lt;math&gt;\rho(x)\rho(y) = \sigma(x) \sigma(y) \otimes \mbox{Id}_W + \sigma(x) \otimes \tau(y) + \sigma(y) \otimes \tau(x) + \mbox{Id}_V \otimes \tau(x) \tau(y)&lt;/math&gt;. Equality would hold if the product ''xy'' were antisymmetric (if the product were the [[Lie bracket]], that is, &lt;math&gt;xy \equiv M(x,y) = [x,y]&lt;/math&gt;), thus turning the associative algebra into a [[Lie algebra]]. ==References== * Ross Street, ''[http://www-texdev.ics.mq.edu.au/Quantum/Quantum.ps Quantum Groups: an entrée to modern algebra]'' (1998). ''(Provides a good overview of index-free notation)'' [[Category:Algebra]] [[de:Assoziative Algebra]] [[es:Álgebra asociativa]] [[fr:Algèbre associative]] [[he:אלגברה (מבנה אלגברי)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Axiom of regularity</title> <id>2113</id> <revision> <id>38836594</id> <timestamp>2006-02-08T23:27:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>71.249.61.168</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Elementary implications */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">The '''axiom of regularity''' (also known as the '''axiom of foundation''') is one of the axioms of [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]]. In [[first-order logic]] the axiom reads: :&lt;math&gt;\forall A: A \neq \{\} \implies \exists B: B \in A \land \lnot \exist C: C \in A \land C \in B&lt;/math&gt; Or in prose: :Every non-empty [[set]] ''A'' contains an element ''B'' which is disjoint from ''A''. Two results which follow from the axiom are that &quot;no set is an element of itself&quot;, and that &quot;there is no infinite [[sequence]] (''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'') such that ''a&lt;sub&gt;i+1&lt;/sub&gt;'' is an element of ''a&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' for all ''i''&quot;. With the [[axiom of choice]], this result can be reversed: if there are no such infinite sequences, then the axiom of regularity is true. Hence the two statements are equivalent. The axiom of regularity is arguably the least useful ingredient of [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]], since virtually all results in the branches of mathematics based on set theory hold even in the absence of regularity. In addition to omitting the axiom of regularity, non-standard set theories have indeed postulated the existence of sets that are elements of themselves. See [[Axiomatic set theory#Well-foundedness and hypersets|&quot;Well-foundedness and hypersets&quot;]] in the article [[Axiomatic set theory]]. == Elementary implications == ''Axiom of regularity implies that no set is an element of itself'' Let ''A'' be a set such that ''A'' is an element of itself and define ''B'' = {''A''}, which is a set by the [[axiom of pairing]]. Applying the axiom of regularity to ''B'', we see that the only element of ''B'', namely, ''A'', must be disjoint from ''B''. But the intersection of ''A'' and ''B'' is just ''A''. Thus ''B'' does not satisfy the axiom of regularity and we have a contradiction, proving that ''A'' cannot exist. ''Axiom of regularity implies that no infinite descendin
[[psychology]] [[professor]] of the [[University of Washington]] and a longtime Esperantist, who tracked down and tested Esperanto speakers in sample areas of dozens of countries over a period of twenty years. Culbert concluded that between one and two million people speak Esperanto at [[ILR or Foreign Service Level language ability measures|Foreign Service Level 3]], &quot;professionally proficient&quot; (able to communicate moderately complex ideas without hesitation, and to follow speeches, radio broadcasts, etc.) ([[#References|Wolff 1996]]). Culbert's estimate was not made for Esperanto alone, but formed part of his listing of estimates for all languages of over 1 million speakers, published annually in the [[World Almanac|World Almanac and Book of Facts]]. Culbert's most detailed account of his methodology is found in a [http://www.panix.com/~dwolff/docs/culbert-methods.html 1989 letter to David Wolff]. Since Culbert never published detailed intermediate results for particular countries and regions, it is difficult to independently gauge the accuracy of his results. In the Almanac, his estimates for numbers of language speakers were rounded to the nearest million, thus the number for Esperanto speakers is shown as 2 million. This latter figure appears in ''[[Ethnologue]]''. Assuming that this figure is accurate, that means that about 0.03% of the world's population speaks the language. This falls short of Zamenhof's goal of a [[international auxiliary language|universal language]], but it represents a level of popularity unmatched by any other constructed language. Ethnologue also states that there are 200 to 2000 [[native Esperanto speakers]] (''denaskuloj''), who have learned the language from birth from their Esperanto-speaking parents (this happens when Esperanto is the family language in an international family or sometimes in a family of devoted Esperantists). Marcus Sikosek has challenged this figure of 1.6 million as exaggerated. Sikosek estimated that even if Esperanto speakers were evenly distributed, assuming one million Esperanto speakers worldwide would lead one to expect about 180 in the city of [[Cologne, Germany|Cologne]]. Sikosek finds only 30 [[fluency|fluent]] speakers in that city, and similarly smaller than expected figures in several other places thought to have a larger-than-average concentration of Esperanto speakers. He also notes that there are a total of about 20,000 members of the various Esperanto organizations (other estimates are higher). Though there are undoubtedly many Esperanto speakers who are not members of any Esperanto organization, he thinks it unlikely that there are fifty times more speakers than organization members ([[#References|Sikosek 2003]]). Others think such a [[ratio]] between members of the organized Esperanto movement and speakers of the language is not unlikely. The [[Finnish people|Finnish]] [[linguistics|linguist]] Jouko Lindstedt, an expert on native-born Esperanto speakers, presented the following scheme ([[#References|1996]]) to show the overall proportions of language capabilities within the Esperanto community: * ''1,000 have Esperanto as their native language * ''10,000 speak it fluently * ''100,000 can use it actively * ''1,000,000 understand a large amount passively * ''10,000,000 have studied it to some extent at some time.'' In the absence of Dr. Culbert's detailed sampling data, or any other census data, it is impossible to state the number of speakers with certainty. Few observers, probably, would challenge the following statement from the [[website]] of the [[World Esperanto Association]]: :Numbers of [[textbook]]s sold and membership of local societies put the number of people with some knowledge of the language in the hundreds of thousands and possibly millions. [http://www.uea.org/info/angle/an_ghisdatigo.html] === Culture === :''For a more detailed treatment of these topics, see the subarticles: [[Esperanto culture]], [[Esperanto literature]], and [[Esperanto music]].'' Esperanto is often used to access an international culture, including a large corpus of original as well as translated [[Esperanto literature|literature]]. There are over a hundred regularly published [[Esperanto magazine|magazines in Esperanto]]. Many speakers use the language for free travel throughout the world using the [[Pasporta Servo]], or for international [[pen pal]]s. Penpals are even possible for [[Primary education|elementary school]] students, something that is far more difficult when using an ethnic language like English. To some extent there are also shared [[tradition]]s in the Esperanto community, like [[Zamenhof Day]]. It is frequently criticised that &quot;Esperanto has no culture&quot;. However, Esperanto is intentionally culturally neutral: It was intended to be a facilitator ''between'' cultures, not the carrier of any one culture. (See ''[[Esperanto as an international language]]''.) Two [[film]]s were produced with [[dialogue]] entirely in Esperanto. The films were ''[[Angoroj]]'' in 1964 and ''[[Incubus (film)|Incubus]]'' starring [[William Shatner]] in 1965. The [[anime]] [[RahXephon]] makes use of Esperanto for the [[acronym]] of TERRA, which stands for &quot;Tereno Empireo Rapidmova Reakcii Armeo.&quot; This can be translated as &quot;[[Earth]] Empire Rapid Response [[Army]],&quot; though pedants might note that a better Esperanto rendition of this name would be &quot;Rapid-Reaga Armeo de la Tera Imperio&quot;. [[United States|American]] [[composer]] [[Lou Harrison]], who incorporated styles and [[Musical instrument|instruments]] from many world cultures in his [[music]], used Esperanto titles and/or texts in several of his works. === Goals of the Esperanto movement === Zamenhof's intention was to create an easy-to-learn language to foster international understanding. It was to serve as an international auxiliary language, that is, as a universal second language, not to replace ethnic languages. This goal was widely shared among Esperanto speakers in the early decades of the movement. Later, Esperanto speakers began to see the language and the culture that had grown up around it as ends in themselves, even if Esperanto is never adopted by the United Nations or other international organizations. Those Esperanto speakers who want to see Esperanto adopted officially or on a large scale worldwide are commonly called ''finvenkistoj'', from ''fina venko'', meaning &quot;final victory&quot;. Those who focus on the intrinsic value of the language are commonly called ''raŭmistoj'', from [[Rauma, Finland|Rauma]], [[Finland]], where a declaration on the near-term unlikelihood of the &quot;fina venko&quot; and the value of Esperanto culture was made at the International Youth Congress in [[1980]]. These categories are, however, not mutually exclusive. The [http://www.esperanto.se/dok/praguemanifesto.html Prague Manifesto] (1996) presents the views of the mainstream of the esperanto movement and of its main organisation, the World Esperanto Association ([[World Esperanto Association|UEA]]). == Esperanto and education == Relatively few [[school]]s teach Esperanto officially outside of China, [[Hungary]], and [[Bulgaria]]; the majority of Esperanto speakers continue to learn the language through self-directed study or correspondence courses. Several Esperanto paper correspondence courses were early on adapted to [[e-mail]] and taught by corps of volunteer instructors. In more recent years, teaching websites like ''[[lernu!]]'' have become popular. Various educators have estimated that Esperanto can be learned in anywhere from one quarter to one twentieth the amount of time required for other languages.{{fact}} [[Claude Piron]], a psychologist formerly at the [[University of Geneva]] and Chinese-English-Russian-Spanish translator for the United Nations, argued that it is easier to think clearly in Esperanto than in many ethnic languages (see [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] for an explanation on this theory). &quot;Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes [and] differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns. [...] The same [[neuropsychology|neuropsychological]] law [— called by] [[Jean Piaget]] ''generalizing assimilation'' — applies to word formation as well as to grammar.&quot; ([[#References|published lecture notes]]) Several [[research]] [[experiment|studies]] demonstrate that, at least for native Indo-European-language speakers, studying Esperanto before another [[foreign language]] speeds and improves [[learning]] the other language. This is presumably because learning subsequent foreign languages is easier than learning one's first, while the use of a grammatically simple and culturally flexible auxiliary language like Esperanto lessens the first-language learning hurdle. In one study ([[#References|Williams 1965]]), a group of European [[high school]] students studied Esperanto for one [[year]], then French for three years, and ended up with a significantly better command of French than a control group, who studied French for all four years. Similar results were found when the second language was [[Japanese language|Japanese]], or when the course of study was reduced to two years, of which six [[month]]s was spent learning Esperanto. ''See [[Propaedeutic value of Esperanto]] for other relevant studies.'' == Criticism and Modifications of Esperanto == :''For a more detailed treatment of these topics, see the subarticles: [[Esperanto as an international language]] and [[Esperantido]] (Esperanto-inspired projects)''. Common criticisms of the language are that its vocabulary and grammar are too Western European; that its vocabulary, accented letters, and grammar are not Western European enough (a critique addressed by [[Ido]] and [[Interlingua]]); that it is [[sexism|sexist]], artificial, or has failed to live up to expectations. Though Esperanto itself has ch
te'', to push the chain to either side, derailing it from the sprockets. The sides of the gear rings catch the chain, pulling it up onto their teeth to change gears. There may be 1 to 3 chainrings, and 5 to 10 sprockets on the cassette. Internal hub gears are much less affected by adverse weather conditions than derailleurs, and often last longer and require less maintenance. However, they may be heavier and/or more expensive, and often do not offer the same range or number of gears. Internal hub gearing still predominates in some regions, particularly on utility bikes, whereas in other regions, such as the USA, external derailleur systems predominate. Road bicycles have ''close set'' multi-step gearing, which allows very fine control of cadence, while ''utility cycles'' offer fewer, more widely spaced speeds. ''Mountain bikes'' and most entry-level road racing bikes may offer an extremely low gear to facilitate climbing slowly on steep hills. Fixed-gear track racing bikes have transmission efficiencies of over 99% (nearly all the energy put in at the pedals ends up at the wheel). While generally variable ratio gear mechanisms are essential for human efficiency, they do reduce mechanical efficiency. The efficiency varies considerably with the gear ratio being used. In a typical hub gear mechanism the mechanical efficiency will be between 82% and 92% depending on the ratio selected. Which ratios are ''best'' and ''worst'' depends on the specific model of hub gear. Derailleur type mechanisms fare better, with a typical mid-range product (of the sort used by serious amateurs) achieving between 88% and 99% efficiency at 100 W. In derailleur mechanisms the highest efficiency is achieved by the larger cogs. Efficiency generally decreases with smaller cog sizes because the chain must bend more sharply as it rolls on and off the cog, and it also forms a sharp angle at the chain tensioner&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|9]]&lt;/sup&gt;. Derailleur efficiency is also compromised with '''cross-chaining''', or running large-ring to large-cog or small-ring to small-cog. This also results in increased wear because of the lateral deflection of the chain. [[Retro-Direct]] drivetrains used on some early 20th century bicycles have been resurrected by bicycle hobbyists. ====Steering and seating==== The [[handlebar]]s rotate the [[bicycle fork|fork]] and the front [[bicycle wheel|wheel]] via the ''stem'', which articulates with the [[headset (bicycle part)|headset]]. Three styles of handlebar are common. ''Touring handlebars'', the norm in Europe and elsewhere until the 1970s, curve gently back toward the rider, offering a natural grip and comfortable upright position. ''Racing handlebars'' are &quot;dropped&quot;, offering the cyclist either an aerodynamic &quot;hunched&quot; position or a more upright posture in which the hands grip the brake lever mounts. Mountain bikes feature a crosswise handlebar, which helps prevent the rider from pitching over the front in case of sudden deceleration. Variations on these styles exist. ''Bullhorn'' style handlebars are often seen on modern [[time trial bicycle]]s, equipped with two forward-facing extensions, allowing a rider to rest his entire forearm on the bar. These are usually used in conjunction with the ''aero bar'', a pair of forward-facing extensions spaced close together, to promote better aerodynamics. The ''Bullhhorn'' was banned from ordinary road racing because it is considered there is less fine control in bike traffic. ''Seats'', or ''saddles'', also vary with rider preference, from the cushioned ones favoured by short-distance riders to narrower seats which allow more free leg swings. Comfort depends on riding position. With comfort bikes and hybrids the cyclist sits high over the seat, their weight directed down onto the saddle, such that a wider and more cushioned saddle is preferable. For racing bikes where the rider is bent over, weight is more evenly distributed between the handlebars and saddle, and the hips are flexed, and a narrower and harder saddle is more efficient. [[Recumbent bicycle]]s have more chair-like seats, and so are much more comfortable to ride, although generally slower up hills due to this positioning. The reclined, low seating position does provide increased aerodynamics over standard seating. ====Brakes==== {{main|bicycle brake systems}} Bicycle ''brakes'' are either ''rim brakes'', in which friction pads are compressed against the wheel rims, ''internal hub brakes'', in which the friction pads are contained within the wheel hubs, or disc brakes. A rear hub brake may be either hand-operated or pedal-actuated, as in the back pedal ''coaster brakes'' which were the rule in North America until the 1960s. Hub drum brakes do not cope well with extended braking, so rim brakes are favoured in hilly terrain. With hand-operated brakes, force is applied to brake handles mounted on the handle bars and then transmitted via [[Bowden cable]]s to the friction pads. In the late 1990s, [[disc brakes]] appeared on some off-road bicycles, [[tandem bicycle|tandem]]s and [[recumbent bicycle]]s, but are considered impractical on road bicycles, which rarely encounter conditions where the advantages of discs are significant. The advantages of discs make them well-suited to steep, extended downhills through wet and muddy off-road terrain, which falls under the category of downhill and freeride bicycle riding. The use of tires as large as 3.0 inches in width also makes disc brakes a necessity, as rim brakes simply cannot straddle a tire that wide. Two main disc brake systems exist: hydraulic and mechanical (cable-actuated). Mechanical disc brakes have less modulation than hydraulic disc brake systems, and since the cable is usually open to the outside, mechanical disc brakes tend to pick up small bits of dirt and grit in the cable lines when ridden in harsh terrain. Hydraulic disc brake systems generally keep contaminants out better. However, since hydraulic disc brakes usually require relatively specialized tools to bleed the brake systems, repairs on the trail are difficult to perform, whereas mechanical disc brakes rarely fail. Also, the hydraulic fluid may boil on steep, continuous downhills. This is due to the brake losing its ability to transmit force through incompressible fluids, since some of it has become a gas, which is compressible. For these reasons, one must weigh the advantages and disadvantages of using a hydraulic system versus a mechanical system. ====Accessories and repairs==== Utility bicycles have many standard features which enhance their usefulness and comfort that would be considered accessories on sports bicycles. ''Chainguards'' and ''mudguards'', or ''fenders'', protect clothes and moving parts from oil and spray. ''Kick stands'' help with parking. Front-mounted wicker or steel ''baskets'' for carrying goods are often used. Rear racks or carriers can be used to carry items such as school satchels. Parents sometimes add rear-mounted child seats and/or an auxiliary saddle fitted to the crossbar to transport children. [[Image:Reiserad-beladen.jpg|left|thumb|Touring bicycle equipped with head lamp, pump, rear rack, fenders/mud-guards, and numerous saddle-bags.]] Other accessories include lights, pump, lock, and additional (pedal or wheel-mounted) reflectors. Technical accessories include solid-state speedometers and odometers for measuring distance. ''Toe-clips'' help to keep the foot planted firmly on the pedals, and enable the cyclist to pull as well as push the pedals. In most countries where cycling is common, [[bicycle helmet]] use is negligible. In North America a significant minority, possibly up to 25% of bicyclists, wear helmets. While no U.S. federal law requires helmets, many states require children to wear them, and some municipalities require them for all riders. In [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], and parts of [[Canada]], helmets are required by law. Outside the West, use of helmets by utility cyclists is practically unknown. No correlation between decreased injury rates and helmet use has been demonstrated in whole populations. Many cyclists carry ''tool kits'', containing at least a tire patch kit, [[tire lever]]s, and spanners. A single tool once sufficed for most repairs. More specialised parts now require more complex tools, including proprietary tools specific for a given manufacturer. Some bicycle parts, particularly hub-based gearing systems, are complex, and many prefer to leave [[repair and maintenance|maintenance and repairs]] to professionals. Others maintain their own bicycles, enhancing their enjoyment of the [[hobby]] of cycling. ===Performance=== In both biological and mechanical terms, the bicycle is extraordinarily efficient. In terms of the amount of energy a person must expend to travel a given distance, investigators have calculated it to be the most efficient self-powered means of transportation.&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; From a mechanical viewpoint, up to 99% of the energy delivered by the rider into the pedals is transmitted to the wheels, although the use of gearing mechanisms may reduce this by 10-15% &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|9]]&lt;/sup&gt;. In terms of the ratio of cargo weight a bicycle can carry to total weight, it is also a most efficient means of cargo transportation. A human being travelling on a bicycle at low to medium speeds of around 10-15 mph (16-24 kph), using only the energy required to walk, is the most energy-efficient means of transport generally available. Air drag, which increases with the square of speed, requires increasingly higher power outputs relative to speed. A bicycle in which the rider lies in a prone position and which may be covered in an aerodynamic fairing to achieve very low air drag is referred to as a [[recumbent bicycle]] or [[Human Powered Vehicle]]. [[Image:RacingBicycle-non.JPG|right|thu
th table that contains information on how many other descriptors are present). The ISO 9660 primary volume descriptor acts much like the superblock of the UNIX file system, providing details on the ISO 9660 compliant portion of the disk. Contained within the primary volume descriptor is the root directory record describing the location of the contiguous root directory. (As in UNIX, directories appear as files for the operating system special use). Directory entries are successively stored within this region. Evaluation of the ISO 9660 filenames is begun at this location. The root directory is stored as an extent, or sequential series of sectors, that contains each of the directory entries appearing in the root. In addition, since ISO 9660 works by segmenting the CD-ROM into logical blocks, the size of these blocks is found in the primary volume descriptor as well. A CD-ROM is only compliant to the ISO 9660 file system standard if there is a primary descriptor, and when there is an ending descriptor available (e.g., the volume descriptor constitute a variable length table which contains information on how many other descriptors are present). The first field in a Volume Descriptor is the Volume Descriptor Type (type), which can have the following values: * Number 0: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Boot Record * Number 1: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Primary Volume Descriptor * Number 2: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Supplementary Volume Descriptor * Number 3: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Volume Partition Descriptor * Number 255: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Volume Descriptor Set Terminator. The second field is called the '''Standard Identifier''' and is set to CD001 for a CD-ROM compliant to the ISO 9660 standard. Another interesting field is the '''Volume Space Size''' which contains the amount of data available on the CD-ROM. '''File attributes''' are very simple in ISO-9660. The most important file attribute is determining whether the file is a directory or an ordinary file. File attributes for the file described by the directory entry are stored in the directory entry and optionally, in the extended attribute record. There are two ways to locate a file on an ISO 9660 file system. One way is to successively interpret the directory names and look through each directory file structure to find the file (much the way MS-DOS and UNIX work to find a file). The other way is through the use of a precompiled '''table''' of paths, where all the entries are enumerated in the successive contents of a file with the corresponding entries. Some systems do not have a mechanism for wandering through directories, they obtain a match by consulting the table. While a large linear table seems a bit arcane, it can be of great value, as you can quickly search without wandering across the disk (thus reducing seek time). === Levels and restrictions === There are different levels to this standard. * Level 1 : File names are restricted to eight characters with a three-character extension, upper case letters, numbers and underscore; maximum depth of directories is eight. * Level 2 : File names may be up to 31 characters. * Level 3 : Files allowed to be [[fragmentation|fragmented]] (mainly to allow [[packet writing]], or incremental CD recording). All levels restrict names to upper case letters, digits and underscores (&quot;_&quot;). Some CD authoring applications allow the user to use almost any [[ASCII]] character. While this does not strictly conform to the ISO 9660 standard, most operating systems that can read ISO 9660 file systems support the use of most ASCII characters as an extension. The restrictions on filename length and directory depth have been seen by many as a more serious limitation of the file system. Many CD authoring applications attempt to work around this by truncating filenames automatically, but at the risk of breaking applications that rely on a specific file structure. == ISO 9660:1999 == ISO 9660:1999 is the latest update to the ISO 9660 standard. It improves on various restrictions imposed by the old standard, such as extending the maximum path length to 207 characters, removing the eight level maximum directory nesting limit, and removing the special meaning of the dot character in filenames. This has not seen general adoption in operating systems until around 2004, but developers are generally starting to catch onto the standard. == Disc images == ISO 9660 file system images ([[ISO image]]s) are a common way to electronically transfer the contents of CD-ROMs. They often have the [[filename extension]] &lt;code&gt;.iso&lt;/code&gt; and are commonly referred to as &quot;ISOs&quot;. It should be noted an &lt;code&gt;.iso&lt;/code&gt; file may be: # A single ISO 9660 file system image # A multi-track disc image with a table of contents == Extensions == There are common extensions to ISO 9660 to deal with the limitations. [[Rock Ridge]] supports the preservation of Unix/Linux permissions and longer ASCII-coded names; [[Joliet (file system)|Joliet]] supports names stored in [[Unicode]], thus allowing almost any character to be used, even from non-[[Latin alphabet|Latin]] scripts; [[El Torito (CD-ROM standard)|El Torito]] enables CDs to be bootable on [[IBM PC|PC]]. [[ISO 13490]] is basically ISO 9660 with multisession support. == Operating system support == Most operating systems support reading of ISO 9660 formatted discs, and most new versions support the extensions such as Rock Ridge and Joliet. Operating systems that do not support the extensions usually show the basic (non-extended) features of a plain ISO 9660 disc. Here are some operating systems and their support for ISO 9660 and extensions: * [[DOS]]: access with extensions, such as MSCDEX.EXE (Microsoft CDROM Extension) or CORELCD.EXE * [[Microsoft Windows]] 95, Windows 98, Windows ME: can read ISO 9660 Level 1, 2, 3, and Joliet * [[Windows NT|Microsoft Windows NT]] 4, Windows 2000 * [[Windows XP]] can read ISO 9660 Level 1, 2, 3, [[Joliet (file system)|Joliet]], and ISO 9660:1999 * [[Linux]] and [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]]: ISO 9660 Level 1, 2, 3, Joliet, Rock Ridge, and ISO 9660:1999 * [[Mac OS]] 7 to 9: ISO Level 1, 2. Optional free software supports Rock Ridge and Joliet: [http://www.alex-castro.com/jokeridge/ Joke Ridge] and [http://www.tempel.org/joliet/ Joliet Volume Access]. * [[Mac OS X]] 10.2 Jaguar, 10.3 Panther, 10.4 Tiger: ISO Level 1, 2, Joliet and Rock Ridge Extensions. Level 3 is not currently supported, although some users have been able to mount these disks by issuing commands via the Terminal. http://www.macosxhints.com/article.php?story=2004041301593855 == See also == * [[Joliet (file system)|Joliet]] * [[Rock Ridge]] * [[CD ROM]] * [[CD recorder]] * [[DVD]] * [[Universal Media Disc|UMD]] * [[Daemon Tools]] - a free utility to mount ISO images == External links == * [http://users.pandora.be/it3.consultants.bvba/handouts/ISO9960.html ISO 9660 Specifications] * [http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa.htm Understanding CD-R &amp; CD-RW] * [http://www.cdrfaq.org/ CD Recording FAQ] * [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-119.htm Ecma-119] &amp;ndash; this standard is identical to ISO 9660 (but please be careful because it has several small incompatibilities with real-life iso images). * [http://www.petri.co.il/how_to_write_iso_files_to_cd.htm How to write ISO files to CD in the Microsoft Windows Operating System] * [http://www.tech-recipes.com/windows_tips620.html Small, Free Way to Use and Mount Images (ISO files) Without Burning Them in Windows XP] * [http://linux-is-sexy.blogspot.com/2006/01/iso-files-with-linux.html How to extract ISO files with Linux] [[Category:Disk file systems]] [[Category:ISO standards|#09660]] [[cs:ISO 9660]] [[de:ISO 9660]] [[es:ISO 9660]] [[fr:ISO 9660]] [[ko:ISO 9660]] [[it:ISO 9660]] [[he:ISO 9660]] [[nl:ISO 9660]] [[ja:ISO 9660]] [[pl:ISO 9660]] [[pt:ISO 9660]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ice skating</title> <id>15146</id> <revision> <id>41729244</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:36:46Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Rjstott</username> <id>182</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert Vandal</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ice_skating_on_Presseggersee.jpg|thumb|300px|Outdoor ice skating in Austria]] '''Ice skating''' is [[travel]]ing on [[ice]] with [[skates]], narrow (and sometimes [[parabolic figure skating blades|parabolic]]) blade-like devices moulded into special [[boot]]s (or, more primitively, without boots, tied to regular [[footwear]]). It is mainly done for [[recreation]] and as a [[sport]]. It is possible on [[canal]]s and [[lake]]s, etc. after it has been freezing for some time, and at indoor and outdoor skating tracks and areas with artificial cooling. The [[ice rink|skating rink]] regarded as the world's longest (about 8 kilometres long) is the [[Rideau Canal]] located in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. In some countries with a temperate climate, e.g. the [[Netherlands]], frozen canals and lakes are fairly rare, but skating is popular where these are encountered. ==History== Ice skating has been believed to be started in Sweden over twelve-hundred years ago by the Vikings. The runners, made of bones, were ground down until they formed a flat gliding surface, and thongs tied them to the feet. The blades were polished oxen or reindeer bones. These weren't very efficient, so they used a long stick to push themselves forward and stay upright. Skates were originally used for transportation over the frozen rivers and later used for fun. Skating has been found to date back to 50 B.C. It was most common to skate where there are long, cold winters especially in places like [[Scandinavia]]. [[Image:GSskater.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''The Skater'', 1782, a portrait of [[William Gr
to Nupedia]] * [[meta:Chalkboard candidates|Chalkboard candidates]] * [[meta:Nupedia Translation|Nupedia Translation]] [[Category:Wikipedia history]] [[ja:Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>GNU Hurd</title> <id>13236</id> <revision> <id>42156100</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:44:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>AThing</username> <id>751678</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Architecture */ redundant</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hurd-logo.png|frame| GNU Hurd logo]] :''Hurd redirects here. For other uses of this term, see [[Hurd (disambiguation)]]'' '''The GNU Hurd''' is a [[computer]] program. It is a set of [[server]]s (or [[daemon (computer software)|daemons]], in [[Unix]]-speak) that work on top of either the [[GNU Mach]] microkernel or the [[L4 microkernel family|L4 microkernel]]; together, they form the [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]] of the [[GNU]] [[operating system]]. It has been under development since [[1990]] by the [[GNU]] Project and is distributed as [[free software]] under the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]. The Hurd aims to surpass [[Unix]] kernels in functionality, security, and stability, while remaining largely compatible with them. This is done by having the Hurd track the [[POSIX]] specification, while avoiding arbitrary restrictions on the user. &quot;HURD&quot; is an indirectly [[recursive acronym]], standing for &quot;HIRD of [[Unix]]-Replacing [[Daemon (computer software)|Daemons]]&quot;, where &quot;HIRD&quot; stands for &quot;HURD of Interfaces Representing Depth&quot;. ==Development history== Development on the Hurd began in [[1990]]. By the early 1990s, it was the only major part of the GNU OS that was incomplete. The GNU [[userland]] tools which make up the applications and framework with which users and programmers interact are the well known part of the GNU operating system. These tools are most popularly used with [[Linux kernel|Linux]], until the remaining work on GNU/Hurd is completed. Despite an optimistic announcement by [[Richard Stallman]] in [[2002]] [http://www.pcworld.com/news/article/0,aid,88464,00.asp] predicting a release of GNU/Hurd, further development and design are still required. No official release of the Hurd has yet been made, and the system is currently unstable. OSKit-Mach began as a branch of the Gnu Mach 1.2 kernel, but since the release of GNU Mach 1.3, OSKit-Mach has been merged as the new Gnu Mach 2.x mainline. Development of the Hurd has also shifted significantly for some developers towards the [[L4 microkernel family]]. In [[2005]], Hurd developer [[Neal Walfield]] finished the initial memory management framework for the [http://www.gnu.org/software/hurd/hurd-l4.html L4/Hurd port], and [[Marcus Brinkmann]] ported essential parts of [[glibc]]; namely, getting the process startup code working, allowing programs to run, thus allowing the first user programs (trivial ones such as the [[hello world program]] in C) to run. The [[Debian]] project, among others, have contributed funding to speed up development. ==Architecture== Unlike [[Unix-like]] kernels, the Hurd builds on top of a [[microkernel]] which is responsible for providing the most basic kernel services &amp;ndash; coordinating access to the [[Computer hardware|hardware]]: the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] (through [[multiprocessing]]), [[Random access memory|RAM]] (via [[memory management]]), and other various devices for sound, graphics, mass storage, etc. [[GNU Mach]] is used as the microkernel, but efforts are underway to port the Hurd to the more modern [[L4 microkernel family|L4 microkernel]]. Currently, it is being discussed whether or not L4 is actually suitable at all, there may be a switch or port to yet another microkernel. There is speculation about [[Coyotos]] ([[Extremely Reliable Operating System|EROS]] successor) and [[l4.sec]] (not yet complete). Other Unix-like systems running on top of the [[Mach kernel|Mach microkernel]] include [[Mac OS X]], [[OSF/1]], [[NEXTSTEP]], [[Lites]], and [[MkLinux]]. These share one detail in common, in that they are implemented as a single so-called ''server''. In effect they replace the [[monolithic kernel]] from a traditional Unix system with two parts, the microkernel and Unix server. The Hurd instead consists of multiple servers working together. Instead of a single large code base which includes everything from handling the clock to handling the [[computer network|networking]], in Hurd each of these are handled by a separate server. This makes developing the Hurd much easier (at least in theory) as making changes to one is less likely to have [[Side-effect (computer science)|side-effect]]s in others. In the original [[Mach kernel|Mach]] efforts, this sort of &quot;set of servers&quot; was considered to be one of the main goals of the design, but the Hurd appears to be the first Mach-based system to actually be implemented in this fashion (whereas [[QNX]] is similar but based on its own microkernel). It's not entirely clear why this happened, but it appears that groups working on Mach were too busy working on Mach to work on the operating system as a whole. Hurd also aims to be microkernel-independent. ===Unix extensions=== A number of traditional Unix concepts are replaced or extended in the Hurd: Under Unix every program running has an associated [[user id]], which normally corresponds to the user that started the [[Process (computing)|process]]. This id largely dictates the actions permitted to the program. No outside process can change the user id of a running program. A Hurd process, on the other hand, runs under a ''set'' of user ids, which can contain multiple ids, one, or none. A sufficiently privileged process can add and remove ids to another process. For example there is a password server that will hand out ids in return for a correct login password. Regarding the [[file system]], a suitable program can be designated as a ''translator'' for a single file or a whole directory hierarchy. Every access to the translated file, or files below a hierarchy in the second case, is in fact handled by the program. For example a file translator may simply redirect read and write operations to another file, not unlike a Unix [[symbolic link]]. What ''[[Mount|mounting]]'' is to Unix, the Hurd achieves by setting up a filesystem translator (using the &quot;settrans&quot; command). Translators can also be used to provide services to the user. For example, the [[ftpfs]] translator allows a user to encapsulate remote FTP sites within a directory. Then, standard tools such as [[ls]], [[cp (Unix)|cp]], and [[rm (Unix)|rm]] can be used to manipulate files on the remote system. Even more powerful translators are ones such as [[UnionFS]], which allows a user to unify multiple directories into one; so that listing the unified directory reveals the contents of all the unified directories (a feature that is missing in many Unixes, although available in [[FreeBSD]], [[NetBSD]] and [[DragonFly BSD]]). Perhaps the most empowering aspect of the Hurd is the ability for any user to start their own system services. Any user can attach any translator to the filesystem for their own personal use. A user could even replace system servers, such as the auth server, with other servers of their own choosing. All this can be done without affecting other users, due to well defined scopes. Indeed, it is even possible for a user to run the Hurd within itself, which is known as a sub-Hurd. The Hurd requires a [[Multiboot Specification|multiboot]]-compliant [[boot loader]], such as [[GRUB]]. == GNU/Hurd-based distributions== *[[Bee GNU/Hurd]] *[[Debian GNU/Hurd]] ==See also== *[[Free Software Foundation]] *[[Hurd User Group]] *[[Hurd/L4]] *[[GNU/Hurd]] ==External links== {{wikinewspar|GNU Hurd operating system: first user program run using L4 microkernel}} *[http://www.gnu.org/software/hurd/hurd.html The GNU Hurd] *[http://www.debian.org/ports/hurd/hurd-cd Debian GNU/Hurd installation CDs] *[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cis?q=GNU+and+Hurd Citations from CiteSeer] *[http://kerneltrap.org/node/5 Interview] with [[Neal Walfield]], Hurd and [[Hurd/L4]] developer. (2001) *[http://portal.wikinerds.org/brinkmann-interview-mar2005 Interview] with [[Marcus Brinkmann]], Hurd and [[Hurd/L4]] developer. (2005) *[http://gnuppix.org/ Gnuppix, a GNU/Hurd-L4 LiveCD] -- still in alpha stage *[http://superunprivileged.org/ A GNU/Hurd on Mach LiveCD], based on Debian GNU/Hurd ([http://people.debian.org/~neal/hurd-live-cd/ mirror here]) [[Category:Operating system kernel|Hurd, Go]] [[Category:GNU project software|Hurd]] &lt;!-- Interwikis found using http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/ --&gt; [[ca:Hurd]] [[da:GNU/Hurd]] [[de:GNU Hurd]] [[es:Hurd]] [[eu:GNU Hurd]] [[fr:Hurd]] [[gl:Hurd]] [[ia:Hurd]] [[it:Hurd]] [[lt:GNU Hurd]] [[nl:Hurd-kernel]] [[ja:Hurd]] [[pl:GNU Hurd]] [[pt:GNU Hurd]] [[ru:GNU/Hurd]] [[fi:GNU Hurd]] [[sv:GNU Hurd]] [[tr:GNU Hurd]] [[zh:Hurd]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>HugoPrize</title> <id>13237</id> <revision> <id>15910856</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:32:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Hugo Award]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hugo Award]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hate Crime</title> <id>13238</id> <revision> <id>15910857</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hate crime]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hobbits</title> <id>13239</id>
gns of non-road transportation facilities, such as [[rail transport|rail systems]], [[airport]]s, and [[port]]s. ===Environmental engineering=== [[image:Trickling filter bed 2 w.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Wastewater treatment is a critical activity in environmental engineering, a sub-discipline of civil engineering.]] ''Main article: [[Environmental engineering]]'' Environmental engineering deals with the treatment of chemical, biological, and/or thermal waste, the purification of water and air, and the [[remediation]] of contaminated sites, due to prior waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are [[water purification]], [[sewage treatment]], and [[hazardous waste]] management. Environmental engineering is related to the fields of [[hydrology]], [[geohydrology]] and [[meteorology]] insofar as knowledge of water and [[groundwater]] flows is required to understand pollutant transport. Environmental engineers are also involved in pollution reduction, &quot;green engineering,&quot; and [[industrial ecology]]. Environmental engineering also deals with the gathering of information on the environmental consequences of proposed actions and the assessment of effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting society and policy makers in the decision making process. Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for [[environmental engineering|sanitary engineering]]. Some other terms in use are public health engineering and environmental health engineering. ===Hydraulic engineering=== ''Main article: [[Hydraulic engineering]]'' Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, [[water supply network|water distribution systems]], drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, and storm sewers), canals, and to environmental engineering. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of [[fluid pressure]], [[fluid statics]], [[fluid dynamics]], and [[hydraulics]], among others. ===Construction engineering=== ''Main article: [[Construction engineering]]'' Construction engineering involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers. ===Materials science=== ''Main article: [[Materials science]]'' Civil engineering also includes [[materials science]]. Engineering materials with broad application in civil engineering include concrete, aluminum and steel. The study of materials also includes polymers and ceramics with potential engineering application. ===Surveying=== ''Main article: [[Surveying]]'' Elements of a building or structure must be correctly sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. This is accomplished using surveying techniques. Civil engineers are trained the methods of surveying and may seek Professional Land Surveyor status. ==Careers== A popular misconception is that civil engineering is far from the exciting frontiers in [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]]. In actuality, much of what is now [[computer science]] was driven by work in civil engineering, where structural and network analysis problems required parallel computations and development of advanced algorithms. There are also civil engineers who work in the area of [[safety engineering]] and forensics engineering, applying [[Monte Carlo method|probabilistic methods]] to structural design, safety analysis and even estimates of insurance losses due to natural and man-made hazards. ==Education and Licensure== [[Image:Instituion of Civil Engineers.jpg|thumb|The [[Institution of Civil Engineers]] headquarters in [[London]].]] Prior to becoming a practicing engineer, civil engineers generally complete tertiary (college or higher) educational requirements, followed by several years of practical experience. Each country, state, or province individually regulates civil engineering practice: In the U.S., one must become a licensed [[Professional Engineer]] to do any civil engineering work affecting the public or to legally represent oneself as a civil engineer. Licensure requirements vary slightly by state, but in all cases entail passing two licensure exams, the [[Fundamentals of Engineering exam]] and the Principles and Practice exam (commonly called the PE), and completing a state-mandated number of years of work under the supervision of a licensed Professional Engineer. In addition, an educational requirement must often be met. All states accept a four year [[Bachelor of Science]] (BS) or [[Bachelor of Engineering]] (BEng) degree in Civil Engineering, from an [http://www.abet.org ABET]-accredited program, for their educational requirement. The acceptability of degrees in other fields varies by state; some states allow a person to substitute additional years of supervised work experience for the degree requirement. Although the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] encourages states to raise the educational requirement to a graduate degree, advanced degrees are currently optional for civil engineers in the United States. Graduate study may lead either to a [[Master of Engineering]], which is a [[Professional Master's degree]], or to a [[Master of Science]] degree followed by a [[PhD]] in civil engineering or a sub-discipline. In the [[United Kingdom]] current graduates require a MSc or MEng in order to become chartered through the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]]. This is relaxed to a BSc or BEng for those who entered university prior to the current rules coming into force. The Institution also allows entrants with substantial experience to apply without this level of formal academic achievement. In practice, most civil engineers in the United Kingdom work without chartered status. Unlike in many other European countries, the term 'Engineer' is not legally protected within the United Kingdom. In Australia and New Zealand, requirements are typically a four year [[Bachelor of Engineering]] (BE) degree which includes 12 weeks of work experience. In [[Denmark]], Civil Engineer status takes five years to complete. The first three years is aimed at completing a Bachelor degree, and the following two years are called a candidate degree, which is roughly the equivalent of a [[Master's degree]]. The only two places in Denmark to complete the Civil Engineer education, is at [[DTU]] and [[University of Aalborg]]. It should be noticed, that a Civil Engineer in Denmark isn't a person working with planning, construction etc, but the title of a person with the Bachelor degree and the candidate degree in engineering. This is because there are two types of engineers being educated in Denmark, The &quot;Diploma Engineer&quot;(which takes 3 years), and the &quot;Civil Engineer&quot;(Which taked 5 years, and is in two parts; a bachelor and a candidate). '''International engineering agreements''' are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders. In general, these agreements require both educational competencies and professional experiential competencies. == See also == * [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] * [[Civil engineer]] * [[Institution of Civil Engineers]] * [[List of civil engineers]] * [[List of historic civil engineering landmarks]] * [[Landscape Architecture]] * [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Civil-and-Environmental-Engineering/index.htm Civil Engineering Courses], MIT OpenCourseWare * [http://www.ieagreements.com/ International Engineering Agreements] &lt;!--Languages--&gt; &lt;!--Categories--&gt; [[Category:Civil engineering]] [[Category:Engineering]] [[Category:Construction]] [[Category:Technology]] {{Technology-footer}} [[ar:هندسة مدنية]] [[bg:Строително инженерство]] [[ca:Enginyeria civil]] [[de:Bauingenieurwesen]] [[es:Ingeniería civil]] [[fr:Génie civil]] [[id:Teknik Sipil]] [[it:ingegneria civile]] [[ja:土木工学]] [[nl:Civiele techniek]] [[pl:Budownictwo]] [[pt:Engenharia civil]] [[sv:Väg och vattenbyggnadsteknik]] [[th:วิศวกรรมโยธา]] [[tr:İnşaat Mühendisliği]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cantonese</title> <id>5763</id> <revision> <id>41601376</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:28:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Gerbrant</username> <id>190376</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>original wording fixed Cantonese as a dialect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cantonese''' generally refers to people or things associated with [[Guangdong]] [[Province of China|Province]], [[Hong Kong]] or [[Macau]] in [[China]]. *'''[[Cantonese people]]''': people residing in, or with ancestry in, Guangdong and environs ** Many people of Cantonese descent reside in [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Vietnam]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Ireland]] and the [[United States of America|United States]], and other places, part of the [[overseas Chinese|Chinese overseas diaspora]]. * The '''[[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] language''': the native speech of many [[Cantonese people]] and residents of Guandong, Hong Kong, Macau, and other Chinese communities in China and elsewhere, including a large proportion of [[overseas Chinese]]. (Considered a ''[[language]]'' mainly by non-Chinese scholars, based on intelligibility, or a ''[[dialect]]'' mainly by Chinese scholars, and in Western popular speech, based on [[Chinese character|writing system]] and [[History of China|cultural-historical]] factors) ** The [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese language/dialect]], broadly, is the speech originally developed among populations of Guangdong and environs. ** [[Standard Cantonese]] is the [[prestige dialect|prestige]] and mainstream (sub)dialect of Cantonese, historically based on that of [[Guangzhou]], also usually simply called Cant
he Buddhist influence on the [[Manichean]] religion.--&gt;The last Hindu kingdom in this region, the [[Shahis]], also may have arisen from this culture. ==Late Middle Kingdoms - the classical age== {{main|Middle kingdoms of India}} Later, the [[Chola]] kingdom emerged in northern [[Tamil Nadu]], and the [[Chera]] kingdom in [[Kerala]]. The ports of southern India were involved in the [[Indian Ocean]] trade, chiefly involving [[spice]]s, with the [[Roman Empire]] to the west and [[Southeast Asia]] to the east. In the north, the first of the [[Rajputs]], a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium until Indian independence from the British. [[Image:Bronzes-Chola-1.jpg|thumb|280px|Bronzes of the [[Chola]] period]] ===Harsha's empire=== King [[Harsha]] of [[Kannauj]] succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the [[7th century]], after the collapse of the [[Gupta]] dynasty. His kingdom collapsed after his death. From the [[7th century|7th]] to the [[9th century]], three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the [[Pratihara]]s of [[Malwa]] and later Kannauj; the [[Pala dynasty|Palas]] of [[Bengal]], and the [[Rashtrakuta]]s of the Deccan. ===The Chalukyas and Pallavas=== {{main articles|[[Chalukyas]] and [[Pallavas]]}} The [[Chalukya]] Empire ruled parts of southern and central India from 550 to 750 (from Badami, Karnataka) and again from 970 to 1190 (from Kalyana, Karnataka). The [[Pallavas]] of Kanchi were their contemporaries to the south. Over a period of roughly a century, the two kingdoms fought a series of low-intensity wars, each conquering the other's capitals at various points. The kings of [[Sri Lanka]] and the Keralan [[Cheras]] rendered support to the [[Pallavas]], while the [[Pandyas]] rendered support to the [[Chalukyas]]. Whilst the northern concept of a pan-Indian empire had collapsed at the end of Harsha's empire, the ideal instead shifted to the south. The two dynasties were responsible for some of the greatest examples of both rock-cut and free-standing temples. ===Chola empire=== {{main|Cholas}} [[Image:Rameswaram temple gopuram.jpg|280px|thumb|Rameswaram Temple, [[Tamil Nadu]]]] The [[Cholas]] emerged as the most powerful empire in the south in the 9th century and retained their pre-eminent position until the 13th century when the [[Vijayanagar]] empire was founded. The Cholas, like the [[Chalukyas]] and [[Pallavas]] before them, and the [[Vijaynagar]] after them, were responsible for some of India's finest monuments, and being located on the south tip of the peninsula, ruled [[Sri Lanka]], and culturally dominated most of [[South East Asia]], where the Hindu [[Srivijaya]] and [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] empires of [[Indonesia]] and [[Cambodia]] used south Indian temple design. The Chola Navy was the most powerful for its time having conquered the neighbouring island of Lanka and other areas across the [[Bay of Bengal]]. {{see also|History of South India}} ===The Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas=== {{main articles|[[Pratihara]], [[Pala Empire]], and [[Rashtrakuta]]}} The [[Pratihara]]s, also called the Gurjara-Pratiharas were an Indian dynasty who ruled kingdoms in [[Rajasthan]] and northern India from the sixth to the eleventh centuries. The [[Pala Empire]] controlled [[Bihar]] and [[Bengal]], from the 8th to the 12th century. The [[Rashtrakuta]]s of Malkhed (Karnataka) were a dynasty which ruled the [[Deccan]] during the 8th-10th centuries after the end of [[Chalukya]] rule. Each three kingdoms vied for north Indian domination around the same time that the [[Cholas]] were flourishing in the south. ===The Rajputs=== {{main|Rajputs}} [[Image:Shiva and Uma 14th century.jpg|thumb|280px|right|This [[14th century]] statue depicts Shiva (on the left) and his wife Uma (on the right}. It is housed in the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]]] The first recorded [[Rajput]] kingdoms emerged in [[Rajasthan]] in the [[6th century]], and Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern India, including [[Mewar]] ([[Sisodia]]s), [[Gujarat]] ([[Solanki]]s), [[Malwa]] ([[Paramara]]s), [[Bundelkhand]] ([[Chandela]]s), and [[Haryana]] ([[Tomara]]s). The [[Pallava]] dynasty of [[Kanchipuram]] ruled southeastern India from the [[4th century]] to the [[9th century]]. The [[Pratihara]] ruled northern India before the Rajputs. Various other dynasties such as the [[Yadav]], [[Chera]], [[Hoysala]] of Halebidu, [[Sena dynasty|Sena]] and [[Pala dynasty|Pala]] controlled various empires of their own. ===Vijayanagar Empire=== {{main|Vijayanagara Empire}} The brothers [[Harihara]] and [[Bukka]] founded the [[Karnataka]] Empire, also known as the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], in 1336. The [[Vijayanagara]] empire prospered during the reign of [[Krishnadevaraya]]. It suffered a major defeat in 1565 but continued for another century or so in an attenuated form. Southern Indian kingdoms of the time expanded their influence as far as [[Indonesia]], controlling vast overseas empires in south east Asia. The Hindu dynasty came into conflict with Islamic rule (the [[Bahmani]] Kingdom) and the clashing of the two systems, the prevailing indigenous Hindu/Muslim religion, which caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign culture that left lasting cultural influences on each other. The later Mughal rule also saw such influences of Gujarati and Rajasthani culture contributing towards this. ==The Islamic Sultanates== {{main|Islamic empires in India}} After the Arab-Turkic invasion of India's ancient northern neighbour Persia, various short lived [[Islam|Islamic]] empires invaded and spread across the subcontinent over a period of 1000 years. Prior to Turkic invasions, Muslim trading communities flourished throughout coastal [[South India]], particularly in [[Kerala]], where they arrived in small numbers through trade links via the [[Indian Ocean]] with the Arabian peninsula. ===Delhi Sultanate=== In the 10th and 11th centuries, [[Turkic people|Turks]] and [[Afghan people|Afghans]] invaded parts of northern India and established the [[Delhi Sultanate]] at the beginning of the 13th century. The [[Slave dynasty]] managed to conquer large areas of [[northern India]], approximate to the ancient extent of the [[Gupta]]s, while the [[Khilji dynasty|Khilji Empire]] was also able to conquer most of [[central India]], but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering most of the subcontinent, until the onset of the [[Mughals]]. {{see also|Islamic invasion of India|Decline of Buddhism in India}} ==The Mughal era== {{main|Mughal Era}} ===Mughal Empire=== [[Image:Monument of love and symmetry.jpg|thumb|280px|The [[Taj Mahal]], built by [[Mughal]] Emperor [[Shah Jahan]]]] [[Image:BahadurShah Zafar.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Bahadur Shah Zafar exiled in Rangoon, 1858. This is perhaps the only photograph of a Mughal emperor ever taken.]] In 1526, [[Babur]], a [[Timurids|Timurid]] descendant of [[Timur]], swept across the [[Khyber Pass]] and established the [[Mughal Empire]], which lasted for over 200 years. The [[Mughal Dynasty]] ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after [[1707]] and was finally defeated during the [[Indian rebellion of 1857]]. This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the [[Mughal]] emperors, some of whom showed religious tolerance, while others liberally patronized Hindu culture, and some of whom destroyed historical temples and imposed taxes on non-Muslims. During the decline of the [[Mughal Empire]], which at its peak occupied an area slightly larger than the ancient [[Mauryan Empire]], several smaller empires rose to fill the power vacuum or themselves were contributing factors to the decline. {| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |- |align=center colspan=13 style=&quot;background:#ccf&quot;| '''[[Mughal Empire|The Greater Mughal Emperors]]''' |- ! style=&quot;background-color:#FFD700&quot; | Emperor !! style=&quot;background-color:#FFD700&quot; | Reign start !! style=&quot;background-color:#FFD700&quot; | Reign end |- | valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Babur]]''' | valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1526]] | valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1530]] |- | valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Humayun]]''' | valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1530]] | valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1556]] |- | valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Akbar]]''' | valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1556]] | valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1605]] |- | valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Jahangir]]''' | valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1605]] | valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1627]] |- | valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Shah Jahan]]''' | valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1627]] | valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1658]] |- | valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Aurangzeb]]''' | valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1658]] | valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1707]] |- |} ===The Maratha confederacy=== [[Image:India1760 1905.jpg|thumb|280px|right|Extent of the Maratha Confederacy ca. 1760&lt;br&gt;(shown here in yellow)]] [[Image:Jantar mantar.JPG|thumb|280px|The [[observatory]], [[Jantar Mantar]]), built in the [[18th Century]].]] [[Image:Clive.jpg|280px|right|thumb|[[Robert Clive]], 1st Baron Clive, became the first British [[Governor]] of [[Bengal]].]] {{main|Maratha Empire}} The Maratha Kingdom was founded by [[Shivaji]] in [[1674]], when he annexed a portion of the [[Bijapur Sultanate]]. After consolidating his hold over his territories in the Deccan, Shivaji declared war on the Mughal Emperor, [[Aurangzeb]]. By the 18th century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha Confederacy under the rule of the [[Peshwa]]s. By 1760, the Empire had stretched across practically the entire subcontinent. This expansion was brought to an end by the defeat of the Marathas by an [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] army led by [[Ahmad Shah Abdali]] at the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] ([[1761]]). The last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the [[United Kingdom|British]] in the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]]. ===The K
fell ill, and feared his death was at hand. Eager to make atonement for his sin with regard to the archbishopric, he nominated Anselm to the vacant see, and after a great struggle compelled him to accept the pastoral staff of office. After obtaining dispensation from his duties in Normandy, Anselm was consecrated in [[1093]]. ===Archbishop of Canterbury=== As the conditions of his retaining office, Anselm demanded of the king that the he should give up all the possessions of the see, accept Anselm's spiritual counsel, and acknowledge Urban as pope in opposition to the anti-pope, Clement. He only obtained a partial consent to the first of these demands, and the last involved him in a serious difficulty with the king. It was a rule of the church that the consecration of metropolitans could not be completed without their receiving the [[pallium]] from the hands of the pope. Anselm, accordingly, insisted that he must proceed to [[Rome]] to receive the pall. But William would not permit this; he had not acknowledged Urban, and he maintained his right to prevent any pope being acknowledged by an English subject without his permission. A great council of churchmen and nobles was held to settle the matter, and it advised Anselm to submit to the king. This advice failed to overcome Anselm's mild and patient firmness, and the matter was postponed. William meanwhile privately sent messengers to Rome, who acknowledged Urban and prevailed on him to send a legate to the king bearing the archiepiscopal pall. A partial reconciliation was then effected, and the matter of the pall was compromised. It was not given by the king, but was laid on the altar at Canterbury, whence Anselm took it. Little more than a year after, fresh trouble arose with the king, and Anselm resolved to proceed to Rome and seek the counsel of his spiritual father. With great difficulty he obtained the king's permission to leave, and in October [[1097]] he set out for Rome. William immediately seized the revenues of the see, and retained them to his death. Anselm was received with high honor by Urban at the [[Siege of Capua]], where Anselm is said to have garnered high praise also from the [[Saracen]] troops of Count [[Roger I of Sicily]]. At a great council held at Bari, Anselm was put forward to defend the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Ghost against the representatives of the Greek Church. But Urban was too politic to embroil himself with the king of England, and Anselm found that he could obtain no substantial result. He withdrew from Rome, and spent some time at the little village of Schiavi, where he finished his treatise on the atonement, ''Cur Deus homo'', and then retired to Lyons. When he attempted to return to England, William would not allow him entrance. ===Conflicts with King Henry I=== William was killed in [[1100]] and his successor, [[Henry I of England|Henry I]], at once invited Anselm to return to England. But Henry demanded that Anselm should again receive from him in person investiture in his office of archbishop. The papal rule in this matter was plain: all homage and lay investiture were strictly prohibited. Anselm represented this to the king; but Henry would not relinquish a privilege possessed by his predecessors, and proposed that the matter should be laid before the Holy See. The answer of the pope reaffirmed the papal rule as to investiture. A second embassy was sent, with a similar result. Henry, however, remained firm, and at last, in [[1103]], Anselm and an envoy from the king set out for Rome. The pope, [[Pope Paschal II|Paschal II]], reaffirmed strongly the rule of investiture, and passed sentence of excommunication against all who had infringed the law, excepting King Henry. This left matters essentially as they were, and Anselm, who had received a message forbidding him to return to England unless on the king's terms, withdrew to Lyons, where he waited to see if Paschal would not take stronger measures. At last, in [[1105]], he resolved himself to excommunicate Henry. His intention was made known to the king through his sister, and it seriously alarmed him, for it was a critical period in his affairs. A meeting was arranged, and a reconciliation between them effected. In [[1106]] Anselm crossed to England, with power from the pope to remove the sentence of excommunication from the illegally invested churchmen. In [[1107]] the long dispute as to investiture was finally ended by the king resigning his formal rights, and Anselm was allowed to return to England. The remaining two years of his life were spent in the duties of his archbishopric. He died on [[April 21]] [[1109]]. He was [[canonized]] in [[1494]] by [[Alexander VI]]. ===&quot;Dilecto dilectori&quot;=== Many of Anselm's letters contained passionate expressions of attachment and affection, and were typically addressed ''dilecto dilectori'', sometimes translated as &quot;beloved lover&quot;. These letters were written to monks, male relatives, and others. This has led to some debate among academics about Anselm’s sexuality. There is wide agreement that Anselm was personally committed to the monastic ideal of celibacy, but some (Brian P. McGuire, [[John Boswell]], others) have characterized his passionate writings as expressions of a homosexual orientation. Others ([[Richard Southern]], Glenn Olsen, others) describe them as representing a &quot;wholly spiritual&quot; affection, &quot;nourished by an incorporeal ideal.&quot; (Southern). ==Writings== Anselm may, with some justice, be considered the first scholarly philosopher of Christian [[theology]]. His only great predecessor, [[Scotus Erigena]], had more of the speculative and mystical element than is consistent with a schoolman. In Anselm, by contrast, one finds the special characteristics of scholastic theological thought: a recognition of the relationship of reason to revealed truth, and an attempt to elaborate a rational system of faith. ===Foundation=== Anselm's constant endeavor was to render the contents of the Christian consciousness clear to reason, and to develop the intelligible truths interwoven with the Christian belief. The necessary preliminary for this is the possession of the Christian consciousness. As Anselm wrote: ''&quot;Neque enim quaero intelligere ut credam, sed credo ut intelligam. Nam et hoc credo, quia, nisi credidero, non intelligam.&quot;'' (&quot;Nor do I seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand. For this too I believe, that unless I first believe, I shall not understand.&quot;) But after the faith is held fast, the attempt must be made to demonstrate by reason the truth of what we believe. Indeed, it is wrong not to do so: ''&quot;Negligentiae mihi esse videtur, si, postquam confirmati sumus in fide, non studemus quod credimus, intelligere.&quot;'' (&quot;I hold it to be a failure in duty if after we have become steadfast in our faith we do not strive to understand what we believe.&quot;) The groundwork of Anselm's theory of knowledge is contained in the tract ''De Veritate'', in which, from the consideration of truth as in knowledge, in willing, and in things, he rises to the affirmation of an absolute truth, in which all other truth participates. This absolute truth is God himself, who is therefore the ultimate ground or principle both of things and of thought. The notion of God comes thus into the foreground of the system; before all things it is necessary that it should be made clear to reason, that it should be demonstrated to have real existence. ===Proofs=== This demonstration is the substance of his works ''Monologion'' and ''Proslogion''. In the first of these the proof rests on the ordinary grounds of realism, and coincides to some extent with the earlier theory of [[Augustine of Canterbury|Augustine]], though it is carried out with singular boldness and fulness. Things, he says, are called good in a variety of ways and degrees; this would be impossible if there were not some absolute standard, some good in itself, in which all relative goods participate. Similarly with such predicates as great, just; they involve a certain greatness and justice. The very existence of things is impossible without some one Being, by whom they come to exist. This absolute Being, this goodness, justice, greatness, is God. Anselm was not thoroughly satisfied with this reasoning; it started from ''a posteriori grounds'', and contained several converging lines of proof. He desired to have some one short demonstration. Such a demonstration he presented in his ''Proslogion''; this is his celebrated [[ontological argument|ontological proof]] of the existence of God. God is that being than whom none greater can be conceived. Now, if that than which nothing greater can be conceived existed only in the intellect, it would not be the absolutely greatest, for we could add to it existence in reality. It follows, then, that the being than whom nothing greater can be conceived, ''i.e.'' God, necessarily has real existence. This reasoning, in which Anselm partially anticipated the Cartesian philosophers, has rarely seemed satisfactory. It was opposed at the time by the monk [[Gaunilo]], in his ''Liber pro Insipiente'', on the ground that we cannot pass from idea to reality. The same criticism is made by several of the later schoolmen, among others by [[Thomas Aquinas|Aquinas]], and is in substance what [[Kant]] advances against all ontological proof. Anselm replied to the objections of Gaunilo in his ''Liber Apologeticus''. More recently, [[Haight and haight|Haight and Haight]] offered a response to Anselm's proof for the existence of God. Anselm also authored a number of other arguments for the existence of God, based on [[cosmology|cosmological]] and [[teleology|teleological]] grounds. ===Further works=== The existence of God being thus held proved, Anselm proceeded to state the rational grounds of the Christian doctrines of
ame>Bluebot</username> <id>527862</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Abul-Faraj]] ([[1226]]-[[1286]]) was also a learned [[Armenia]]n [[Jew]], who became [[bishop]] of [[Aleppo]], and wrote a history of the world from [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] onwards.'' '''Abulfaraj''', also known as '''Abu-l-Faraj''' or '''`Ali ibn al-Husayn ul-Isbahani''', ([[897]]-[[967]]) was an [[Arab]] scholar, a member of the tribe of the [[Quraysh]] and a direct descendant of the last of the [[Umayyad]] [[caliph]]s, [[Marwan II]]. He was thus connected with the Umayyad rulers in [[Spain]], and seems to have kept up a correspondence with them and to have sent them some of his works. He was born in [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], but spent his youth and made his early studies in [[Baghdad]]. He became famous for his knowledge of early Arabian antiquities. His later life was spent in various parts of the Islamic world, in [[Aleppo]] with its governor [[Hamdanid Dynasty|Sayf ad-Dawlah]] (to whom he dedicated the ''Book of Songs''), in [[Ray, Iran|Ray]] with the [[Buwayhid]] [[vizier]] [[Ibn 'Abbad]], and elsewhere. Although he wrote [[poetry]], also an anthology of verses on the [[monastery|monasteries]] of [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Egypt]], and a genealogical work, his fame rests upon his ''Book of Songs'' (''Kitab al-Aghani''), which gives an account of the chief Arabian songs, ancient and modern, with the stories of the composers and singers. It contains a mass of information as to the life and customs of the early Arabs, and is the most valuable authority we have for their pre-Islamic and early Islamic days. ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Arabic poets|Faraj]] [[Category:897 births|Faraj]] [[Category:967 deaths|Faraj]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Acamthocephala</title> <id>3041</id> <revision> <id>15901411</id> <timestamp>2002-07-09T18:55:39Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>PierreAbbat</username> <id>1123</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect to correct spelling</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Acanthocephala]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alcobaca</title> <id>3042</id> <revision> <id>15901412</id> <timestamp>2003-10-19T00:45:01Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Olivier</username> <id>3808</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alcobaça]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Alcobaça</title> <id>3043</id> <revision> <id>38601202</id> <timestamp>2006-02-07T11:20:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vitor107</username> <id>877602</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Useful facts */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:ACB1.png|thumb|Coat of Arms]] '''Alcobaça''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[IPA]] /{{IPA|aɫ.ku.'βa.sɐ}}/) is in the district of [[Leiria]], in [[Portugal]] (though formerly included in the province of [[Estremadura]]), on the Alcoa and Baça rivers, from which it derives its name. Alcobaça grew along the valleys of the rivers Alcoa and Baça. == Introduction == A town that only became notable in the [[12th century]] when it became the site for the important construction of [[Portugal| Portugal’s]] largest church. In the month of March in [[1147]] the fledgling King, Dom [[Afonso Henriques]], defeated the Moors by capturing the town of [[Santarém]]. As a suitable memory to this splendid victory he vowed to build a magnificent home for the [[Cistercian|Order of Cistercians]]. It took another 76 years before this task was completed. The [[monarchy]] continued to endow the [[Monastery]] with further construction and 60 years later King Dinis built the main cloister but it was only in [[1252]] that the [[Monastery]] was inaugurated within the [[church]]. In the [[church]] are the tombs of [[King Peter I]] and his murdered mistress Inês de Castro and with it the story of the tragic liaison between Pedro and his ever-lasting love for Inês. Forced at an early age by royal duty he had to marry Constanza, the Infanta of Castile. She died within a short time of the marriage ceremony and created the opportunity for Dom Pedro to escape with his true love and live in the city of Coimbra. King Afonso IV his father, believing that the family of Inês to be a threat to his own kingdom had her murdered. Shortly after the death of his father Dom Pedro declared that he had married Inês in a prior secret ceremony in Bragança, promptly taking revenge on the killers in a very gruesome manner and exhumed her body. He presented the embalmed corpse at court with a crown on her head and demanded that all his courtiers kneel and individually pay homage to her decomposed hand. Today, their ornate tombs face each other so that on the Judgment Day his first sight would be of his beloved Inês. During the following centuries the monks from this monastery had an influencing effect on Portuguese culture. Notably, in [[1269]] they were the first to give public lessons to their flock, and later they produced the authoritative history on Portugal in a series of books. In [[1810]] the invading French pillaged the Abbey taking with them most of the many treasures including a noteworthy library. Whatever the items remaining were then later stolen in [[1834]] during an anti-clerical riot and the extinction of religious Orders in Portugal. [[image:Alcobaca_fountain.jpg|thumb|Fountain house at Alcobaça monastery]] == Description == The main feature of the town is essentially the Abbey that proudly presents a long and sombre façade with 18th Century embellishments. This austerity is further emphasized in the cloisters with its apt name of “Cloister of Silence”. In contrast within the Abbey is the massive kitchen with a running stream specially diverted to pass through as a supply of fresh water. The open area of the kitchen chimney is large enough to take a whole ox for roasting. The surround to the sacristy doorway is an outstanding example of Manueline decoration. In [[1794]], Lord Beckford visited the Abbey and commented that he found some 300 monks “living in a very splendid manner”! == Nearby locations == A few kilometers to the north of Alcobaça is another wondrous building constructed in memory of a different important battle, that of Aljubarrota in [[1385]], when Dom João I defeated the Castilians and ensuring two hundred years of independence from the Spanish invaders. The construction of the Abbey at Batalha commenced in [[1388]] and was added to by various Portuguese Kings over these next two centuries. To the east of Batalha is the world famous location of Fátima and a point of pilgrimage for the Roman Catholic religion due to the vision of the Virgin Mary in [[1917]] by three young children whilst tending their flock. To the west of Alcobaça is the well-known fishing village of Nazaré. Today, the village is now a small town and a popular holiday resort with most of its past and traditions having rapidly evaporated in the course of time. A very successful Portuguese feature film was made in the early 20th Century that dramatically captured the primitive and dangerous life of these fishermen. Stoutly Catholic, the inhabitants have retained some of their past as can be still seen in their own particular style of costume. To the south is Caldas da Rainha and the quaint medieval town of Óbidos that is an attraction for any tourists that enjoys a true glimpse of the past. Also to the south is the town of Porto de Mós with its fanciful rebuilt castle. This town borders the Nature Reserve Parque Natural das Serras de Aire e Candeeiros. These 390 square kilometres of limestone-covered landscape is also known for its underground caverns. The most well known being the Grutas de Mira de Aire can be visited and consists of tunnels, caverns with stalactites, stalagmites, lakes, and a music and light finale. == Events == Festival de Musica May Feira de São Bernardo 20th August Town holiday 20th August Feira de São Simão 4th week of October Market day: Every Monday == Telephone numbers == Town Hall +351 262 598 174 Fire brigade +351 262 598 598 Police +351 262 595 400 SOS 112 Support to tourists 800 296 296 Railways (CP) - www.cp.pt 808 208 208 == Useful facts == Postal code 2460 Altitude 42 m Council inhabitants 85.100 City inhabitants 16.230 Distances Lisbon - 109 km Santarém - 59 km [http://www.flickr.com/photos/vitor107/sets/1419475/ Photos from ALCOBAÇA] {{Municipalities of Leiria}} [[Category:Cities in Portugal]] [[Category:Municipalities of Portugal]] [[de:Alcobaça (Portugal)]] [[pt:Alcobaça (Portugal)]] [[ro:Alcobaça]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Amphisbaena</title> <id>3044</id> <revision> <id>41504481</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:37:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Veledan</username> <id>306701</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>serpent --&gt; Serpent (symbolism). Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the mythological/legendary/heraldic creature. See [[Amphisbaenia]] for information on the type of [[reptile]].'' '''Amphisbaena''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]]: {{IPA|ˌæmf&amp;#618;sˈbin&amp;#601;}}, plural: amphisbaenae), or '''Amphisbaina''', or '''Amphisbene''', or '''Amphisboena''', or '''Amphisbona''', or '''Amphista''', or '''Amphivena''', or '''Anphivena''' (the last two being feminine), a [[Greek language|Greek]] word, from ''amfis'', meaning both ways, and ''bainein'', meaning to go, also called the Mother of Ants, is a [[mythological]], ant-eating [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] with a h
hern Africa is also affected by violent hailstorms . Small hail can occur without accompanying thunderstorms, particularly in winter - most notably in the northwestern USA and western Canada coastal regions and over the [[ British Isles ]]. == Costly or deadly hailstorms == {{Commons|Hail}} *[[July 11]] [[1990]], [[Denver, Colorado]], [[USA]], $625 million, softball-sized hail destroyed roofs and cars. *[[May 5]] [[1995]], [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] and [[Fort Worth, Texas]], [[USA]], $1.1 billion insured losses. *[[April 12]] [[1999]], [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]], $190 Million. 15 thousand homes lost power and several people were injured. *[[April 10]] [[2001]], [[Saint Louis, Missouri]], [[USA]], $1.9 billion insured losses. *[[July 19]] [[2002]], [[Henan Province]], [[China]], 25 dead and hundreds injured. ==See also== *[[Soft hail]] *[[Sleet]] [[Category:Precipitation]] [[Category:Storms]] [[Category:Weather hazards]] [[cs:Kroupy (meteorologie)]] [[da:Hagl (nedbør)]] [[de:Hagel]] [[es:Granizo]] [[eo:Hajlo]] [[fr:Grêle]] [[it:Grandine]] [[he:ברד]] [[nl:Hagel]] [[ja:霰]] [[ku:Zîpik]] [[no:Hagl]] [[nn:Hagl]] [[pl:Grad]] [[pt:Granizo]] [[simple:Hail]] [[sv:Hagel]] [[th:ลูกเห็บ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hypnotherapy</title> <id>14459</id> <revision> <id>41729879</id> <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:44:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>70.36.122.250</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* References */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hypnotherapy''' is the application of [[hypnosis]] as a form of treatment, usually for relieving pain or conditions related to one's state of mind. Practitioners believe that when a client enters, or believes he has entered, a state of [[trance]], the patient is more receptive to suggestion and other therapy. The most common use of hypnotherapy is to remedy maladies like [[obesity]], [[Tobacco smoking|smoking]], [[pain]], [[ego]], [[anxiety]], [[stress (medicine)|stress]], [[amnesia]], [[phobia]]s, and [[performance]] but many others can also be treated by hypnosis, including functional disorders like [[Irritable Bowel Syndrome]]. == History == The roots of medicine by therapy lie in ancient societies even earlier than the [[Ancient Egyptians]] and Ancient [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indians]]. Religious rituals were characterized by [[dancing]], [[music]], and masked peoples assuming new identities. In the nineteenth century, healers like [[Abbe Faria]] and practitioners like [[Franz Anton Mesmer]], [[James Braid (physician)|James Braid]], [[James Esdale]], [[John Elliotson]], [[Ambroise-Auguste Liébault]], [[Emile Coue]], and [[Jean-Martin Charcot]] met resistance from society and the medical community for their novel ideas on using hypnosis to treat illness. [[Sigmund Freud]] tried using hypnosis for [[psychology|psychological]] treatment in the late 1930s but he was not successful in treating any ailment with it and gave up on it in favor of his newly developed [[free association (psychology)|free association]] technique. In the 1940s [[Andrew Salter]] introduced [[conditioned reflex]] therapy. He thus gave a rebirth to hypnotherapy. [[Dr, Kovoor]] the famous athiest from kerala was one of the most successful modern hypnotherapists [[Milton H. Erickson]] was one of the most successful modern hypnotherapists. He wrote many books, journals, and articles, on the subject and is a defining figure of modern hypnotherapy. As a professional doctor of medicine (MD) he treated many patients successfully using hypnotic techniques and did his very best to document his achievements. == Relationship == The Hypnotist-Subject relationship has been feared by some due to the practice of stage performers. In a book by [[Erica Fromm]], it has been referred to as &quot;archaic involvement&quot;, listing these responses in the &quot;patient&quot;: * Feeling like a child in relation to the hypnotist. * Wanting to please the hypnotist. * Feeling guilty at not doing what the hypnotist wants. * Worrying the hypnotist will not like you. * Wanting to bask in the &quot;power and glory&quot; of the hypnotist. * Everything the hypnotist says and does deeply matters. Hypnotherapy, however, usually takes place in a clinical setting, within the framework of an individual course of therapy. == Techniques == * Age Regression - by returning to an earlier ego-state the patient can regain qualities they once had, but have lost. Remembering an earlier, healthier, ego-state can increase the patients strength and confidence. * Revivification - remembering past experiences can contribute to therapy. For example; the hypnotist may ask &quot;have you ever been in trance?&quot; and then find it easier to revive the previous experience than attempt inducing a new state. * Guided Imagery - a method by which the subject is given a new relaxing and beneficial experience. * Confusion - a method developed by [[:Milton Erickson]] in which the subject becomes receptive to ideas because confused. * Repetition - the more an idea is repeated the more likely it is to be accepted and acted upon by the patient. * Direct Suggestion - suggesting directly. &quot;You feel safe and secure&quot;. * Indirect Suggestion - using &quot;interspersal&quot; technique and other means to cause effect. * Mental State - people are more receptive while relaxed, sleeping, or in a [[:trance]]. * Hypnoanalysis - the client recalls moments from his past, confronting them and releasing associated emotions, similar to [[:psychoanalysis]]. * Post Hypnotic Suggestion - a suggestion that will be carried out after the trance has ended. &quot;When you re-awaken you will feel refreshed.&quot; * Binds or [[Double binds]] - tension on a bind causes trance. This is like &quot;the centipede who when asked which comes first, the left foot or the right, lost his concentration, stumbled, then rolled into the ditch&quot;. Binds are very common in hypnosis and it is essential to know the capacity of the subject and to ensure they will concentrate on the leg that will carry them through their journey. The duty of the hypnotist is to concentrate the subject on their desired goal. * Visualization - being told to imagine or visualize a desired outcome seems to make it more likely to actually occur. * Techniques specific to medical disorders, such as gut-directed hypnotherapy protocols for [[Irritable Bowel Syndrome]] (Van Vorous, 2001) ==See also== * [[Hypnosis]] * [[Psychotherapy]] * [[Suggestibility]] ==References== *Van Vorous, Heather. First Year: IBS (Irritable Bowel Syndrome), ISBN 1569245479. Hypnotherapy chapter excerpted with author's permission at [http://www.helpforibs.com/ Help For Irritable Bowel Syndrome] (see IBS Hypnosis section). *[http://alchemyinstitute.com/articles.htm Alchemical Hypnotherapy Articles ] ==External links== * [http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/The_Art_Of_Hypnosis The Art of Hypnosis Study Group] *[http://www.harleyclinicalhypnotherapy.com/faq.htm Hypnotherapy vs Hypnosis FAQ] [[Category:Psychotherapy]] [[Category:Hypnosis]] [[Category:Therapy]] [[de:Hypnotherapie]] [[it:Ipnoterapia]] [[nl:Hypnotherapie]] [[ja:催眠療法]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hangman</title> <id>14462</id> <revision> <id>40792080</id> <timestamp>2006-02-23T01:18:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.149.205.186</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* External links */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the game Hangman. For information about persons who carry out [[hanging]]s, see [[Executioner]].'' '''Hangman''' is a [[paper and pencil game|paper and pencil]] [[guessing game]] for two players. One player thinks of a word and the other tries to guess it by suggesting [[letter]]s. The word to guess is represented by a row of dashes, giving the number of letters. If the guessing player suggests a letter which occurs in the word, the other player writes it in all its correct positions. If the suggested letter does not occur in the word, the other player draws one element of the hangman diagram. The game is over when: * the guessing player completes the word, or guesses the whole word correctly * the other player completes the diagram: +----+ |/ | | O | /|\ | / \ -+- -a-g-a- This diagram is, in fact, designed to look like a hanging man. Although debates have arisen about the questionable taste of this picture, it is still in use today. The exact nature of the diagram differs; some players draw the [[gallows]] before play and draw parts of the man's body (traditionally the head, then the torso, then the left arm, then the right arm, then the left leg, then the right leg). Some players begin with no diagram at all, and drawing the individual elements of the gallows as part of the game, effectively giving the guessing players more chances. Some modifications to game play, such as &quot;'buying' a vowel&quot; result from the television game show ''[[Wheel of Fortune]]'', created by [[Merv Griffin]]. ==History== &quot;The origins of Hangman are obscure, but it seems to have arisen in Victorian times,&quot; says Tony Augarde, author of &quot;The Oxford Guide to Word Games&quot; (Oxford University Press). The game is mentioned in Alice Bertha Gomme's &quot;Traditional Games&quot; in [[1894]] under the name &quot;Birds, Beasts and Fishes.&quot; The rules are simple; a player writes down the first and last letters of a word for an animal, and the other player guesses the letters in between. In other sources the game is called &quot;Gallows&quot; or &quot;The Game of Hanging&quot;. ==Strategy== In the English language, the 12 most commonly occurring letters are, in descending order: [[ETAOIN SHRDLU|e-t-a-o-i-n-s-h-r-d-l-u]]. This and other [[Letter frequencies|letter-frequency]] lists are used by the guessing player to incr
r&quot;|4.7 |} (1) in 1954 dollars (2) 1947-49 = 100 Source: Campbell R. McConnell, Economics: Principles, Problems and Policies, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill 1963 == Responses == [[Image:terminal_island_squatters.jpg|frame|The Wares family, [[squatting|squatted]] on [[Terminal Island]], [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[United States]] in 1930 because of the Great Depression.]] The [[Wall Street Crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]] is widely considered to be the foremost event which marked the start of the world-wide financial crisis. While important, it was just one more marker of a distressed economy. In fact, in the United States, [[unemployment]] soared from approximately 5% to over 33%, while manufacturing output declined by one-third. Governments worldwide sought economic recovery by adopting restrictive [[autarky|autarkic]] policies such as high tariffs, import quotas and barter agreements and by experimenting with new plans for their internal economies. Business and personal economic reactions to the depression created great problems throughout the United States and much of the world. Consumers reduced their purchases of luxury products and many businesses cut production. Big businesses, such as [[General Motors]], saw their sales drop by 50% in the late 1920s and the early 1930s. This caused businesses to cut back on wages and on the numbers they employed, with thousands of workers losing their jobs. When farm prices fell, small farmers went bankrupt and, in the US, many lost their land due to bank [[foreclosure]]. By late 1932, unemployment approached 25% of the urban labor force. On July 8, 1932, the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] [[Closing milestones of the Dow Jones Industrial Average|plunged to 41.22]]. The nation responded by electing [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], who brought a complex series of [[New Deal]] programs designed to provide immediate relief, restore prosperity, and permanently reform the economy's weaknesses. After the stock market collapse, the [[New York]]-based banks became concerned over the security of overseas loans and called in their loans to [[Germany]] and [[Austria]]. However, without the American money, Germany was unable to continue making [[World War I]] reparations payments to [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. This chain reaction meant they, in turn, could not repay their war loans to America. All governments were forced to cease paying both reparations and war loan repayments. Most people could not afford many every day items. The United States government tried to protect domestic industries from foreign competition by imposing the highest import duty in American history. In retaliation, other countries raised their tariffs on imports of American goods. As a result, world trade dropped by 62%, exacerbating the depression: global industrial production declined by 36% between 1929 and 1932. [[Image:BC relief.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A relief camp in [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]].]] In [[Canada]], the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]] lost the [[Canadian federal election, 1930 |1930 election]] to [[Richard Bedford Bennett]] and the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative Party]]. Campaigning on high tariffs and large scale spending, [[Bennett]] eventually reneged on most of these promises. The failure of his administration exacerbated the effects of the Great Depression on [[Canada]]. Like [[Roosevelt]], Bennet tried to offer a &quot;New Deal&quot; to [[Canadians]], such as [[unemployment insurance]], shorter work periods and [[minimum wage]]. See [[Great Depression in Canada]] for more details. In [[Germany]], unemployment increased drastically fueling widespread disillusionment and anger. The institutions of the [[Weimar Republic]], which had already been unable to maintain order in Germany, further deteriorated in the years from 1930 to 1932, while the Chancellor and finance expert [[Heinrich Brüning]] attempted to fix the economy by drastically cutting state spending. At the time, the [[NSDAP]], or Nazi party, gained much popularity, winning the two general elections in 1932. This eventually led to the coming to power of [[Adolf Hitler]] as Chancellor on January 30, 1933 In [[Nazi]] Germany, economic recovery was pursued through rearmament, conscription, and public works programs. In [[Benito Mussolini]]'s [[Italy]], the economic controls of his state were tightened. In the [[Netherlands]], some projects were started to give people employment and boost the economy, such as the [[Amsterdamse Bos]], a reforestation project near [[Amsterdam]]. In [[Heerlen]], fabric merchant ''[[Schunck]]'' commissioned a new building in 1934 for his business, the hypermodern ''[[Glaspaleis]]'' (crystal palace) the tallest building in the city at the time. In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government of [[Ramsay MacDonald]], and later the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]-dominated coalition &quot;National Government&quot;, responded to the depression by imposing tariffs on all imports from outside the [[British Empire]], by cutting public spending, and by abandoning the [[Gold Standard]] which reduced the cost of British exports (see [[Great Depression in the United Kingdom]]). In the United States, President [[Herbert Hoover]] made efforts to control the situation. However he gravely underestimated the severity of the crisis, even reporting in 1929, that the worst effects of the recent stock market crash were behind them, and that the U.S. public had regained faith in the economy. Over the following months, it became apparent this was not the case, and Hoover in late 1930 asked for a $150 million public works program to help generate jobs. However, one of the major problems was that with deflation, the currency that you kept in your pocket could buy more goods as prices went down. Another was that there had been no federal oversight of the stock market or other investment markets, and with the collapse, many stock and investment schemes were found to be either insolvent or outright frauds. Unfortunately, many banks had invested in these schemes. By the end of 1930, there had been over 1300 [[bank failure]]s; in 1931, nearly 2300 more banks failed. 1932 saw the collapse of the banking system; [[Milton Friedman]]'s monetary theories suggest that the inexperience of the newly-created [[Federal Reserve]] in managing the money supply exacerbated the problem. With the banking system in shambles, and people holding on to whatever currency that they had, there was minimal cash available for any activities that would cause positive change. The response of the Hoover administration helped little; instead of increasing the money supply, the Hoover administration did the exact opposite and raised interest rates, falsely believing that inflation was the real danger. Many in the Hoover administration believed that as wages fell, the cost of production would drop and, as a result, production would pick up again--the depression would be self-correcting. Nobody at that time foresaw the effects of a calamitous drop in the money supply. For this reason, the government's intervention in the economy, reduction of the money supply, raising of interest rates, and protectionist measures proved disastrous. Like their counterparts abroad, many Americans were disillusioned with their system of government, believing that Hoover's policies had driven the country to ruin. [[Shanty town]]s populated by unemployed people at the time were often dubbed [[Hoovervilles]], highlighting the President's fading popularity. During this period, several alternative political movements saw a considerable increase in membership. In particular, a number of high-profile figures embraced the ideals of Communism and the US Communist Party encouraged its followers to &quot;Follow the Example of [[Ella Reeve Bloor| Mother Bloor]]&quot;, who embraced the movement. Radio speakers, such as Father [[Charles Coughlin]], saw their listening audiences swell into the millions as they sought easy scapegoats for the country's woes. Upon accepting the [[Democratic Party (US)|Democratic]] nomination for president (July 2, 1932), [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] promised &quot;a new deal for the American people&quot;, a phrase that has endured as a label for his administration and its many domestic achievements. Upon taking office in March 1933 he proposed the &quot;[[New Deal]]&quot; of multiple programs to promote relief for the destitute, recovery of the economy, and reform of its weaknesses. In 1933 Roosevelt was eclectic and took economic advice from many directions. Across the world all major countries intervened in their economies, trying to escape the worst effects of the depression. ==The Depression== [[Image:Hooverville.jpg|250px|thumb|right|&quot;Community Camp&quot;, a depression era shantytown in [[Oklahoma City]], [[Oklahoma]]]] Contrary to popular belief, the Stock Market Crash and Great Depression did not plunge all Americans into instant poverty. While the full effects of the Depression were imminent, they were not universally immediate. Indeed, following the October event on Wall Street, economists who underestimated the event felt that the crash of the market was simply a long over due, albeit major, market correction. However when the market failed to rebound, and it became apparent that even highly regarded consumer goods manufacturers were in trouble (example, [[Atwater-Kent]] Radios, [[Willys-Overland]], etc.) the effects began to impact the economy. Not only did name-brand product manufacturers fail, but their suppliers and retailers also failed. Easy credit fuelled the consumer driven economy of the 1920s, and following the depression, credit availability began to tighten, both for business and consumers. With lenders restricting their credit availability, and moving quickly to secure their liabilities, employers who were hurt by
oss the [[United States]] had seen rioting and occupation of buildings by students; [[May 1968|May]] had seen rioting in [[Paris]] that almost led to revolution. Yet over all these other events, [[TIME|TIME magazine]] chose the crew of ''Apollo 8'' as their [[Person of the Year|Men of the Year]] for 1968, recognizing them as the people that most influenced events in the preceding year. They had been the first people to ever leave the gravitational influence of the Earth and orbit another celestial body. They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as only having a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding. The effect of ''Apollo 8'' can be summed up by a [[Telegraphy|telegram]] from a stranger, received by Borman after the mission, that simply stated, &quot;Thank you ''Apollo 8''. You saved 1968.&quot; [[Image:January 3, 1969 Time Magazine Cover.jpg|thumb|[[January 3]], [[1969]] cover of [[TIME|TIME Magazine]] with the Apollo 8 crew]] One of the most famous aspects of the flight was the Earthrise picture that was taken as they came around for their fourth orbit of the Moon. Although it was not the first image taken of the whole Earth nor would it be the last, this was the first time that humans had taken such a picture. Some regard the picture as being the start of the [[Environmentalism|environmentalist]] movement, with the first [[Earth Day]] in 1970.[http://ipp.nasa.gov/innovation/Innovation_84/wnewview.html] The mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first American orbital flight, [[Mercury Atlas 6]] by [[John Glenn]] in 1962. There were 1200 journalists covering the mission, with the [[BBC]] coverage being broadcast in 54 countries in 15 different languages. The Soviet newspaper ''[[Pravda]]'' even covered the flight without the usual anti-American editorializing. It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw — either live or delayed — the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon; it had a tremendous impact. Touring the world after the mission, Borman met with [[Pope Paul VI]]; he was told &quot;I have spent my entire life trying to say to the world what you did on Christmas Eve.&quot; The militant [[atheist]] [[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]] later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against NASA over the reading from ''Genesis''; she wished the courts to ban US astronauts—who were all Government employees—from public prayer in space. This was eventually rejected by the courts, but it caused NASA to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the Apollo program. [[Buzz Aldrin]], on ''[[Apollo 11]]'', took [[Eucharist|communion]] on the surface of the moon after landing; he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years, and only obliquely referred to it at the time. ==Crew== *[[Frank Borman]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 7]]'' &amp; ''Apollo 8''), commander *[[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 7]]'', ''[[Gemini 12]]'', ''Apollo 8'' &amp; ''[[Apollo 13]]''), command module pilot *[[William Anders]] (flew on ''Apollo 8''), lunar module pilot As a note, astronaut [[Michael Collins]], who flew aboard the [[Gemini 10]] mission, was originally slated to fly aboard Apollo 8 as Command Module pilot. A [[bone spur]] in his neck that required surgery grounded Collins, requiring Jim Lovell to fly in Collins' place. In early 1969, Collins was reinstated to active flight status, and replaced Fred Haise on the Apollo 11 prime crew as Command Module pilot, while Edwin Aldrin became lunar module pilot. Haise became the backup LM pilot for Apollo 11. ===Backup crew=== The backup crew trained to take the place of the prime crew in case of illness or death. *[[Neil Armstrong]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 8]]'', ''[[Apollo 11]]''), commander *[[Edwin E. Aldrin]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 12]]'', ''[[Apollo 11]]''), command module pilot *[[Fred Haise]], (flew on ''[[Apollo 13]]''), lunar module pilot ===Support crew=== The support crew were not trained to fly the mission but were able to stand in for astronauts in meetings and be involved in the minutiae of mission planning, while the prime and backup crews trained. They often also served as capcoms during the mission. *[[John S. Bull|John Bull]] (never flew in space) *[[Vance Brand]] (flew on ''[[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]]'', ''[[STS-5]]'', ''[[STS-41-B]]'', ''[[STS-35]]'' *[[Gerald Carr]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 4]]'') *[[Ken Mattingly]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-4]]'', ''[[STS-51-C]]'') ==Mission parameters== *'''CSM [[Mass]]:''' 63,531 lb (28,817 kg) ===Earth parking orbit=== *'''[[Perigee]]:''' 112.8 mi (181.5 km) *'''[[Apogee]]:''' 118.9 mi (191.3 km) *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 32.51° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.17 min ===Lunar orbit=== *'''[[Perilune]]:''' 69.5 mi (111.9 km) *'''[[Apolune]]:''' 193.3 mi (311.1 km) *'''[[Inclination]]:''' 12° *'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 128.7 min ===Translunar injection burn=== *[[December 21]], [[1968]], 15:41:38 UTC The Saturn V, [[S-IVB]] third stage, was fired for a second time. It burned for a total of 318 seconds. ''Apollo 8'' was propelled from an [[Earth]] [[Low Earth orbit|parking orbit]] velocity of 25,567 ft/s (7793 m/s) to a translunar [[trajectory]] [[Escape velocity|velocity]] of 35,505 ft/s (10,822 m/s). ==See also== {{Commons|Apollo 8}} *[[Splashdown]] *[[Project Apollo]] *[[Space Race]] *[[List of lunar astronauts]] ==References== *[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo8info.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_08a_Summary.htm Apollo By The Numbers: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/ Apollo 8 Flight Journal]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch20-6.html Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-5.html Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo8.htm Apollo 8] in the [[Encyclopedia Astronautica]]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]] *[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]. Retrieved on [[March 15]], [[2005]] *[http://cgi.canoe.ca/SpaceArchive/981221_30.html Astronauts look back 30 years after historic lunar launch]. Retrieved on [[March 19]], [[2005]] *[http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/S2ch3.htm Biomedical Results of Apollo]. Retrieved on [[March 19]], [[2005]] *Chaikin, Andrew (1994). ''A Man On The Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts''. Viking. ISBN 0670814466. *Zimmerman, Robert (1998). ''Genesis: The Story of Apollo 8''. Four Wall Eight Windows. ISBN 1568581181. *Collins, Michael (1975). ''Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys''. W. H. Allen. ISBN 0491016034. *Slayton, Donald K.; Cassutt, Michael (1995). ''Deke! : An Autobiography''. Forge Books. ISBN 031285918X. *Compiled by NASA Manned Spacecraft Center (1969). ''Analysis of Apollo 8 Photography and Visual Observations''. US Government Printing Office. [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19700005062_1970005062.pdf NASA PDF online version] {{Project Apollo | before=[[Apollo 7]] | after=[[Apollo 9]]}} {{featured article}} [[Category:Apollo program|Apollo 08]] [[Category:Human spaceflights|Apollo 08]] [[Category:Lunar spacecraft|Apollo 08]] [[Category:1968 in the United States]] [[cs:Apollo 8]] [[de:Apollo 8]] [[fi:Apollo 8]] [[fr:Apollo 8]] [[it:Apollo 8]] [[he:%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95_8]] [[hu:Apollo-8]] [[nl:Apollo 8]] [[pl:Apollo 8]] [[pt:Apollo 8]] [[sk:Apollo 8]] [[zh:阿波罗8号]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Astronaut</title> <id>664</id> <revision> <id>41903543</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:26:20Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Tom harrison</username> <id>42168</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.249.117.123|82.249.117.123]] ([[User talk:82.249.117.123|talk]]) to last version by Orville Eastland</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Astronaut-EVA.jpg|right|300px|thumb|U.S. Space Shuttle astronaut [[Bruce McCandless II]] using a manned maneuvering unit (MMU) outside the ''Challenger'' in 1984. Picture courtesy NASA]] An '''astronaut''', '''cosmonaut''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: космона́вт), '''spationaut''' or '''taikonaut''' (''taikongren'', 太空人) is a person who [[space travel|travels into space]], or who makes a career of doing so. The criteria for determining who has achieved [[human spaceflight]] vary (see [[edge of space]]). In the [[United States]], people who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (80&amp;nbsp;km) are designated as astronauts. The [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale|FAI]] defines spaceflight as over 100 km (61 miles). As of [[October 12]], [[As of 2005|2005]], a total of 448 humans have reached space according to the U.S. definition, 442 people qualify under the FAI definition, while 438 people have reached [[Earth]] orbit or beyond. These individuals have spent over 28,000 crew-days (or a cumulative total of 76.7 years) in space including over 100 crew-days of spacewalks. A person who has traveled in space is said to hold [[astronaut wings]]. Astronauts from at least [[Timeline of astronauts by nationality|34 countries]] have gone into space. ==International variations== By convention, a space traveller employed by the [[Russian Aviation and Space Agency]] or its [[Soviet space program|Soviet]] predecessor is called a '''cosmonaut'''. &quot;Cosmonaut&quot; is an [[anglicisation]] of the [[Russia]]n word
Jews in [[Iraq]] and [[Libya]] in the 1940s (see [[Farhud]]). George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the [[Arab world]] to several factors including: The breakdown of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and traditional [[Islamic]] society; domination by Western [[colonialism|colonial powers]] under which Jews gained a disproportionatly large role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of [[Arab nationalism]], whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment over Jewish [[nationalism]] and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular [[regime]]s to [[scapegoat]] local Jews for political purposes.[http://www.jcpa.org/jl/jl102.htm] After the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], the [[Palestinian exodus]], the creation of the state of [[Israel]], and the independence of Arab countries from European control, conditions for Jews in the Arab world deteriorated. Over the next few decades, almost all would flee the Arab world, some willingly, and some under threat (see [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]]). In [[1945]] there were between 758,000 and 866,000 Jews (see table below) living in communities throughout the Arab world. Today, there are fewer than 8,000. In some Arab states, such as [[Libya]] (which was once around 3% Jewish), the Jewish community no longer exists; in other Arab countries, only a few hundred Jews remain. ==Arab anti-Semitism in the [[20th century|20th]] and 21st century== ===Saudi Arabia=== A Saudi government website initially stated that Jews would not be granted tourist visas to enter the country [http://www.house.gov/apps/list/press/ny09_weiner/022604Saudi.html]; it has since removed this statement, and apologized for posting &quot;erroneous information&quot;. Members of religions other than Islam, including Jews, are not permitted to practice their religion publicly in Saudi Arabia; according to the U.S. State Department [http://www.uscirf.gov/countries/countriesconcerns/Countries/Saudi_Arabia.html], religious freedom &quot;does not exist&quot; in Saudi Arabia. [[Wahhabism]] is the official religion of Saudi Arabia, and the tenets of that religion are enforced by law. Saudi Arabian media often attacks Jews in books and news articles. Saudi Arabian government officials and state religious leaders often promote the idea that &quot;the Jews&quot; are conspiring to take over the entire world; as proof of their claims they publish and frequently cite the anti-Semitic forgery, ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' as factual. The former King of Saudi Arabia allegedly gave visitors copies of both The Protocols and [[Mein Kampf]]. [http://www.yaf.org/speakers/op-ed/feder_semitism.html] In 2001, Arab Radio and Television of Saudi Arabia produced a 30-part television miniseries entitled &quot;Horseman Without a Horse&quot;, a dramatization of [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]. [http://www.adl.org/presrele/islme_62/4013_62.asp] Saudi Arabian government-sponsored newspapers have published articles claiming that Al Qaeda's [[September 11]], [[2001]] attack on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon was actually carried out by &quot;the Jews&quot;, also &quot;the Zionists&quot;. Many Saudi government newspapers promote the idea that a Jewish conspiracy pressed American President George W. Bush to go to war against [[Iraq]]. Saudi Arabian government newspapers suggest that hatred of all Jews is justifiable. &quot;Why are they (the Jews) hated by all the people which hosted them, such as Iraq and Egypt thousands years ago, and Germany, Spain, France and the UK, up to the days they gained of power over the capital and the press, in order to rewrite the history?&quot; (Al-Riyadh, Saudi government daily, [[April 15]], [[2002]], Turki 'Abdallah as-Sudayri, ''All of History is against Them'') ===Arab Newspapers=== Many [[Arab]] newspapers, such as [[Al-Hayat Al-Jadidah]], the Palestinian Authority's official newspaper, often write that &quot;the Jews&quot; control all the world's governments, and that &quot;the Jews&quot; plan [[genocide]] on all the Arabs in the [[West Bank]]. Others write less sensational stories, and states that Jews have too much of an influence in the [[United States|US]] government. Often the leaders of other nations are said to be controlled by Jews. Articles in many official Arab government newspapers (notably those of the [[Palestinian Authority]], [[Libya]], and [[Saudi Arabia]]) claim that ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', an infamous anti-Semitic [[forgery]], reflects actual facts, and thus points to an international Jewish conspiracy to [[global domination|take over the world]]. :&quot;[[Benjamin Netanyahu|Netanyahu's]] Plan completely matches the foundations of the greater [[Zionism|Zionist]] plan which is organized according to specific stages that were determined when the ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (document)|Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' was composed and when [[Theodor Herzl|Herzl]] along with [[Chaim Weizmann|Weizmann]] traveled around the world in order to determine the appropriate location for the implementation of this conspiracy,&quot; (official Palestinian Authority newspaper, Al-Hayat Al-Jadidah, [[November 30]], [[1997]]) :&quot;The Jews seek to conquer the world...We must expose the Zionist-Colonialist plot and its goals, which destroy not only our people but the entire world&quot; (PA Minister of Agriculture, [[Abdel Jawad Saleh]], quoted in [[Al-Hayat Al-Jadidah]], [[November 6]], [[1997]]) [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/anti-semitism/pastatements.html] The [[Egypt]]ian government run newspaper, Al-Akhbar, on [[29 April]] [[2002]], published an editorial denying [[the Holocaust]] as a fraud. The next paragraph decries the failure of the Holocaust to eliminate all of the Jews [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&amp;Area=sd&amp;ID=SP37502]: &lt;blockquote&gt; With regard to the fraud of the Holocaust… Many [[France|French]] studies have proven that this is no more than a fabrication, a lie, and a fraud!! That is, it is a 'scenario' the plot of which was carefully tailored, using several faked photos completely unconnected to the truth. Yes, it is a film, no more and no less. [[Hitler]] himself, whom they accuse of [[Nazism]], is in my eyes no more than a modest 'pupil' in the world of murder and bloodshed. He is completely innocent of the charge of frying them in the hell of his false Holocaust!! The entire matter, as many French and [[Britain|British]] scientists and researchers have proven, is nothing more than a huge Israeli plot aimed at extorting the [[Germany|German]] government in particular and the European countries in general. But I, personally and in light of this imaginary tale, complain to Hitler, even saying to him from the bottom of my heart, 'If only you had done it, brother, if only it had really happened, so that the world could sigh in relief [without] their evil and sin.' &lt;/blockquote&gt; ===9/11 conspiracy theories === : ''Main: [[9/11 conspiracy theories#Claims related to Jews and Israel|9/11 conspiracy theories: claims related to Jews and Israel]] Across the Arab world, a fair number of Arab media outlets, some government-sponsored (such as those of [[Libya]] and [[Saudi Arabia]], and some of those of the [[Palestinian Authority]]), published pieces alleging that the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] were carried out by Jews, Zionists, Israelis, or even Americans. Many within the Arab world viewed this terrorist act as a conspiracy to make the world hate all Arabs, and therefore believed that people perceived to be enemies of the Arabs must really be to blame; many others disagreed. After Al Qaeda acknowledged their role publicly, these claims lost credibility, and came to be widely seen as a [[conspiracy theory]]. Such theories are also found outside the Arab world, including in the United States. === The Palestinian Authority's view of Israel === Some people claim that the [[Palestinian Authority]]'s hostility to [[Israel]] constitutes anti-Semitism in itself; others regard this claim as absurd, noting that hostility to an enemy nation need not imply hostility to the associated ethnicity, and that the Palestinian Authority includes representatives from [[Neturei Karta]] (an extremely small group of [[anti-Zionism|anti-Zionist]] ''[[Haredi]]'' Jews with views considered extreme by most Jews). Examples of hostility to Israel follow, as translated by [[MEMRI]]: :The Palestinian Authority's official television channel has shows which teach 6 and 7 year old kids to kill Israelis. Episodes of a program called ''The Children's Club,'' broadcast in early 1998, showed a group of young Arab children, one of whom stood up, raised her fist, and shouted: “When I wander into Jerusalem, I will turn into a [[suicide]] warrior in battle dress! In battle dress!” She was cheered and applauded by the other children in the group, and their adult leader declared, “Bravo! Bravo!” On another segment, a young girl sang: “Each and every part of your soil I have drenched with all my blood. And we shall march as warriors of [[Jihad]]. Oh, my exalted [[martyr]], you are my example. Oh, my sister, sing constantly about my life as a suicide warrior, how we remain steadfast. On, my country, you are my soul.” (Videotape of ''The Children's Club'', Peace for Generations, [[Jerusalem]], 1998) An investigation by ''[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]'' ([[September 7]], [[1997]]) found children's programs on PA television in which an 8 year-old girl was shown singing: “I am a daughter of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. [[Qur'an]] in my right hand, in my left — a knife,” and another in which a young girl recites a poem she said she wrote for [[Yassir Arafat]]: “I am finished practicing on the [[submachine gun]] of return... We swear to take vengeful blood from our enemies for our killed and woun
tive anti-anxiety agent such as [[clonazepam]] (Klonopin, Rivotril). ''[[Antipsychotic]]s'' such as [[risperidone]] (Risperdal) and [[olanzapine]] (Zyprexa), and [[Quetiapine]] (Seroquel) are prescribed as [[mood]] stabilizers and are also effective in treating [[anxiety]]. [[Antipsychotics]] (typical or atypical) may be also prescribed in an attempt to augment an [[antidepressant]], to make antidepressant blood concentration higher, or to relieve [[psychotic]] or [[paranoid]] symptoms often accompanying clinical depression. However, they may have serious side effects, particularly at high doses, which may include blurred [[Visual perception|vision]], [[muscle]] spasms, restlessness, [[tardive dyskinesia]], and weight gain. Antidepressants by their nature are stimulants. Anti-anxiety medications by their nature are depressants. Close medical supervision is critical to proper treatment if a subject is presenting both illnesses as the medications tend to work against each other. ''[[Lithium salt|Lithium]]'' remains the standard treatment for [[bipolar disorder]], and is often used in conjunction with other medications, depending upon whether mania or depression is being treated. Lithium's potential side effects include [[thirst]], [[tremor]]s, light-headedness, and [[nausea]] or [[diarrhea]]. Some of the [[anticonvulsants]] such as [[carbamazepine]] (Tegretol), [[sodium valproate]] (Epilim), and [[lamotrigine]] (Lamictal) are also used as mood stabilisers, particularly in bipolar disorder. Failure to take medication, or failure to take it as prescribed, is one of the major causes of [[relapse]]. Should one feel a change or discontinuation of medication is necessary, it is critical that this be done in consultation with a doctor. === Psychotherapy === In [[psychotherapy]], or ''counselling'', one receives assistance in understanding and resolving problems which may be contributing to depression. This may be done individually or with a group, and is conducted by health professionals such as psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, or psychiatric nurses. It is important to enquire about both the therapist's training and approach; a very close bond often forms between practitioner and client, and it is important that the client feel understood by the clinician. Counsellors can help a person make changes in thinking patterns, deal with relationship issues, detect and deal with relapses, and understand the factors that contribute to depression. There are many therapeutic approaches, but all are aimed at improving an individual's personal and interpersonal functioning. ''[[Cognitive therapy]]'', also known as ''Cognitive Behaviour Therapy'', focuses on how people think about themselves and their relationships to the world. It works to counteract negative thought patterns and enhance self-esteem. Therapy can be used to help a person develop or improve ''[[interpersonal skills]]'' in order to allow them to communicate more effectively and reduce stress. ''[[Narrative therapy]]'' gives attention to each individual's &quot;dominant story&quot; by means of therapeutic conversations which also may involve exploring &quot;unhelpful&quot; ideas and how they came to prominence. ''[[Behavioral therapy]]'' is based on the assumption that behaviors are learned. This type of therapy attempts to teach individuals new and healthier types of behaviours. ''[[Supportive therapy]]'' encourages people to discuss their problems and provides them with emotional support. The focus is on sharing information, ideas, and strategies for coping with daily life. ''[[Family systems therapy]]'' helps people live together more harmoniously and undo patterns of destructive behaviour. === Transcranial magnetic stimulation === [[Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (rTMS) is currently under study as a possible treatment for depression. Initially designed as a tool for physiological studies of the brain, this technique shows promise as a means of alleviating depression. In this therapy, a powerful magnetic field is used to stimulate the left prefrontal [[cortex (neuroanatomy)|cortex]], an area of the brain which typically shows abnormal activity in depressed individuals. rTMS has been proposed as an alternative to ECT that would have fewer side effects. No sedation is required, and the only reported side effects are a slight headache in some patients, and facial muscle contraction during treatment. However clear evidence that it is an effective treatment is still awaited.{{ref|oldref_6}} [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=15307288&amp;dopt=Citation Recent work] in Poland has suggested that weak, variable magnetic fields may offer relief from depression in those that have been unresponsive to medication. However, some of the existing work has been [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=11985347&amp;dopt=Abstract questioned] with claims that the effect is not as significant once environmental conditions are [[control group|controlled]] for. ===Vagus nerve stimulation=== [[Vagus nerve stimulation]] therapy is a treatment used since 1997 to control [[seizure]]s in [[epileptic]] patients and has recently been approved for treating resistant cases of clinical depression. The VNS device is implanted in a patient's chest with wires that connect it to the [[vagus nerve]], which it stimulates to reach a region of the brain associated with [[mood]]s. The device delivers controlled electrical doses to the vagus nerve at regular intervals. === Electroconvulsive therapy === [[Electroconvulsive therapy]] (ECT), also known as ''electroshock'' or ''electroshock therapy'' employs short bursts of a controlled current of [[electricity]] (this is typically fixed at 0.9 ampere) into the brain to induce a brief, artificial [[seizure]] while the patient is under [[general anaesthesia]]. ECT has acquired a fearsome reputation, in part, from its use as a tool of [[Political repression|repression]] in the former [[USSR]], and its fictional depiction in films such as ''[[One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film)|One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]]'', but remains a common treatment where other means of treatment have failed, or where the use of drugs is unacceptable (such as in [[pregnancy]]). Also, in contrast to &quot;direct&quot; electroshock of years ago, most countries now only allow ECT to be administered under anaesthesia. In a typical regimen of treatment, a patient receives three treatments per week over three or four weeks. Repeat sessions may be required. [[Short-term memory]] loss, disorientation and headache are very common side effects. In some cases, permanent memory loss has occurred, but detailed neuropsychological testing in clinical studies have not been able to prove permanent effects on memory. ECT offers the benefit of a very fast response, however, this response has been shown not to last unless either maintenance electroshock or maintenance medications are used. While antidepressants usually take around a month to take effect, the results of ECT have been shown to be much faster. For this reason, it is the treatment of choice in emergency circumstances (for example in catatonic depression where the patient has ceased oral intake of fluid or nutrients). There remains much controversy over electroshock. Advocacy groups and scientific critics, such as Dr [[Peter Breggin]][http://www.breggin.com/Electroshockscientific.pbreggin.1998.pdf], call for restrictions on its use or complete abolishment. Like all forms of psychiatric treatment, electroshock can be given without a patient's consent, but this is subject to legal conditions dependent on the jurisdiction. === Other methods of treatment === ====[[Light therapy]]==== Bright [[light]] (both [[sunlight]] and artificial light) is shown to be effective in [[seasonal affective disorder]], and sometimes may be effective in other types of depression, especially atypical depression or depression with &quot;seasonal [[phenotype]]&quot; (overeating, oversleeping, weight gain, [[apathy]]). '''Important note:''' an antidepressant effect is caused by stimulation of the [[retina]] by the [[visible light]], not by the [[ultra-violet]] portion. Thus, it is not necessary (and may be even dangerous in some cases) to get [[sunburn]]. It can be enough just to walk at daytime or to take light therapy using a light box. However, recent discoveries of the existence and importance of the third kind of photoreceptor in our eyes,the [[intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells]](ipRGC)- critical to [[human chronobiology]] - strongly suggest that bluish light is more helpful, and manufacturers are beginning to respond to this. ====Exercise==== It is widely believed that physical activity and [[exercise]] helps depressive patients and promotes quicker and better relief from depression. It is also thought to help antidepressants and psychotherapy to work better and faster. It can be difficult to find the motivation to exercise if the depression is severe, but sufferers should be encouraged to take part in some form of regularly-scheduled physical activity if possible. A workout need not be strenuous; many find [[walking]], for example, to be of great help. Exercise produces higher levels of chemicals in the brain, notably [[dopamine]], [[serotonin]], and [[norepinephrine]]. In general this leads to improvements in mood, which is effective in countering depression. Note that prior to beginning an exercise regime, it is wise to consult a doctor. He or she can establish whether a person possesses any health problems that could rule out some types of exercise. ====Meditation==== [[Meditation]] is increasingly seen as a useful treatment for depression. The current professional opinion of meditation is that it represents at least a complementary method of treating depression, a view that has been
scholars would consider certain asymmetric games as examples of these games as well. However, the most common payoffs for each of these games are symmetric. # {{note|experimental}} Experimental work in game theory goes by many names, [[experimental economics]], [[behavioral economics]], and [[behavioral game theory]] are several. For a recent discussion on this field see Camerer 2003. # {{note|ethics}} For a more detailed discussion of the use of Game Theory in ethics see the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/game-ethics/ game theory and ethics]. # {{note|commonknowledge}} Although common knowledge was first discussed by the philosopher [[David Lewis]] in his dissertation (and later book) ''Convention'' in the late 1960s, it was not widely considered by economists until [[Robert Aumann]]'s work in the 1970s. ==References== ;Textbooks and general reference texts *Bierman, H. S. and L. Fernandez, ''Game Theory with economic applications'', Addison-Wesley, 1998. * Fudenberg, Drew and Jean Tirole: ''Game Theory'', MIT Press, 1991, ISBN 0262061414 (the definitive reference text) * Gibbons, Robert (1992) ''Game Theory for Applied Economists'', Princeton University Press ISBN 0691003955 (readable; suitable for advanced undergraduates. Published in Europe by Harvester Wheatsheaf (London) with the title ''A primer in game theory'') * Ginits, Herbert (2000) ''Game Theory Evolving'' Princeton University Press ISBN 0691009430 * Osborne, Martin and [[Ariel Rubinstein]]: ''A Course in Game Theory'', MIT Press, 1994, ISBN 0-262-65040-1 (modern introduction at the introductory graduate level) * Rasmusen, Erik: ''Games and information'', 4th edition, Blackwell, 2006. Available online [http://www.rasmusen.org/GI/index.html]. ;Historically important texts * [[Ronald Fisher|Fisher, Ronald]] (1930) ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]'' Clarendon Press, Oxford. * Luce, Duncan and Howard Raiffa ''Games and Decisions: Introduction and Critical Survey'' Dover ISBN 0486659437 * [[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith, John]] ''[[Evolution and the Theory of Games]]'', Cambridge University Press 1982 * [[Oskar Morgenstern|Morgenstern, Oskar]] and [[John von Neumann]] (1947) ''The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior'' Princeton University Press * [[John Forbes Nash|Nash, John]] (1950) &quot;Equilibrium points in n-person games&quot; ''Proceedings of the National Academy of the USA'' 36(1):48-49. * Poundstone, William ''Prisoner's Dilemma: [[John von Neumann]], Game Theory and the Puzzle of the Bomb'', ISBN 038541580X ;Other print references * Camerer, Colin (2003) ''Behavioral Game Theory'' Princeton University Press ISBN 0691090394 * Gauthier, David (1987) ''Morals by Agreement'' Oxford University Press ISBN 0198249926 * Grim, Patrick, Trina Kokalis, Ali Alai-Tafti, Nicholas Kilb, and Paul St Denis (2004) &quot;Making meaning happen.&quot; ''Journal of Experimental &amp; Theoretical Artificial Intelligence'' 16(4): 209-243. * Kavka, Gregory (1986) ''Hobbesian Moral and Political Theory'' Princeton University Press. ISBN 069102765X * [[David Lewis|Lewis, David]] (1969) ''Convention: A Philosophical Study'' * [[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith]], J. and Harper, D. (2003) ''Animal Signals''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198526857 * [[W.V.O. Quine|Quine, W.v.O]] (1967) &quot;Truth by Convention&quot; in ''Philosophica Essays for A.N. Whitehead'' Russel and Russel Publishers. ISBN 0846209705 * Quine, W.v.O (1960) &quot;Carnap and Logical Truth&quot; ''Synthese'' 12(4):350-374. * Skyrms, Brian (1996) ''Evolution of the Social Contract'' Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521555833 * Skyrms, Brian (2004) ''The Stag Hunt and the Evolution of Social Structure'' Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521533929. * Sober, Elliot and David Sloan Wilson (1999) ''Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior'' Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674930479 ;Websites * Paul Walker: [http://www.econ.canterbury.ac.nz/personal_pages/paul_walker/gt/hist.htm History of Game Theory Page]. * David Levine: [http://dklevine.com Game Theory. Papers, Lecture Notes and much more stuff.] * Alvin Roth: [http://www.economics.harvard.edu/~aroth/alroth.html Game Theory and Experimental Economics page] - Comprehensive list of links to game theory information on the Web * Mike Shor: [http://www.gametheory.net Game Theory .net] - Lecture notes, interactive illustrations and other information. * Jim Ratliff's [http://virtualperfection.com/gametheory/ Graduate Course in Game Theory] (lecture notes). * [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~robu/ Valentin Robu's] [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~robu/aamas/aamas_demo.html software tool] for simulation of bilateral negotiation (bargaining) * Don Ross: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/game-theory/ Review Of Game Theory]. * Bruno Verbeek and Christopher Morris: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/game-ethics/ Game Theory and Ethics] * Chris Yiu's [http://www.yiu.co.uk/gametheory/ Game Theory Lounge] * Elmer G. Wiens: [http://www.egwald.com/operationsresearch/gameintroduction.php Game Theory] - Introduction, worked examples, play online two-person zero-sum games. * [http://www.socialcapitalgateway.org/eng-gametheory.htm Web sites on game theory and social interactions] {{Game_theory}} [[Category:Game theory|*]] [[Category:Artificial intelligence]] {{Link FA|he}} [[ar:نظرية الألعاب]] [[bg:Теория на игрите]] [[da:Spilteori]] [[de:Spieltheorie]] [[el:Θεωρία παιγνίων]] [[es:Teoría de juegos]] [[eo:Ludoteorio]] [[eu:Joku-teoria]] [[fa:نظریه بازی‌ها]] [[fi:Peliteoria]] [[fr:Théorie des jeux]] [[io:Ludo-teorio]] [[is:Leikjafræði]] [[it:Teoria dei giochi]] [[he:תורת המשחקים]] [[lt:Žaidimų teorija]] [[hu:Játékelmélet]] [[nl:Speltheorie]] [[ja:ゲーム理論]] [[no:Spillteori]] [[nn:Spelteori]] [[pl:Teoria gier]] [[pt:Teoria dos jogos]] [[ru:Теория игр]] [[sr:Теорија игара]] [[sk:Teória hier]] [[fi:Peliteoria]] [[sv:Spelteori]] [[zh:博弈论]] {{featured article}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>List of Greek words with English derivatives</title> <id>11925</id> <revision> <id>41569288</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:17:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.102.121.66</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Φ */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{MetaSidebar|20%|#eeffff|right|Greek alphabet|Transliteration schemes &lt;table&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Greek &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Traditional&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Classical&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Modern&lt;/td&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Α α &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; a &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; a &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; a&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Β β &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; b &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; b &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; v&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Γ γ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; g &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; g &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; gh, y&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Δ δ&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; d &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; d &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; dh &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ε ε &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; e &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; e &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; e &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ζ ζ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; z &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; z, zd &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; z&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Η η &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; e &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ē &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Θ θ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; th &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; th &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; th &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ι ι &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Κ κ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; c &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; k&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; k&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Λ λ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;l &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;l&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;l &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Μ μ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; m &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; m&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; Ν ν&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; n &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; n&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; n &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ξ ξ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; x &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; x &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; x&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ο ο &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; o &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; o &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; o &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Π π &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; p&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; p &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; p&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ρ ρ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; r &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; r&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; r&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Σ σ ς &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; s &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; s&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; s &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Τ τ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; t &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; t&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; t &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Υ υ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; y &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; u &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Φ φ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ph&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ph &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ph, f&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Χ χ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ch &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;kh&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;kh&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ψ ψ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ps&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ps &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;ps &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ω ω &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; o&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ō &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; o&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;αι &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ae, e &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ai&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; e, ai&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;αυ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; au &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; au &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; af, av&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;ει &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ei &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;ευ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; eu &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; eu&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ef, ev&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;γγ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ng &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ng&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ng&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;γξ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nx&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nx &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nx&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;γκ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nc &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nk&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; g, ng&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;γχ &lt;/
the Template:Infobox country std</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} :''For the capital of Djibouti, see [[Djibouti city]]. {{Infobox_Country |native_name = &lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''&amp;#1580;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1577; &amp;#1580;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1610;&lt;br&gt;Jumhuriyaa Jibuti&lt;BR&gt;République de Djibouti'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt; |common_name = Djibouti |image_flag = Flag of Djibouti.svg |image_coat = Djibouti coa.png |image_map = LocationDjibouti.png |national_motto = n/a |national_anthem = [[National anthem of Djibouti|Flag song]] |official_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[French language|French]] |capital = [[Djibouti, Djibouti|Djibouti]] |latd=11 |latm=36 |latNS=N |longd=43 |longm=10 |longEW=E |largest_city = [[Djibouti, Djibouti|Djibouti]] |government_type = |leader_titles = [[President of Djibouti|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of Djibouti|Prime Minister]] |leader_names = [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]]&lt;br&gt;[[Dileita Mohamed Dileita]] |area_rank = 147th |area_magnitude = 1 E10 |area= 23,000 |areami²= 8,878 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt; |percent_water = 0.09% (20 km² / 7.7&amp;nbsp;mi²) |population_estimate = 476,703 |population_estimate_rank = 161st |population_estimate_year = July 2005 |population_census = 460,700 |population_census_year = 2000 |population_density = 21 |population_densitymi² = 54 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt; |population_density_rank = 154th |GDP_PPP = $619 millon &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt; |GDP_PPP_rank = 205 |GDP_PPP_year= 2002 &lt;!-- 2005 cia.gov --&gt; |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,878 |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 150th |sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |established_events = From [[France]] |established_dates = [[June 27]], [[1977]] |HDI = 0.495 |HDI_rank = 150th |HDI_year = 2003 |HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#E0584E&quot;&gt;low&lt;/font&gt; |currency = [[Djiboutian Franc|Franc]] |currency_code = DJF |country_code = |time_zone = |utc_offset = +4 |time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST = |cctld = [[.dj]] |calling_code = 253 |footnotes = }} The '''Republic of Djibouti''' ({{lang-ar|: جيبوتي}}, ''Ǧībūtī'') is a country in [[eastern Africa]], located in the [[Horn of Africa]]. Djibouti is bordered by [[Eritrea]] in the north, [[Ethiopia]] in the west and south, and [[Somalia]] in the southeast. The remainder of the border is formed by the [[Red Sea]] and the [[Gulf of Aden]]. On the other side of the Red Sea, on the [[Arabian Peninsula]], 20 kilometres (12&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) from the coast of Djibouti, is [[Yemen]]. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Djibouti]]'' The area of Djibouti has been occupied by several tribes, currently the [[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]] and the [[Somali (ethnicity)|Somali]] Issa. These tribes had regular trade contacts with the Arabs, and adopted [[Islam]] as their religion. In the [[19th century]], [[France]] established a [[protectorate]] in the area, named '''French Somaliland''', governed by [[Léonce Lagarde]]. In [[1967]], the name was changed to the '''French Territory of the Afars and the Issas'''. On [[June 27]], [[1977]], the country was granted independence as '''Djibouti'''. A civil war led by Afar rebels in the early [[1990s]] was stopped by a peace accord in [[1994]]. ==Politics== ''Main article: [[Politics of Djibouti]]'' Ismail Omar Guelleh was in 2005 sworn in for a second and final six-year term as president of the tiny Horn of Africa nation, the official news agency, Agence Djiboutienne d'Information (ADI), reported. Guelleh won 100 percent of the votes cast in a one-man race on [[8 April]]. According to ADI, 78.9 percent of approximately 197,000 registered voters cast their ballots - at 200 voting booths - across the country. Opposition parties boycotted, describing the poll as &quot;ridiculous, rigged and rubbish&quot;. Present at the swearing in ceremony were several regional leaders. Djibouti's second president, Guelleh was first elected to office in 1999, taking over from his uncle, Hassan Gouled Aptidon, who had ruled the country since its independence from France in 1977. {{ref|www.irinnews.org.319}} The head of state of Djibouti is the president, who is elected for a term of six years. The president appoints a prime-minister, and heads the council of ministers. The legislative body is formed by the ''Chambre des Deputes'', which consists of 65 members which are elected every five years. ==Subdivisions== [[Image:Djibouti-regions.png|right|150px|Map of the Regions of Djibouti.]] Djibouti is divided into five [[region]]s and one city. * [[Ali Sabieh Region]] (''Region d'Ali Sabieh'') * [[Arta Region]] (''Region d'Arta'') * [[Dikhil Region]] (''Region de Dikhil'') * [[Djibouti (city)]] (''Ville de Djibouti'') * [[Obock Region]] (''Region d'Obock'') * [[Tadjourah Region]] (''Region de Tadjourah'') ==Economy== ''Main article: [[Economy of Djibouti]]'' The economy of Djibouti is based on service activities connected with the country's strategic location and status as a free trade zone in northeast Africa. Two-thirds of the inhabitants live in the capital city, the remainder being mostly nomadic herders. Scant rainfall limits crop production to [[fruits]] and [[vegetables]], and most food must be imported. Djibouti provides services as both a transit port for the region and an international transshipment and refueling center. It has few natural resources and little [[industry]]. The nation is, therefore, heavily dependent on foreign assistance to help support its balance of payments and to finance development projects. An [[unemployment]] rate of 40% to 50% continues to be a major problem. [[Inflation]] is not a concern, however, because of the fixed tie of the [[Djiboutian franc|franc]] to the US dollar. Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35% over the last seven years because of [[recession]], [[civil war]], and a high [[population growth rate]] (including immigrants and refugees). Also, renewed fighting between Ethiopia and Eritrea has disturbed normal external channels of commerce. Faced with a multitude of economic difficulties, the government has fallen into arrears on long-term external debt and has been struggling to meet the stipulations of foreign aid donors. [[Image:Djibouti_street.jpg|thumbnail|Typical street in the city of Djibouti, Djibouti, Africa. Winter, 2005.]] ==Demographics== {{unreferencedsect}} ''Main article: [[Demographics of Djibouti]]'' The population is divided into two main groups, the [[Issa]], or [[Somali (ethnicity)|Somali]] people, who make up about 60%, and the [[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]], about 35%. The remainder is formed by [[Europe]]ans (mostly [[France|French]] and [[Italy|Italians]]), [[Arab]]s and [[Ethiopia]]ns. The presence of two different population groups was the cause of the civil war in the early [[1990s]]. The Somali ethnic component in Djibouti is mainly composed of the Issas, who form the majority and rule the nation, and the Gadabuursi and Isaaq, all of whom are closely related as [[Dir (clan)|Dir]] subclans. The Issas form part of the Madoobe Dir, while the Gadabuursi and Isaaq are part of the Mahe Dir, Mohammed Hiniftire. Other Somalis in Djibouti include [[Issa]]s from the Ethiopian [[Somali Region]] and from northern Somalia. Almost all of the people of Djibouti are [[Muslim]], only a small percentage are [[Christianity|Christian]], notably the [[European]]s. Although [[French language|French]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] are the official languages, [[Somali language|Somali]] and [[Afar language|Afar]] are widely spoken. ==Culture== ''Main article: [[Culture of Djibouti]]'' ''See also:'' [[Music of Djibouti]], [[List of African writers (by country)#Djibouti|List of writers from Djibouti]] ==Miscellaneous topics== * [[Communications in Djibouti]] * [[Foreign relations of Djibouti]] * [[Military of Djibouti]] * [[Transportation in Djibouti]] * [[List of fish on stamps of Afars and Issas]] ==Further reading== * ''Djibouti: Pawn of the Horn of Africa'' Robert Saint-Veran * ''Historical Dictionary of Djibouti'' Daoud A. Alwan * ''Naval Strategy East of Suez: The Role of Djibouti'' Charles W. Koburger ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Djibouti}} ===Government=== *[http://www.spp.dj Official Website (in French)] ===News=== *[http://allafrica.com/djibouti/ allAfrica] news headline links *[http://www.djibnet.com/news/ Daily press review] in french and english ===Overviews=== *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1070579.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Djibouti''] *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/dj.html CIA World Factbook - ''Djibouti''] ===Directories=== *[http://www.djibnet.com/en/ ''Djibouti guide''] Comprehensive information and resources about Djibouti *[http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/djibouti.htm Arab Gateway - ''Djibouti''] directory category *[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065672/us559915/ LookSmart - ''Djibouti''] directory category *[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Djibouti/ Open Directory Project - ''Djibouti''] directory category *[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/djibouti.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Djibouti''] directory category *[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Djibouti.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Djibouti''] directory category *[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Djibouti/ Yahoo! - ''Djibouti''] directory category ===Tourism=== *{{wikitravel}} ==Notes== &lt;!-- How to add a footnote: NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details. 1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote. 3) Take note of the name of the fo
9]], [[1994]] |- |[[Moscow]] |[[Russia]] |[[May 16]] [[1995]] |- |[[Paris]] |[[France]] |[[October 23]], [[1997]] |- |[[Rome]] |[[Italy]] |[[May 28]], [[1998]] |- |[[Gauteng]]{{ref|Gaut}} |[[South Africa]] |[[December 6]], [[1998]] |- |[[Ottawa]] |[[Canada]] |[[October 18]], [[1999]] |- |[[Canberra]] |[[Australia]] |[[September 14]], [[2000]] |- |[[Manila]] |[[Philippines]] |[[November 14]], [[2005]] |- |[[Tehran]] |[[Iran]] |Planned |} 1: {{note|Ilede}} A ''[[région]]'' of France &lt;br&gt; 2: {{note|Gaut}} A [[Provinces of South Africa|province]] of [[South Africa]] :Source: [http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/ying/default.htm www.ebeijing.gov.cn] ==See also== * [[List of mayors of Beijing]] == External links == {{sisterlinks|Beijing}} * [http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/ Official site (English version)] * [http://en.beijing-2008.org/ Official 2008 Summer Olympics Website] (English) * [http://www.beijingpage.com/ The Beijing Page - #1 Google Search for &amp;quot;Beijing&amp;quot;] (English) * [http://www.chinaodysseytours.com/maps/beijing.html Beijing Map - full size, 1560 x 1547 pixels, 645kb] * [http://www.muztagh.com/images/map/map-of-beijing-large.jpg Large map of Beijing region] * [http://www.beijingvirtualcity.com/ Beijing The Virtual City (under construction)] * [http://beijing.mychinastart.com/ Useful collection of Beijing links] (English) * [http://www.asinah.org/weather/ZBAA.html Beijing Weather Forecast] * [http://gou-rou.com/ gou-rou.com Beijing satire] * [http://www.olympicwatch.org/ Human Rights in China and the Beijing 2008 Olympics - OlympicWatch.org] ===Travel and tourism=== * [http://www.squidoo.com/beijing Top tips for visitors to Beijing] * [http://www.code-d.com/china/beijing.html Photos of Beijing] * [http://www.chinahighlights.com/beijing/ Beijing Travel Informations] * [http://www.mybeijingchina.com/ My Beijing travel Guide] * [http://www.chinadetail.com/Nation/ Chinese Central, Provincial and City governments] * [http://www.peking.org Peking.org - Peking Tourist Attractions, Photos and History] * [http://www.thebeijingguide.com/ The Beijing Guide] * [http://brucema.topcities.com/beijingtour/index.html Bruce Ma's Beijing Tour] [http://www.brucema.co.nr/], pictures * [http://www.chinahighlights.com/beijing/tours.htm Beijing tours] * [http://www.beijing.alloexpat.com/ Beijing Expatriates Resources] * [http://www.beijingservice.com/ Beijing Travel Service] * [http://www.beijingtrip.com/ Beijing Travel] * [http://www.beijinglives.com/ Beijinglives.com Information about tourism in Beijing] ===Images of Beijing=== * [http://www.socialcapitalgateway.org/beijing.htm Pictures of Beijing] * [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov:81/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=15309 Satellite image of Beijing] at [[NASA Earth Observatory]] * [http://www.socialcapitalgateway.org/beijing.htm Pictures of Beijing Attractions] * [http://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/beijing Flickr: Photos tagged with beijing], photos likely of Beijing * [http://www.ianandwendy.com/slideshowAOG.htm?files=OtherTrips/ChinaVietnamCambodia/China/Beijing Pictures from a backpacker's trip around Beijing] ===Wiki project links=== * {{wikitravelpar|Beijing}} {{Provinces_of_China}} {{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}} [[Category:Beijing|*]] [[Category:Cities in China]] [[Category:Capitals in Asia]] [[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]] {{Link FA|de}} [[ar:بكين]] [[an:Pekín]] [[bg:Пекин]] [[ca:Pequín]] [[cv:Пекин]] [[cs:Peking]] [[cy:Beijing]] [[da:Beijing]] [[de:Peking]] [[et:Peking]] [[es:Pekín]] [[eo:Pekino]] [[eu:Beijing]] [[fr:Pékin]] [[gl:Beijing - 北京]] [[ko:베이징]] [[hi:बेइजिन्ग]] [[io:Beijing]] [[id:Beijing]] [[it:Pechino]] [[he:בייג'ינג]] [[jv:Beijing]] [[lt:Pekinas]] [[hu:Peking]] [[mk:Пекинг]] [[ms:Beijing]] [[na:Beijing]] [[nl:Peking]] [[ja:北京]] [[ka:პეკინი]] [[lb:Peking]] [[no:Beijing]] [[nn:Beijing]] [[pl:Pekin]] [[pt:Pequim]] [[ro:Beijing]] [[ru:Пекин]] [[scn:Pechinu]] [[simple:Beijing]] [[sk:Peking]] [[sl:Peking]] [[fi:Peking]] [[sv:Peking]] [[ta:பீஜிங்]] [[th:ปักกิ่ง]] [[vi:Bắc Kinh]] [[tr:Pekin]] [[za:Baekging]] [[zh:北京]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Blue Velvet</title> <id>3947</id> <revision> <id>40173419</id> <timestamp>2006-02-18T18:59:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Sandoz</username> <id>354341</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Trivia */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film | name = Blue Velvet | image = BlueVelvetLynch.jpg | director = [[David Lynch]] | producer = [[Fred C. Caruso]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Richard A. Roth]] | writer = [[David Lynch]] | music = | starring = [[Kyle MacLachlan]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Isabella Rossellini]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Dennis Hopper]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Laura Dern]] | distributor = [[De Laurentiis Entertainment Group]] | released = [[12 September]], [[1986]] (premiere) | runtime = 120 min. | language = English | budget = $6,000,000 (estimated) | imdb_id = 0090756 | awards = | |}} '''''Blue Velvet''''' is a [[1986 in film|1986]] [[film]] directed and written by [[David Lynch]]. The film begins with the protagonist discovering a severed human ear, which he takes to the police. He begins to investigate the matter himself, and discovers a seamy underworld within his quaint suburban town. == Synopsis == {{spoiler}} The film begins with Jeffrey Beaumont, played by [[Kyle MacLachlan]], coming home from college after his father has a [[stroke]]. While crossing a field he discovers a human ear and takes it to the police. His curiosity piqued, he begins investigating the matter himself. In the process, he discovers that within his quaint suburban town exists a steamy underworld of [[kinky sex]] and brutal [[violence]]. The film operates on a number of levels, coming on as both a detective mystery and a kitchen-sink drama. The film depicts a tangled relationship which transpires between Jeffrey, his sweetheart Sandy Williams (played by [[Laura Dern]]), who is the daughter of a detective, and [[Isabella Rossellini]]'s femme fatale Dorothy Vallens. The relationship is twisted into even sharper relief by the character of [[Frank Booth]] (played by [[Dennis Hopper]]), a maniacal gangster who gets off by physically abusing others, breathing [[amyl nitrite]], and playing [[Roy Orbison]]'s song, &quot;[[In Dreams (song)|In Dreams]]&quot;, preferably all at the same time. ([[Amyl nitrite]] was suggested by Dennis Hopper; it was [[helium]] in Lynch's original script.) == Symbolism == The most consistent symbolism in ''Blue Velvet'' is an [[insect]] motif introduced at the end of the first scene, when the camera zooms in on a well-kept suburban lawn until it discovers, underground, a swarming nest of disgusting bugs. This is generally recognized as a metaphor for the seedy underworld that Jeffrey will soon discover under the surface of his own suburban, [[Reagan]]esque paradise. The bug motif is recurrent throughout the film, most notably in the horrific bug-like oxygen mask that Frank wears, but also in the excuse that Jeffrey offers when he first gains access to Dorothy's apartment: he claims he is an insect exterminator. One of Frank's sinister accomplices is also consistently identified through the yellow jacket he wears. [[Yellowjacket]] happens to be the name of a type of wasp. Finally, a robin eating a bug on a fence becomes a topic of discussion in the last scene of the film. The severed ear that Jeffrey discovers is also a key symbolic element; the ear is what leads Jeffrey into danger. Indeed, just as Jeffrey's troubles begin, the audience is treated to a nightmarish sequence in which the camera zooms into the ear canal of the severed, decomposing ear. Notably, the camera does not reemerge from the ear canal until the end of the film. When Jeffrey finally comes through his hellish ordeal unscathed, the ear canal shot is replayed, only in reverse, zooming out and revealing that this ear belongs to Jeffrey, as he relaxes in his yard on a summer day. A number of scenes contain red drapes or curtains, a popular recurring image for Lynch, especially prominent in [[Twin Peaks]]. ==History== '''''Blue Velvet''''' was made [[1986 in film|1986]], shortly after [[David Lynch|Lynch's]] artistically troubling film ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]],'' which ran into various problems during shooting and eventually became a commercial and critical disappointment. Drained from such a harrowing ordeal and frustrated over the whole mess, Lynch took some time off to develop a more personal project that he had been working on while filming ''Dune''. Surprisingly, [[Dino de Laurentiis]] decided to give Lynch another chance, but only with the stipulation that he take a cut in his salary and work with a reduced budget of only $6 million. In return, the young director could have total artistic freedom and control over the final cut of the film. ''Blue Velvet'''s origins ultimately lie in Lynch's childhood a period of his life spent deep in the forests of Spokane, Washington. If Lynch's childhood memories inspired the setting of ''Blue Velvet'', the actual story of the film originated from three ideas that crystallized in the filmmaker's mind over a period of time. Ideas for ''Blue Velvet'' had begun to form in Lynch's head as early as 1973. After finishing ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]]'', he met producer Richard Roth over coffee. Roth had read and enjoyed Lynch's ''Ronnie Rocket'' script but didn't think it was something he wanted to produce. He asked Lynch if the filmmaker had any other scripts Lynch only had ideas. &quot;I told him I had always wanted to sneak into a girl's room to watch her into the night and that, maybe, at one point or another, I would see something that would be the clue to a murder mystery. Roth loved the idea and asked me to write a treatment. I went home and thought
inker Air Force Base, Oklahoma), received the first E-3s. Air Combat Command has 28 E-3s at Tinker. Pacific Air Forces has two E-3 Sentries assigned to the 961st Airborne Air Control Squadron (AACS), Kadena AB, Okinawa and two assigned to the 962nd AACS, Elmendorf AFB, Alaska. [[Image:Nato awacs.jpg|thumb|left|250px|NATO E-3 with three [[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16s]]]]Other NATO member nations have acquired 18 E-3A's and support equipment. The first NATO E-3 was delivered in January 1982. Presently 17 NATO E-3A's are in the inventory, one being lost to a crash at take-off (no fatalities). The [[United Kingdom]] has seven E-3s, which it designates the AEW Mk.1, [[France]] has four and [[Saudi Arabia]] has five. [[Japan]] has four Boeing 767-based AWACS aircraft. The UK [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] order followed expensive unsuccessful trials of a domestic product, the [[Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod|Nimrod]] AEW3. E-3 Sentry aircraft were among the first to deploy during Operation [[Desert Shield]] where they immediately established an around-the-clock radar screen to defend against Iraqi forces. During [[Desert Storm]], E-3s flew more than 400 missions and logged more than 5,000 hours of on-station time. They provided radar surveillance and control to more than 120,000 coalition sorties. In addition to providing senior leadership with time-critical information on the actions of enemy forces, E-3 controllers assisted in 38 of the 40 air-to-air kills recorded during the conflict. The data collection capability of the E-3 radar and computer subsystems allowed an entire air war to be recorded for the first time in the history of aerial warfare. In March 1996, the US Air Force activated the 513th Air Control Group, an AWACS Reserve Associate Program unit, which performs duties on active-duty aircraft. During the spring of 1999, the first AWACS aircraft went through the Radar System Improvement Program (RSIP). RSIP is a joint [[United States|U.S.]]/[[NATO]] development program that involves a major hardware and software-intensive modification to the existing radar system. Installation of RSIP will enhance the operational capability of the E-3 radar electronic counter-measures, and dramatically improve the system's reliability, maintainability and availability. U.S. installation of RSIP was completed in fiscal year 2004. The E-3 is slated to be replaced (along with the [[EC-135]] and the [[E-8 Joint STARS]]) by the [[E-10 MC2A]], based upon the [[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-400ER]] airframe. ==Units using the Sentry== ===United States Air Force=== The [[United States Air Force]] purchased 24 E-3Bs and 10 E-3Cs. One E-3B crashed after ingesting several [[Canada geese]] into two engines at [[Elmendorf AFB]], [[Alaska]]. One is on loan to [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems]]. * [[552d Air Control Wing]] has 28 E-3s stationed at [[Tinker AFB]], [[Oklahoma]] * [[3d Wing]] has 2 at [[Elmendorf AFB]], [[Alaska]] * [[18th Wing]] has 2 at [[Kadena AB]], [[Japan]]. ===Royal Air Force=== Purchased 7, named [[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Happy, Sleepy, Sneezy, Grumpy, Dopey, Bashful and Doc]]. * [[No. VIII Squadron RAF|No. 8 Squadron]] * [[No. 23 Squadron RAF|No. 23 Squadron]] ===Armée de l'Air=== Purchased 4 E-3F ===Royal Saudi Air Force=== Purchased 5 E-3D Purchased 5 KE-3D ===North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)=== Purchased 18, one lost in [[Greece]] * Squadron 1 * Squadron 2 * Squadron 3 ==Units Using the Boeing E-767== The [[Boeing 707]] platform is no longer in production, so the E-767 contains the E-3 Sentry mission package on a newer [[Boeing 767]] platform. ===[[Japan Self-Defense Forces]]=== * Japan Air Self-Defense Force ==Related content== '''Related development:''' '''Comparable aircraft:''' '''Designation sequence:''' [[E-1 Tracer]] - [[E-2 Hawkeye]] - '''E-3 Sentry''' - [[Boeing E-4|E-4]] - [[Windecker E-5|E-5]] - [[E-6 Mercury]] {| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:4px auto; clear:both; font-family:Arial,Helvetica; font-size:72%&quot;; align=&quot;center&quot;; bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; |- align=&quot;center&quot; | bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot; | ||bgcolor=&quot;#CFCFCF&quot;| '''Modern USAF Series'''|| ''Miscellaneous '' |- |bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| || ''Attack''--[[OA-10 Thunderbolt II|OA]]/[[A-10 Thunderbolt II|A-10]],[[AC-130 gunship|AC-130H/U]]||[[RC-135 Rivet Joint|RC-135V/W]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | || ''Bomber--''[[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]],[[B-2 Spirit|-2]],[[B-1B Lancer|-1B]],[[F-117A Nighthawk|F-117A]]||[[OC-135 Open Skies|OC-135B]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot; | [[E-3 Sentry]] ||''Fighter--''[[F-15 Eagle|F-15]]/[[F-15E Strike Eagle|E ]],[[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]]||[[KC-10 Extender|KC-10]],[[KC-135 Stratotanker|-135]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;|[[E-4B]] || bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot; | ''Electronic--''[[E-3 Sentry|E-3]],[[E-4B|E-4B]],[[E-8 Joint STARS|E-8C]] [[EC-130E|EC-130E]]/[[EC-130J|J]],[[EC-130H Compass Call|H]]||[[HC-130P]]/[[HC-130N|N]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;| [[E-8 Joint STARS|E-8C Joint Stars]] || ''Transport--''[[C-5 Galaxy|C-5]],[[C-17 Globemaster III|-17]],[[C-141B Starlifter|-141B]], [[C-20 Gulfstream III|-20]],[[C-21 Learjet|-21]]||[[MC-130E]]/[[MC-130H|H]]/[[MC-130P Combat Shadow|P]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;| [[EC-130E]]/[[EC-130J]]|| [[Boeing C-22|C-22B]], [[Boeing C-32|-32]], [[C-130 Hercules|-130]], [[C-37 Gulfstream V|-37A]], [[C-40 Clipper|-40B/C]]||[[MH-53J Pave Low|MH-53J]]/[[MH-53M Pave Low|M]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;|[[EC-130H Compass Call]] || ''Trainers--''[[T-1 Jayhawk|T-1]], [[T-37 Tweet|-37]], [[T-38 Talon|-38]], [[Boeing T-43|-43]], [[T-6 Texan II|-6]]||[[HH-60G Pave Hawk|HH-60G]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| || ''Weather--''[[WC-130 Hercules|WC-130]], [[WC-135|-135]]||[[UH-1 Iroquois|UH-1N]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| || ''UAV--''[[RQ-1 Predator|RQ-1/MQ-1 UAV]], [[Global Hawk]]||[[Lockheed U-2|U-2S/TU-2S]] |- |bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| || ||[[VC-25 - Air Force One|VC-25]] |- |} {{airlistbox}} [[Category:U.S. AWACS aircraft 1970-1979]] [[de:Boeing E-3]] [[ja:E-3 (航空機)]] [[pl:E-3 Sentry]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>E-8 Joint STARS</title> <id>10385</id> <revision> <id>38506769</id> <timestamp>2006-02-06T20:35:09Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>K5okc</username> <id>829109</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Related content */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:usaf.e8.750pix.jpg|300px|thumb|right|United States Air Force E-8C Joint STARS]] The '''E-8C Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS)''' is a [[United States Air Force]] airborne battle management and command and control (C2) platform that conducts ground surveillance to develop an understanding of the enemy situation and to support attack operations and targeting that contributes to the delay, disruption and destruction of enemy forces. These functions support the primary mission of Joint STARS -- to provide dedicated support of ground and air theatre commanders. The E-8C is a modified [[Boeing 707]]-300 series commercial airframe extensively remanufactured and modified with the radar, communications, operations and control subsystems required to perform its operational mission. The most prominent external feature is the 12 m (40 ft) long, canoe-shaped radome under the forward fuselage that houses the 7.3 m (24 ft) long, side-looking APY-7 phased array antenna. The E-8C can respond quickly and effectively to support worldwide military contingency operations. It is a jam-resistant system capable of operating while experiencing heavy [[electronic countermeasures]]. The E-8C can fly a mission profile for 9 hours without refueling. Its range and on-station time can be substantially increased through [[in-flight refueling]]. == Radar &amp; systems == The radar uses the [[Doppler]] shift theory in order to pick up moving targets. This is distinct from most other radars because looking for the frequency shift means that the system is not looking for returns in the same frequency that they are sent out, so the radar can be used continuously. It has the ability to 'look' from a long range, which the military refers to as a high stand off capability. The antenna can be tilted to either side of the aircraft where it can develop a 120 degree field of view covering nearly 50,000 [[square kilometre|km²]] (19,305 mile²) and is capable of detecting targets at more than 250 km (more than 152 miles). Any objects of sufficient size (vehicle) and density that are moving will show up on the radar. The radar cannot pick up stationary objects. Objects with a lot of angles (e.g. the inside of a pick-up bed) will give a much better radar signature (called specular returns). In addition to being able to detect, locate and track large numbers of ground vehicles the radar has some limited capability to detect helicopters, rotating antennas and low, slow-moving fixed wing aircraft. Radar operating modes include wide area surveillance, ground moving target indicator (GMTI), fixed target indicator (FTI) target classification and [[synthetic aperture radar]]. The radar and computer subsystems on the E-8C can gather and display broad and detailed battlefield information. Data is collected as events occur. This includes position and tracking information on enemy and friendly ground forces. The information is relayed in near-real time to the [[United States Army|US Army]]'s common ground stations via the secure jam-resistant surveillance and control data link (SCDL) and to other ground command, control, communications, computers and intelligence (C4I) nodes beyond line-of-sight via ultra high frequency satellite communications. [[Image:GMTI_JSTARS.jpg|370px|thumb|left|Joint STARS GMTI Overlaid on Aerial Image]] Other major E-8C prime mission equipment are the communications/datalink
Beheading Holofernes (Caravaggio)|Judith Beheading Holofernes]]'' 1598-1599. [[Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica]].]] The installation of the St Matthew paintings in the Contarelli Chapel had an immediate impact among the younger artists in Rome, and Caravaggism became the cutting edge for every ambitious young painter. The first Caravaggisti included [[Giovanni Baglione]] (although his Caravaggio phase was short-lived) and [[Orazio Gentileschi]]. In the next generation there were [[Carlo Saraceni]], [[Bartolomeo Manfredi]] and [[Orazio Borgianni]]. Gentileschi, despite being considerably older, was the only one of these artists to live much beyond 1620, and ended up as court painter to Charles I in England. His daughter [[Artemisia Gentileschi]] was also close to Caravaggio, and one of the most gifted of the movement. Yet in Rome and in Italy it was not Caravaggio, but the influence of [[Annibale Carraci]], blending elements from the [[High Renaissance]] and Lombard realism, which ultimately triumphed. Caravaggio’s brief stay in Naples produced a notable school of Neapolitan Caravaggisti, including [[Battistello Caracciolo]] and [[Carlo Sellitto]]. The Caravaggisti movement there ended with a terrible outbreak of plague in 1656, but the Spanish connection – Naples was a possession of Spain – was instrumental in forming the important Spanish branch of his influence. A group of Catholic artists from [[Utrecht]], the [[Utrecht School|&quot;Utrecht Caravaggisti&quot;]], travelled to Rome as students in the first years of the 17th century and were profoundly influenced by the work of Caravaggio, as Bellori describes. On their return to the north this trend had a short-lived but influential flowering in the 1620s among painters like [[Hendrick ter Brugghen]], [[Gerrit van Honthorst]], [[Andries Both]] and [[Dirck van Baburen]]. In the following generation the affects of Caravaggio, although attentuated, are to be seen in the work of [[Rubens]] (who purchased one of his paintings for the Gonzaga of Mantua and painted a copy of the ''[[The Entombment of Christ (Caravaggio)|Entombment of Christ]]''), [[Vermeer]], [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], and [[Velazquez]], the last of whom who likely saw his work during his various sojourns in Italy. ===Death and rebirth of a reputation=== [[Image:Michelangelo Caravaggio 052.jpg|thumb|left|250px| ''[[The Entombment of Christ (Caravaggio)|The Entombment of Christ]].'' 1602-1603. [[Pinacoteca Vaticana]].]] Caravaggio’s fame scarcely survived his death. His innovations inspired the Baroque, but the Baroque took the drama of his chiaroscuro without the psychological realism. He directly influenced the style of his companion [[Orazio Gentileschi]], and his daughter [[Artemisia Gentileschi]], and, at a distance, the Frenchmen [[Georges de La Tour]] and [[Simon Vouet]], and the Spaniard [[Giuseppe Ribera]]. Yet within a few decades his works were being ascribed to less scandalous artists, or simply overlooked. Largely this was a matter of changing fashion — the Baroque, to which he contributed so much, had moved on. And partly it was due to critical demolition-jobs done by two of his earliest biographers, Giovanni [[Baglione]], a rival painter with a personal vendetta, and the influential 17th century critic [[Giovanni Bellori|Giovan Bellori]], who had not known him but was under the influence of the French [[Classicist]] [[Poussin]], who had not known him either but hated his work. In the 1920s art critic Roberto Longhi brought Caravaggio's name once more to public attention, and placed him in the European tradition: “Ribera, [[Vermeer]], La Tour and Rembrandt could never have existed without him. And the art of [[Delacroix]], [[Courbet]] and [[Manet]] would have been utterly different.”{{ref|Longhi}} The influential [[Bernard Berenson]] agreed: “With the exception of [[Michaelangelo]], no other Italian painter exercised so great an influence.”{{ref|Berenson}} Andre Berne-Joffroy, [[Paul Valery]]’s secretary, put it in a nutshell: “What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting.”{{ref|Andre_Berne_Joffroy}} ===Modern tradition=== [[Image:Michelangelo Caravaggio 021.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist (Caravaggio)|The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist]]'', [[1608]]. Oil on canvas, 361 x 520 cm. Oratory of the co-Cathedral of St John, [[Valletta]].]] Many large museums of art, for example those in [[Detroit]], and [[New York]], contain rooms where dozens of paintings by as many artists display the characteristic look of the work of Caravaggio &amp;mdash; nightime setting, dramatic lighting, ordinary people used as models, honest description from nature. In modern times, contemporary painters like the Norwegian [[Odd Nerdrum]], the Romanian [[Tibor Csernus]]. The contemporary American artist [http://www.example.com Doug Ohlson] pays homage Caravaggio's influence on his own work. Filmaker [[Derek Jarman]] turned to the Caravaggio legend when creating his movie ''[[Caravaggio (movie)|Caravaggio]]''; and Dutch art forger [[Han van Meegeren]] used genuine Caravaggios when creating his ersatz Old Masters. At least one of his paintings may have been lost in recent times: [[Richard Francis Burton]] writes of a work of his, a &quot;picture of St. Rosario (in the museum of the Grand Duke of Tuscany), showing a circle of thirty men ''turpiter ligati&quot;'' which is not known to have survived. ==Chronology of major works== {{Commons|Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio}} {{main|Caravaggio, chronology of works}} ==Footnotes== #{{note|earliest_published}} #{{note|Berne_Joffroy}}André Berne-Joffroy, quoted in Gilles Lambert, &quot;Caravaggio&quot;, p.8 #{{note|early_life}}The Colonna were one of the leading aristocratic families in Rome, and part of a network of powerful connections that seemed to have supported the artist at crucial points in his life. Thus in 1606, following the death of Ranuccio, he fled first to the Colonna estates south of Rome, then on to Naples where Costanza Colonna Sforza, widow of Francesco Sforza, maintained a palace. Costanza's brother Ascanio was Cardinal-Protector of the Kingdom of Naples, another brother, Marzio, was an advisor to the Spanish Viceroy, and a sister was married into the locally important Carafa family - connections which might help explain the cornucopia of major commissions which fell into Caravaggio's lap in that city. Costanza's son Fabrizio Sforza Colonna, Knight of Malta and general of the Order's galleys, appears to have facilitated his arrival in the island in 1607 and his escape the next year, and he stayed in Costanza's Neapolitan palazzo on his return to the city in 1609. These connections are treated in most biographies and studies - see, for example, Catherine Puglisi, &quot;Caravaggio&quot;, p.258, for a brief outline, and Peter Robb, &quot;M&quot;, pp.398ff and 459ff, for a fuller account. #{{note|earliest_published}} #{{note|naked_and_extremely_needy}}Quoted without attribution in Robb, p.35 #{{note|flowers_and_fruit}}Giovanni Pietro Bellori, ''Le Vite de' pittori, scultori, et architetti moderni'', 1672: &quot;Michele was forced by necessity to enter the services of Cavalier Giuseppe d'Arpino, by whom he was employed to paint flowers and fruits so realistically that they began to attain the higher beauty that we love so much today.&quot; #{{note|Minniti}} #{{note|professor_of_horticulture}}[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/caravaggio/caravaggio_l.html Caravaggio's Fruit: A Mirror on Baroque Horticulture (Jules Janick, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana)] #{{note|Cardsharps}} #{{note|homoerotic}} #{{note|earliest_published}} #{{note|looked_upon_his_work_as_miracles}}Bellori. The passage continues: &quot;[the younger painters] outdid each other in copying him, undressing their models and raising their lights; and rather than setting out to learn from study and instruction, each readily found in the streets or squares of Rome both masters and models for copying nature.&quot; #{{note|vulgar}} #{{note|he_stands_in_God's_light}}Quoted without attribution in Lambert, p.66 #{{note|Death_of_the_Virgin_Mancini}}Giulio Mancini, ''Considerazioni sulla pittora'': &quot;Thus one can understand how badly some modern artists paint, such as those who, wishing to portray the Virgin Our Lady, depict some dirty prostitute from the Ortaccio, as Michelangelo da Caravaggio did in the Death of the Virgin in that painting for the Madonna della Scala, which for that very reason those good fathers rejected it, and perhaps that poor man suffered so much trouble in his lifetime.&quot; #{{note|Death_of_the_Virgin_Baglione}}Giovanni Baglione, ''Le vite de' pittori'', 1642: &quot;For the Madonna della Scala in Trastevere he painted the death of the Madonna, but because he had portrayed the Madonna with little decorum, swollen and with bare legs, it was taken away, and the Duke of Mantua bought it and placed it in his most noble gallery.&quot; #{{note|Ceccho}} #{{note|www.telegraph.co.uk.524}}The circumstances of the brawl and the death of Ranuccio Tomassoni remain mysterious. Several contemporary ''avvisi'' refered to a quarrel over a gambling debt and a tennis game, and this explanation has become established in the popular imagination. But recent scholarship has made it clear that more was involved: the best modern accounts are to be found in Peter Robb's &quot;M&quot; and Helen Langdon's &quot;Caravaggio: A Life&quot;. An interesting theory by art historian Andrew Graham-Dixon relating the death to Renaissance notions of honour and symbolic wounding is to be found in [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/06/02/wcara02.xml&amp;sSheet=/news/2002/06/02/ixworld.html&amp;_requestid=254296 this article] by Daily Telegraph art correspondent Catherine Miller. #{{note|desolate_tenderness}} #{{note|Syracuse_to
ritish pronounce them like {{IPA|/sɛmi/}}, {{IPA|/ænti/}}, and so on. Canadians tend to prefer the British pronunciation of these words, though American pronunciation has made headway. In Canada, the word ''premier'', as meant to be the leader of a provincial or territorial government, is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈpɹɛ.mjɛɹ]}}, {{IPA|[ˈpɹi.mjiɹ]}}, or {{IPA|[ˈpɹi.mjɛɹ]}} in most places&lt;!--, as opposed to the United States, where it is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈpɹɛ.miɹ]}}--&gt;. ''Premiere'', denoting a first performance, is pronounced the same in Canada as the rest of the world. ==Vocabulary== Where Canadian English shares vocabulary with other English dialects, it tends to share most with American English. For instance, automotive terminology in Canada is entirely American. Canadians may prefer the British term ''railway'' to the American ''railroad'', but most railway terminology in Canada follows American usage (e.g., ''ties'', as well as ''cars'' rather than ''sleepers'' and ''waggons''), although railway employees themselves say ''sleeper''. Spoken Canadian English and American English are mutually intelligible with each other and much more readily understood and less fraught with differences than British English is to either of them. However, some terms in standard Canadian English are shared with Commonwealth English, but ''not'' with American English. These include: ===Britishisms=== *''[[Tory]]'' for a supporter of the federal [[Conservative Party of Canada]], the historic [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada]] or a provincial Progressive Conservative party; the U.S. use of ''Tory'' to mean the Loyalists in the time of the [[American Revolution]] is unknown in Canada, where they are called [[United Empire Loyalists]]. *''solicitor'' and ''barrister'' for lawyers — although in Canada, a lawyer is usually referred to as a barrister and solicitor only in formal and professional usage; ''lawyer'', or ''counsel'' predominates in everyday contexts, and sometimes the American usage ''attorney'' is encountered. In England, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Wales, etc. the legal profession remains divided and the terms have a practical meaning and [[solicitor]] and [[barrister]] are two different people; in Canada, the same [[lawyer]] occupies both roles but will often use terms like ''Barrister and Solicitor'', or ''QC'' (Queen's Counsel, an honour given in some provinces for a certain level of experience or, be it said, service to the political party in office) as formal or official titles. Prior to the fusion of law and equity solicitors and attorneys practised, respectively, in the courts of law and equity. When the courts were fused, one of the two terms became superfluous; Americans chose &quot;attorney&quot;; the British, Canadians, Australians and New Zealanders chose &quot;solicitor,&quot; although one still hears &quot;attorney&quot; from time to time in Australia. In the Indian subcontinent, perplexingly, the term &quot;advocate&quot; is used — in Canada this would indicate a Quebec practitioner. *[[Back bacon]]: called in the U.S. ''Canadian bacon'' *''bum'' for the American ''butt''. The two words co-exist in Canadian English, and &quot;bum&quot; is most commonly used as a polite or childish euphemism. However, &quot;bum&quot; does not have the indecent character it retains in British and Australasian use. [[Robert Munsch]] found it necessary to change &quot;You are a bum&quot; to &quot;You are a toad&quot; in the British edition of his children's story ''The Paper Bag Princess''. And the 1940s United Church Young People's Union song &quot;There's not a bum in the Yonge Street Mission/...Put a nickel in the drum, save another dirty bum&quot; provokes considerable shock among fellow Methodists in other Commonwealth countries. *''tin'' (as in ''tin of tuna'') rather than ''can.'', however, as elsewhere, the latter is used more often. *''[[arse]]'' is commonly used in Atlantic Canada and among older people in Ontario and to the west. West of the Ottawa river, ''ass'' is more idiomatic among younger people. *''serviette'': a table napkin. Considered a give-away of low-class antecedents in the UK and the U.S. and also generally in English Canada but sometimes in Canada assumed to be indicative of a knowledge of French and therefore sometimes to be heard among upper middle class people on that basis. Several lexical items come from British English, such as ''lieutenant'' ({{IPA|/lɛf-/}}) (used in the Canadian military: &quot;lootenant&quot; in the navy; &quot;leftenant&quot; in the army and airforce); ''light standard'' (an obsolete British word for lamp-post, rarely used today). Several political terms are uniquely Canadian, including ''[[riding]]'' (a [[parliament]]ary constituency or electoral district). ===French Loanwords=== Like other dialects of English that exist in proximity to [[francophone]]s, [[French language|French]] [[loanword]]s have entered Canadian English, such as: *''alcool'': grain [[alcohol]]; [[everclear (alcohol)|everclear]] (pronounced as if English, ''al-cool'') *''[[CÉGEP]]'' (Collège d'enseignement général et professionnel): a two- or three-year pre-university or professional college (Quebec only) *''[[dépanneur]]'': a corner store (convenience store), shortened to ''dep'' (Québec only) *''[[poutine]]'': a dish where [[french fries]] (or chips) are topped with cheese [[curd]]s and covered with hot gravy (Quebec) or a dumpling filled with ground meat (Maritimes). *''Society of Alcohols'': the [[Société des alcools du Québec]], a [[liquor]] store. Often called the SAQ (Pronounced ''sack'' or ''S-A-Q'') by anglophones. Formerly called the Regie (for Regie des alcools). (Québec only) *''[[tuque]]'': a close-fitting woolen winter hat (sometimes spelled ''[[toque]]'', which is assimilated from a different kind of hat, or ''touque''). [[American English]] would use the terms [[stocking-cap]], [[knit cap]] or [[watch cap]]. *historical and political terms such as ''[[voyageur]]'', ''[[Les Automatistes|Automatiste]]'', ''[[Quiet Revolution]]'', ''[[Parti Québécois|péquiste]]'', ''[[Bloc Québécois|bloquiste]]'' Often native French Canadian speakers will use [[calque]]s of French [[idiom]]s, so in Quebec it is relatively common of for both Anglophones and Francophones to &quot;close the light&quot; or to &quot;open the light&quot;, meaning to turn on or off the light in a room. This was especially common in the [[Gaspé Peninsula]], where until recently Anglophones and Francophones lived in mixed communities for generations. Similar [[calque]]s from other languages are found in English throughout Canada, particularly in BC and the Prairies where translated usages from European languages are common, whether inherited from parents or spoken by new immigrants. ===Some Distinctive Canadian English Terms=== Canadian English also has its own terms not found, or not widely used, in other variants of English. In [[1998]], [[Oxford University Press]] produced a Canadian English dictionary, after five years of lexicographical research, called ''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary''; a second edition was published in [[2004]]. It listed uniquely Canadian words and words borrowed from other languages, and surveyed spellings, such as whether ''colour'' or ''color'' was the most popular choice in common use. The list below includes some words that are not strictly unique to Canada, but are distinctive for their relatively widespread use there. *[[Allophone (Canadian usage)|Allophone]]: a resident of Quebec who speaks a first language other than English or French. This is &quot;uniquely Canadian&quot; only in the sense that a word that only linguists use in English in other countries has come to be used by journalists and broadcasters, and then by the general public, in some parts of Canada. *Biffy: outdoor toilet usually located over pit or a septic tank. The Americanism &quot;john&quot; and the Britishism &quot;loo&quot; are relatively common in British Columbia. *Big Smoke: lately co-opted by Toronto but originally and for a long time in [[British Columbia|BC]] and [[Alberta]] used ''only'' in reference to Vancouver, either with or without a definite article. The origin of the term is not mill-smoke, as might be guessed at first, but from the use of &quot;smoke&quot; in the Chinook Jargon to mean rain and/or fog (of which Vancouver has plenty) *Blochead: (derogatory term) a member of the [[Bloc Québécois]] *[[Butter tart]]: a single-serving sweet pie, often with raisins; very like pecan pie, minus the pecans - but in Canada a single-serving pecan pie is called a &quot;butter tart with pecans&quot;. *[[Concession road]]; in southern Ontario and southern Quebec, one of a set of roads laid out by the colonial government as part of the distribution of land in standard lot sizes. The roads were laid out in squares as nearly as possible equal to 1,000 acres (that is, one and a quarter miles square). In Ontario, many roads are still called ''lines''. *[[couch|Chesterfield]] (also [[Northern California]]n English and [[British English]]): a sofa, couch, or loveseat[http://www.bartleby.com/61/94/C0279400.html] *Dayliner: a [[Budd Rail Diesel Car]], a self-propelled diesel passenger railcar, typically called a &quot;Budd Car&quot; *Double-double: a cup of coffee with two creams and two sugars (especially, but not exclusively, from [[Tim Hortons]]) *Eavestroughs (also Northern &amp; Western U.S.): grooves or channels that attach to the underside of the roof of a house to collect rainwater. Known to most Americans and to Britons as [[gutter]]s. *[[Family Compact]]: a group of influential [[family compact|families]] who exercised substantial political control of [[Ontario]] during part of the [[1800]]s. The Quebec equivalent was the [[Chateau Clique]] *[[Garburator]]: a garbage disposal unit located beneath the drain of a kitchen sink. *Gettone (in [[Toronto]] and environs): [[foosball]]; pronounce
Rovere''' family ruled the duchy of [[Urbino]]. They rose to importance during the Italian [[Renaissance]], supplying two [[pope]]s: *Francesco della Rovere, [[Pope Sixtus IV]], [[1471]]-[[1484]] *Giuliano della Rovere, [[Pope Julius II]], [[1503]]-[[1513]] The dynasty ended in [[1626]], when [[Pope Urban VIII]] incorporated Urbino into the [[papal dominions]], the gift of the weary last Della Rovere duke, Francesco Maria II., in retirement after the assassination of his heir, Francesco Ubaldo. ==Family Tree== # Leonardo (Beltramo) of [[Savona]] ## Francesco della Rovere (1414-1484), [[Pope Sixtus IV]] ## Raffaelo della Rovere ### [[Leonardo della Rovere]] ### Giuliano della Rovere, (1443-1513), [[Pope Julius II]] ### Giovanni della Rovere (died [[1501]]), duke of Urbino #### Francesco Maria I. della Rovere ([[1490]]-[[1538]]), duke of Urbino ##### Guidobaldo della Rovere ([[1517]]-[[1574]]), duke of Urbino ###### [[Francesco Maria II. della Rovere]] ([[1549]]-[[1631]]), duke from 1574 to [[1621]], and again briefly in [[1623]], gives Urbino to the pope in 1626 ####### Francesco Ubaldo della Rovere (1605-1625), duke of Urbino ######## Vittoria della Rovere ([[1622]]-[[1694]]) ##### Giulio della Rovere (died [[1578]]), [[cardinal]] ###### Ippolito della Rovere (illegitimate, died [[1620]]), marchgrave of San Lorenzo ####### Livia della Rovere, marries Francesco Maria II. della Rovere ####### Giulio della Rovere (died [[1636]]) ##### Giulia della Rovere (died [[1563]]) [[Category:Italian people]] [[Category:Papal families]] {{pope-stub}} [[de:Della Rovere]] [[nl:Della Rovere]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>David Mamet</title> <id>8351</id> <revision> <id>41353566</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:24:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Zafiroblue05</username> <id>284148</id> </contributor> <comment>use a more common term</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''David Alan Mamet''' (born [[November 30]], [[1947]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[playwright]], [[screenwriter]], [[film director|director]], [[poet]], [[essayist]] and novelist born to a Jewish family in [[Flossmoor, Illinois]], a suburb of [[Chicago]]. Educated at the [[Francis W. Parker School]] and at [[Goddard College]] and a founding member of the [[Atlantic Theater Company]], Mamet first gained acclaim for a trio of off-Broadway plays in [[1976]], ''The Duck Variations'', ''Sexual Perversity in Chicago'', and ''American Buffalo''. He was awarded the [[Pulitzer Prize]] in 1984 for ''[[Glengarry Glen Ross]],'' which received its first Broadway revival in the summer of [[2005]]. His work is characterized by playful plots overturning conventions and typically features strong male characters and their tough posturings, rhythmically profane dialogue, and charged verbal confrontations. His first screenplay was the [[1981]] production of ''[[The Postman Always Rings Twice]]'' based upon [[James M. Cain]]'s novel. He won an [[Academy Award]] nomination for his next script, ''[[The Verdict]]''. In [[1987]] Mamet made his film directing debut with ''[[House of Games]]'', starring his then-wife, [[Lindsay Crouse]] and a host of longtime stage associates. He remains a prolific writer and director, and has assembled an informal repertory company for his films, including [[William H. Macy]], [[Joe Mantegna]], Crouse, [[Rebecca Pidgeon]] (his wife since 1991), and [[Ricky Jay]]. Like independent director [[John Sayles]], Mamet funds his own films with the pay he gets from credited and uncredited rewrites of typically big-budget films. For instance, Mamet has done rewrites of the scripts for ''[[Hannibal (movie)|Hannibal]]'' and ''[[Hoffa]]'', and turned in an early version of a script for ''[[Malcolm X (movie)|Malcolm X]]'' that director [[Spike Lee]] rejected. Three of Mamet's own films, ''[[House of Games]]'', ''[[The Spanish Prisoner]]'', and ''[[Heist (2001 movie)|Heist]]'' have involved the world of [[confidence trickster|con artist]]s. Mamet has published three novels, ''The Village'' in [[1994]], ''The Old Religion'' in [[1997]], and ''Wilson: a Consideration of the Sources'' in [[2003]]. He has also written several [[non-fiction]] texts as well as a number of poems and children's stories. He was credited under the name &quot;Richard Weisz&quot; for [[Ronin (film)|Ronin]]. == Criticism == As a drama practitioner, he argues in his book ''[[True and False]]'' against the practice of teaching drama students the ''[[method acting]]'' of [[Constantin Stanislavski]] or [[Lee Strasberg]]. For Mamet, who is not an actor, time spent searching for emotion memory or considering character's biographies is time wasted, and he suspects that it is an academic bluff working to keep actors uncertain. He also argues that the the accomplishments of the Method &quot;greats&quot; ([[Brando]],[[de Niro]] et al) were due to natural genius and fierce determination rather than a specific academic methodology. He recommends a simple, honest style of acting, where the actor's job is to learn the lines, find their mark, and speak up simply. Work on character, he asserts, is the playwright's job. In his books about acting, there is no process whatsoever for emotional preparation, the creation of an imaginary world in which to live while acting, no process for creating specific characterizations and little to no respect for those great actors who engage in such processes. Mamet advocates an acting process, or lack thereof, that is quite attractive to young actors because it posits that acting is a craft born out of the repeated application of a few straightforward, basic principles. While many actors respect some of Mamet's generic ideas about acting, they view much of what he writes as resulting from his lack of personal acting experience and lack of respect for the many years of work that goes into great acting. Using Mamet's &quot;method,&quot; one is not able to create any kind of characterization that is different from themselves, since Mamet thinks there are no valid processes for doing this. Taking Mamet's ideas to their logical end, acting work of the caliber of Anthony Hopkins, Robert De Niro, and Philip Seymour Hoffman, to name a few, requires no complicated acting process, and can be accomplished by anyone who possesses the natural facility and is willing to work hard enough at their craft. Although some actors and acting teachers regard this is as unlikely, Hopkins himself praised ''True And False'' as &quot;[demolishing] the myths and the psychobabble-gobbledygook that pass for theory with regard to acting&quot; and described it as &quot;a revealing book of the highest order&quot;[http://www.samuelfrench-london.co.uk/sf/Pages/theatre-bks-list/acting.html]. Some commentators have theorised that a primary reason his books about acting are quite popular with young actors is because his books make acting seem completely simple; the opposing view is that Mamet's success lies in providing relevant and practical advice. Then again, it must be noted that Mamet usually relies on a pared-down, finely honed prose, and that in advising acting students to reject method systems, he is by no means advocating any specific system of his own. He urges students, above all, to question the establishment and the established - whether it be [[Stanislavsky]], [[Lee Strasberg|Strasberg]], or [[Hollywood]] itself. Most of [[True and False]] reads like a series of deliberate attempts to shock the reader out of complacency, and to provoke debate, rather than any definite statement of a methodical creed. Furthermore, the notes from Mamet's acting workshops and production notes have been compiled and expanded into a very specific textbook, [[A Practical Handbook for the Actor]], and it must be noted that many of Mamet's suggestions and techniques (in both texts) either greatly resemble or fully correspond with those of reknowned director and teacher [[Uta Hagen]]. == Recent Work == In July 2004, [[Cambridge University Press]] published '''The Cambridge Companion to David Mamet''', edited by Christopher Bigsby. The book includes essays analyzing Mamet's biography, his impact during various decades, and several of his plays. Since May 2005 he's been a contributing blogger at [[The Huffington Post]]. == Family == He has two daughters by his ex-wife, actress [[Lindsay Crouse]]. He has been married to U.S. born and Scottish reared actress and singer-songwriter, [[Rebecca Pidgeon]] since [[1991]]. They have two children, Clara and Noah. == Filmography == * ''[[Edmond (play)|Edmond]]'' (2005) * ''[[Spartan (film)|Spartan]]'' (2004) [Director] [Writer] * ''[[Heist (film)|Heist]]'' (2001) [Director] [Writer] * ''[[Hannibal (film)|Hannibal]]'' (2001) [Writer] * ''[[Beckett on Film#Catastrophe|Catastrophe]]'' (2000) [Director] * ''[[Lakeboat]]'' (2000) [Writer] * ''[[State and Main]]'' (2000) [Director] [Writer] * ''[[The Winslow Boy]]'' (1999) [Director] [Writer] * ''[[Ronin (film)|Ronin]]'' (1998) [Writer] * ''[[Wag the Dog]]'' (1997) [Writer] * ''[[The Spanish Prisoner]]'' (1997) [Director] [Writer] * ''[[The Edge (film)|The Edge]]'' (1997) [Writer] * ''[[American Buffalo (film)|American Buffalo]]'' (1996) [Writer] * ''[[Oleanna]]'' (1994) [Director] [Writer] * ''[[Vanya on 42nd Street]]'' (1994) [Writer] * ''[[Hoffa]]'' (1992)[Writer] [Producer] * ''[[Glengarry Glen Ross]]'' (1992) [Writer] * ''[[Homicide (1991 film)|Homicide]]'' (1991) [Director] [Writer] * ''[[We're No Angels (1989 film)|We're No Angels]]'' (1989) [Writer] * ''[[Things Change]]'' (1988) [Director] [Writer] * ''[[House of Games]]'' (1987) [Director] [Writer] * ''[[The Untouchables]]'' (1987) [Writer] * ''[[About Last Night...]]'' (1986) [Writer] * ''[[The Verdict]]'' (1982) [Writer] * ''[[The Postman Always Rings Twice]]'' (1981) [Writer] == Plays == * ''[[Lakeboat]]'' (1970, revised 1980)
Parkinson</title> <id>5622</id> <revision> <id>40417174</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T11:17:34Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Quarl</username> <id>59118</id> </contributor> <comment>«+&quot;==See also== * [[Color of the bikeshed]]&quot;»</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyril Northcote Parkinson''' ([[July 30]], [[1909]] - [[March 9]], [[1993]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] historian and author of some sixty books. These included historical fiction, often based on the [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleonic period]], and sea stories. He is even more famous for his [[satire]] of bureaucratic institutions, notably his ''[[Parkinson's law]] and other studies''. This is a collection of short studies explaining the inevitability of bureaucratic expansion, and includes a note on why [[rules of the road|driving on the left side of the road]] (see [[road transport]]) is natural. As early as the [[1930s]] Parkinson had successfully predicted that the [[Royal Navy]] would eventually have more admirals than ships. == Bibliography == [[Richard Delancey (fictional character)|Richard Delancey]] series *[[The Devil to Pay (novel)|''The Devil to Pay'']] ([[1973]]) *[[The Fireship (novel)|''The Fireship'']] ([[1975]]) *''Touch and Go'' ([[1977]]) *''Dead Reckoning'' ([[1978]]) *''So Near, So Far'' ([[1981]]) *''The Guernsey Man'' ([[1982]]) Other Nautical Fiction *''The Life and Times of [[Horatio Hornblower]]'' ([[1970]]) *''Manhunt'' ([[1990]]) History *''[[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Edward Pellew, Viscount Exmouth]]'' ([[1934]]) *''The Trade Winds, Trade in the French Wars 1793-1815'' ([[1948]]) *''Samuel Waters, Lieut. RN'' ([[1949]]) *''Trade in the Eastern Seas'' ([[1955]]) *''East and West'' ([[1963]]) *''Britannia Rules'' ([[1977]]) *''Gunpowder, Treason and Plot'' ([[1978]]) *''A Short History of the British Navy, 1776-1816'' *''Portsmouth Point, The Navy in Fiction, 1793-1815'' ([[1948]]) Other Non-Fiction *''[[Parkinson's Law]]'' ([[1957]]) *''The Evolution of Political Thought'' ([[1958]]) *''The Law and the Profits'' ([[1960]]) *''In-Laws and Outlaws'' ([[1962]]) *''Left Luggage'' ([[1967]]) *''Mrs. Parkinson's Law'' ([[1968]]) *''The Law of Delay'' ([[1970]]) Audio Recordings *''Discusses Political Science with Julian H. Franklin (10 LPs)'' ([[1959]]) ==See also== * [[Color of the bikeshed]] {{wikiquote|C. Northcote Parkinson}} [[Category:1909 births|Parkinson, C. Northcote]] [[Category:1993 deaths|Parkinson, C. Northcote]] [[Category:British writers|Parkinson, C. Northcote]] [[Category:British historians|Parkinson, C. Northcote]] [[Category:British satirists|Parkinson, C. Northcote]] [[Category:Historical novelists|Parkinson, C. Northcote]] [[da:Cyril Northcote Parkinson]] [[de:Cyril Northcote Parkinson]] [[es:Cyril Northcote Parkinson]] [[pt:Cyril Northcote Parkinson]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Canal</title> <id>5623</id> <revision> <id>41921729</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:10:08Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Drjan</username> <id>6029</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Ancient canals */ copy-edit: grammar update</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this term, see [[canal (disambiguation)]].}} [[Image:Canal_du_midi_toulouse.jpg|thumb|190px|The [[Canal du Midi]]&lt;br&gt; in [[Toulouse]], [[France]].]] [[Image:Calder and hebble.jpg|thumb|right|A picturesque stretch on the [[Calder and Hebble Navigation]].]] '''Canals''' are man-made [[waterway]]s, usually connecting existing [[lake]]s, [[river]]s, or [[ocean]]s. There are two main types of canal: [[irrigation]] canals for the delivery of water; [[transport]]ation canals for passage of goods and people. Some rivers have also been '[[channelization|channelised]]' to make them navigable. Smaller transportation canals can carry [[barge]]s or [[narrowboat]]s, while [[ship canal]]s can accommodate sea-going [[ship]]s and may connect one ocean to another. ==Ancient canals== The oldest-known canals were built in [[Mesopotamia]] circa [[4000 BC]]. The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] in [[Pakistan]] and [[North India]] (from circa [[2600 BC]]) had the first canal [[irrigation]] system in the world.[http://library.thinkquest.org/C0110225/civilisations.htm] The longest canal of ancient times was the [[Grand Canal of China]]. It is 1794 kilometers (1115 miles) long and was built to carry the [[Emperor Yang of Sui China|Emperor Yang Guang]] between [[Beijing]] and [[Hangzhou]]. The project began in [[605]], although the oldest sections of the canal may have existed since circa [[486 BC]]. In places it is 30 m (100 ft) wide. ==Cities on water== [[Image:CanalCentreAmsterdamjpg.jpg|thumb|left|190px|Canal in the centre of [[Amsterdam]].]] Canals are so deeply identified with [[Venice]] that many canal cities have been nicknamed &quot;the Venice of...&quot; The city is built on marshy islands, with wooden piles supporting the buildings, so that here it is not so much the waterways which are man-made, as the land. The islands have a long history of settlement, and by the 12th century Venice was a powerful [[city state]]. [[Amsterdam]] was built in a similar way, with buildings on wooden piles. The pace of draining of fenland and [[polder]] in the [[Low Countries]] quickened in the 14th century and canalization made the village of Amsterdam a port. It became a city around 1300. ==Industrial revolution== In Europe and then in the young United States, inland canals preceded the development of [[railroad]]s during the earliest phase of the [[Industrial Revolution]]; some canals were later drained and used as railroad [[Right-of-way (railroad)|rights-of-way]]. Navigable canals reached into previously isolated areas and brought them in touch with the world economy. The [[Erie Canal]], for instance, opened up a connection from the populated Northeast to the fertile Great Plains. The oldest canal built for industrial purposes in North America is [[Mother Brook]] in [[Dedham, MA]]. It was constructed in 1639 to provide water power for mills. Competition from the railroad network made many canals obsolete for commercial transportation, and many fell into decay. :''See also: [[History of the British canal system]]'' ==Modern uses== A movement that began in Britain and France to use the picturesque early industrial canals for pleasure boats has spurred rehabilitation of stretches of historic canals. Canals have found another use in the 21st century, as [[wayleave]]s for [[fibre optic]] [[telecommunications]] networks. ==Miscellaneous== For a time in the early 20th century, it was believed that there were [[Martian canals|many canals on Mars]]. [[Image:Wikipediacanal.jpg|thumb|200px|The Miraflores Locks on the [[Panama Canal]] (2004)]] ==External links== * [http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/wetland/canal/canals.htm &quot;Canals and Navigable Rivers&quot; by James S. Aber, Emporia State University] ==Famous canals and lists== * [[List of waterways]] * [[Grand Canal of China]] - Longest Canal * [[Canals of Ireland]] * [[List of canals in the United States]] * [[Canals of the United Kingdom]] * [[Suez Canal]] * [[Panama Canal]] * [[Corinth Canal]] * [[Venice]] * [[Amsterdam]] * [[Welland Canal]] - Central Canada * [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] - [[Quebec]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] * [[Erie Canal]] - [[New York]], [[USA]] * [[Rideau Canal]] - [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] * [[Shubie Canal]] - [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]] ==See also== [[Image:Small canal - Venice.jpg|thumb|right|190px|Rio de la Verona: a ''rio'' or small canal in [[Venice]].]] * [[Water transportation]] * [[Aqueduct]] * [[Canal lock]] * [[Horse-drawn boat]] * [[Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project]] * [[Sluice]] * [[Trade route]] * [[Waterway restoration]] [[Category:Canals]] [[Category:Water transport]] [[Category:Coastal construction]] [[Category:Water transport infrastructure]] [[bg:Канал]] [[cs:Průplav]] [[cy:Camlas]] [[da:Kanal]] [[de:Kanal (Wasserbau)]] [[es:Canal (vía artificial de agua)]] [[eo:Kanalo]] [[fr:Canal (voie navigable)]] [[ko:운하]] [[it:Canale artificiale]] [[he:תעלה]] [[nl:Kanaal (waterweg)]] [[ja:運河]] [[pl:Kanał wodny]] [[pt:Canal]] [[simple:Canal]] [[sv:Kanal]] [[th:คลอง]] [[uk:Канал (телекомунікації)]] [[zh:运河]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Czechia</title> <id>5624</id> <revision> <id>22465890</id> <timestamp>2005-09-03T11:53:38Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Made2Fade</username> <id>234951</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Czech Republic]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cognitive science</title> <id>5626</id> <revision> <id>42130643</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:47:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.148.17.100</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{portalpar|Mind and Brain}} [[Image:Brain.png|frame|Rendering of human brain based on MRI data]] '''Cognitive science''' is usually defined as the scientific study either of [[mind]] or of [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] (e.g. Luger 1994). Practically every formal introduction to cognitive science stresses that it is a highly [[interdisciplinary]] academic area, in which ''[[psychology]], [[neuroscience]], [[linguistics]], [[philosophy]]'', and ''[[computer science]]'', as well as ''[[artificial intelligence]], [[anthropology]] and [[biology]]'' are its specialized or applied branches. ==History== The term ''Cognitive Science'' was coined by [[Christopher Longuet-Higgins]] in his 1973 commentary on the [[Lighthill report]], which was on the state of [[Artificial Intelligence]] research. {{sectstub}} ==Principles of Cognitive Science== ===Approaches=== There are several approaches of study in the field of cognitive s
]] [[tr:Kafein]] [[uk:Кофеїн]] [[zh:咖啡因]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Composers</title> <id>6871</id> <revision> <id>15904985</id> <timestamp>2003-03-19T20:18:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Camembert</username> <id>3113</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[List of composers]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of composers]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Composers/Polish composers</title> <id>6872</id> <revision> <id>15904986</id> <timestamp>2002-12-15T10:11:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Lorenzarius</username> <id>4308</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>fixed double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List_of_Polish_composers]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Caapi</title> <id>6873</id> <revision> <id>15904987</id> <timestamp>2005-04-30T03:02:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Heah</username> <id>213940</id> </contributor> <comment>made into a redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Banisteriopsis caapi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cyc</title> <id>6874</id> <revision> <id>41449530</id> <timestamp>2006-02-27T11:24:40Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>167.206.156.241</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Criticisms of the Cyc Project */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyc''' is an [[List of Artificial Intelligence projects|artificial intelligence project]] that attempts to assemble a comprehensive [[ontology (computer science)|ontology]] and [[database]] of everyday [[common sense]] knowledge, with the goal of enabling [[artificial intelligence|AI]] applications to perform human-like reasoning. == Overview== The project was started in 1984 by [[Douglas Lenat|Doug Lenat]] as part of [[Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation]]. The name &quot;Cyc&quot; (from &quot;encyclopedia&quot;, pronounced like ''psych'') is a registered trademark owned by [[Cycorp, Inc.]] in [[Austin, Texas]], a company run by Lenat and devoted to the development of Cyc. The original knowledge base is proprietary, but a smaller version of the knowledge base, intended to establish a common vocabulary for automatic reasoning, was released as OpenCyc under an [[open source]] license. More recently, Cyc has been made available to AI researchers under a research-purposes license as [[ResearchCyc]]. Typical pieces of knowledge represented in the database are &quot;Every tree is a plant&quot; and &quot;Plants die eventually&quot;. When asked whether trees die, the inference engine can draw the obvious conclusion and answer the question correctly. The Knowledge Base (KB) contains over a million human-defined assertions, rules or common sense ideas. These are formulated in the language [[CycL]], which is based on [[predicate calculus]] and has a [[syntax]] similar to that of the [[Lisp programming language]]. CycL users pun that they are &quot;cyclists&quot;. Much of the current work on the Cyc project continues to be [[knowledge engineering]], representing facts about the world by hand, and implementing efficient inference mechanisms on that knowledge. Increasingly, however, work at Cycorp involves giving the Cyc system the ability to communicate with end users in [[natural language]], and to assist with the [[knowledge formation]] process via [[machine learning]]. == Description of the Knowledge Base, terminology == The concept names in Cyc are known as ''constants''. Constants start with &quot;#$&quot; and are case-sensitive. There are constants for: * Individual items known as ''individuals'', such as #$BillClinton or #$France. * ''Collections'', such as #$Tree-ThePlant (containing all trees) or #$EquivalenceRelation (containing all [[equivalence relation]]s). A member of a collection is called an ''instance'' of that collection. * ''Truth Functions'' which can be applied to one or more other concepts and return either true or false. For example #$siblings is the sibling relationship, true if the two arguments are siblings. By convention, truth function constants start with a lower-case letter. Truth functions may be broken down into logical connectives (such as #$and, #$or, #$not, #$implies), quantifiers (#$forAll, #$thereExists, etc.) and [[predicate]]s. * ''Functions'', which produce new terms from given ones. For example, #$FruitFn, when provided with an argument describing a type (or collection) of plants, will return the collection of its fruits. By convention, function constants start with an upper-case letter and end with the string &quot;Fn&quot;. The most important predicates are #$isa and #$genls. The first one describes that one item is an [[instance]] of some collection, the second one that one collection is a subcollection of another one. Facts about concepts are asserted using certain CycL ''sentences''. Predicates are written before their arguments, in parentheses: (#$isa #$BillClinton #$UnitedStatesPresident) &quot;Bill Clinton belongs to the collection of U.S. presidents&quot; and (#$genls #$Tree-ThePlant #$Plant) &quot;All trees are plants&quot;. (#$capitalCity #$France #$Paris) &quot;Paris is the capital of France.&quot; Sentences can also contain variables, strings starting with &quot;?&quot;. These sentences are called &quot;rules&quot;. One important rule asserted about the #$isa predicate reads (#$implies (#$and (#$isa ?OBJ ?SUBSET) (#$genls ?SUBSET ?SUPERSET)) (#$isa ?OBJ ?SUPERSET)) with the interpretation &quot;if OBJ is an instance of the collection [[subset|SUBSET]] and SUBSET is a subcollection of [[superset|SUPERSET]], then OBJ is an instance of the collection SUPERSET&quot;. Another typical example is (#$relationAllExists #$biologicalMother #$ChordataPhylum #$FemaleAnimal) which means that for every instance of the collection #$ChordataPhylum (i.e. for every [[chordate]]), there exists a female animal (instance of #$FemaleAnimal) which is its mother (described by the predicate #$biologicalMother). The [[knowledge base]] is divided into ''microtheories'' (Mt), collections of concepts and facts typically pertaining to one particular realm of knowledge. Unlike the knowledge base as a whole, each microtheory is required to be free from contradictions. Each microtheory has a name which is a regular constant; microtheory constants contain the string &quot;Mt&quot; by convention. An example is #$MathMt, the microtheory containing mathematical knowledge. The microtheories can inherit from each other and are organized in a hierarchy: one specialization of #$MathMt is #$GeometryGMt, the microtheory about geometry. == OpenCyc == The latest version of OpenCyc, 0.9, was released in February 2005. The knowledge base contains 47,000 concepts and 306,000 facts and can be browsed on the OpenCyc website. The first version of OpenCyc was released in May 2001 and contained only 6,000 concepts and 60,000 facts. The knowledge base is released under the [[LGPL]]. [[Cycorp]] has stated its intention to release OpenCyc under parallel, unrestricted licences to meet the needs of its users. The [[CycL]] and [[SubL]] interpreter (the program that allows you to browse and edit the database as well as to draw inferences) is released free of charge, but only as a binary, without source code. It is available for [[GNU]]/[[Linux]] and for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]. == ResearchCyc == Also in February 2005, Cycorp released ResearchCyc 1.0, a gratis (but not free or open source) version of Cyc aimed at the research community. ResearchCyc was in beta stage of development during all of 2004. ResearchCyc is 3 times larger than OpenCyc and includes a large lexicon, [[English (language)|English]] parsing and generation tools, and [[Java programming language|Java]] based interfaces for knowledge editing and querying. [[Cycorp]] has publicly stated its intention of releasing all of the terms and taxonomic relationships contained in [[ResearchCyc]] as part of OpenCyc. One stated goal is that of providing a completely free and unrestricted semantic vocabulary for use in the [[Semantic Web]]. The OpenCyc taxonomy is available in [[Web Ontology Language|Owl]] on the OpenCyc web site. == Criticisms of the Cyc Project == The Cyc project has been described as &quot;one of the most controversial endeavours of the artificial intelligence history&quot; (Bertino et al, p. 275), so it has inevitably garnered its share of criticism. These include: * The complexity of the system - arguably necessitated by its encyclop&amp;aelig;dic ambitions - and the consequent difficulty in adding to the system by hand; * Scaleability problems from widespread [[reification]], especially as constants; * Unsatisfactory treatment of the concept of [[substance]] and the related distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic properties; * The lack of any meaningful benchmark or comparison for the efficiency of Cyc's inference engine; and * The current incompleteness of the system in both breadth and depth and the related difficulty in measuring its completeness. These issues have been debated in various places since the inception of the project; Doug Lenat and others have published many arguments in its defence. == See also == * [[ConceptNet]] * [[DAML]] * [[Mindpixel]] * [[Open Mind Common Sense]] * [[Semantic Web]] * [[SHRDLU]] == References == *{{cite book | author=Elisa Bertino, Gian Piero Zarri, Barbara Catania, Gian Pierro Zarri | title=Intelligent Database Systems | publisher=Addison-Wesley Professional | year=2001 | id=ISBN ISBN 0-201-87736-8}} *Matuszek, Cynthia, [[Michael Witbrock|M. Witbrock]], R. Kahlert, J. Cabral, D. Schneider, P. Shah and [[Douglas Lenat|D. Lenat]]. ''Se
[[Mafia]]: [[New York]] mafioso [[John Gotti]] is arrested. *[[1993]] - Forty-eight people are killed when a block of the [[Highland Towers collapse|Highland Towers collapses]] near [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]]. *[[1994]] - [[First Chechen War]]: [[Russian President]] [[Boris Yeltsin]] orders [[Russia]]n troops into [[Chechnya]] * 1994 - A bomb assembled by [[Ramzi Yousef]] explodes on [[Philippine Airlines Flight 434]], killing a [[Japan]]ese businessman. *[[1998]] - A [[Thai Airways International|Thai Airways]] [[Airbus A310]]-200 crashes near [[Surat Thani Airport]], killing 101. *[[2001]] - Members of the [[DrinkOrDie]] [[warez]] group are arrested in police raids. * 2001 - The [[People's Republic of China]] joins the [[World Trade Organization]]. *[[2005]] - The [[2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire|Buncefield Oil Depot]] in [[Hemel Hempstead]] is rocked by explosions, causing a huge oil fire. * 2005 - ''Vengeance of Rain'' becomes [[Hong Kong]]'s first World Racing Championship winner after winning the [[Hong Kong International Races|Cathay Pacific Hong Kong Cup]] at [[Sha Tin Racecourse]]. * 2005 - [[2005 Sydney race riots|Sydney race riots]]: Thousands of [[Australia|Australians]] demonstate against ethnic violence resulting in a riot against anyone thought to be [[Lebanese]] (and many who were not) in [[Cronulla]] [[Sydney]]. These are followed up by ethnic attacks on [[Cronulla]]. ==Births== *[[1465]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshihisa]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1489]]) *[[1475]] - [[Pope Leo X]] (d. [[1521]]) *[[1566]] - [[Manuel Cardoso]], Portuguese composer (d. [[1650]]) *[[1680]] - [[Emanuele d'Astorga]], Italian composer *[[1712]] - [[Francesco Algarotti]]. Italian philosopher (d. [[1764]]) *[[1725]] - [[George Mason]], American statesman (d. [[1792]]) *[[1761]] - [[Gian Domenico Romagnosi]], Italian physicist (d. [[1835]]) *[[1781]] - Sir [[David Brewster]], British physicist (d. [[1868]]) *[[1801]] - [[Christian Dietrich Grabbe]], German writer (d. [[1836]]) *[[1803]] - [[Hector Berlioz]], French composer (d. [[1869]]) *[[1810]] - [[Alfred de Musset]], French poet (d. [[1857]]) *[[1843]] - [[Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch|Robert Koch]], German bacteriologist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1910]]) *[[1858]] - [[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko]], Russian-born Soviet theatre director (d. [[1943]]) *[[1863]] - [[Annie Jump Cannon]], American astronomer (d. [[1941]]) *[[1873]] - [[Josip Plemelj]], Austro-Hungarian-born Yugoslav mathematician (d. [[1967]]) *[[1880]] - [[Frank Tarrant]], Australian cricketer (d. [[1951]]) *[[1882]] - [[Subramanya Bharathy]], Indian poet (d. [[1921]]) * 1882 - [[Max Born]], German physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1970]]) * 1882 - [[Fiorello LaGuardia]], Mayor of New York City (d. [[1947]]) *[[1883]] - [[Victor McLaglen]], British-born American actor (d. [[1959]]) *[[1890]] - [[Mark Tobey]], American painter (d. [[1976]]) *[[1905]] - [[Gilbert Roland]], American actor (d. [[1994]]) *[[1908]] - [[Elliott Carter]], American composer *[[1911]] - [[Naguib Mahfouz]], Egyptian writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1912]] - [[Carlo Ponti]], Italian film producer *[[1913]] - [[Jean Marais]], French actor (d. [[1998]]) *[[1916]] - [[Dámaso Pérez Prado]], Cuban-born bandleader and composer (d. [[1989]]) *[[1918]] - [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]], Soviet-born Russian writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1919]] - [[Marie Windsor]], American actress (d. [[2000]]) *[[1920]] - [[Big Mama Thornton]] (Willie Mae Thornton), American blues singer (d. [[1984]]) *[[1922]] - [[Grace Paley]], American writer *[[1925]] - [[Paul Greengard]], American neuroscientist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1930]] - [[Jean-Louis Trintignant]], French actor *[[1931]] - [[Rita Moreno]], Puerto Rican singer, dancer, and actress *[[1933]] - [[Aquilino Pimentel, Jr.]], Filipino politician *[[1935]] - [[Pranab Mukherjee]], Indian politician *[[1936]] - [[Taku Yamasaki]], Japanese politician *[[1938]] - [[McCoy Tyner]], American jazz pianist *[[1939]] - [[Tom Hayden]], American politician *[[1942]] - [[Donna Mills]], American actress *[[1943]] - [[John Kerry]], American politician and Presidential candidate *[[1944]] - [[Brenda Lee]], American singer *[[1944]] - [[Teri Garr]], American film actress *[[1950]] - [[Christina Onassis]] American heiress (d. [[1988]]) *[[1954]] - [[Guðlaugur Kristinn Óttarsson]], Icelandic guitar player, polytechnic engineer and inventor *[[1954]] - [[Jermaine Jackson]], American singer and bassist *[[1958]] - [[Nikki Sixx]], American bassist ([[Mötley Crüe]]) *[[1962]] - [[Ben Browder]], American actor *[[1964]] - [[Cosy Sheridan]], American singer and songwriter *[[1966]] - [[Leon Lai]], Beijing-born Canadian actor and Cantopop singer * 1966 - [[Gary Dourdan]], American actor *[[1969]] - [[Vishwanathan Anand]], Indian chess grandmaster *[[1972]] - [[Dana Macsim]], Romanian television news reporter *[[1979]] - [[Rider Strong]], American actor *[[1981]] - [[Javier Saviola]], [[Argentina national football team|Argentine]] international footballer and Olympic gold medalist *[[1981]] - [[Zacky Vengeance]], American [[Guitarist]] ([[Avenged Sevenfold]]) ==Deaths== *[[384]] - [[Pope Damasus I]] *[[1121]] - [[Al-Afdal Shahanshah]], Caliph of Egypt (b. [[1066]]) *[[1226]] - [[Robert de Ros]], English politician (b. [[1177]]) *[[1282]] - [[Llywelyn the Last]], Welsh Prince of Gwynedd *[[1282]] - [[Michael VIII Palaeologus]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[1225]]) *[[1532]] - [[Pietro Accolti]], Italian Catholic cardinal (b. [[1455]]) *[[1694]] - [[Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma]] (b. [[1630]]) *[[1737]] - [[John Strype]], English historian and biographer (b. [[1643]]) *[[1757]] - [[Edmund Curll]], English bookseller and publisher (b. [[1675]]) *[[1797]] - [[Richard Brocklesby]], British physician (b. [[1722]]) *[[1840]] - [[Emperor Kokaku of Japan]] (b. [[1771]]) *[[1909]] - [[Innokenty Annensky]], Russian poet (b. [[1855]]) *[[1920]] - [[Olive Schreiner]], South African writer (b. [[1855]]) *[[1938]] - [[Christian Lous Lange]], Norwegian pacifist and recipient of [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1869]]) *[[1941]] - [[John Gillespie Magee, Jr.]], American poet and aviator (b. [[1922]]) *[[1945]] - [[Charles Fabry]], French physicist (b. [[1867]]) *[[1950]] - [[Leslie Comrie]], New Zealand-born astronomer and computing pioneer (b. [[1893]]) *[[1957]] - [[Musidora]] (Jeanne Roques), French actress and director (b. [[1889]]) *[[1964]] - [[Sam Cooke]], American singer (b. [[1931]]) *[[1978]] - [[Vincent du Vigneaud]], American chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1901]]) *[[1983]] - Sir [[Neil Ritchie]], British General. (b. [[1897]]) *[[1996]] - [[Willie Rushton]], British cartoonist, satirist, and actor (b. [[1937]]) *[[1998]] - [[André Lichnerowicz]], Polish-French physicist (b. [[1915]]) *[[2003]] - [[Ahmadou Kourouma]], Côte d'Ivoire writer (b. [[1927]]) *[[2004]] - [[M.S. Subbulakshmi]], Indian singer (b. [[1916]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Roman festivals]] - One of the four [[Agonalia]], this day in honour of [[Sol Indiges]]; also the [[Septimontium]] festival * [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[pope Damasus I]]: optional memorial; also [[Daniel the Stylite]] (not universal) * Also see [[December 11 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]] * [[Argentina]] - [[Tango (dance)|Tango]] Day, [[Buenos Aires]] * [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Republic Day]] ([[1958]], [[Upper Volta]] became an autonomous republic in the [[French Community]].) * [[USA]] - Admission day for [[Indiana]] (19th state, [[1816]]) ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/11 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20051211.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Dec&amp;day=11 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[December 10]] - [[December 12]] - [[November 11]] - [[January 11]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:11 Desember]] [[ang:11 Gēolmōnaþ]] [[ar:11 ديسمبر]] [[an:11 d'abiento]] [[ast:11 d'avientu]] [[bg:11 декември]] [[be:11 сьнежня]] [[bs:11. decembar]] [[br:11 Kerzu]] [[ca:11 de desembre]] [[ceb:Disyembre 11]] [[cv:Раштав, 11]] [[co:11 di decembre]] [[cs:11. prosinec]] [[cy:11 Rhagfyr]] [[da:11. december]] [[de:11. Dezember]] [[et:11. detsember]] [[el:11 Δεκεμβρίου]] [[es:11 de diciembre]] [[eo:11-a de decembro]] [[eu:Abenduaren 11]] [[fo:11. desember]] [[fr:11 décembre]] [[fy:11 desimber]] [[ga:11 Nollaig]] [[gl:11 de decembro]] [[ko:12월 11일]] [[hr:11. prosinca]] [[io:11 di decembro]] [[id:11 Desember]] [[ia:11 de decembre]] [[is:11. desember]] [[it:11 dicembre]] [[he:11 בדצמבר]] [[jv:11 Desember]] [[ka:11 დეკემბერი]] [[csb:11 gòdnika]] [[ku:11'ê berfanbarê]] [[la:11 Decembris]] [[lt:Gruodžio 11]] [[lb:11. Dezember]] [[hu:December 11]] [[mk:11 декември]] [[ms:11 Disember]] [[nap:11 'e dicembre]] [[nl:11 december]] [[ja:12月11日]] [[no:11. desember]] [[nn:11. desember]] [[oc:11 de decembre]] [[pl:11 grudnia]] [[pt:11 de Dezembro]] [[ro:11 decembrie]] [[ru:11 декабря]] [[se:Juovlamánu 11.]] [[sco:11 December]] [[sq:11 Dhjetor]] [[scn:11 di dicèmmiru]] [[simple:December 11]] [[sk:11. december]] [[sl:11. december]] [[sr:11. децембар]] [[fi:11. joulukuuta]] [[sv:11 december]] [[tl:Disyembre 11]] [[tt:11. Dekäber]] [[te:డిసెంబర్ 11]] [[th:11 ธันวาคม]] [[vi:11 tháng 12]] [[tr:11 Aralık]] [[uk:11 грудня]] [[wa:11 di decimbe]] [[war:Disyembre 11]] [[zh:12月11日]] [[pam:Disiembri 11]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Danny Elfman</title> <id>8397</id> <revision> <id>41586968</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:59:19Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>125.212.73.217</ip> </contributor> <comment>/
only began to change in the 1970's, partly due to the discovery and development of [[North Sea]] oil and gas and partly as Scotland moved towards a more service-based economy. This period saw the emergence of the [[Scottish National Party]] and movements for both [[Scottish independence]] and more popularly [[devolution]]. However, a referendum on devolution in 1979 was unsuccessful. As the [[Cold War]] intensified, the [[United States]] deployed [[Polaris ballistic missile]]s, and submarines, in the [[Firth of Clyde]]'s [[Holy Loch]] (1961). This was despite opposition from [[CND]] campaigners. A [[Royal Navy]] nuclear submarine base followed for [[Resolution class submarine|''Resolution'' class]] [[Polaris missile|Polaris]] submarines at the expanded [[HMNB Clyde|Faslane Naval Base]] on the [[Gare Loch]]. The first patrol of a [[Trident missile|Trident]]-armed submarine occurred in 1994, although the US base was closed at the end of the Cold War. In [[1997]], the [[Tony Blair| Blair]] [[Labour Party (UK)| Labour]] government again held a referendum on the issue of devolution. A positive outcome led to the establishment of a devolved [[Scottish Parliament]] which now stands next to [[Holyrood House]] in [[Edinburgh]]. ==21st Century Scotland== The [[feudal]] system lingered on in [[Scots law]] on land ownership, so that a landowner still had obligations to a ''feudal superior'' including payment of ''feu duty''. In [[1974]] legislation began a process of redeeming ''feuduties'' so that most of these payments were ended, but it was only with the attention of the Scottish Parliament that a [http://www.ejcl.org/83/art83-5.html series of acts] were passed, the first in [[2000]], for The Abolition of Feudal Tenure on [[November 28]] [[2004]]. ==See also== *[[Historic Sites in Scotland]] *[[British monarchs|Kings of Scotland]] *[[Scottish monarchs' family tree|Kings of Scotland family tree]] *[[UK topics]] *[[History of England]] *[[History of the United Kingdom]] *[[Timeline of Scottish history]] ==External links== *[http://www.badley.info/history/Scotland.country.year.index.html Scotland Chronology World History Database] *[http://www.scotlandsclans.com/genscot.htm Scottish Genealogy] ==Further reading== *[[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World,'' vol III of ''Civilization and Capitalism'' (1979, in English 1984), pp 370-372 *Mackie, J.D. ''A History of Scotland'' (Penguin books, 1991) *Devine, T.M. ''The Scottish Nation, 1700-2000'' (Penguin books, 1999) *Devine, T. M., ''Scotland's Empire 1600-1815'', Allen Lane, Harmondsworth, 2003 *Buchan, James, ''Capital of the Mind: How Edinburgh changed the world'', John Murray, 2003 *Finlay, Richard, ''Modern Scotland 1914-2000'', Profile 2004 *Cowan, Edward J., ''&quot;For Freedom Alone&quot;: the Declaration of Arbroath, 1320'', Tuckwell, East Linton, 2004 *Duncan A. A. M., ''The Kingship of the Scots 842-1292: Succession and independence'', Edinburgh UP, Edinburgh, 2004 *[http://www.scottishsundials.co.uk Scottish Sundials - by Location, Type and Date] {{Scottish topics}} [[Category:History of Scotland| ]] [[cs:Dějiny Skotska]] [[de:Geschichte Schottlands]] [[fr:Histoire de l'Écosse]] [[gd:Rìghrean na h-Alba]] [[it:Storia della Scozia]] [[ja:スコットランドの歴史]] [[pl:Historia Szkocji]] [[pt:História da Escócia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hi-fi</title> <id>13618</id> <revision> <id>15911215</id> <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>Conversion script</ip> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Automated conversion</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[High fidelity]] </text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>High-definition television</title> <id>13619</id> <revision> <id>42126057</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:10:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>201.144.209.23</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Mexico */ deleted self-advertising</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|High Definition Video}} '''High-definition television''' ('''HDTV''') means [[broadcasting|broadcast]] of [[television]] signals with a higher [[Image resolution|resolution]] than traditional formats ([[NTSC]], [[SÉCAM]], [[PAL]]) allow. Except for early analog formats in [[Europe]] and [[Japan]], HDTV is broadcast digitally, and therefore its introduction sometimes coincides with the introduction of [[digital television]] (DTV). Historically, the term ''high-definition television'' was also used to refer to television standards developed in the [[1930s]] to replace the early experimental systems, although, not so long afterwards, Philo T. Farnsworth, John Logie Baird and Vladimir Zworkin had each developed competing TV systems but resolution was not the issue that separated their substantially different technologies. It was patent interference lawsuits and deployment issues given the tumultuous financial climate of the late 20's and 30's. Most patents were expiring by the end of World War II leaving the market wide open and no worldwide standard for television agreed upon. The world used analog PAL, NTSC, SECAM and other standards for over half a century. ==Notation== In the context of HDTV, the formats of the broadcasts are referred to using a notation describing: * The number of lines in the [[display resolution]]. * [[Progressive scan|Progressive]] frames (p) or [[interlace|interlaced]] fields (i). * Number of frames or fields per second. For example, the format 720p60 is 1280 × 720 pixels, progressive encoding with 60 frames per second (60 [[Hertz]] known as [[Hz]]). The format 1080i50 is 1920 × 1080 pixels, interlaced encoding with 50 fields (25 frames) per second. Often the frame or field rate is left out. It can then usually be assumed to be either 50 or 60, except for [[1080p]] which is only supported as 1080p24, 1080p25 or 1080p30 by consumer HDTV displays. A frame or field rate can also be specified without a resolution. For example 24p means 24 progressive frames per second and 50i means 25 interlaced frames per second. Most HDTV systems support some standard resolutions and frame or field rates. The most common are: ===Standard resolutions=== [[Image:Videores.png|480px|Visual comparison of common TV ''display resolutions''.]] Note: this graphic ignores the impact of interlaced artifacts, which would further reduce the vertical resolution * NTSC is typically 720x480 ===Standard frame or field rates=== * 24p (cinematic film) * 25p * 30p * 50p * 60p * 50i (PAL) * 60i (NTSC) ==Comparison to SDTV== HDTV has at least twice the resolution of [[standard-definition television|SDTV]], thus allowing much more detail to be shown compared to analog television or regular DVD. In addition, the technical standards for broadcasting HDTV are also able to handle 16:9 [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] pictures without using [[letterbox|letterboxing]], thus further increasing the effective resolution for such content. ===Close-up view=== &lt;gallery&gt; Image:Raster graphic fish 40X46squares hdtv-example.jpg|HDTV at four times the resolution of SDTV. Image:Raster graphic fish 20x23squares sdtv-example.jpg|SDTV resolution. &lt;/gallery&gt; ==Format considerations== The optimum format for a broadcast depends on the type of media used for the recording and the characteristics of the content. The field and frame rate should match the source, as should the resolution. On the other hand, a very high resolution may require more bandwidth than is available. The [[lossy compression]] that is used in all digital HDTV systems will then cause the picture to be distorted. [[Photographic film]] destined for the theater typically has a high resolution and is photographed at 24 frame/s. Depending on the available bandwidth and the amount of detail and movement in the picture, the optimum format for video transfer is thus either 720p24 or 1080p24. When shown on television in countries using [[PAL]], film must be converted to 25 frames per second by speeding it up by 4%. In countries using the [[NTSC]] standard, (60 fps) a technique called 3:2 pulldown is used. One film frame is held for three video fields, (1/20 of a second) and then the next is held for two video fields (1/30 of a second) and then the process repeats, thus achieving the correct film rate with two film frames shown in 1/12 of a second. (See also: [[Telecine]]) Older (pre-HDTV) recordings on video tape such as [[Betacam]] SP are often either in the form 480i60 or 576i50. These may be upconverted to a higher resolution format ([[720i]]), but removing the interlace to match the common [[720p]] format may distort the picture or require filtering which actually reduces the resolution of the final output. (See also: [[Deinterlacing]]) Non-cinematic HDTV video recordings are recorded in either [[720p]] or [[1080i]] format. The format depends on the broadcast company if destined for television broadcast, however in other scenarios the format choice will vary depending on a variety of factors. In general, [[720p]] is more appropriate for fast action as it uses progressive fields, as opposed to [[1080i]] which uses interlaced fields and thus can have a degradation of image quality with fast motion. In addition, [[720p]] is used more often with internet distribution of HD video, as all computer monitors are progressive, and most graphics cards do a sub-optimal job of de-interlacing video in real time. 720p Video also has lower storage and decoding requirements than 1080i or 1080p, and few people possess displays capable of displaying the 1920x1080 resolution without scaling. [[720p]] appears at full resolution on a common 1280x1024 [[LCD]], which can be found for under $250. An [[LCD]] capable of native [[1080i]] resolution still costs over a thousand US dollars. In [[North America]], [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox
into destitution. News of the scandal, known as the ''Dresden affair'', reached Ireland, and scared away future travellers. Today there are about 500,000 people of Irish ancestry in Argentina. [[Che Guevara]], whose grandmother's surname was Lynch, was another famous member of this diaspora. Guevara's father, Ernesto Guevara Lynch, said of him: &quot;The first thing to note is that in my son's veins flowed the blood of the Irish rebels&quot;. On [[March 13]] [[1965]], the [[Irish Times]] journalist [[Arthur Quinlan]] interviewed Che at [[Shannon Airport]] during a stopover flight from [[Prague]] to [[Cuba]]. Guevara talked of his Irish connections through the name Lynch and of his grandmother's Irish roots in [[Galway]]. Later, Che, and some of his [[Cuba]]n comrades, went to [[Limerick City]] and adjourned to the Hanratty's Hotel on Glentworth Street. According to Quinlan, they returned that evening all wearing sprigs of [[shamrock]], for Shannon and Limerick were preparing for the St. Patrick's Day celebrations. ([http://news.scotsman.com/features.cfm?id=1413422003 Scotsman Newspaper, The night Che Guevara came to Limerick, Sun [[28 December]] [[2003]]]) ===Mexico=== {{main|Irish Mexican}} Probably the most famous Irishman ever to reside in Mexico is the Wexfordman [[William Lamport]], better known to most Mexicans as Guillen de Lampart, precursor of the Independence movement and author of the first proclamation of independence in the New World. His statue stands today in the Crypt of Heroes beneath the Column of Independence in Mexico City. Some authorities claim he was the inspiration for Johnston McCulley's [[Zorro]], though the extent to which this may be true is disputed. After Lampart, the most famous Irishmen in Mexican history are probably &quot;Los Patricios&quot;. Many communities also existed in [[Mexican Texas]] until the [[Texas Revolution|revolution]] there, when they sided with Catholic Mexico against Protestant pro-U.S. elements. The ''[[Saint Patrick's Battalion|Batallón de San Patricio]]'', a battalion of U.S. troops who deserted and fought alongside the [[Mexican Army]] against the United States in the [[Mexican-American War]] of 1846 to 1848, is also famous in [[History of Mexico|Mexican history]]. [[Álvaro Obregón]] (O'Brian) was [[List of Presidents of Mexico|president of Mexico]] during 1920-24 and [[Ciudad Obregón|Obregón city]] and [[Ciudad Obregón International Airport|airport]] are named in his honour. Mexico also has a large number of people of Irish ancestry, including the country's current President, [[Vicente Fox]], and the actor [[Anthony Quinn]]. There are also monuments in Mexico City paying tribute to those Irish who fought for Mexico in the 1800s. There is a monument to Los Patricios in the fort of Churubusco. ==South Africa== Nineteenth-century [[South Africa]] did not attract mass Irish migration, but Irish communities were to be found in [[Cape Town]], [[Port Elizabeth]], [[Kimberley, South Africa|Kimberley]], and [[Johannesburg]], with smaller communities in [[Pretoria]], [[Barberton]], [[Durban]] and [[East London]]. A third of the Cape's governors were Irish, as were many of the judges and politicians. Both the Cape Colony and the colony of [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]] had Irish prime ministers: Sir [[Thomas Upington]], &quot;The [[Afrikaner]] from [[Cork]]&quot;; and [[Sir Albert Hime]], from [[Kilcoole]] in [[County Wicklow]]. Irish Cape Governors included [[George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney|Lord Macartney]], [[Du Pre Alexander, 2nd Earl of Caledon|Lord Caledon]] and [[Sir John Francis Cradock]]. Irish settlers were brought in small numbers over the years, as from other parts of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. Henry Nourse, a shipowner at the Cape, brought out a small party of Irish settlers in [[1818]]. In [[1823]], John Ingram brought out 146 Irish from Cork. Single Irish women were sent to the Cape on a few occasions. Twenty arrived in November [[1849]] and forty six arrived in March [[1851]]. The majority arrived in November [[1857]] aboard the Lady Kennaway. A large contingent of Irish troops fought in the [[Second Boer War|Anglo-Boer War]] on both sides and a few of them stayed in South Africa after the war. Others returned home but later came out to settle in South Africa with their families. Between 1902 and 1905, there were about 5000 Irish immigrants. Place names in South Africa include Upington, Porteville, Caledon, Cradock, Sir Henry Lowry's Pass, the Biggarsberg Mountains, [[Donnybrook, South Africa|Donnybrook]] and [[Belfast, South Africa|Belfast]]. ''External links'': [http://scripts.ireland.com/ancestor/magazine/articles/uhf_safrica1.htm Irish Police in SA] &amp; [http://homepages.paradise.net.nz/golden/A%20Guide%20to%20research%20in%20South%20Africa.htm Research in SA] ==Australia== Of the first [[Europeans]] to settle in [[Australia]], one-fifth were Irish. The rest of the population was predominantley English with a smattering of Scots. The Irish were almost exclusively convicts and from the beginning were marginalised. The mid-nineteenth century saw the push-pull effect of the Irish potato famine and the Australian [[gold rush]]. Irish nuns and brothers founded the Australian Catholic schooling systems in the late-nineteenth century. The Australian census in 2001 recorded 1.9 million people of Irish ancestry out of a total population of around 19 million. ==See also - Biography== ===Politicians=== *[[Patrice MacMahon, duc de Magenta]], first President of the [[Third French Republic]]. *[[Bernardo O'Higgins]], first [[President of Chile]], and his father, [[Viceroy of Peru]] [[Ambrosio O'Higgins]], a [[County Sligo|Sligoman]]. *[[Brian Mulroney]], 18th [[Prime Minister of Canada]], child of Irish Quebecers. *[[Louis St. Laurent]], 12th Prime Minister of Canada, mother an [[Irish Quebecer]]. *[[Chaim Herzog]], 6th [[President of Israel]], a [[Cork]]man. *[[John F. Kennedy]], 35th [[President of the United States]], also [[Robert F. Kennedy]] and [[Edward M. Kennedy]], members of the [[Kennedy political family|Kennedy Family]], originally from [[Wexford]]. *[[Ronald Reagan]], 40th President of the United States. *[[Álvaro Obregón]], [[List of Presidents of Mexico|President of Mexico]] 1920-24. :Obregón's grandfather is said to have been an Irish railroad worker named ''O'Brian''. Mexico's [[Ciudad Obregón|Obregón city]] and [[Ciudad Obregón International Airport|airport]] are named in honour of the president. *[[Che Guevara]] :Guevara's father, Ernesto Guevara Lynch, said of him: &quot;The first thing to note is that in my son's veins flowed the blood of the Irish rebels&quot;. On [[March 13]] [[1965]], the [[Irish Times]] journalist [[Arthur Quinlan]] interviewed Che at [[Shannon Airport]] during a stopover flight from [[Prague]] to [[Cuba]]. Guevara talked of his Irish connections through the name Lynch and of his grandmother's Irish roots in [[Galway]]. Later, Che, and some of his [[Cuba]]n comrades, went to [[Limerick City]] and adjourned to the Hanratty's Hotel on Glentworth Street. According to Quinlan, they returned that evening all wearing sprigs of [[shamrock]], for Shannon and Limerick were preparing for the St. Patrick's Day celebrations. *Congressman [[John Martin]] *[[James Duane]], [[List of mayors of New York City|Mayor of New York City]] 1784, son of a Galway man. *Cardinal [[James Gibbons]] *[[Owney Madden]] *Count [[Joseph Cornelius O’Rourke]], Lieutenant General of the [[Russian Imperial Guard]]. *[[James Callaghan]] was Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1976 to 1979. *[[Vicente Fox]], his paternal grandfather is of Irish descent *[[Richard J. Daley]], current mayor of [[Chicago]]. *[[Richard M. Daley]], former long term mayor of Chicago. ===Artists and Musicians=== *[[Paul McCartney]], [[John Lennon]] and [[George Harrison]] of the [[Beatles]]. *[[Bruce Springsteen]] Songwriter, performer and political activist. *[[Liam Gallagher]] and [[Noel Gallagher]] of [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]]. *[[Juan O'Gorman]], a 20th Century Mexican artist, both a painter and an architect. *[[Anthony Quinn]], [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winning Mexican actor. *[[Johnny Rotten]] (b. John Lydon) Lead singer of the [[Sex Pistols]]. *[[Keith Richards]], Lead Guitarist for the Rolling Stones. &lt;!--Is this correct?--&gt; *[[Lafcadio Hearn]], known as 小泉八雲 (Koizumi Yakumo) in Japanese, early 20th Century writer. * [[Mike Joyce]], [[Johnny Marr]], [[Steven Morrissey]] and [[Andy Rourke]], members of the [[Smiths]] ===Scientists=== *[[Ernest Walton]], [[Cambridge]]-based co-winner of the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]], 1951. *[[Kathleen Lonsdale]], [[University College, London|London]]-based 20th century Chemist. ===Misc=== *[[William Joyce|Lord Haw Haw]], [[Nazi Germany]] [[propaganda]] broadcaster. ==See also - [[Irish Brigade]]== * [[Irish Brigade (French)]] formed from the Irish army after the [[flight of the Wild Geese]] in [[1691]]. * The Irish Battalion, or ''[[Saint Patrick's Battalion|Los San Patricio]]'', who fought on the side of [[Mexico]] against the [[Mexican-American War|U.S. invasion of 1846-48]]. * [[Irish Brigade (US)]] served on the Union side in the [[American Civil War]] in the 1860s. * [[Tyneside Irish Brigade]], [[WWI]] brigade serving in the [[British army]] at the [[Battle of the Somme|Somme]]. ==See also - Causes of Irish emigration== *[[Great Irish Famine (1740-1741)]] *[[Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)]] *[[Irish Famine (1879)]] *[[Economic history of Ireland]] *[[Economic history of the Republic of Ireland]] *The [[Economic War]], 1933-38. *[[The Emergency|Ireland during WWII]] ==See also - General== * [[Demographics of Ireland]] *[[Irish Australians]] * [[Irish Americans]] * [[Irish Canadians]] ** [[Irish Quebecers]] ** [[Irish Newfoundlanders]] ** [[Newfoundland Irish]] * [[Irish community in Britain]] * [[Irish Traveller]]s * [[List of Ireland-related topics]]
he US's first ICBM was the [[Atlas (rocket)|Atlas]], operational in 1959. Both the R7 and Atlas required a large launch facility making them vulnerable to attack and could not be kept in a ready state. Early ICBMs formed the basis of many space launch systems. Examples include: [[Atlas (rocket)|Atlas]], [[Redstone rocket]], [[Titan (rocket family)|Titan]], [[R-7 rocket|R-7]], and [[Proton (rocket)|Proton]], which was derived from the earlier ICBMs but never deployed as an ICBM. The [[UK]] built its own ICBM [[Black Knight (rocket)|Black Knight]] but it was never made operational due to the difficulty of finding a launch site away from population centers. Under the direction of [[Robert McNamara]] the US initiated the [[LGM-30 Minuteman]], [[Polaris ballistic missile|Polaris]] and [[Skybolt]] solid fuel ICBMs. Modern ICBMs tend to be smaller than their ancestors (due to increased accuracy and smaller and lighter warheads) and use solid fuels, making them less useful as orbital launch vehicles. Deployment of these systems was governed by the strategic theory of [[Mutually Assured Destruction]]. In the 1970s development began of [[Anti-ballistic missile|Anti-Ballistic Missile]] Systems by both the US and USSR but these were restricted by treaty in order to preserve the value of the existing ICBM systems. President [[Ronald Reagan]] launched the [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] as well as the [[MX]] and [[Midgetman]] ICBM programmes. This led to the agreement of a series of [[Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty]] negotiations. Countries in the early stages of developing ICBMs have all used liquid propellants for simplicity's sake. == Modern ICBMs == Modern ICBMs typically carry [[multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle]]s (''MIRVs''), each of which carries a separate [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] warhead, allowing a single missile to hit multiple targets. MIRV was an outgrowth of the rapidly shrinking size and weight of modern warheads and the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties which imposed limitations on the number of launch vehicles ([[SALT I]] and [[SALT II]]). It has also proved to be an &quot;easy answer&quot; to proposed deployments of [[Anti-ballistic missile|ABM]] systems &amp;ndash; it is far less expensive to add more warheads to an existing missile system than to build an ABM system capable of shooting down the additional warheads; hence, most ABM system proposals have been judged to be impractical. The only operational ABM systems were deployed in the 1970s, the US Safeguard ABM facility was located in North Dakota and was operational from 1975-1976. The USSR deployed its Galosh ABM system around Moscow in the 1970s, which remains in service. ICBMs can be deployed from multiple platforms: *in [[missile silo]]s, which offer some protection from military attack (including, the designers hope, some protection from a nuclear first strike) *on [[submarine]]s: [[submarine-launched ballistic missile]]s (SLBMs); most or all SLBMs have the long range of ICBMs (as opposed to IRBMs) *on heavy trucks; this applies to one version of the [[RT-2UTTH Topol M]] which may be deployed from a self-propelled [[Mobile launcher vehicle|mobile launcher]], capable of moving through roadless terrain, and launching a missile from any point along its route *mobile launchers on rails; this applies, for example, to РТ-23УТТХ &quot;Молодец&quot; ([[RT-23 Molodets|RT-23UTTH &quot;Molodets&quot;]] -- SS-24 &quot;Sсаlреl&quot;) The last three kinds are mobile and therefore hard to find. During storage, one of the most important features of the missile is its serviceability. One of the key features of the first [[embedded system|computer-controlled]] ICBM, the [[Minuteman missile]] was that it could quickly and easily use its computer to test itself. In flight, a booster pushes the warhead and then falls away. Most modern boosters are [[solid rocket|solid-fueled rocket motor]]s, which can be stored easily for long periods of time. Early missiles used [[liquid rocket|liquid-fueled rocket motor]]s. Liquid-fueled ICBMs were generally not kept fueled all the time, and therefore fueling the rocket was necessary before a launch. This annoying procedure was a source of significant operational delay, and therefore might cause the rockets to be destroyed before they could be used. It also provided opponents with intelligence because it was a definite observable event that indicated the start of an attack. Once the booster falls away, the warhead falls on an unpowered path much like an orbit, except that it hits the earth at some point. Moving in this way is stealthy. No rocket gases or other emissions occur to indicate the missile's position to defenders. Also, it is the fastest way to get from one part of the Earth to another. This increases the element of surprise. The high speed of a ballistic warhead (near 5 miles per second) also make it difficult to intercept. Many authorities say that missiles also release aluminized balloons, electronic noisemakers, and other items intended to confuse interception devices and radars. The high speed can cause the missile to get very hot as it reenters the atmosphere. Ballistic warheads are protected by heatshields constructed of materials such as [[pyrolytic graphite]], and in early missiles, thick [[plywood]]. Plywood approaches the strength per weight of carbon fiber/epoxy composites and chars slowly, protecting the missile. Accuracy is crucial, because doubling the accuracy decreases the needed warhead energy by a factor of four. Accuracy is limited by the accuracy of the navigation system and the available geophysical information. Many authorities believe that most government-supported geophysical mapping initiatives such as [[GPS]], and ocean satellite altitude systems such as [[Seasat]], probably have a covert purpose to map mass concentrations and determine local gravitic anomalies, in order to improve accuracies of ballistic missiles. Strategic missile systems are thought to use custom [[integrated circuit]]s designed to calculate [[navigation]]al [[differential equation]]s thousands to millions of times per second in order to reduce navigational errors caused by calculation alone. These circuits are usually a network of binary addition circuits that continually recalculate the missile's position. The inputs to the navigation circuit are set by a general purpose computer according to a navigational input schedule loaded into the missile before launch. Low-flying guided [[cruise missile]]s are an alternative to [[ballistic missile]]s. == Specific missiles == === Land-based ICBMs and cruise missiles === The US Air Force currently operates just over 500 ICBMs at around 15 missile complexes located primarily in the northern Rocky Mountain states and the Dakotas. These are of the [[LGM-30 Minuteman]] III and [[Peacekeeper missile|Peacekeeper]] ICBM variants. Peacekeeper missiles were phased out in 2005[http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?storyID=123011845]. All USAF [[Minuteman II]] missiles have been destroyed in accordance to START, and their launch silos have been sealed or sold to the public. To comply with the [[START II]] most US multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles, or [[MIRV]]s, have been eliminated and replaced with single warhead missiles. However, since the abandonment of the START II treaty, the U.S. is said to be considering retaining 800 warheads on 500 missiles.[http://www.thebulletin.org/issues/nukenotes/mj04nukenote.html] The United States Air Force awards two badges for performing duty in a nuclear missile silo. The [[Missile Badge]] is presented to commissioned officers while the [[Space and Missile Badge|Space and Missile Pin]] is awarded to silo ground and support personnel. === Sea-based ICBMs === [[Image:Trident missile image.jpg|thumb|Trident launch at sea from a Royal Navy submarine.]] *The [[US Navy]] currently has 14 [[Ohio class submarine|''Ohio''-class]] [[SSBN]]s deployed. Each submarine is equipped with a complement of 24 Trident missiles, eight with [[Trident I]] missiles, and ten with [[Trident II]] missiles (336 missiles total). *The [[French Navy]] constantly maintains at least four active units, relying on two classes of nuclear-powered ballistic submarines ([[SSBN]]): the older [[Redoutable class submarine|''Redoutable'' class]], which are being progressively decommissioned, and the newer [[Triomphant class submarine|''Triomphant'' class]]. These carry 16 [[M45 SLBM|M45]] missiles with TN75 warheads, and are scheduled to be upgraded to [[M51 SLBM|M51]] nuclear missile around 2010. *The UK's [[Royal Navy]] has four [[Vanguard class submarine]]s, each armed with 16 Trident II SLBMs. *[[China]]'s [[People's Liberation Army Navy]] has one [[Xia class submarine]] with 12 single-warhead JL-1 [[SLBM]]s. The PLAN is also developing the new Type 094 [[SSBN]] that will have up to 16 [[JL-2]] SLBMs (possibly [[MIRV]]), which are also in development. === Current and former US ballistic missiles === *[[Atlas (rocket)|Atlas]] (SM-65, CGM-16) former ICBM launched from silo, the rocket is now used for other purposes *[[Titan I]] (SM-68, HGM-25A) *[[Titan II]] (SM-68B, LGM-25C) - former ICBM launched from silo, the rocket is now used for other purposes *[[Minuteman missile|Minuteman I]] (SM-80, LGM-30A/B, HSM-80) *[[Minuteman missile|Minuteman II]] (LGM-30F) *[[Minuteman missile|Minuteman III]] (LGM-30G) - launched from silo - as of [[June 28]], [[2004]], there are 517 Minuteman III missiles in active inventory *[[LG-118A Peacekeeper]] / MX (LG-118A, MX) - silo-based; 29 missiles were on alert at the beginning of 2004; all are to be removed from service by 2005. *[[Midgetman missile|Midgetman]] - has never been operational - launched from mobile launcher *[[Polaris missile|Polaris]] A1, A2, A3 - (UGM-27/A/B/C) former SLBM *[[Poseidon missile|Poseidon]] C3 - (UGM-73) former SLBM *[[Trident missile|Trident]] - (UGM-93A/B)
948]] - [[Pim Fortuyn]], Dutch politician (d. [[2002]]) *1948 - [[Tony Iommi]], British musician ([[Black Sabbath]]) *[[1949]] - [[Dan Bunten]], American software developer (d. [[1998]]) *[[1951]] - [[Stephen Nichols]], American actor *1951 - [[Tahir-ul-Qadri]], Islamic scholar and leader *[[1952]] - [[Amy Tan]], American novelist *[[1953]] - [[Massimo Troisi]], Italian actor (d. [[1994]]) *[[1954]] - [[Socrates (football player)|Socrates]], Brazilian footballer *[[1955]] - [[Jeff Daniels (actor)|Jeff Daniels]], American actor *[[1956]] - [[Roderick MacKinnon]], American biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] *[[1957]] - [[Falco (musician)|Falco]], Austrian singer (d. [[1998]]) *1957 - [[Ray Winstone]], British actor *[[1960]] - [[Andrew, Duke of York]] *[[1962]] - [[Hana Mandlikova]], Czech tennis player *[[1963]] - [[Seal (singer)|Seal]], British singer *[[1964]] - [[Dmitri Lipskerov]], Russian writer *[[1966]] - [[Justine Bateman]], American actress *1966 - [[Paul Haarhuis]], Dutch tennis player *[[1967]] - [[Benicio Del Toro]], Puerto Rican actor *[[1969]] - [[Burton C. Bell]], American vocalist ([[Fear Factory]]) *[[1983]] - [[Vitas]], Russian singer *1983 - [[Mika Nakashima]], Japanese singer and actress *[[1985]] - [[Haylie Duff]], American singer and actress *[[1986]] - [[Reon Kadena]], Japanese model and actress *1986 - [[Maria Mena]], Norwegian singer &lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt; ==Deaths== *[[197]] - [[Clodius Albinus]], Roman governor of Britain *[[1133]] - [[Irene Ducaena]], wife of [[Alexius I Comnenus]] (b. [[1066]]) *[[1553]] - [[Erasmus Reinhold]], German astronomer and mathematician (b. [[1511]]) *[[1605]] - [[Orazio Vecchi]], Italian composer (b. [[1550]]) *[[1602]] - [[Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercoeur]], French soldier (b. [[1558]]) *[[1620]] - [[Roemer Visscher]], Dutch writer (b. [[1547]]) *[[1622]] - [[Henry Savile]], English educator (b. [[1549]]) *[[1653]] - [[Luigi de Rossi]], Italian composer (b. [[1597]]) *[[1663]] - [[Adam Adami]], German bishop and diplomat (b. [[1603]]) *[[1670]] - King [[Frederick III of Denmark]] (b. [[1609]]) *[[1672]] - [[Charles Chauncy]], English-born president of Harvard College (b. [[1592]]) *[[1709]] - [[Tokugawa Tsunayoshi]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1646]]) *[[1716]] - [[Dorthe Engelbrechtsdatter]], Norwegian poet (b. [[1634]]) *[[1789]] - [[Nicholas Van Dyke (1738-1789)|Nicholas Van Dyke]], American lawyer and President of Delaware (b. [[1738]]) *[[1799]] - [[Jean-Charles de Borda]], French mathematician, physicist, political scientist, and sailor (b. [[1733]]) *[[1806]] - [[Elizabeth Carter]], English writer (b. [[1717]]) *[[1837]] - [[Georg Büchner]], German playwright (b. [[1813]]) *[[1873]] - [[Vasil Levski]], Bulgarian revolutionary (b. [[1837]]) *[[1887]] - [[Multatuli]], Dutch writer (b. [[1820]]) *[[1897]] - [[Karl Weierstraß]], German mathematician (b. [[1815]]) *[[1916]] - [[Ernst Mach]], Austrian-Czech physicist and philosopher (b. [[1838]]) *[[1927]] - [[Robert Fuchs]], Austrian composer (b. [[1847]]) *[[1936]] - [[Billy Mitchell]], American general and military aviation pioneer (b. [[1879]]) *1936 - [[Max Schreck]], German actor (b. [[1879]]) *1936 - [[Charles Harding Firth]], British historian (b. [[1857]]) *[[1942]] - [[Frank Abbandando]], American gangster (executed) (b. [[1910]]) *[[1951]] - [[André Gide]], French writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1869]]) *[[1952]] - [[Knut Hamsun]], Norwegian author, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1859]]) *[[1969]] - [[Madge Blake]], American actress (b. [[1899]]) *[[1972]] - [[John Grierson]], Scottish documentary filmmaker (b. [[1898]]) *1972 - [[Tedd Pierce]], American animator (b. [[1906]]) *[[1973]] - [[Joseph Szigeti]], Hungarian violinist (b. [[1892]]) *[[1975]] - [[Luigi Dallapiccola]], Italian composer (b. [[1904]]) *[[1980]] - [[Bon Scott]], Australian musician ([[AC/DC]]) (b. [[1946]]) *[[1983]] - [[Alice White]], American film actress (b. [[1904]]) *[[1986]] - [[Adolfo Celi]], Italian actor (b. [[1922]]) *[[1988]] - [[André Frédéric Cournand]], French-born physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1895]]) *[[1994]] - [[Derek Jarman]], British Film Director (b. [[1942]]) *[[1996]] - [[Charles O. Finley]], American sports entrepreneur (b. [[1918]]) *[[1997]] - [[Deng Xiaoping]], Chinese Communist leader and revolutionary (b. [[1904]]) *1997 - [[Leo Rosten]], American Yiddish writer and humorist (b. [[1908]]) *[[1998]] - [[Grandpa Jones]], American banjo player and comedian (b. [[1913]]) *[[1999]] - [[Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr]], Iraqi Shiite leader (assassinated) *[[2000]] - [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]], Austrian artist (b. [[1928]]) *[[2001]] - [[Priscilla Davis]], American socialite (b. [[1942]]) *2001 - [[Stanley Kramer]], American director (b. [[1913]]) *2001 - [[Charles Trenet]], French singer (b. [[1913]]) *[[2003]] - [[Johnny Paycheck]], American singer (b. [[1938]]) &lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt; ==Holidays and observances== *[[Chaoflux]] ([[Discordianism]]) *[[Astrology]]: First day of sun sign [[Pisces]] *[[Astrology]]: Can also be last day of sun sign [[Aquarius]] depending on the time of birth and the astrologer's viewpoint. *[[Pentecost]]: 50 days. Christians celebrate this as a holiday commenmorating the day the Holy Ghost fell on the 120 in the Upper Room according to Acts 2:1-4. ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/19 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060219.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] * [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=19 On This Day in Canada] ---- [[February 18]] - [[February 20]] - [[January 19]] - [[March 19]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:19 Februarie]] [[ar:19 فبراير]] [[an:19 de frebero]] [[ast:19 de febreru]] [[bg:19 февруари]] [[be:19 лютага]] [[bs:19. februar]] [[ca:19 de febrer]] [[ceb:Pebrero 19]] [[cv:Нарăс, 19]] [[co:19 di frivaghju]] [[cs:19. únor]] [[cy:19 Chwefror]] [[da:19. februar]] [[de:19. Februar]] [[et:19. veebruar]] [[el:19 Φεβρουαρίου]] [[es:19 de febrero]] [[eo:19-a de februaro]] [[eu:Otsailaren 19]] [[fo:19. februar]] [[fr:19 février]] [[fy:19 febrewaris]] [[ga:19 Feabhra]] [[gl:19 de febreiro]] [[ko:2월 19일]] [[hr:19. veljače]] [[io:19 di februaro]] [[id:19 Februari]] [[ia:19 de februario]] [[is:19. febrúar]] [[it:19 febbraio]] [[he:19 בפברואר]] [[jv:19 Februari]] [[ka:19 თებერვალი]] [[csb:19 gromicznika]] [[ku:19'ê reşemiyê]] [[lt:Vasario 19]] [[lb:19. Februar]] [[hu:Február 19]] [[mk:19 февруари]] [[ms:19 Februari]] [[nap:19 'e frevaro]] [[nl:19 februari]] [[ja:2月19日]] [[no:19. februar]] [[nn:19. februar]] [[oc:19 de febrièr]] [[os:19 февралы]] [[pl:19 lutego]] [[pt:19 de Fevereiro]] [[ro:19 februarie]] [[ru:19 февраля]] [[se:Guovvamánu 19.]] [[sco:19 Februar]] [[sq:19 Shkurt]] [[scn:19 di frivaru]] [[simple:February 19]] [[sk:19. február]] [[sl:19. februar]] [[sr:19. фебруар]] [[fi:19. helmikuuta]] [[sv:19 februari]] [[tl:Pebrero 19]] [[tt:19. Febräl]] [[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 19]] [[th:19 กุมภาพันธ์]] [[vi:19 tháng 2]] [[tr:19 Şubat]] [[uk:19 лютого]] [[wa:19 di fevrî]] [[war:Pebrero 19]] [[zh:2月19日]] [[pam:Pebreru 19]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>February 24</title> <id>11007</id> <revision> <id>42057748</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:40:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Nigosh</username> <id>221949</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Holidays and observances */ rm International Sushi Day</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot; |- |{{FebruaryCalendar}} |- |{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=24}} |} '''February 24''' is the 55th day of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 310 days remaining, 311 in [[leap year]]s. By Roman custom February 24 is the day added to a [[leap year]], and the occurrence of [[February 29]] is merely a consequence of this. ==Events== *[[303]] - [[Galerius]], [[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]], publishes his edict that begins the persecution of [[Christianity|Christians]] in his portion of the [[Empire]]. *[[1582]] - [[Pope Gregory XIII]] announces the [[Gregorian calendar]]. *[[1711]] - The [[London]] premiere of ''[[Rinaldo (opera)|Rinaldo]]'' by [[George Friderich Handel]], the first [[Italian]] [[opera]] written for the [[London]] stage. *[[1739]] - [[Battle of Karnal]]: The army of [[History of Iran#Before the First World War|Iran]]ian ruler [[Nadir Shah]] defeats the forces of the [[Mughal]] emperor of [[History of India#The Mughal era|India]], [[Muhammad Shah]]. *[[1803]] - The [[Supreme Court of the United States]], in ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]'', establishes the principle of [[judicial review]]. *[[1804]] - [[London]]'s [[Drury Lane Theatre]] burns to the ground, leaving owner [[Richard Brinsley Sheridan]] destitute. *[[1826]] - The signing of the [[Treaty of Yandaboo]] marks the end of the [[First Burmese War]]. *[[1831]] - The [[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek]], the first removal treaty in accordance with the [[Indian Removal Act]], is proclaimed. The [[Choctaw]]s in [[Mississippi]] cede land east of the river in exchange for payment and land in the [[West]]. *[[1839]] - [[William Otis]] receives a [[patent]] for the [[steam shovel]]. *[[1848]] - [[King]] [[Louis-Philippe of France]] abdicates the throne. *[[1863]] - [[Arizona]] is organized as a [[Political divisions of the United States|United States territory]]. *[[1868]] - The first [[parade]] to have floats is staged at [[Mardi Gras]] in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]. *1868 - [[Andrew Johnson]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to be [[impeachment|impeache
very early in OS loading. Initially the emulation speed wasn't stellar; emulation is hardly ever speedy. Later versions used a [[dynamic recompilation]] emulator which boosted performance by caching frequently used sections of translated code. The first version of the OS to ship with the earliest PowerPC systems was estimated to run 95% emulated. Later versions of the operating system increased the percentage of PowerPC native code until OS X brought it to 100% native. On [[June 6]], [[2005]], Apple CEO Steve Jobs announced that the company would begin transitioning the Macintosh line from PowerPC to Intel microprocessors, expected to be completed by the end of 2006, and demonstrated a version of Mac OS X running on a computer powered by an Intel [[Pentium 4]] CPU. Intel-powered Macs will be able to run Macintosh software compiled for PowerPC processors using a [[binary translation|dynamic translation]] system known as [[Rosetta (software)|Rosetta]]. The reason for this switch concerns problems with the power consumption of the IBM G5 processors, coupled with IBM's inability to deliver on the promised roadmap. The first Macintoshes with Intel processors were the iMac Core Duo and the MacBook Pro, both announced at the [[Macworld Conference &amp; Expo|Macworld Conference and Expo]] in January 2006 and using the [[Intel Core|Core Duo]] processor. === Expandability and connectivity === [[Image:Type A USB connector.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A typical [[Universal Serial Bus]] (&quot;USB&quot;) Type A cable; the USB has become standard on modern Macintosh computers.]] The earliest form of Macintosh expandability was the [[Processor Direct Slot]] (PDS), present from the SE onwards. It was basically a shortcut to the [[CPU socket]], not a bus&amp;mdash;which also meant that parts for the PDS slot were tied to a specific Macintosh model, with the notable exception of the LC PDS slot, which was standardized across the entire LC line. The PDS slot could be used for processor upgrades, the [[Apple IIe Card]], or video cards. The last line of Macintoshes to have PDS slots was the first generation of the PowerMacs. The first Macintosh to feature a bus for expansion was the Macintosh II, in the form of six [[NuBus]] (parallel 32-bit bus) slots. The NuBus was abandoned in favor of [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] in the second-generation Power Macs, and the G4 added an [[Accelerated Graphics Port|AGP]] slot for video cards. The latest G5s use [[PCI Express]] for graphics and expansion. For memory, Apple has used standard [[SIMM]]s (30 and 72-pin) and later [[DIMM]]s, with the notable exception of the Macintosh IIfx, which used special and very rare 64-pin SIMMs. Currently, the top-of-the-line G5 PowerMacs use 240-pin [[DDR2 SDRAM]] DIMMs. The earliest Macintoshes used a special proprietary serial port for external floppy or hard drives, until SCSI was introduced with the Macintosh Plus. SCSI remained the Macintosh drive connection of choice until the PowerMac G3, when less expensive [[Advanced Technology Attachment|ATA]] drives became standard. Current PowerMacs use [[Serial ATA|SATA]] for internal hard drives, ATA for internal optical drives and FireWire (or USB) for external drives. For peripherals, the Apple Desktop Bus was introduced with the Macintosh II. It was the standard input connector until the Universal Serial Bus was introduced with the iMac. The last Macintosh to have ADB was the blue and white PowerMac G3 though the PCI-based G4 (the Yikes! board) had the circuitry for it. Other legacy Macintosh peripheral connectors include the serial [[GeoPort]] and the [[Apple Attachment Unit Interface|AAUI]] port for networking. For external video signals, Apple used a [[D-subminiature|DB-15]] connector on all models prior to the blue and white G3, which uses a [[VGA connector]]; the VGA was in turn dropped in favor of the [[Apple Display Connector]] in the PowerMac G4. On the most recent Macintoshes, Apple has used a standard or dual-link [[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]] connector. == Software == === Operating system === {{main|Mac OS history}} [[Image:Apple Macintosh Desktop.png|thumb|250px|The original 1984 [[Mac OS]] desktop with the radically new [[graphical user interface]].]] [[Image:System7screenshot.gif|thumb|250px|[[System 7 (Macintosh)|System 7]] was the first major upgrade of the Macintosh operating system. Note that the display is in 8-bit color.]] [[Image:MacOSX10.4.png|thumb|250px|The [[Mac OS X v10.4]] &quot;Tiger&quot; desktop. Although the interface has undergone many changes, some aspects remain, such as the [[menu bar]] at the top of the screen.]] The Macintosh operating system was originally known as the ''System Software'' or more simply ''System''. With the release of System 7.6, the official name became Mac OS. From 2001, the &quot;classic&quot; Mac OS was phased out in favor of the new BSD Unix-based Mac OS X. Apple had offered another UNIX system, [[A/UX]], for its Macintosh servers earlier, but without much success. The Mac OS operating system is widely considered one of the main selling points of the Macintosh platform, and Apple heavily touts its releases with large special events and release-day events. Apple has generally chosen to stick with some loose user-interface elements in all of its releases, and many similarities can be seen between the legacy Mac OS 9 and the modern Mac OS X. Non-Apple operating systems for today’s Macintoshes include Linux and free BSD variants. Mac OS was the first widely used operating system with a graphical interface. No versions of the &quot;classic&quot; Mac OS featured a [[command line interface]]. It was originally a single-tasking OS, but optional [[co-operative multitasking]] was introduced in System 5. The next major upgrade was [[System 7 (Macintosh)|System 7]] in 1991, which featured a new full-color design, built-in multitasking, [[AppleScript]], and more user configuration options. Mac OS continued to evolve up to version 9.2.2, but its dated architecture&amp;mdash;such as using cooperative multitasking instead of the more modern [[Computer multitasking|preemptive multitasking]]&amp;mdash;made a replacement necessary. In March 2001, Apple introduced Mac OS X, a modern and more secure Unix-based successor, using [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]], [[XNU]] and [[Mach kernel|Mach]] as foundations. Mac OS X is directly derived from NeXTSTEP, the operating system developed by Steve Jobs' company NeXT before Apple bought it. Older Mac OS programs can still run under Mac OS X in a special [[virtual machine]] called Classic, but this is only possible on Macintoshes using PowerPC processors, not on Macintoshes using Intel processors. A program similar to Classic called &quot;Rosetta&quot; will allow PowerPC programs to run on Intel machines. Even though Mac OS X was never certified as a UNIX implementation by [[The Open Group]], it is now the most common Unix-based desktop operating system. Mac OS X is currently at version 10.4 (released on [[April 29]] [[2005]]), code-named ''Tiger''. The next version, [[Mac OS X v10.5]], code-named ''Leopard'', is scheduled to be released at the end of 2006. === Software history === Since its introduction, the Mac has been criticized for the lack of software available for its operating system. In 1984 it was apparent that a wider range of software was available for the [[IBM PC]], because it used the most popular operating system of the time, [[MS-DOS]]. Apple struggled to encourage software developers to port software titles to the Macintosh; however, [[Bill Gates]] at Microsoft realized that the [[Graphical user interface|GUI]] would become an industry standard, and that his software would sell in large quantity if it were available for the Macintosh. In 1984 [[Microsoft Word]] and [[Multiplan|Microsoft MultiPlan]] were available, and were a large selling point for the Mac. However, it lacked other business software and games. In 1985, [[Lotus Software]] introduced [[Lotus Jazz]] after the success of [[Lotus 1-2-3]] for the IBM PC, although it was largely a flop. In 1987, Apple spun off its software business as [[Claris]]. It was given the code and rights to several programs that had been written within Apple, notably MacWrite, MacPaint and [[MacProject]]. In the late 1980s, Claris released a number of revamped software titles; the result was the &quot;Pro&quot; series, including MacPaint Pro, MacDraw Pro, MacWrite Pro and FileMaker Pro. To provide a complete office suite, Claris purchased the rights to the [[Informix Wingz]] [[spreadsheet]] on the Mac, renaming it [[Claris Resolve]], and added the new presentation program [[Claris Impact]]. By the early 1990s, Claris programs were shipping with the majority of consumer-level Macintoshes and were extremely popular. In 1991, Claris released [[AppleWorks|ClarisWorks]], which soon became their second best-selling program. When Claris was later folded back into Apple, ClarisWorks was renamed AppleWorks beginning with version 5.0. Today, all Macs come prepackaged with a suite of consumer-level applications. In 1999, a digital video editing application, [[iMovie]], was released for use on the [[iMac|iMac DV]]. Next came [[iTunes]], a digital jukebox designed to work with Apple’s iPod digital music player, and on [[January 7]], [[2002]], Apple released [[iPhoto]], an easy-to-use digital photo organizer. In 2004, Apple began to market these applications, along with [[iDVD]] and [[GarageBand]], as a $49 suite called &quot;iLife.&quot; It is intended to make the Mac versatile out of the box by providing several high-value consumer media applications. The most popular tool in the suite is iTunes, now in a Windows version as well, and has spawned the most popular online music store, the [[iTunes Music Store]]. In January 2006, iLife '06 was released; [[iWeb]], a new website creation application, was added to the suite and the price was increased to $79. == Advert
tor=[[Mikhail Kalashnikov]] |date=1947 |serv_date=1951–present |cartridge=[[7.62 x 39 mm|7.62 × 39 mm]] |action=[[Gas-operated]], [[rotating bolt]] |rof=600 round/min |velocity=710 m/s (~2,330 ft/s) |range=300 m |mass=4.3 kg |length=870 mm |barrel=415 mm |capacity=30-round detachable box; compatible w/ [[RPK]] 40-round box and 75-round [[drum magazine]] |sights=Adjustable [[iron sights]], optional mount required for optical sights |variant=AK-47, AKS, AKM [[GRAU|6P1]], AKMS, [[AK-74]], [[AK-101]], [[AK-102]], [[AK-103]], [[AK-104]], [[AK-105]], [[AK-107]], [[AK-108]] |num_built=Over 100 million |}} The '''AK-47''' ('''''A'''vtomat '''K'''alashnikova 19'''47 '''''; [[Russian language|Russian]]: Автомат Калашникова образца 1947 года) is a [[gas-operated]] [[assault rifle]] designed by [[Mikhail Kalashnikov]], produced by [[Russia]]n manufacturer [[IZH]], and used in many [[Eastern bloc]] nations during the [[Cold War]]. It was adopted and standardized in 1947. Compared to [[rifle]]s used in [[World War II]], the AK-47 was generally lighter, more compact, with a shorter range, a smaller [[7.62 x 39 mm|7.62 × 39 mm]] cartridge, and was capable of [[selective fire]]. It was one of the first assault rifles, and surely the most prolific. The AK-47 and its numerous variants have been produced in greater numbers than any other assault rifle in the 20th century, and it remains in production to this day. ==Development== During the Second World War, Germany had developed the concept of the assault rifle. This concept was based on the premise that most military engagements in modern warfare were happening at fairly close range with the majority happening within 100 meters. The power and range of ‘full-power’ rifle cartridges was simply overkill for a vast majority of engagements with small arms. As a result, a cartridge and firearm were sought that would combine the features of a submachinegun (high capacity magazine and fully-automatic capability) with an intermediate power cartridge that would be effective to a range of 300 meters. For the sake of manufacturing, this was done by shortening the 8 mm Mauser cartridge to 33 mm and using a lighter bullet. The resulting [[Sturmgewehr 44]] was not the first rifle to use these features; it was preceded by earlier [[Italy|Italian]], and [[Russia]]n, designs. The Germans were, however, the first to produce and field a sufficient number of the type to properly evaluate its utility. They fielded the weapon in large numbers against the Russians towards the end of the war. This experience deeply influenced Russian doctrine in the years following the war. [[Image:AKlash.jpg|thumb|right|Mikhail Kalashnikov]]According to the story, tank sergeant Mikhail Kalashnikov began imagining his weapon while still in the hospital, after being wounded in the battle of [[Bryansk]]. He had been informed that a new weapon was required for the 7.62 × 39 mm cartridge developed by Elisarov and Semin in 1943. Sudayev's [[PPS43]] submachine gun was preferred to Kalashnikov's design. Kalashnikov redesigned his losing design after examining a German [[Sturmgewehr 44|STG 44]] in 1946. It has been suggested that Kalashnikov was chosen to lead a team of designers more for propaganda value due to his war-hero status rather than for his expertise, following Soviet patterns in other industries. Despite circumstantial evidence, Mikhail Kalashnikov denies that his rifle was ''based'' on the German assault rifle. Internally the AK-47 owes much to the [[M1 Garand]] Rifle. The double locking lugs, unlocking raceway, and trigger mechanism are clearly derived from the earlier American design. This is not surprising as millions of Garand rifles had operated reliably in combat around the globe. Though mechanically similar to the Garand, the AK-47 clearly borrows its cartridge concept, weapon layout, gas system, and construction methods from the StG44. Where the Kalashnikov rifle differs is in its simplification of those contributing designs and adaptation to mass production by relatively unskilled labor. The AK-47 can be seen as a fusion of the best that the M1 Garand offered combined with the best aspects of the StG44 made by the best processes available in the Soviet Union at the time. There were many difficulties during the initial phase of production. The first production models had stamped sheet metal receivers. Alarmingly, these rifles were wearing out rapidly. Instead of halting production, a heavy machined receiver was substituted for the sheet metal receiver. This was a more costly process, but the use of machined receivers accelerated production as tooling and labor for the earlier [[Mosin-Nagant]] rifle's machined receiver were easily adapted. Partly because of these problems, the Soviets were not able to distribute large numbers of the new rifle to soldiers until 1956. Once manufacturing difficulties had been overcome, a redesigned version designated the AKM (''M'' for ''modernized'' or ''upgraded'') was introduced in 1959 . This new model used a stamped sheet metal receiver and featured a slanted device on the end of the barrel to compensate for muzzle rise under recoil. The AKM was exported around the world to aid in the spread of Communism. Licensed production of the Kalashnikov weapons abroad as well as unlicensed production was almost exclusively of the AKM. Despite this, rifles of this pattern are almost universally referred to as AK-47's. In 1978, the Soviet Union began replacing their AK-47 and AKM rifles with a newer design, the [[AK-74]]. This new rifle and cartridge had only started being exported to eastern European nations when the Soviet Union collapsed. [[Image:LCpl Cheema on the AK-47.JPG|right|thumb|280px|East Germany-made MPiKS 72, folding stock variant of AKM in the hands of a U.S. Marine]] ==Notable features== The AK-47 is simple and inexpensive to manufacture and easy to clean and maintain. Its ruggedness and reliability is legendary. The large gas piston, generous clearances between moving parts, and tapered cartridge case design allow the gun to endure large amounts of foreign matter and fouling without failing to cycle. This reliability comes at the cost of accuracy. The notched rear tangent iron sight is calibrated with each numeral denoting hundreds of meters. The front sight is a post adjustable for elevation in the field. Windage adjustment is done by the armory prior to issue. The battle setting places the round within a few centimeters above or below the point of aim out to approximately 250 meters. This &quot;[[point-blank range]]&quot; setting allows the shooter to fire the gun at any close target without adjusting the sights. Longer settings are intended for area suppression. These settings mirror the [[Mosin-Nagant]] and [[SKS]] rifles which the AK-47 replaced. This eased transition and simplified training. The [[bore]] and [[chamber]], as well as the gas piston and the interior of the [[gas cylinder]], are generally [[chromium]] plated. This plating dramatically increases the life of these parts by resisting corrosion and wear. Chrome plating of critical parts is now common on most modern military weapons. ==Ballistics== The standard AK-47 or AKM fires a [[7.62 x 39 mm|7.62 × 39 mm]] [[cartridge (weaponry)|round]] with a muzzle velocity of 710 m/s (2,329 ft/s). Muzzle energy is 1,990 [[joule]]s (1,467 ft•lbf). Cartridge case length is 38.6 mm, weight is 18.21 g. Projectile weight is normally 8 g (123 gr). The AK-47 and AKM, with the 7.62 × 39 mm cartridge, have an effective range of around 300 meters. For comparison, the [[7.62 x 54 mm R]] cartridge has a projectile of 12 g (185 gr) at a velocity of 818 m/s (2,683 ft/s) for approximately 4,000 joules (2,950 ft•lbf) of energy. ==Operating cycle== [[Image:AK-components.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A diagram showing the design of AKM.]] To fire, the operator inserts a loaded [[Magazine (firearm)|magazine]], moves the selector lever to the lowest position, pulls back and releases the charging handle, and then pulls the [[trigger]]. In this setting, the gun fires once requiring the trigger be released and depressed again for the next shot until the magazine is exhausted. With the selector in the middle position, the rifle continues to fire, automatically cycling fresh rounds into the chamber, until the magazine is exhausted or pressure is released from the trigger. Dismantling the gun involves the operator depressing the magazine catch and removing the magazine. The charging handle is pulled to the rear and the operator inspects the chamber to verify the gun is unloaded. The operator presses forward on the retainer button at the rear of the receiver cover while simultaneously lifting up on the rear of the cover to remove it. He then pushes spring assembly forward and lifts it from its raceway, withdrawing it out of the bolt carrier and to the rear. The operator must then pull the carrier assembly all the way to the rear, lift it and then pull it away. He removes the bolt by pushing it to the rear of the bolt carrier; rotating the bolt so the camming lug clears the raceway on the underside of the bolt carrier and then pulls it forward and free. When cleaning, the operator will pay special attention to the barrel, bolt face, and gas piston, then oil lightly and reassemble. [[Image:Misccaparms.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Small arms captured in [[Fallujah]], [[Iraq]] by the [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marine Corps]] in 2004 include two AK-47s (first and third from the left)]] ==Legal status in the USA== Private ownership of fully-automatic AK-47 rifles is tightly regulated by the [[National Firearms Act]] of 1934. The [[Gun Control Act of 1968]] ceased import of foreign manufactured fully-automatic firearms for civilian sales and possession effectively halting further importation of civilian accessible AK-47 rifles. In [[1986]], an amendment to the [[Firearm Owners Protection Ac
upon return to Earth, the travellers would find that far more time had elapsed (on Earth) than their subjective travel time would indicate. ==Speculative interstellar travel== Interstellar travel designs fall into two categories. The first, which we will call ''slow interstellar travel'', takes a great deal of time, longer than a human lifespan. The second, which we will call ''fast interstellar travel'' assumes that the difficulties above can be conquered. ===Slow interstellar travel=== Slow interstellar travel designs generally use near future [[spacecraft propulsion]] technologies. As a result, voyages are extremely long, lasting hundreds or thousands of years. Voyages might be one-way trips to set up [[colony|colonies]]. The propulsion system required for such slow travel are less speculative than those for fast interstellar travel, but the duration of such journeys would present a huge obstacle in itself. The following are the major proposed solutions to that obstacle: ====Generation ships==== A [[generation ship]] would be large enough to hold a colony of people. These people would live out their lives on board the ship, and their descendants would arrive at a new solar system. These descendants might establish a colony, or perhaps stop only to explore and perhaps to build other ships. Generation ships have long been a popular plot device in science fiction; such stories often have negative outcomes involving a deterioration of the ship-borne culture. Generation ships are not currently feasible, both because building such an enormous ship would have to be done in space, and because such a sealed, self-sustaining habitat would be difficult to construct. Artificial closed [[ecosystem]]s, including [[Biosphere 2]], have been built in an attempt to work out the engineering difficulties in such a system, with mixed results. ====Suspended animation==== Scientists and writers have postulated various techniques for [[suspended animation]]. These include human [[hibernation]] and [[cryonics|cryonic preservation]]. While neither is currently practical, they offer the possibility of [[sleeper ship]]s in which the passengers lie inert for the long years of the voyage. ====Extended human lifespan==== A variant on this possibility is based on the development of substantial human life extension, such as the [[Engineered negligible senescence|&quot;Engineered Neglible Senescence&quot;]] strategy of [[Aubrey de Grey|Dr. Aubrey de Grey]]. If a ship crew had lifespans of some thousands of years, they could traverse interstellar distances without the need to replace the crew in generations. The psychological effects of such an extended period of travel would potentially still pose a problem. ====Frozen embryos==== A [[robotic]] space mission carrying some number of frozen early stage human [[embryos]] is another theoretical possibility. This method of [[space colonization]] requires, among other things, the development of a method to replicate conditions in a [[womb]], the prior detection of a habitable [[terrestrial planet]], and advances in the field of fully autonomous [[robotics|mobile robots]]. (See [[embryo space colonization]].) ===Fast interstellar travel=== The possibility of starships that can reach the stars quickly (or at least, within a human lifespan) is naturally more attractive. This would require some sort of exotic propulsion methods or exotic physics. ====Sub-light-speed travel==== In 1957 it was deemed possible to build 8 million ton spaceships with [[nuclear pulse propulsion]] engines, perhaps capable of reaching speeds of about 10 percent of light speed. One problem with such a propulsion method is that it uses nuclear explosions as a driving force, and may be highly controversial due to the risk of radiation or other hazards in using such a method. Another early proposal for an interstellar propulsion system was the [[Bussard ramjet]], in which a huge scoop would collect the diffuse hydrogen in interstellar space, &quot;burn&quot; it using a [[proton-proton fusion]] reaction, and expel it out the back. As the fuel would be collected ''en route'', the craft could have theoretically accelerated to near the speed of light. Proposed in 1960, later calculations with more accurate estimates suggest that the thrust generated would be less than the drag caused by any conceivable scoop design. Fusion-powered starships should be able to reach speeds of approximately 10 percent of that of light. [[solar sail|Light sail]]s powered by massive lasers could potentially reach similar or greater speeds. Finally, if energy resources and efficient production methods are found to make [[antimatter]] in the quantities required, theoretically it would be possible to reach speeds near that of light, where [[time dilation]] would shorten perceived trip times for the travelers considerably. Even given the assumption of 10 percent of light speed, this would be enough to reach Alpha Centauri in forty years, only half a present human lifetime. With any ship traveling at a significant fraction of light speed, shielding the spacecraft from the sparse dust and gas of the [[interstellar medium]] would become a serious issue. ====Faster than light travel==== ''Main article: [[faster-than-light|Faster than Light Travel]]'' Scientists and authors have postulated a number of ways by which it might be possible to surpass the speed of light. Unfortunately, even the most serious-minded of these are extremely speculative at this point. =====Wormholes===== [[Wormholes]] are probably the least conjectural of faster-than-light options under current science. Wormholes are distortions in space-time that theorists postulate could connect two arbitrary points in the universe, across an [[Einstein-Rosen Bridge]]. It is not known whether or not wormholes are possible in practice. Although there are solutions to the [[Einstein equation]] of [[general relativity]] which allow for wormholes, all of the currently known solutions involve some assumption, for example the existence of [[negative mass]], which may be unphysical. There are two types of wormholes that may enable interstellar travel. The first kind originates with the same process as a [[black hole]]: the death of a star. Wormholes of this kind safe enough for a human being to navigate would probably have to be supermassive and rotating, on a scale similar to [[Sagittarius A*]] at the centre of the [[Milky Way Galaxy]]; smaller black holes produce intense [[tidal]] forces that would completely destroy any macroscopic object falling into them. Another kind of wormhole is based on [[quantum gravity]]. Some have speculated that [[Euclidean]] wormholes that spontaneously come into being and disappear again, and exist at scales of [[Planck length]]. It may be that this wormhole could be &quot;propped open&quot; using [[negative energy]] (also known as vacuum energy), though the quantity of the energy would be immense. It is not clear that any of this is even theoretically possible, largely because there is no widely accepted theory of quantum gravity. ===Interstellar travel via transmission=== If physical entities could be transmitted as information and reconstructed at a destination, travel at the speed of light would be possible. Encoding, sending and then reconstructing an atom by atom description of (say) a human body is a daunting prospect, but it may be sufficient to send [[software]] that in all practical purposes duplicates the neural function of a person. Presumably, the receiver/reconstructor for such transmissions would have to be sent to the destination by more conventional means. ==NASA research== As part of the NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Project, it identified three things which must happen, or breakthroughs which are needed, in order for interstellar travel to be possible [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/research/warp/brakthru.html]: # A new propulsion method which has less need for propellant # A method of propulsion which is able to reach the maximum speed which is possible to attain # A new method of on board energy production method which would power those devices. Analogies for 'breakthroughs' in technology are steam engines supplanting sailing ships, and jet aircraft replacing propeller aircraft. The breakthrough event means that they are not looking for a better way of designing a rocket engine, but instead a substantially new technology. It comes where the benefits of a past technology advancing gradually diminish, where there becomes a need for a new technology. ==References== * {{cite book | last = Mallove | first = Eugene | title=The Starflight Handbook | publisher = John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc | year = 1989 | id = ISBN 0471619124 }} ==See also== * [[interstellar communication]] * [[relativistic rocket]] * [[Starwisp]] * [[Project Daedalus]] * [[Project Orion]] * [[spacewarp]] ==External links== * [http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/bpp/ NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program] * [http://www.centauri-dreams.org/ Centauri Dreams] [[Category:Science fiction themes]] [[Category:Transportation]] [[Category:Interstellar travel]] [[da:Interstellar rejse]] [[de:Interstellare Raumfahrt]] [[ja:恒星間航行]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Interior Gateway Routing Protocol</title> <id>14844</id> <revision> <id>40565283</id> <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:45:05Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Eskimbot</username> <id>477460</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: fr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Interior Gateway Routing Protocol''' ('''IGRP''') is a kind of [[Interior Gateway Protocol|IGP]] which is a proprietary [[distance-vector routing protocol]] invented by [[Cisco Systems, Inc.|Cisco]], used by [[router]]s to exchange [[routing]] data within an [[autonomous system (Internet)|autonomous system]]. IGRP was created in part t
ominant position among pro football teams, appearing in the next six NFL championship games, and capturing three championships during the 1950s. The Browns won the championship in their first season in the NFL, 1950, behind the quarterbacking of [[Otto Graham]], the rushing of [[Marion Motley]], the receiving of [[Mac Speedie]], a defensive line anchored by [[Bill Willis]] and a secondary featuring [[Tommy James]]. Cleveland tore up the NFL in the regular season, going 10-2 with both losses being to the [[New York Giants]]. The Browns first regular season game was on the road against the defending NFL Champion Philadelphia Eagles as the schedule makers intended to give the Browns an immediate comeuppance. Cleveland won the game in dominant fashion, 35-10. The Browns defeated the Giants 8-3 in a tiebreaking playoff game and then came from behind in the fourth quarter beat the [[Los Angeles Rams]] 30-28 in the league championship in Cleveland. Cleveland again tore through the NFL in the 1951 season, going 11-1 with four shutouts along the way. The NFL championship was a rematch with the Rams, in Los Angeles this time, and went back-and-forth until the fourth quarter when [[Norm van Brocklin]] threw a 73-yard touchdown to [[Tom Fears]] to put Los Angeles in the lead for good. The 24-17 loss was the first in a championship game in Browns history. The 1952 regular season was not as successful, with only an 8-4 finish and Graham throwing 24 interceptions. Second-year player [[Ray Renfro]] became a star with 722 yards receiving and 322 yards rushing. But it was still good enough to win the division, and thus put the Browns in the NFL championship game against the [[Detroit Lions]]. A muffed punt, several defensive stands and a 67-yard touchdown run by [[Doak Walker]] all combined to help the Lions win 17-7, frustrating the Browns for the second consecutive year. [[Image:Browns 1950 Logo.GIF|thumb|right|The &quot;Brownie Elf&quot; mascot]] The 1953 team started the season by winning 11 straight games. They would not win any more. A loss to the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] in the final week led into a rematch with the Lions in the NFL championship. The game was much closer than the year before, with the game tied at 10 going into the final quarter. [[Lou Groza]] kicked two field goals to put Cleveland up 16-10, but Detroit's [[Bobby Layne]] threw a 33-yard touchdown pass to [[Jim Doran]] with under two minutes left to win 17-16, and break Cleveland hearts for a third straight year. In 1954, the Browns finished 9-3 and met up with Detroit in the finals for the third year in a row. This time, however, the Browns went on a relentless attack on both sides of the ball, intercepting Bobby Layne six times and forcing three fumbles, while [[Otto Graham]] threw three touchdowns and ran for three more, en route to a 56-10 thrashing. The 1955 campaign was also a successful one for the Browns. [[Chuck Noll]] (who ironically would later gain fame as head coach of the rival [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]) had a productive season at linebacker, with five interceptions. Graham passed for 15 touchdowns and ran for six more in his final season before retiring due to injuries. The Browns, who finished 9-2-1, once again made the championship, this time against the [[Los Angeles Rams]]. They were no less dominant than they were the previous season, again forcing six interceptions out of quarterback [[Norm van Brocklin]], one of which was returned for a touchdown by [[Don Paul]]. Graham also passed for two touchdowns and ran for two more as the Browns won 38-14. Without Graham behind center, the Browns floundered in 1956. Three quarterbacks ([[George Ratterman]], [[Babe Parilli]] and [[Tommy O'Connell]]) were used through the season, none of whom threw more touchdowns than interceptions. The 5-7 record meant the Browns were shut out of the championship game for the first time in team history. ===1957-65: The Jim Brown years=== The Browns responded in 1957 when they drafted fullback [[Jim Brown]], who easily became the NFL's leading rusher (and [[NFL Rookie of the Year]]) with 942 yards. Once again at the top of the division at 9-2-1, they advanced back to the championship game against their nemeses from Detroit. But the Lions dominated from start to finish, causing six turnovers and allowing the Browns' two quarterbacks ([[Tommy O'Connell]] and [[Milt Plum]]) only 95 yards passing in a 59-14 rout. In 1958 Jim Brown ran for 1527 yards, almost twice as much as any other running back. In his nine seasons in the league, he crossed the 1000-yard barrier seven times. The only snag in their getting back to another championship was the [[New York Giants]]. They lost to New York on the last week of the season after a spirited fourth-quarter comeback, then, due to their equal 9-3 records, faced the Giants again in a tiebreaker game with the winner going to the finals. This one was never in doubt: Jim Brown was limited to 8 yards and the team committed four turnovers as they were shut out 10-0. In 1959 the Browns started 6-2 but finished 7-5, out of championship contention, despite Brown once again leading the league in rushing with 1329 yards. In 1960, Plum threw for 21 touchdowns and Brown's 1257 yards was still best in the NFL, but the team still finished second at 8-3-1. [[Art Modell]], whose controversial decisions in later years led to the team's original demise, purchased the team in 1961. The season otherwise was typical: a fifth consecutive league-leading season from Jim Brown and a half-decent performance in the standings, but again, at 8-5-1, they were two games out of a berth in the championship. ====1962==== Milt Plum landed with the Lions in 1962, so [[Frank Ryan (football player)|Frank Ryan]] and [[Jim Ninowski]] shared quarterbacking duties. Jim Brown fell to fourth in the NFL rushing list, but the team's 7-6-1 record once again placed them third in the Eastern Division. Sadly, the team's first-round draft pick that year, [[Heisman Trophy]] winner [[Ernie Davis]], was diagnosed with [[leukemia]] during the preseason. The only time he took the field at Cleveland Stadium would be when he was introduced during the [[August 18]] doubleheader exhibition game. His loss was especially costly, since the team had been forced to trade future Hall of Famer [[Bobby Mitchell]] in order to acquire him. ====1963==== [[Paul Brown]], the only coach the Browns had ever known (and the team's namesake), was fired on [[January 9, 1963]] and replaced with [[Blanton Collier]]. Brown's dismissal was controversial not only because he had been the cornerstone of the franchise since its inception, but also due to the fact that Modell fired him in the midst of a Cleveland newspaper strike, allowing for limited local media attention. A series of tragedies during the off-season also proved to be devastating: 1963 draft choice [[Tom Bloom]] was killed in a car accident in January; Davis lost his battle with [[leukemia]] on [[May 18]]; and defensive back [[Don Fleming]] was electrocuted on [[June 4]] while working in Florida. Despite these blows, the team improved in 1963, led by [[Jim Brown]]'s NFL record 1,863 yards rushing, a mark that would stand for the next decade, until [[O.J. Simpson]] broke it in 1973. The team's passing attack also flourished with 25 touchdown passes from [[Frank Ryan]], including a team-record 13 to second-year wideout [[Gary Collins]]. The season began with six straight victories, including an impressive 35-24 decision on [[October 13]] at [[Yankee Stadium]] over the defending Eastern Conference champion New York Giants. Two weeks later, the Giants returned the favor with an embarrassing 33-6 victory at [[Cleveland Stadium]]. After two losses in their next three games eroded the team's momentum, they bounced back with a 27-10 win over Dallas and a 24-10 victory against the Cardinals. The first game took place just two days after the [[John F. Kennedy]] [[assassination]], and was noteworthy for both the somber atmosphere and avoidance of any reference to the city of Dallas by the [[Cleveland Stadium]] public address announcer. Despite those wins, a 38-10 loss at Detroit on [[December 8]] put an end to the team's postseason hopes, with the 10-4 season record a game behind the Giants. The team also dropped a 40-23 decision to the [[Green Bay Packers]] in the [[Playoff Bowl]]. ====1964==== The Browns reached the top again in 1964 as rookie [[Paul Warfield]] caught 52 passes for 920 yards and nine touchdowns, Ryan threw for 2,400 yards and 25 scores and Brown once agin led the league in rushing with 1,446 yards. The team was 3-0-1 in its first four games, the tie coming in a thrilling 33-33 deadlock against the St. Louis Cardinals on September 20. The first loss came at the hands of the Pittsburgh Steelers on October 10, mainly due to the efforts of future Hall of Famer John Henry Johnson, who rushed for more than 200 yards. After six wins in their next seven games, the Browns missed the chance to clinch the Eastern Conference by dropping a 28-19 decision at St. Louis on December 6. However, before a national television audience six days later, the Browns convincingly captured their conference title with a 52-20 win over the [[New York Giants]]. The title earned them a spot in the NFL Championship game after a seven-year absence. Oddsmakers made their opponents, the [[Baltimore Colts]], seven-point favorites, but the teams left the field after one half of play locked in a scoreless duel. [[Lou Groza]]'s field goal gave the Browns a 3-0 lead, with the duo of quarterback [[Frank Ryan]] and wide receiver [[Gary Collins]] completing the upset by connecting on three touchdown passes, winning 27-0. The title marks the last championship by any major Cleveland sports team, as of 2005. ====1965==== The 1965 team finished 11-3 after Brown rushed for 1,544 yards, caught 34 passes and scored 21 touchdowns, once again leading
de possible by the piles of dead wood left behind by the timber industry. Even discounting the calamitous effects of the fire, in the mid-1980s Indonesia's deforestation rate was the highest in Southeast Asia, at 7,000 km² per year and possibly as much as 10,000 km² per year. Although additional deforestation came about as a result of the government-sponsored Transmigration Program (''transmagrasi'') in uninhabited woodlands, in some cases the effects of this process were mitigated by replacing the original forest cover with plantation trees, such as coffee, rubber, or palm. In many areas of Kalimantan, however, large sections of forest were cleared, with little or no systematic effort at reforestation. Although reforestation laws existed, they were rarely or only selectively enforced, leaving the bare land exposed to heavy rainfall, leaching, and erosion. Because commercial logging permits were granted from Jakarta, the local inhabitants of the forests had little say about land use, but in the mid-1980s, the government, through the Department of Forestry, joined with the World Bank to develop a forestry management plan. The efforts resulted in the first forest inventory since colonial times, seminal forestry research, conservation and national parks programs, and development of a master plan by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN). '''Natural hazards:''' occasional [[flood]]s, severe [[drought]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[earthquake]]s, [[volcano]]es, [[forest fire]]s '''Environment - current issues:''' [[deforestation]]; water [[pollution]] from industrial wastes, sewage; air pollution in urban areas; smoke and haze from forest fires '''Environment - international agreements:''' &lt;br&gt;''party to:'' Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands &lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:'' Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation ==National territory: rights and responsibilities== The legal responsibility for Indonesia's environment continued to be a matter of controversy in the early 1990s. Among the continuing concerns were those expressed in 1982 during the UN Conference on the Law of the Sea. In this conference, Indonesia sought to defend its March 1980 claim to a 200 nautical mile (370 km) exclusive economic zone. Based on the doctrine of the political and security unity of archipelagic land and sea space (wawasan nusantara), the government asserted its rights to marine and geological resources within this coastal zone. In all, the area claimed the government, including the exclusive economic zone, was 7.9 million square kilometers. Indonesia also claimed as its territory all sea areas within a maritime belt of twelve nautical miles of the outer perimeter of its islands. All straits, bays, and waters within this belt were considered inland seas by the government and amounted to around 93,000 square kilometers. The Strait of Malacca--one of the most heavily traveled sea-lanes in the world--was considered by Indonesia and Malaysia to be their joint possession, and the two countries requested that other nations notify their governments before moving warships through these waters. The United States and several other nations rejected those claims, considering the strait an international waterway. During the 1980s and early 1990s, Indonesia was involved in territorial disputes. One controversy concerned Indonesia's annexation of the former colony of Portuguese Timor as Timor Timur Province in 1976, an action which came under protest in the UN and among human rights activists. Another dispute involved Indonesia's conflict with Australia over rights to the continental shelf off the coast of Timor. This problem was resolved in 1991 by a bilateral agreement calling for joint economic exploitation of the disputed area in the so-called &quot;Timor Gap.&quot; Still other controversies arose regarding overflight rights in Irian Jaya (disputed with Papua New Guinea) and conflicting claims to the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea by Brunei, China, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Indonesia played the role of mediator in the Spratly Islands controversy. Even as Indonesia extended its claim to territory, international environmental groups were pressing Jakarta to accept environmental responsibility for those territories. Indonesia was encouraged to monitor pollution in its territorial waters and take legal action to prevent the destruction of its rain forests. Since the late 1960s, the government addressed increasing environmental problems by establishing resource management programs, conducting environmental impact analyses, developing better policy enforcement, and enacting appropriate laws to give government officials proper authority. Despite these efforts, overlapping competencies among government departments and legal uncertainties about which department had what authority slowed progress made against environmental degradation. ==Area and boundaries== '''Area:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 1,919,440 km² &lt;br&gt;''land:'' 1,826,440 km² &lt;br&gt;''water:'' 93,000 km² '''Land boundaries:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 2,830 km &lt;br&gt;''border countries:'' [[Malaysia]] 1,782 km, [[Papua New Guinea]] 820 km, [[East Timor]] 228 km &lt;br&gt;''Other nearby countries:'' [[India]] NW of Acheh, [[Australia]], [[Singapore]], [[Philippines]], [[Brunei]]. '''Coastline:''' 54,716 km '''Maritime claims:''' measured from claimed archipelagic baselines &lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:'' 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km) &lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:'' 12 nautical miles (22 km) '''Elevation extremes:''' &lt;br&gt;''lowest point:'' Indian Ocean 0 m &lt;br&gt;''highest point:'' [[Puncak Jaya]] (also known as [[Mount Carstenz]]) 4 884 m ==Resources and land use== '''Natural resources:''' [[petroleum]], [[tin]], natural [[gas]], [[nickel]], [[timber]], [[bauxite]], [[copper]], fertile soils, [[coal]], [[gold]], [[silver]] '''Land use:''' &lt;br&gt;''arable land:'' 9.9% &lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:'' 7.2% &lt;br&gt;''other:'' 82.9% (1998 est.) '''Irrigated land:''' 48,150 km² (1998 est.) ==See also== * [[Indonesia]] * [[List of cities in Indonesia]] ==Sources== *[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies] *''CIA World Fact Book'' {{Asia in topic|Geography of}} [[Category:Geography by country|Indonesia]] [[Category:Geography of Indonesia| ]] [[es:Geografía de Indonesia]] [[fr:Géographie de l'Indonésie]] [[id:Geografi Indonesia]] [[lt:Indonezijos geografija]] [[pt:Geografia da Indonésia]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Indonesia</title> <id>14645</id> <revision> <id>42037558</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:44:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Birdmessenger</username> <id>142230</id> </contributor> <comment>/* Ethnic groups */ fixing redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Indonesia]]'s 242 million people make it the world's fourth-most populous nation. The [[island]] of [[Java (island)|Java]] is one of the most densely populated areas in the world, with more than 114 million people living in an area the size of [[New York State]]. Indonesia includes numerous related but distinct cultural and linguistic groups. A common misconception is that Indonesians are [[Malay people|Malay]]s. As a matter of fact, Malays only form a fraction of Indonesia's population. Since independence, [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] (Bahasa Indonesia) (the national language, a form of [[Malay language|Malay]]) has spread throughout the archipelago and has become the language of most written communication, education, government, and business. Many local languages are still important in many areas, however. ==Population data== '''Population:''' 241,973,879 (July 2005 est.) '''Age structure:''' &lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:'' 29.1% (male 35,823,456; female 34,590,631) &lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:'' 65.7% (male 79,447,560; female 79,449,399) &lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 5.2% (male 5,526,389; female 7,136,444) (2005 est.) '''Population growth rate:''' 1.45% (2005 est.) '''Birth rate:''' 20.71 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) '''Death rate:''' 6.25 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) '''Net migration rate:''' 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) '''Sex ratio:''' &lt;br&gt;''at birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:'' 1.04 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:'' 1 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 0.77 male(s)/female &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 1 male(s)/female (2005 est.) '''Infant mortality rate:''' 35.6 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) '''Life expectancy at birth:''' &lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 69.57 years &lt;br&gt;''male:'' 67.13 years &lt;br&gt;''female:'' 70.13 years (2005 est.) '''Total fertility rate:''' 2.44 children born/woman (2005 est.) '''Nationality:''' &lt;br&gt;''noun:'' Indonesian(s) &lt;br&gt;''adjective:'' Indonesian ==Ethnic groups== There are over 300 ethnic groups in Indonesia. Many ethnic groups, particularly in [[Kalimantan]] and [[Papua]], have only hundreds of members. Most of the local languages belong to [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] linguistic family, although a significant number, particularly in [[Papua]], speak [[Papuan languages]]. In addition, there are roughly 5 million [[Indonesian Chinese|people of Chinese descent]] which speaks various [[Chinese dialects]], most notably [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] and [[Min Nan]]. The population ranking of the ethnic groups in Indonesia ([[2000]] census) is as follows: :[[Javanese]] 41.7%, [[Sundanese]] 15.4%, [[Malay people|Malay]] 3.4%, [[Madurese]] 3.3%, [[Batak (Indonesia)|Batak]] 3.0%, [[Minangkabau]] 2.7%, [[Betawi]] 2.5%, [[Bugine
so}} [[Burkina Faso]] has excellent relations with [[Europe]]an--including the [[European Union]]--[[North African]], and [[Asian]] countries, which are all active development partners. [[France]], in particular, continues to provide significant aid and supports Compaore's developing role as a regional powerbroker. Compaore has mediated a political crisis in [[Togo]] and helped to resolve the Tuareg conflict in Niger. Several thousand [[Tuareg]] refugees from [[Mali]], who sought protection in Burkina, will be repatriated by the end of [[1997]]. Burkina maintains cordial relations with [[Libya]]. Burkina maintains diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] (usually referred to as &quot;Taiwan&quot;) instead of the [[People's Republic of China]]. 19 provinces of Burkina Faso are joined with contiguous areas of Mali and [[Niger]] under the [[Liptako-Gourma Authority]], a regional economic organization. In response to the drought that plagued the Sahel countries from [[1968]] to [[1974]], the U.S. provided significant emergency food assistance to Burkina Faso. Following this, the United States and other international donors began to work with the Sahel countries to plan and implement long-term development assistance programs. {{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}} [[Category:Burkina Faso]] [[Category:Foreign relations by country|Burkina Faso]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burma/History</title> <id>3685</id> <revision> <id>15902000</id> <timestamp>2004-01-15T02:07:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Jiang</username> <id>10049</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Myanmar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burma/Geography</title> <id>3686</id> <revision> <id>15902001</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:21:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Geography of Myanmar]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Myanmar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burma/People</title> <id>3687</id> <revision> <id>15902002</id> <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:28:14Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username> <id>90</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Myanmar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burma/Government</title> <id>3688</id> <revision> <id>15902003</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:21:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_Myanmar]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_Myanmar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burma/Economy</title> <id>3689</id> <revision> <id>15902004</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:21:55Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Economy of Myanmar]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Myanmar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burma/Communications</title> <id>3690</id> <revision> <id>15902005</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:22:13Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment> #REDIRECT [[Communications_in_Myanmar]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications_in_Myanmar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burma/Transportation</title> <id>3691</id> <revision> <id>24815285</id> <timestamp>2005-10-05T14:58:17Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kbdank71</username> <id>197953</id> </contributor> <comment>fix double redirect</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in Myanmar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burma/Military</title> <id>3692</id> <revision> <id>15902007</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:22:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Military_of_Myanmar]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military_of_Myanmar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burma/Transnational issues</title> <id>3693</id> <revision> <id>15902008</id> <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:23:00Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Magnus Manske</username> <id>4</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Foreign_relations_of_Myanmar]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign_relations_of_Myanmar]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Burundi/History</title> <id>3694</id> <revision> <id>15902009</id> <timestamp>2002-03-04T14:50:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LA2</username> <id>445</id> </contributor> <comment>*</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Burundi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Geography of Burundi</title> <id>3695</id> <revision> <id>38285175</id> <timestamp>2006-02-05T09:00:32Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>81.38.244.2</ip> </contributor> <comment>[[es:Geografía de Burundi]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:By-map.png|right|Map of Burundi]] '''Location:''' Central [[Africa]], east of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] '''Geographic coordinates:''' {{coor dm|3|30|S|30|0|E|}} '''Map references:''' Africa '''Area:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 27,830 km&amp;sup2; &lt;br&gt;''land:'' 25,650 km&amp;sup2; &lt;br&gt;''water:'' 2,180 km&amp;sup2; '''Land boundaries:''' &lt;br&gt;''total:'' 974 km &lt;br&gt;''border countries:'' Democratic Republic of the Congo 233 km, [[Rwanda]] 290 km, [[Tanzania]] 451 km '''Coastline:''' 0 km (landlocked) '''Climate:''' equatorial; high plateau with considerable altitude variation (772 m to 2,670 m); average annual temperature varies with altitude from 23 to 17 degrees Celsius but is generally moderate as the average altitude is about 1,700 m; average annual rainfall is about 1,500 mm; wet seasons from February to May and September to November, and dry seasons from June to August and December to January '''Terrain:''' hilly and mountainous, dropping to a plateau in east, some plains '''Elevation extremes:''' &lt;br&gt;''lowest point:'' [[Lake Tanganyika]] 772 m &lt;br&gt;''highest point:'' [[Mount Heha]] 2,670 m '''Natural resources:''' nickel, uranium, rare earth oxides, peat, cobalt, copper, platinum (not yet exploited), vanadium, arable land, hydropower '''Land use:''' &lt;br&gt;''arable land:'' 44% &lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:'' 9% &lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:'' 36% &lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:'' 3% &lt;br&gt;''other:'' 8% (1993 est.) '''Irrigated land:''' 140 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.) '''Natural hazards:''' flooding, landslides '''Environment - current issues:''' soil erosion as a result of overgrazing and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands; deforestation (little forested land remains because of uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel); habitat loss threatens wildlife populations '''Environment - international agreements:''' &lt;br&gt;''party to:'' Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection &lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:'' Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban '''Geography - note:''' landlocked; straddles crest of the [[Nile]]-[[Congo River]] watershed ==See also== *[[Burundi]] {{Africa in topic|Geography of}} [[Category:Geography by country|Burundi]] [[Category:Geography of Burundi| ]] [[es:Geografía de Burundi]] [[pt:Geografia do Burundi]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Demographics of Burundi</title> <id>3696</id> <revision> <id>39374230</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:18:35Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>83.121.2.141</ip> </contributor> <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burundi-Demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Burundi, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]] At 206.1 persons per sq. km., [[Burundi]] has the second-largest [[population density]] in Sub-[[Sahara]]n [[Africa]]. Most people live on [[farm]]s near areas of fertile [[volcanic soil]]. The population is made up of three major [[ethnic group]]s -- [[Bahutu]] (Hutu), [[Batutsi]] or Watusi (Tutsi), and [[Batwa]] (Twa). [[Kirundi language|Kirundi]] is the common language. Intermarriage takes place frequently between the Hutus and Tutsis. The terms &quot;[[pasture|pastoralist]]&quot; and &quot;[[agriculture|agriculturist]],&quot; often used as ethnic designations for Watusi and Bahutu, respectively, are only occupational titles which vary among individuals and groups. Although Hutus encompass the majority of the population, historically Tutsis have been politically and economically dominant. ==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook== ===Population=== :6,370,609 :''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the dist
lms ''Run Home Slow'' and ''The World's Greatest Sinner''. He married his first wife Kay the same year but the relationship soon deteriorated and they divorced two years later. In [[1963]] he began playing professionally around Los Angeles and bought the small Pal Recording Studio in [[Rancho Cucamonga, California|Rancho Cucamonga]], California (formerly called Cucamonga), which he renamed &quot;Studio Z&quot;. Zappa had been recording at Pal since the early [[1960s]] and after receiving a payment for one of his film scores he was able to buy the studio, including a unique 5-track tape recorder. Soon after, his marriage ended and he moved out of his apartment and into the studio, where he began routinely working 12 hours or more per day. This set a pattern that would endure for almost all of his life. At this time, only a handful of the most expensive commercial studios had multitrack facilities, the industry standard for smaller studios was still mono or two-track. By the time he recorded his first LP with The Mothers in [[1966]] he was already an accomplished recording and mastering engineer and from his third LP on and for the rest of his career, he produced all his own work. After being approached by a customer who offered him [[US dollar|$]]100 to produce a suggestive tape for a stag party, Zappa and a female friend jokingly faked the &quot;erotic&quot; recording, which purported to contain the sounds of people having sex. Unfortunately the customer was an undercover member of the Vice Squad and Zappa was jailed for ten days on charges of supplying [[pornography]]. His entrapment and brief imprisonment left a permanent mark, and was a key event in the formation of his [[anarchism|anti-authoritarian]] stance. It also led him to realize that he could never go to jail again. Partly for this reason, Frank Zappa never took drugs, and fired any band members who did. ==The Mothers of Invention== After a short career as a professional [[songwriter]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; his [[elegiac]] &quot;Memories of El Monte&quot; was recorded by [[The Penguins]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; in 1964 Zappa joined a local R&amp;B band, The Soul Giants, as a [[guitarist]]. Soon he assumed leadership, renaming the [[rock band|band]] &quot;The Mothers.&quot; The Mothers gradually began to gain attention on the burgeoning Los Angeles [[underground music|underground]] 'freak scene' and in 1965 they were spotted by leading record producer [[Tom Wilson]], who had earned acclaim as the producer of the seminal [[Bob Dylan]] album ''[[Bringin' It All Back Home]]'' and the single, ''[[Like a Rolling Stone]]'', as well as the breakthrough 'electric' version of [[Simon &amp; Garfunkel]]'s ''[[Sounds of Silence]]''. Wilson was also notable as one of the only African-Americans working as a major label pop producer at this time. Wilson signed The Mothers to the [[Verve Records|Verve]] label, which had built up a strong reputation for its fine modern jazz recordings in the 1940s and 1950s, but was then attempting to diversify into pop and rock, but with an &quot;artistic&quot; or &quot;experimental&quot; bent. Around this time, Zappa also met and signed with longtime manager [[Herb Cohen]]. [[Image:Freak Out!.jpg|thumb|''[[Freak Out!]]'', 1966]] The Mothers signed with Verve Records, which insisted that they officially re-title themselves &quot;[[The Mothers of Invention]]&quot; out of a concern (likely justified) that the band's original moniker had obscene undertones. With Wilson credited as producer, The Mothers recorded their groundbreaking double album debut ''[[Freak Out!]]'' ([[1966]]), a mixture of often topical R&amp;B and experimental sound collage that attempted to capture the 'freak' subculture of Los Angeles at that time. One of the first record albums united by an underlying theme, it was also only the second double LP of rock music ever released, and firmly established Zappa as a major new voice in rock music. Wilson is also credited with producing the even more accomplished follow-up ''[[Absolutely Free]]''; but for the third LP, Wilson was listed as 'Executive producer', and Zappa took over as producer for all the Mothers and solo Zappa recordings issued from that time on. It is clear that even on the two first albums, Zappa was already responsible for virtually all of the musical decisions, with Wilson providing the industry clout, credibility, and connections to get the unknown group the financial resources they needed to produce a double album with use of an orchestra; by the third album, Zappa had already enough of a proven track record to allow for a more accurate description in the album's credits of their respective roles. During this period, Wilson also had Zappa collaborate with [[The Animals]] on the song &quot;All Night Long&quot; on their album [[Animalism (album)|Animalism]]. [[Image:FrankZappa-AbsolutelyFree.jpg|thumb|''[[Absolutely Free]]'', 1967]] Zappa's second and third studio albums were landmarks of record production and were highlighted by liberal use of his famous 'cut-up' editing techniques. The brilliant ''[[Absolutely Free]]'' (1967) continued Zappa's lyrical preoccupations with the hypocrisy and conformism of American society and the sinister suppression of underground and alternative culture. It was followed by the album widely regarded as the peak of the group's late Sixties work, ''[[We're Only In It For The Money]]'' (1968) which featured some of the most radical audio editing and production yet heard in pop music, and ruthlessly satirized the [[hippie]] and [[flower power]] phenomena. The cover photo (which included [[Jimi Hendrix]]) famously parodied that of [[the Beatles]]' [[Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]. [[Image:Original We're Only in It for the Money front cover.jpg|thumb|''[[We're Only in It for the Money]]'', 1968]] This was book-ended by two closely linked companion pieces. The dazzling audio collage ''[[Lumpy Gravy]]'' (1967) took Zappa's production techniques to a new peak and, according to Zappa himself, took nine months to edit. After ''We're Only In It For The Money'', next was his [[Doo-Wop]] tribute ''[[Cruising with Ruben &amp; the Jets]]''. Other important Mothers recordings from this period (including the pivotal song ''Oh No'') were collected in the 1970 compilation album ''[[Weasels Ripped My Flesh]]''. During the late Sixties Zappa continued his rapid artistic development, emerging as a superb lead guitarist, a skilled producer and engineer, and a composer and arranger of extraordinary range and facility. He increasingly used tape editing as a compositional tool; his editing skills are apparent on the stunning work he produced in the late Sixties with The Mothers. Allegedly, a [[theremin]] was used at some live performance making use of the unique sound characteristic. Zappa evolved a unique compositional approach&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; which he dubbed 'conceptual continuity'&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; that ranged across virtually every genre of music. His work combines satirical lyrics and pop melodies with virtuoso instrumental prowess, where long, jazz-inflected improvisational passages are counterbalanced with densely edited and seemingly chaotic collage sequences that mix music, sound effects and snatches of conversation. He also became famous for regularly quoting musical phrases that influenced or amused him&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; one of his most famous and regular quotes was the riff from the perennial Sixties rock hit 'Louie Louie', which appears in various forms in more than twenty separate recordings over the whole span of his career. He also frequently quoted from or referred to TV show themes and advertising jingles, from famous rock &amp; pop songs such as ''My Sharona'', ''Do You Really Want To Hurt Me?'', ''Let's Dance'', ''Whip It'', and ''Stairway To Heaven'', and from classical works such as [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky's]] &quot;The Rite Of Spring&quot; and [[Maurice Ravel|Ravel's]] &quot;Boléro.&quot; Zappa earned a fearsome reputation as a ruthless taskmaster who possessed a seemingly limitless capacity for work (he regularly worked as much as twenty hours a day in the studio until very late in his career) who also possessed immense technical knowledge and a photographic memory of the contents of his vast archive. He also became known for dismissing the contributions of his musicians, going so far as to withhold royalties rather than share the glory. The Mothers' anarchic stage shows were legendary&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; during one famous 1967 performance at the Garrick Theatre in [[New York City|New York]], Zappa managed to entice some soldiers from the audience onto the stage, where they proceeded to dismember a collection of baby dolls. Around 1968 Zappa also began regularly recording his concerts, beginning with a simple two-track portable recorder and eventually progressing to a portable 48-track digital system. In the process he built up a vast archive of live recordings. In the late 1980s some of the best of these recordings were collected for the 12-CD set ''[[You Can't Do That On Stage Anymore]]''. Because of his insistence on precise tuning and timing in concert, from the 1970s on Zappa was able to augment his studio productions with excerpts from live shows, and he is known to have inserted 'live' guitar solos into the final studio recordings of some compositions. Although they were lauded by critics and their peers and had a rabid cult following, mainstream audiences often found much of the Mothers' music, appearance and attitude impossible to comprehend, and the band was often greeted with derision. More importantly, the financial strain and interpersonal tensions involved in keeping a large jazz-rock ensemble on the road eventually led to the group's demise in 1969, although numerous members would remain with or return to Zappa in years to come. During this period Zappa also produced the extraordinary double album ''[[
e]], Alberta * [[Charlevoix]], Quebec * [[Dover Island]], Nova Scotia * [[Mount Nemo Conservation Area]], Ontario * [[Laurentian mountains]], Ontario * [[Lake Louise]], Alberta * [[Penticton]], British Columbia * [[Rattlesnake Point Conservation Area]], Ontario * [[Squamish]], British Columbia * [[Welsford]], New Brunswick ===[[Mexico]]=== * [[Potrero Chico]] ===[[United States|USA]]=== * [[Arizona]] ** [[Baboquivari]] ** [[Dragoons]] ** [[Sedona]] * [[California]] ** [[Calaveras Dome]] ** [[Castle Crags]] ** [[Donner Summit]] ** [[Joshua Tree National Park]] ** [[Lake Tahoe]] *** [[Lovers' Leap]] *** [[Phantom Spires]] *** [[Sugarloaf, Lake Tahoe|Sugarloaf]] ** [[Needles]] ** [[Pinnacles National Monument]] ** [[Santa Cruz Mountains]] *** [[Castle Rock]] ** [[Tahquitz/Suicide Rocks]] ** [[Tuolumne Meadows]] ** [[Yosemite Valley]] aka Mecca * [[Colorado]] ** [[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder]] ** [[Lumpy Ridge]] ** [[Rocky Mountain National Park]] *** [[Longs Peak]] ** [[South Platte]] * [[Connecticut]] ** [[Ragged Mountain]] * [[Idaho]] ** [[City of Rocks]] *[[Kentucky]] **[[Red River Gorge]] * [[Maine]] ** [[Mt Desert Island]] * [[Maryland]] ** [[Carderock]] * [[Minnesota]] ** [[Red Wing, Minnesota|Red Wing]] ** [[North Shore (Minnesota)|North Shore]] ** [[Taylor's Falls]] * [[Nevada]] ** [[Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area|Red Rocks]] * [[New Hampshire]] ** [[Rumney, New Hampshire|Rumney]] ** [[Whitehorse/Cathedral Ledge]] * [[New York]] ** [[Adirondacks]] ** [[Little Falls (town), New York|Little Falls]] ** [[Shawangunks]] * [[North Carolina]] ** [[Looking Glass Rock]] ** [[Moore's Wall]] ** [[Stone Mountain]] ** [[Whitesides Mountain]] * [[Oregon]] ** [[Smith Rock]] * [[Pennsylvania]] ** [[Beam Rocks, Rector]] ** [[Breakneck Rocks, Connellsville]] ** [[Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area]] ** [[Governor Dick Preserve]] ** [[Governor Stable]] ** [[Haycock Mountain]] ** [[Krahlick Rocks, Dunbar]] ** [[The Lost Crag, Dunbar]] ** [[McConnell's Mill State Park, Portersville]] * [[Tennessee]] ** [[Foster Falls]] ** [[Obed]] ** [[Suck Creek Canyon]] ** [[Sunset Park]] ** [[Tennessee Wall (T-Wall)]] * [[Utah]] ** [[Canyonlands National Park]] ** [[Notch Mountain]] ** [[Wasatch Range]] *** [[Big Cottonwood Canyon]] *** [[Ferguson Canyon]] *** [[Little Cottonwood Canyon]] *** [[Lone Peak]] ** [[Zion National Park]] * [[Virginia]] ** [[Old Rag]] ** [[Great Falls Park]] * [[Washington]] ** [[Beacon Rock]] ** [[Index Town Walls]] ** [[Leavenworth]] ** [[Liberty Bell Mountain]] ** [[Vantage]] ** [[Exit 32]] ** [[Exit 38]] ** [[Mazama]] ** [[Darrington]] * [[West Virginia]] ** [[Cooper's Rock State Park]] ** [[New River Gorge]] ** [[Seneca Rocks]] ** [[Summersville]] * [[Wyoming]] ** [[Vedauwoo]] ** [[Cirque of the Towers]] ** [[Devils Tower]] == South America == ===[[Aruba]]=== * [[Grapefield]] ===[[Brazil]]=== * [[Rio de Janeiro]] ** [[Barra de Guaratiba]] ** [[Serra dos Órgãos]] ** [[Salinas/Três Picos]] ** [[Parque Nac. Itatiaia]] * [[Minas Gerais]] ** [[Gruta da Lapinha]] ** [[Diamantina]] ** [[Sete Lagoas]] ** [[Itajubá]] ** [[Serra da Piedade]] ** [[Jacinto]] ** [[Tabuleiro]] * [[São Paulo]] ** [[Pedra do Baú]] ** [[Cuscuzeiro]] ===[[Colombia]]=== * [[Suesca]] [[Category:Climbing| ]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>On-sight climbing</title> <id>6242</id> <revision> <id>23749741</id> <timestamp>2005-09-22T13:06:44Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>MichaelHudson</username> <id>375102</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[climbing]], '''climbing on sight''' means that a climber is attempting a route that they have never attempted before, nor have they seen anyone else attempt. Prior knowledge of a route, for example having watched someone do the moves, or having heard them describe the climb, is called '''beta'''. This term likely comes from showing Betamax videos of someone making a climb to potential climbers of the same route. A successful ascent with beta on the first attempt is called a '''beta flash'''. A successful attempt after falling off or otherwise trying the route is a [[red point]]. In some parts of the world, on-sight climbing is the preferred style for many climbers. It is a form of [[adventure climbing]] emphasizing the skills of route finding, quick thinking and problem solving. [[Category:climbing]] [[de:On-Sight-Klettern]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cascade Mountain Range</title> <id>6243</id> <revision> <id>15904399</id> <timestamp>2003-04-24T21:46:22Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stan Shebs</username> <id>7777</id> </contributor> <comment>#REDIRECT [[Cascade Range]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cascade Range]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Cascades</title> <id>6244</id> <revision> <id>15904400</id> <timestamp>2003-03-12T23:56:42Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stan Shebs</username> <id>7777</id> </contributor> <comment>link to proper name</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cascade Range]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Car Rally</title> <id>6245</id> <revision> <id>15904401</id> <timestamp>2005-06-03T22:52:24Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Loganberry</username> <id>83135</id> </contributor> <comment>Change redirect (&quot;Rally racing&quot; &gt; &quot;Rallying&quot;)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Rallying]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Covalent bond</title> <id>6246</id> <revision> <id>41360232</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:16:25Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>69.45.127.241</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* History */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the software company|Covalent Technologies}} [[Image:covalent.svg|right|thumb|160px|Covalently bonded hydrogen and carbon in a molecule of [[methane]]. One way of representing covalent bonding in a molecule is with a [[dot and cross diagram]].]] '''Covalent bonding''' is an intramolecular form of [[chemical bond]]ing characterized by the sharing of one or more pairs of [[electron]]s between two species, producing a mutual attraction that holds the resultant [[molecule]] together. [[Atom]]s tend to share electrons in such a way that their outer [[electron shell]]s are filled. Such bonds are always stronger than the [[intermolecular force|intermolecular]] [[hydrogen bond]] and similar in strength to or stronger than the [[ionic bond]]. Covalent bonding most frequently occurs between atoms with similar [[electronegativity|electronegativities]]. For this reason, non-metals tend to engage in covalent bonding more readily since metals have access to [[metallic bonding]], where the easily-removed electrons are more free to roam about. For non-metals, liberating an electron is more difficult, so sharing is the only option when confronted with another species of similar electronegativity. However, covalent bonding involving metals is particularly important, especially in industrial catalysis and process chemistry. Many polymerization techniques require catalysis involving metal-organic covalent bonds. In their more useful applications, metals often engage in more exotic covalent bonding, such as those between a metal and the &amp;sigma; bond of molecular [[hydrogen]], or between a metal and the &amp;pi; bond of an [[alkane]] or [[alkene]]. == History == [[image:electron_dot.svg|right|300px|]] The idea of covalent bonding can be traced to [[Gilbert N. Lewis]], who in [[1916]] described the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. He introduced the so called ''[[Lewis Structure|Lewis Notation]]'' or ''[[Electron Dot Structure|Electron Dot Notation]]'' in which valence electrons (those in the outer shell) are represented as dots around the atomic symbols. Pairs of electrons located between atoms represent covalent bonds. Multiple pairs represent multiple bonds, such as double and triple bonds. Some examples of Electron Dot Notation are shown in the following figure. An alternative form, in which bond-forming electron pairs are represented as solid lines, is shown alongside. While the idea of shared electron pairs provides an effective qualitative picture of covalent bonding, [[quantum mechanics]] is needed to understand the nature of these bonds and predict the structures and properties of simple molecules. [[Walter Heitler|Heitler]] and [[Fritz London|London]] are credited with the first successful quantum mechanical explanation of a chemical bond, specifically that of [[molecular hydrogen]], in [[1927]]. Their work was based on the valence bond model, which assumes that a chemical bond is formed when there is good overlap between the [[atomic orbitals]] of participating atoms. These atomic orbitals are known to have specific angular relationships between each other, and thus the valence bond model can successfully predict the bond angles observed in simple molecules. == Bond Polarity == There are two types of covalent bonds: [[Polar molecule|Polar]] covalent bonds, and non-polar (or pure) covalent bonds. The most widely-accepted definition of polar covalence&lt;!--&quot;...is when...&quot; is NOT a suitable structure for definition--&gt; is the occurrence of the atoms involved of an [[electronegativity]] difference less than 1.67 (though some texts read 1.7), but greater than zero. A pure covalent bond is a bond that occurs when the atoms involved have an electronegativity difference of zero (though some texts read less than 0.2). Pure covalent bonds (which are usually non-[[soluble]], are electrically non-[[conductive]], and tend to exist as individual molecules), and [[ionic bond]]s (which are soluble, are electrically c
ors. However, King Hoshea of Israel suspended paying tribute, and allied himself with [[Egypt]] against Assyria in [[725 BC]]. This led Shalmaneser to invade Syria (2 Kings 17:5) and besiege Samaria (capital city of Israel) for three years. ===Sargonid (dynasty)=== [[Image:Deportationofjewsbyassyrian.jpg|thumb|right|Deportation of Jews from Judah by the Assyrian Empire]] Shalmaneser V died suddenly in [[722 BC]] while seiging Samaria, and the throne was seized by in favour of [[Sargon II of Assyria|Sargon]], the ''Tartan'' (commander-in-chief of the army), who then quickly took Samaria, effectively ending the northern [[Kingdom of Israel]] and carrying 27,000 people away into captivity into the [[Israelite Diaspora]]. (2 Kings 17:1&amp;ndash;6, 24; 18:7, 9). He also overran Judah, and besieged Jerusalem (Isa. 10:6, 12, 22, 24, 34), but did not capture it. In [[721 BC]], Babylon threw off the rule of the Assyrians, under the powerful Chaldean prince [[Merodach-baladan]] (2 Kings 20:12), and Sargon, unable to contain the revolt, turned his attention again to Urartu and Syria, taking [[Carchemish]] in 717, as well as the Medes, penetrating the Iranian Plateau as far as Mt. Bikni and building several fortresses, before returning in [[710 BC]] and retaking Babylon. Sargon also built a new capital at [[Dur Sharrukin]] (&quot;Sargon's City&quot;) near Nineveh, with all the tribute Assyria had collected from various nations. In [[705 BC]], Sargon was slain while fighting the [[Cimmerians]], and was succeeded by his son [[Sennacherib]] (2 Kings 18:13; 19:37; Isa. 7:17, 18), who moved the capital to Nineveh and made the deported peoples work on improving Nineveh's system of irrigation canals. In [[701 BC]], Hezekiah of Judah formed an alliance with Egypt against Assyria, so Sennacherib accordingly marched toward Jerusalem, destroying 46 villages in his path. This is graphically described in Isaiah 10; exactly what happened next is unclear (the Bible says an Angel of the Lord smote the Assyrian army at Jerusalem; [[Herodotus]] says they were destroyed by a plague of field mice at Egypt; Sennacherib's account says Judah paid him tribute and he left); however what is certain, is that the besieging army was somehow decimated, and Sennacherib failed to capture Jerusalem. In [[689 BC]], Babylonia again revolted, but Sennacherib responded swiftly by opening the canals around Babylon and flooding the outside of the city until it became a [[swamp]], resulting in its destruction, and its inhabitants were scattered. In [[681 BC]], Sennacherib was murdered, most likely by one of his sons. Sennacherib was succeeded by his son [[Esarhaddon]] (''Ashur-aha-iddina''), who had been governor of Babylonia, and was campaigning in Urartu at the time of his father's murder, where he won a victory at [[Malatia]] (Milid). As king, he immediately had Babylon rebuilt, and made it his capital. Defeating the Cimmerians and Medes (again penetrating to Mt. Bikni), but unable to maintain order in these areas, he turned his attention westward to Phoenicia&amp;mdash;now allying itself with Egypt against him&amp;mdash;and sacked Sidon in [[677 BC]]. He also captured [[Manasseh]] of Judah and kept him prisoner for some time in Babylon (2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37:38). Having had enough of Egyptian meddling, he next invaded that country in [[674 BC]], conquering it all with a cast force in [[670 BC]]. The [[pharoah]] [[Tirhakah]] fled Egypt, and a stele commemorating the victory, and representing Tirhakah with black African features, was set up at Sinjirli (north of the Gulf of Antioch), and is now in the Berlin Museum. Assyria was also at war with Urartu and [[Dilmun]] (probably modern [[Qatar]]) at this time. This was Assyria's greatest territorial extent. However, the Assyrian governors Esarhaddon had appointed over Egypt were obliged to flee the restive populace, and while leading another army to pacify them, Esarhaddon died suddenly, in [[669 BC]]. [[Assur-bani-pal]] or Ashurbanipal (''Ashurbanapli, Asnappar''), the son of [[Esarhaddon]], succeeded him. He continued to campaign in Egypt, when not distracted by pressures from the Medes to the east, and Cimmerians to the north of Assyria. Unable to contain Egypt, he installed Psammetichus as a vassal king in [[663 BC]]. However, after [[Gyges of Lydia]]'s appeal for Assyrian help against the Cimmerians was rejected, Lydian mercenaries were sent to Psammetichus. By [[652 BC]], this vassal king was strong enough to declare outright independence from Assyria with impunity, especially as Ashurbanipal's older brother, [[Shamash-shum-ukin]], governor of Babylon, began a civil war in that year. This rebellion lasted until [[648 BC]], when Babylon was sacked, and Shamash-shum-ukin set fire to the palace, killing himself. Elam was completely devastated in [[646 BC]] and [[640 BC]], and its capital Susa completely leveled. ===Downfall and heritage=== Ashurbanipal had promoted art and culture, and had a vast library of cuneiform tablets at Nineveh. However, his long struggle with Babylonia and Elam left Assyria maimed and exhausted. It had been drained of wealth and fighting population; the devastated provinces could yield nothing to supply the needs of the imperial exchequer, and it was difficult to find sufficient troops to garrison the conquered populations. Assyria, therefore, was ill-prepared to face the hordes of [[Scythians]] and Medes who now began to harass the frontiers to the east; Asia Minor too was infested by the Cimmerians. Upon Ashurbanipal's death in [[627 BC]], the empire began to disintegrate rapidly. The Scythians, Cimmerians and Medes immediately penetrated the borders, marauding as far as Egypt, while Babylonia again became independent; Ashurbanipal's successor, [[Ashur-etil-ilani]], seems to have exercised little real power. The Babylonian king [[Nabopolassar]], along with [[Cyaxares]] the Mede, finally destroyed Nineveh in [[612 BC]], and Assyria fell. A general called Ashur-uballit II, with military support from the Egyptian Pharaoh [[Necho]] II, held out as a remnant of Assyrian power at [[Harran]] until [[609 BC]], after which Assyria ceased to exist as an independent nation. ==Assyrian Art== [[Image:Human headed winged bull facing.jpg|thumb|right|An Assyrian winged bull.]] Assyrian art preserved to the present day predominantly dates to the Neo-Assyrian period. Art depicting battle scenes, and occasionally the impaling of whole villages in gory detail, was intended to show the power of the emperor, and was generally made for propaganda purposes. These stone reliefs lined the walls in the royal palaces where foreigners were received by the king. Other stone reliefs depict the king with different deities and conducting religious ceremonies. A lot of stone reliefs were discovered in the royal palaces at [[Nimrud]] (Kalhu) and [[Khorsabad]] (Dur-Sharrukin). A rare discovery of metal plates belonging to wooden doors were made at [[Balawat]] (Imgur-Enlil). Assyrian sculpture reached a high level of refinement in the Neo-Assyrian period. One prominent example is the winged bull ''Lamasu'', or [[shedu]] that guard the entrances to the king's court. These were apotrophaic meaning they were intended to ward off evil. Since works of precious gems and metals usually not survive time, we are lucky to have some fine pieces of Assyrian jewellery. These were found in royal tombs at Nimrud. == The Legacy of Assyria == The Assyrians themselves were not the greatest innovators in science and culture, but they carried on the cultural heritage from the Old Babylonian period. Much of the Babylonian literature, with roots in the Sumerian civilization, is preserved from the Assyrian library of [[Ashur-bani-pal]]. The Assyrians also studied astrology, which they used for interpretation of omens. They also achieved much in the field of engineering, and Assyrian dams and canals are still in function to this day. == Further reading == ===See also=== *[[Art and architecture of Babylonia and Assyria]] *[[Assyria and Babylonia contrasted]] *[[Assyrians]] *[[Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem]] *[[Assyriology]] *[[Babylonia and Assyria]] *[[Chronology of Babylonia and Assyria]] *[[Geography of Babylonia and Assyria]] *[[History of Sumer]] *[[Kings of Assyria]] *[[Mitanni]] *[[Proper names of Babylonia and Assyria]] *[[Mesopotamia]] *[[Social life in Babylonia and Assyria]] ===Books=== * ''The Ancient Assyrians'' by Mark Healy * ''Ancient Iraq'' by Georges Roux * ''Ancient Mesopotamia : Portrait of a Dead Civilization'' by A. Leo Oppenheim * ''Ancient Mesopotamia: The Sumerians, Babylonians, And Assyrians'' by Virginia Schomp * ''The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: From the Old Stone Age to the Persian Conquest'' by Seton Lloyd * ''The Assyrian Empire'' by Don Nardo * ''Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia'' by Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat * ''Mesopotamia'' by Gwendolyn Leick * ''Myths and Legends of Babylonia and Assyria'' by Lewis Spence == External links == * [http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Assyria_Subartu.html The History of the Ancient Near East] * [http://web.archive.org/web/20030816143526/http://www.bol.ucla.edu/~szuchman/hist312.htm Assyrian administrative letters] {{eastons}} [[Category:Assyria|Assyria]] [[Category:Tanakh places]] [[ar:آشور (مملكة)]] [[arc:|ܐܬܘܪ]] [[ca:Assíria]] [[cs:Asýrie]] [[da:Assyrien]] [[de:Geschichte des assyrischen Reiches]] [[et:Assüüria]] [[es:Asiria]] [[eo:Asirio]] [[fa:آشور]] [[fr:Assyrie]] [[gl:Asiria]] [[he:אשור]] [[it:Assiria]] [[lt:Asirija]] [[nl:Assyrische Rijk]] [[ja:アッシリア]] [[no:Assyria]] [[pl:Asyria]] [[pt:Assíria]] [[ru:Ассирия]] [[sl:Asirija]] [[fi:Assyria]] [[sv:Assyrien]] [[tr:Asurlular]] [[uk:Ассирія]] [[zh:亚述帝国]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Abijah</title> <id>2086</id> <revision> <id>32505106</id> <timestamp>2005-12-23T18:13:10Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>NekoDaemon</username> <id>239574<
eason]], the Cardinals All-Time Record (since 1920) is 450-653-38 (including playoffs). ==Single Season Records== '''Passing''' *'''Passing Yards''': 4614 [[Neil Lomax]] (1984) *'''Passing Touchdowns''': 28 [[Charley Johnson]] (1963), [[Neil Lomax]] (1984) '''Rushing''' *'''Rushing Yards''': 1605 [[Ottis Anderson]] (1979) '''Receiving''' *'''Receptions''': 103 [[Larry Fitzgerald]] (2005) *'''Receiving Yards''': 1596 [[David Boston]] (2001) '''Kicking''' *'''Field Goals''': 40* [[Neil Rackers]] (2005) ''* NFL Record'' ==Players of note== ===Current roster=== {{Template:Arizona Cardinals roster}} ===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs=== Chicago Cardinals * [[Charles Bidwill]], team owner * 1 [[Jimmy Conzelman]], QB-CB, head coach * 1 [[Paddy Driscoll]], QB-S-K-P, head coach * 2 [[Walt Kiesling]], G-DT, head coach * 4 [[Ernie Nevers]], RB-S * 13 [[Guy Chamberlin]], TE-DE * 33 [[Ollie Matson]], RB * 62 [[Charley Trippi]], RB-CB * 81 [[Dick &quot;Night Train&quot; Lane]], CB St. Louis Cardinals * 8 [[Larry Wilson]], S * 72 [[Dan Dierdorf]], OT * 81 [[Jackie Smith]], TE These three, plus [[Conrad Dobler]] (66, G), [[Jim Hart]] (17, QB), and [[Jim Hanifan]] (Head Coach) have been inducted into the Missouri Sports Hall of Fame. Arizona Cardinals * None as of the 2005 season. ===Retired numbers=== *8 [[Larry Wilson]] (St. Louis) *40 [[Pat Tillman]] (Arizona) *77 [[Stan Mauldin]] (Chicago) *88 [[J.V. Cain]] (St. Louis) *99 [[Marshall Goldberg]] (Chicago) ===Not to be forgotten=== Chicago *[[Elmer Angsman]] *[[Paul Christman]] *[[Pat Harder]] *[[Leo Sanford]] *[[Jack Simmons]] St. Louis *[[Jim Bakken]] *[[Joe Childress]] *[[Bobby Joe Conrad]] *[[Pat Fischer]] *[[Roy Green]] *[[Jim Hart]] *[[Charley Johnson]] *[[Neil Lomax]] *[[Sonny Randle]] *[[J.T. Smith (football player)|J.T. Smith]] Phoenix/Arizona *[[Lomas Brown]] *[[Larry Centers]] *[[Boomer Esiason]] *[[Ken Harvey]] *[[Thomas Jones (football player)|Thomas Jones]] *[[Tim McDonald]] *[[Jamir Miller]] *[[Rob Moore (football player)|Rob Moore]] *[[Jake Plummer]] *[[Ricky Proehl]] *[[Simeon Rice]] *[[Emmitt Smith]] *[[Eric Swann]] *[[Tom Tupa]] *[[Aeneas Williams]] *[[Pat Tillman]] ==Head Coaches== *[[Paddy Driscoll]] (1920-1922) *[[Arnold Horween]] (1923-1924) *[[Norman Barry]] (1925-1926) *[[Guy Chamberlin]] (1927) *[[Fred Gillies]] (1928) *[[Dewey Scanlon]] (1929) *[[Ernest Nevers|Ernie Nevers]] (1929-1930) *[[LeRoy Andrews]] (1931) *[[Jack Chevigny]] (1932) *[[Paul Schissler]] (1933-1934) *[[Milan Creighton]] (1935-1938) *[[Ernest Nevers|Ernie Nevers]] (1939) *[[Jimmy Conzelman]] (1940-1942) *[[Phil Handler]] (1943-1945) *[[Jimmy Conzelman]] (1946-1948) *[[Curly Lambeau]] (1950-1951) *[[Phil Handler]] (1951) *[[Joe Kuharich]] (1952) *[[Joe Stydahar]] (1953-1954) *[[Ray Richards]] (1955-1957) *[[Frank Ivy|Pop Ivy]] (1958-1961) *[[Wally Lemm]] (1962-1965) *[[Charley Winner]] (1966-1970) *[[Bob Hollway]] (1971-1972) *[[Don Coryell]] (1973-1977) *[[Bud Wilkinson]] (1978-1979) *[[Larry Wilson]] (interim) (1979) *[[Jim Hanifan]] (1980-1985) *[[Gene Stallings]] (1986-1989) *[[Hank Kuhlmann]] (interim) (1989) *[[Joe Bugel]] (1990-1993) *[[Buddy Ryan]] (1994-1995) *[[Vince Tobin]] (1996-1999) *[[Dave McGinnis]] (2000-2003) *[[Dennis Green]] (2004-present) ===Current Staff=== *Head Coach - [[Dennis Green]] *Offensive Coordinator - [[Keith Rowen]] *Defensive Coordinator - [[Clancy Pendergast]] *Special Teams Coach - [[Gary Zauner]] *Quarterbacks Coach - [[Mike Kruczek]] *Running Backs Coach - [[Kirby Wilson]] *Wide Receivers Coach - [[Mike Wilson (football coach)|Mike Johnson]] *Tight Ends Coach - [[Carl Hargrave]] *Offensive Line Coach - [[Steve Loney]] *Defensive Line Coach - [[Larry Brooks]] *Linebackers Coach - [[Frank Bush]] *Defensive Backs Coach - [[Richard Solomon (football coach)|Richard Solomon]] ==External links== *[http://www.azcardinals.com/ Arizona Cardinals official web site] *[http://www.nflnewsrack.com/arizona_cardinals.html Arizona Cardinals News and Links] *[http://www.azfl.com Arizona Football League AzFL Cardinals News] *[http://www.sportsandentertainmentnews.com Complete Cardinals News Photos &amp; Stories] *[http://sports.groups.yahoo.com/group/arizonacardinalsclub/ Arizona Cardinals Fansite at Yahoo!] *[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/az/cardsarizona.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com] {{NFL}} [[Category:Arizona Cardinals| ]] [[Category:1898 establishments]] [[Category:National Football League teams]] [[da:Arizona Cardinals]] [[de:Arizona Cardinals]] [[es:Arizona Cardinals]] [[fr:Cardinals de l'Arizona]] [[he:אריזונה קרדינלס]] [[it:Arizona Cardinals]] [[pl:Arizona Cardinals]] [[pt:Arizona Cardinals]] [[sv:Arizona Cardinals]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Atlanta Falcons</title> <id>2103</id> <revision> <id>41562809</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:14:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Alakazam</username> <id>376416</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* Franchise history */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Atlanta Falcons | logo = AtlantaFalcons_100.png | founded = 1966 | city = Atlanta, Georgia | colors = Black, Red, Silver, and White | coach = [[Jim L. Mora]] | owner = [[Arthur Blank]] | general manager = [[Rich McKay]] | mascot = Freddie Falcon | nicknames = Dirty Birds | stations = WZGC (92.9 FM) | announcers = David Archer, Wes Durham, Jeff Van Note, and Nicole Watson | hist_yr = 1966 | NFL_start_yr = 1966 | division_hist = *Eastern Conference (1966-1969) **Coastal Division (1967-1969) *'''[[National Football Conference]] (1970-present)''' **[[NFC West]] (1970-2001) **'''[[NFC South]] (2002-present)''' | no_conf_champs = 1 | no_div_champs = 3 | conf_champs = *'''NFC:''' 1998 | div_champs = *'''NFC West:''' 1980, 1998 *'''NFC South:''' 2004 | stadium_years = *[[Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium]] (1966-1991) *'''[[Georgia Dome]] (1992-present)''' }} The '''Atlanta Falcons''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Atlanta, Georgia]]. They currently belong to the [[NFC South|Southern Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Falcons joined the NFL as a 1966 [[expansion team]]. :'''Team colors:''' Home jerseys are red and white with white letters and black trim. Away jerseys are white with black letters and red trim. Alternate home jerseys are black with red and white sleeves and also, white numbers and names with red trim. :'''Helmet design:''' Black with a black face mask and a red and black falcon logo with a grey and white border on both sides, which forms the shape of an F. ==Franchise history== {{cleanup-remainder|February 2006}} '''Timeline / Important Years''' * 1965 - The Atlanta Falcons are born. NFL Commissioner [[Pete Rozelle]], grants ownership to Rankin M. Smith Sr. They draft [[Tommy Nobis]], LB, University of Texas with the 1st pick of the [http://www.profootballhof.com/history/general/draft/1966.jsp 1966 NFL Draft] held on November 27, 1965, making him the first ever Falcon. * 1966 - The Falcons play their first NFL season. After losing their first nine games, the Falcons would get their first franchise win on the road against the [[New York Giants]] 27-16 [http://www.atlantafalcons.com/history/timeline.jsp]. Former Giant Ernie Wheelwright scored two TD's receiving and ran for 51 more yards as QB Randy Johnson hit for a trio of TD's. Their first ever home victory against the [[Arizona Cardinals|St. Louis Cardinals]] 16-10. The Falcons end their inaugural season at 3-11, yet Nobis wins the NFL Rookie of the Year Award and becomes the first Falcon named to the Pro Bowl. * 1968 - On October 1 , [[Norm Van Brocklin]], formerly head coach of the [[Minnesota Vikings]], is named to replace Norb Hecker after three games of season. Two weeks later, his Falcons beat New York, 24-21, in first meeting between Van Brocklin and his former QB, [[Fran Tarkenton]]. * 1969 - On September 21, the Falcons win their first season opener ever, beating the [[San Francisco 49ers]], 24-12, before home fans. Rookie Tight End Jim Mitchell scored two TD's and club set team record with 229 yards rushing. On [[December 7]], [[Harmon Wages]] threw for a TD in the first quarter (16 yards to [[Paul Flatley]]), caught a pass for a TD in the second quarter (88 yards), and then ran for a TD in the fourth quarter (66 yards) in a 45-17 rout of the Saints. The Falcons finish the year with a 6-8 record. * 1970 - First [[Monday Night Football]] game in Atlanta - Nov. 30 vs. [[Miami Dolphins]] (Lost 20-7) * 1971 - On November 22, the Falcons win their first nationally televised game with a 28-21 triumph over Green Bay in Atlanta. Atlanta had 77 plays to the Packers 33, outgaining them 386-143, as [[Monday Night Football]] televised the action. On December 19, the Falcons beat New Orleans, 24-20, with 40 seconds left in the game. The victory gives the Falcons with a winning record for the first time, at 7-6-1. * 1972 - On October 1, the Falcons finally defeat the [[St. Louis Rams|Los Angeles Rams]], 31-3 at Atlanta Stadium. [[Dave Hampton]] and [[Art Malone]] set a club record by each running for over 100 yards. On December 17, Hampton technically became the club's first 1,000- yard rusher. Against the [[Kansas City Chiefs]], the veteran running back ran for his 1,000th yard. However, his next carry was a six-yard loss and his final carry a one-yard gain. Thus, he ended at 995. The Falcons finish second in the NFC West, their highest division finish in franchise history up to that point, with a 7-7 record. * 1973 - Opening against New Orleans, the Falcons smash 35 team records en route to 62-7 victory on September 16. On November 19, the Falcons upset the unbeaten [[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]], 20-14, before a national television audience. Dave Hampton once again barely misses the 1,000 yard mark. The Falcons finish 9-5 for their most wins and best record ev
because each processor's access time to memory is quickly exhausted with SMP's shared memory model, resulting in significant delays due to CPUs waiting for memory. Therefore, NUMA is considered a much more scalable model, successfully allowing many more CPUs to be used in one computer than SMP can feasibly support. SMT differs somewhat from other TLP improvements in that it attempts to duplicate as few portions of the CPU as possible. While considered a TLP strategy, its implementation actually more resembles superscalar design, and indeed is often used in superscalar microprocessors (such as IBM's [[POWER5]]). Rather than duplicating the entire CPU, SMT designs only duplicate parts needed for instruction fetching, decoding, and dispatch, as well as things like general-purpose registers. This allows an SMT CPU to keep its execution units busy more often by providing them instructions from two different software threads. Again, this is very similar to the ILP superscalar method, but simultaneously executes instructions from ''multiple threads'' rather than executing multiple instructions from the ''same thread'' concurrently. ===Vector processors and SIMD=== [[Image:Esc05.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Earth Simulator]], a supercomputer based on [[NEC SX-6]] vector processors.]] {{main articles|[[Vector processor]], [[SIMD]]}} A less common but increasingly important paradigm of CPUs (and indeed, computing in general) deals with vectors. The processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device. {{ref|scalarvector}} As the name implies, vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction. This contrasts with scalar processors, which deal with one piece of data for every instruction. These two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as [[SISD]] (single instruction, single data) and [[SIMD]] (single instruction, multiple data), respectively. The great utility in creating CPUs that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation (for example, a sum or a [[dot product]]) to be performed on a large set of data. Some classic examples of these types of tasks are [[multimedia]] applications (images, video, and sound), as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks. Whereas a scalar CPU must complete the entire process of fetching, decoding, and executing each instruction and value in a set of data, a vector CPU can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction. Of course, this is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data. Most early vector CPUs, such as the [[Cray-1]], were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and [[cryptography]] applications. However, as multimedia has largely shifted to digital mediums, the need for some form of SIMD in general-purpose CPUs has become significant. Shortly after [[Floating point unit|floating point execution unit]]s started to become commonplace to include in general-purpose processors, specifications for and implementations of SIMD execution units also began to appear for general-purpose CPUs. Some of these early SIMD specifications like Intel's [[MMX]] were integer-only. This proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers, since many of the applications that benefit from SIMD primarily deal with [[floating point]] numbers. Progressively, these early designs were refined and remade into some of the common, modern SIMD specifications, which are usually associated with one ISA. Some notable modern examples are AMD's [[x86]]-associated [[3DNow!]] and Intel's [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]] and its successors, [[SSE2]] and [[SSE3]]; the PowerPC-related [[AltiVec]] (also known as VMX); and [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]] MDMX. {{ref|mmxsse}} ==See also== * [[CISC]] * [[Computer bus]] * [[Computer engineering]] * [[CPU cooling]] * [[CPU core voltage]] * [[CPU design]] * [[CPU power dissipation]] * [[Floating point unit]] * [[Instruction pipeline]] * [[Instruction set]] * [[Notable CPU architectures]] * [[RISC]] * [[Wait state]] ==Notes== &lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt; # {{note|eniac}} While EDVAC was designed a few years before ENIAC was built, ENIAC was actually retrofitted to execute stored programs in 1948, somewhat before EDVAC was completed. Therefore, ENIAC became a stored program computer before EDVAC was completed, even though stored program capabilities were originally omitted from ENIAC's design due to cost and schedule concerns. # {{note|vactube}} Vacuum tubes eventually stop functioning in the course of normal operation due to the slow contamination of their cathodes that occurs when the tubes are in use. Additionally, sometimes the tube's vacuum seal can form a leak, which accelerates the cathode contamination. See [[vacuum tube]]. # {{note|iwordlength}} Since the program counter counts ''memory addresses'' and not ''instructions,'' it is incremented by the number of memory units that the instruction word contains. In the case of simple fixed-length instruction word ISAs, this is always the same number. For example, a fixed-length 32-bit instruction word ISA that uses 8-bit memory words would always increment the PC by 4 (except in the case of jumps). ISAs that use variable length instruction words, such as [[x86]], increment the PC by the number of memory words corresponding to the last instruction's length. Also, note that in more complex CPUs, incrementing the PC does not necessarily occur at the end of instruction execution. This is especially the case in heavily pipelined and superscalar architectures (see the relevant sections below). # {{note|isa}} Because the instruction set architecture of a CPU is fundamental to its interface and usage, it is often used as a classification of the &quot;type&quot; of CPU. For example, a &quot;[[PowerPC]] CPU&quot; uses some variant of the PowerPC ISA. Some CPUs, like the Intel [[Itanium]], can actually interpret instructions for more than one ISA; however this is often accomplished by software means rather than by designing the hardware to directly support both interfaces. (See [[emulator]]) # {{note|jumps}} Some early computers like the [[Harvard Mark I]] did not support any kind of &quot;jump&quot; instruction, effectively limiting the complexity of the programs they could run. It is largely for this reason that these computers are often not considered to contain a CPU proper, despite their close similarity as stored program computers. # {{note|riscpipeline}} This description is, in fact, a simplified view even of the [[Classic RISC pipeline]]. It largely ignores the important role of [[CPU cache]], and therefore the '''access''' stage of the pipeline. See the respective articles for more details. # {{note|binaryvoltage}} The physical concept of [[voltage]] is an analog one by its nature, practically having an infinite range of possible values. For the purpose of physical representation of binary numbers, set ranges of voltages are defined as one or zero. These ranges are usually influenced by the operational parameters of the switching elements used to create the CPU, such as a [[transistor]]'s threshold level. # {{note|softwareints}} While a CPU's integer precision sets a limit on integer ranges, this can (and often is) overcome using a combination of software and hardware techniques. By using additional memory, software can represent integers many magnitudes larger than the CPU can. Sometimes the CPU's ISA will even facilitate operations on integers larger that it can natively represent by providing instructions to make large integer arithmetic relatively quick. While this method of dealing with large integers is somewhat slower than utilizing a CPU with higher integer precision, it is a reasonable trade-off in cases where natively supporting the full integer precision needed would be cost-prohibitive. See [[Arbitrary-precision arithmetic]] for more details on purely software-supported arbitrary-sized integers. # {{note|seqlogic}} In fact, all synchronous CPUs use a combination of [[sequential logic]] and [[combinatorial logic]]. (See [[boolean logic]]) # {{note|clockgating}} One notable late CPU design that uses clock gating is that of the IBM [[PowerPC]]-based [[Xbox 360]]. It utilizes extensive clock gating in order to reduce the power requirements of the aforementioned videogame console it is used in. {{Ref harvard|Brown2005|Brown 2005|a}} # {{note|parallelperformance}} It should be noted that neither [[Instruction level parallelism|ILP]] nor [[Thread level parallelism|TLP]] is inherently superior over the other; they are simply different means by which to increase CPU parallelism. As such, they both have advantages and disadvantages, which are often determined by the type of software that the processor is intended to run. High-TLP CPUs are often used in applications that lend themselves well to being split up into numerous smaller applications, so-called &quot;[[embarrassingly parallel]] problems.&quot; Frequently, a computational problem that can be solved quickly with high TLP design strategies like SMP take significantly more time on high ILP devices like superscalar CPUs, and vice versa. # {{note|ipcrate}} Best-case scenario (or peak) IPC rates in very superscalar artchitectures are difficult to maintain since it is impossible to keep the instruction pipeline filled all the time. Therefore, in highly superscalar CPUs, average sustained IPC is often discussed rather than peak IPC. # {{note|singlechiptlp}} Even though SMP and NUMA are both referred to as &quot;systems level&quot; TLP strategies, both methods must still be supported by the CPU's design and implementation. # {{note|cmp}} While TLP methods have generally been in use longer than ILP methods, Chip-level multiprocessing is more or less onl
and [[University of Würzburg|Würzburg]] universities. He received a medical degree at Würzburg University in [[1887]]. In the following year, he spent five months assisting mentally ill women, before he took an office in the city mental asylum in [[Frankfurt am Main]]: the Städtische Anstalt für Irre und Epileptische (asylum for lunatics and epileptics). [[Emil Sioli]] was the dean of that asylum ([[1852]]-[[1922]]). Another neurologist, [[Franz Nissl]] ([[1860]]-[[1919]]), began to work in that same asylum with Alzheimer, and they knew each other. Much of Alzheimer's later work on brain pathology made use of Nissl's method of silver staining of the histological sections. Alzheimer was the co-founder and co-publisher of the journal ''Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie''. He never wrote a book that he could call his own. He fell ill on the train on the way to the University of Breslau where he had been appointed professor of psychiatry in [[1912]]. Most probably he had a [[streptococcal]] infection and subsequent [[rheumatic fever]] and [[kidney failure]]. He died of [[heart failure]] at the age of 51, in Breslau. == External links == * [http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/177.html/ Who Named It? - Alois Alzheimer] * [http://www.ibro.info/Pub_Main_Display.asp?Main_Id=34 Alois Alzheimer's Biography, International Brain Research Organization] [[Category:1864 births|Alzheimer, Alois]] [[Category:1915 deaths|Alzheimer, Alois]] [[Category:History of neuroscience|Alzheimer, Alois]] [[Category:German neuroscientists|Alzheimer, Alois]] [[da:Alois Alzheimer]] [[de:Alois Alzheimer]] [[fr:Aloïs Alzheimer]] [[it:Alois Alzheimer]] [[ja:アロイス・アルツハイマー]] [[nl:Alois Alzheimer]] [[no:Alois Alzheimer]] [[pl:Alois Alzheimer]] [[pt:Alois Alzheimer]] [[sk:Alois Alzheimer]] [[uk:Альцгеймер Алоїз]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Aedile</title> <id>2384</id> <revision> <id>40384818</id> <timestamp>2006-02-20T04:53:15Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.99.52.192</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Roman government}} '''Aedile''' ([[Latin language|Latin]] '''''Aedilis''''', from ''aedes, aedis'' &quot;temple,&quot; &quot;building&quot;) was an office of the [[Roman Republic]]. Based in [[Rome]], the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings and regulation of public [[festival]]s. They also had powers to enforce public order. Half of the aediles were from the ranks of [[plebeian]]s and half were [[patrician]]s. The latter were called ''curule aediles'' (''aediles curules'') and they were considered [[Magistratus Curulis|curule magistrates]]. The office was generally held by young men intending to follow the ''[[cursus honorum]]'' to high political office. However it was not a legal part of the cursus, merely an advantageous starting point which demonstrated the aspiring politician's commitment to public service. They were created in the same year as the [[Tribune|tribunes of the people]] (494 B.C.). Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they exercised certain police functions, were empowered to inflict fines and managed the plebeian and Roman games. According to [[Livy]] (vi. 42), after the passing of the [[Licinian rogation]]s, an extra day was added to the Roman games; the aediles refused to bear the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedileship. The plebeians accepted the offer, and accordingly two ''curule'' aediles were appointed--at first from the patricians alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from either--at the Comitia Tributa under the presidency of the consul. Although not sacrosanct, they had the right of sitting in a curule chair and wore the distinctive toga praetexta. They took over the management of the [[ludi Romani|Roman]] and [[ludi Megalenses|Megalesian]] games, the care of the patrician temples and had the right of issuing edicts as superintendents of the markets. But although the curule aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their functions gradually approximated and became practically identical. [[Cicero]] (Legg. iii. 3, 7) divides these functions under three heads:--(1) Care of the city: the repair and preservation of temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving; regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally, including the prevention of foreign superstitions. They also punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus, or kept too many cattle on the state pastures. (2) Care of provisions: investigation of the quality of the articles supplied and the correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of corn for disposal at a low price in case of necessity. (3) Care of line games: superintendence and organization of the public games, as well as of those given by themselves and private individuals (e.g. at funerals) at their own expense. Ambitious persons often spent enormous sums in this manner to win the popular favor with a view to official advancement. In [[44 B.C.]] [[Julius Caesar]] added two patrician aediles, called ''Cereales'', whose special duty was the care of the corn-supply. Under [[Augustus]] the office lost much of its importance, its juridical functions and the care of the games being transferred to the praetor, while its city responsibilities were limited by the appointment of a [[Prefect|praefectus urbi]]. In the 3rd century A.D. it disappeared altogether. ==Reference== *''This entry incorporates public domain text originally from the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]].'' [[Category:Ancient Roman titles]] &lt;!-- interwiki --&gt; [[bg:Едил]] [[es:Edil romano]] [[fr:Édile]] [[hr:Edil]] [[he:אידיל]] [[hu:Aedilis]] [[nl:Aedilis]] [[pt:Edil]] [[ro:Edil]] [[ru:Эдил]] [[zh:市政官]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>American Airlines</title> <id>2386</id> <revision> <id>42113422</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:31:56Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>72.64.82.165</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Destinations */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the arenas named after this company, see [[American Airlines Center]] ([[Dallas, Texas]]), or [[American Airlines Arena]] ([[Miami, Florida]])}} {{Infobox_Airline | airline = American Airlines | logo = AA logo.svg | logo_size = 250px | fleet_size = 707 | destinations = 171 | IATA = AA | ICAO = AAL | callsign = American | parent = [[AMR Corporation]]| founded = 1930 (as American Airways)| headquarters = [[Fort Worth, Texas|Fort Worth]], [[Texas]] | key_people = Gerard Arpey ([[CEO]]) &lt;br&gt; James Beer ([[CFO]]) | hubs = [[Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport|Dallas-Fort Worth Int'l Airport]] &lt;br&gt; [[O'Hare International Airport]] &lt;br&gt; [[Miami International Airport]] &lt;br&gt; [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|John F. Kennedy Int'l Airport]] &lt;br&gt; [[LaGuardia Airport]] &lt;br&gt; [[Lambert Saint Louis International Airport|Lambert Saint Louis Int'l Airport]] &lt;br&gt; [[Logan International Airport|Logan International Airport]]| focus_cities = [[Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport]]&lt;br&gt;[[Los Angeles International Airport|Los Angeles Int'l Airport]] | frequent_flyer = [[AAdvantage]] | lounge = [[Admirals Club]] | alliance = [[Oneworld (airlines)|'''one'''world]] | website = http://www.aa.com | }} [[image:San.juan.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|American Airlines and American Eagle aircraft at San Juan]] '''American Airlines''' is the largest [[airline]] in the world in terms of total passengers transported, and the second-largest airline in the world (behind [[Air France-KLM]]) in terms of total operating revenues. A subsidiary of the [[AMR Corporation]], the airline is headquartered in [[Fort Worth, Texas]], adjacent to the [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport]]. American operates scheduled flights throughout the [[United States]], as well as flights to [[Canada]], [[Latin America]], the [[Caribbean]], [[Western Europe]], [[Japan]] and [[India]]. The [[chairman]] and [[CEO]] of AA is [[Gerard Arpey]]. In 2005 the airline netted over 98 million [[Revenue passenger mile|RPMs]]. As of February 2006, American serves 171 cities with a fleet of 707 aircraft. American carries more passengers between the US and Latin America (12.1 million in 2004) than any other airline, and is also strong in the transcontinental market. American has seven hubs: [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport|Dallas/Fort Worth]], [[O'Hare International Airport|Chicago O'Hare]], [[Miami International Airport|Miami]], [[Lambert-Saint Louis International Airport|St. Louis]], [[Logan International Airport|Boston]], [[LaGuardia Airport|LaGuardia]], and [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|New York JFK]]. [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport|Dallas/Fort Worth]] is the airline's largest hub, with AA operating over 84 percent of flights at the airport and traveling to more destinations than from any of its other hubs. [[Los Angeles International Airport]] and [[Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport|San Juan]] serve as a focus cities and international gateways. American operates maintenance bases at [[Tulsa International Airport|Tulsa]], [[Kansas City International Airport|Kansas City]], and [[Fort Worth Alliance Airport|Fort Worth Alliance]]. [[American Eagle Airlines]] is an airline based in Fort Worth, Texas, USA. It is a regional airline partner of American Airlines (both are wholly owned by AMR Corporation). American is a founding member of the [[Oneworld (airlines)
family names#Hungary|Common Hungarian surnames]] *[[Hungarian jokes]] *[[Magyar Cserkészszövetség]] (Hungarian Scout Association) *[[Curse of Turan]] *[[Hungarian animals]] == Miscellaneous topics == {{portal}} *[[Communications in Hungary]] *[[Foreign relations of Hungary]] *[http://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Hungarian Wikipedia] *[[List of cities in Hungary]] *[[Military of Hungary]] *[[Name days in Hungary]] *[[Transportation in Hungary]] *[[History of the Jews in Hungary]] == External links == ===General info=== {{sisterlinks|Hungary}} *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07547a.htm A detailed article on Hungary from a Christian point of view] (Catholic Encyclopedia) *[http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/hungary/ Country Profile Hungary] &amp;ndash; tons of material and links *[http://hungary.lap.hu/ Link collection for foreign visitors and residents of Hungary] *[http://www.parlament.hu/parl_en.htm Official site of the National Assembly] *[http://www.magyarorszag.hu/angol/ Hungarian Government Portal] with comprehensive information *[http://www.keh.hu/index_en.html Official site of the President of Hungary] *[http://www.meh.hu/english Official site of the Prime Minister of Hungary] * [http://www.earth-photography.com/Countries/Hungary Artistic photos of Hungary] (Budapest, Debrecen, Pécs, Szeged, Visegrád cities) – EarthPhotography.com *{{dmoz|Regional/Europe/Hungary|Hungary}} *[http://www.visitors.hu/index_en.html Hungary for Visitors] &amp;ndash; Descriptions of the main regions for tourists *[http://www.demos.hu/Audit Hungary's Strategic Audit 2005] &amp;ndash; Comprehensive analyses of Hungary's past 15 years and current state of development (click the [[Union Jack]] to see the English language version) * [http://www.mythinglinks.org/euro~east~finno~Hungary.html A short, but valid summary about Hungary in English] * [http://www.worldwide-tax.com/hungary/indexhungary.asp Hungary economy and business indicators] &amp;mdash; Hugary key Data on Taxes and Income Tax * [http://www.panoramas.hu/ Panorama photos of Hungary] * [http://www.flickr.com/groups/hungary Flickr Group: Hungary] ===History=== *[http://www.hungarianhistory.com History of Hungary &amp;ndash; The Corvinus Library] *[http://cityguide.budapestrooms.com/hungary/history1.htm History of Hungary &amp;ndash; Chronological Survey: 2500 BC &amp;ndash; AD 2004] *[http://www.hunmagyar.org/hungary/history/index.html Hungarian History] (Turanian Lands, Turanian Peoples) *[http://www.bh.org.il/V-Exh/hungary/index.html In The Land of Hagar - The Jews of Hungary] &amp;ndash; A Virtual Exhibition ===Culture=== *[http://www.hungarianbookfoundation.hu/Html/Translation_grant.htm Hungarian Book Foundation] *[http://www.pafi.hu/kiirok/mfordhaz.htm Funds available for translators of Hungarian works - in Hungarian] *[http://translations.bookfinder.hu/indexa.htm Translation of Hungarian literary works - a database] {{EU countries}} {{NATO}} {{Europe}} {{Visegrád group}} [[Category:European Union member states]] [[Category:Hungary| ]] [[Category:Republics]] [[Category:Landlocked countries]] &lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt; [[af:Hongarye]] [[als:Ungarn]] [[ar:مجر]] [[an:Ongría]] [[ast:Hungría]] [[bg:Унгария]] [[zh-min-nan:Magyar-kok]] [[be:Вугоршчына]] [[bs:Mađarska]] [[br:Hungaria]] [[ca:Hongria]] [[cv:Венгри]] [[cs:Maďarsko]] [[cy:Hwngari]] [[da:Ungarn]] [[de:Ungarn]] [[et:Ungari]] [[el:Ουγγαρία]] [[es:Hungría]] [[eo:Hungario]] [[eu:Hungaria]] [[fa:مجارستان]] [[fo:Ungarn]] [[fr:Hongrie]] [[fy:Hongarije]] [[ga:An Ungáir]] [[gd:An Ungair]] [[gl:Hungría - Magyarország]] [[ko:헝가리]] [[ht:Ongri]] [[hy:Հունգարիա]] [[hr:Mađarska]] [[io:Hungaria]] [[id:Hongaria]] [[ia:Hungaria]] [[is:Ungverjaland]] [[it:Ungheria]] [[he:הונגריה]] [[ka:უნგრეთი]] [[kw:Hungari]] [[ku:Macaristan]] [[la:Hungaria]] [[lv:Ungārija]] [[lt:Vengrija]] [[lb:Ungarn]] [[li:Hongarieë]] [[hu:Magyarország]] [[mk:Унгарија]] [[mr:हंगेरी]] [[ms:Hungary]] [[mo:Унгария]] [[na:Hungary]] [[nl:Hongarije]] [[nds:Ungarn]] [[ja:ハンガリー]] [[no:Ungarn]] [[nn:Ungarn]] [[oc:Ongria]] [[os:Венгри]] [[pl:Węgry]] [[pt:Hungria]] [[ro:Ungaria]] [[ru:Венгрия]] [[se:Ungár]] [[sa:हंगरी]] [[sq:Hungaria]] [[sh:Mađarska]] [[scn:Unghirìa]] [[simple:Hungary]] [[sk:Maďarsko]] [[sl:Madžarska]] [[sr:Мађарска]] [[fi:Unkari]] [[sv:Ungern]] [[tl:Hungary]] [[th:ประเทศฮังการี]] [[tr:Macaristan]] [[udm:Венгрия]] [[uk:Угорщина]] [[yi:אונגארן]] [[zh:匈牙利]] [[fiu-vro:Ungari]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Historiography</title> <id>13276</id> <revision> <id>42155555</id> <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:38:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Cesium 133</username> <id>771668</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Historiography''' is the study of the way history is and has been written. In a broad sense, historiography refers to the [[methodology]] and practices of writing history. In a more specific sense, it can refer to writing ''about'' rather than ''of'' [[history]]. As a meta-level analysis of descriptions of the past, this latter conception can relate to the former in that the analysis usually focuses on the narrative, interpretations, worldview, use of evidence, or method of presentation of other historians. The term can also describe a body of historical writing. For example, &quot;medieval historiography during the 1960s&quot; means &quot;medieval history written during the 1960s&quot;. == Defining historiography == Conal Furay and Michael J. Salevouris define &quot;historiography&quot; as &quot;the study of the way history has been and is written--the history of historical writing... When you study 'historiography' you do not study the events of the past directly, but the changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians.&quot; (''The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide'', 1988, p. 223, ISBN 0882959824) Although questions of method have concerned historians since [[Thucydides]], many trace the modern study of historiography to [[Edward Hallett Carr|E. H. Carr]]'s [[1961]] work ''[[What is History?]]'' (ISBN 0333977017). Carr challenged to the traditional belief that the study of the [[historical method|methods of historical research]] and writing were unimportant. His work remains in print to this day, and is common to many postgraduate programs of study in both the [[United States]] and in [[Great Britain]]. Historiography is often political in nature. For example, much 1960s historiography focused on the exclusion of the roles of women, minorities, and labor from written histories of the USA. According to these historiographers, historians in the 1930s and 1940s had a bias towards well-connected white males. Many historians from that point onward devoted themselves to what they saw as more accurate representations of the past, casting a light on those who had been previously disregarded as non-noteworthy. The study of historiography demands a critical approach that goes beyond the mere examination of historical fact. Historiographical studies consider the source, often by researching the author, his or her position in society, and the type of history being written at the time. == Basic issues studied in historiography == Some of the common questions of historiography are: *Who wrote the source (primary or secondary)? *For primary sources, we look at the person in his or her society, for secondary sources, we consider the theoretical orientation of the approach for example, [[Marxist]] or [[Annales School]], (&quot;total history&quot;), [[political history]], etc. *What is the authenticity, authority, bias/interest, and intelligibility of the source? *What was the view of history when the source was written? *Was history supposed to provide moral lessons? *What or who was the intended audience? *What sources were privileged or ignored in the narrative? *By what [[method]] was the evidence compiled? *In what historical context was the work of history itself written? Issues engaged in so-called [[critical historiography]] includes topics such as: *What constitutes an historical &quot;event&quot;? *In what modes does a historian write and produce statements of &quot;truth&quot; and &quot;fact&quot;? *How does the medium (novel, textbook, film, theatre, comic) through which historical information is conveyed influence its meaning? *What inherent epistemological problems does archive-based history contain? *How does the historian establish their own objectivity or come to terms with their own subjectivity? *What is the relation of historical theory to historical practice? *What is the &quot;goal&quot; of history? *What ''is'' history? ==Foundation of Important historical Journals (Selection)== *[[1859]] Historische Zeitschrift (Germany) *[[1876 ]] Revue Historique (France) *[[1895]] American Historical Review (USA) *[[1914]] Mississippi Valley Historical Review/Journal of American History (Beginning 1964) (USA) *[[1916]] [[The Journal of Negro History]] *[[1929]] Annales. Économies. Sociétés. Civilisations *[[1952]] [[Past &amp; present]]: a journal of historical studies (Great Britain) *[[1953]] Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (Germany) *[[1956]] Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria (Nigeria) *[[1960]] Journal of African History (Cambridge) *[[1960]] Technology and culture : the international quarterly of the Society for the History of Technology (USA) *[[1975]] Geschichte und Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift für historische Sozialwissenschaft (Germany) *[[1982]] Subaltern Studies (Oxford University Press) *[[1986]] [http://www.stiftung-sozialgeschichte.de/ 1999. Zeitschrift für Sozialgeschichte des 20.und 21. Jahrhunderts], new title since 2003: Sozial.Geschichte. Zeitschrift für historische Analyse des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts. (Germany) *[[1990]] [http://www.univie.ac.at/Geschichte/LHOMME/ L’Homme. Zeitschrift für feministische Ges
tle = [[Ganga Jamuna Saraswati]] | Year = 1988 | Role = Ganga Prasad }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Jalwa | Year = 1987 | Role = Special Appearance as himself }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Hero Hiralal | Year = 1987 | Role = Special Appearance as himself }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Ek Ruka Hua Faisla | Year = 1986 | Role = (Guest Appearance) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Aakhree Raasta]] | Year = 1986 | Role = Dual Role }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Naya Bakra | Year = 1985 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Mard]] | Year = 1985 | Role = Raju 'Mard' Tangewala }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Giraftaar]] (Guest) | Year = 1985 | Role = Inspector Karan Kumar Khanna }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Sharaabi]] | Year = 1984 | Role = Vicky Kapoor }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Inquilaab]] | Year = 1984 | Role = Amarnath }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Nastik]] | Year = 1983 | Role = Shankar (Sheru)/Bhola }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Pukar]] | Year = 1983 | Role = Ramdas/Ronnie }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Mahaan]] | Year = 1983 | Role = Triple role (Amit/Rana Ranveer, Guru &amp; Inspector Shankar) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Coolie]] | Year = 1983 | Role = Iqbal }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Andha Kanoon]] (Guest) | Year = 1983 | Role = Jan Nissar Akhtar Khan (Guest Appearance) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Shakti]] | Year = 1982 | Role = Vijay Kumar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Satte pe Satta]] | Year = 1982 | Role = Dual Role (Ravi Anand/Babu) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Namak Halaal]] | Year = 1982 | Role = Arjun Singh }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Khud-daar]] | Year = 1982 | Role = Govind Srivastav/Chotu Ustad }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Desh Premee]] | Year = 1982 | Role = Dual Role (Master Dinanath &amp; Raju) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Bemisaal]] | Year = 1982 | Role = Dual Role (Dr. Sudhir Roy &amp; Adhir Roy) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Yaraana]] | Year = 1981 | Role = Kishan Kumar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Silsila]] | Year = 1981 | Role = Amit Malhotra }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Naseeb]] | Year = 1981 | Role = John, Jaani, Janardhan }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Lawaaris]] | Year = 1981 | Role = Heera }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Vilayati Babu (Special Appearance) | Year = 1981 | Role = Jagga (Special Appearance) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kaalia]] | Year = 1981 | Role = Kallu/Kaalia }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Barsaat ki Ek Raat]] | Year = 1981 | Role = ACP Abhijeet Rai }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Commander (Guest) | Year = 1981 | Role = Guest Appearance }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Chashme Buddoor (Guest) | Year = 1981 | Role = Guest Appearance }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Shaan]] | Year = 1980 | Role = Vijay Kumar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Ram Balraam]] | Year = 1980 | Role = Inspector Balram Singh }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Dostaana]] | Year = 1980 | Role = Vijay Varma }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Do aur Do Panch]] | Year = 1980 | Role = Vijay/Ram }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Cinema Cinema | Year = 1979 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Suhaag]] | Year = 1979 | Role = Amit Kapoor }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Mr. Natwarlal]] | Year = 1979 | Role = Natwarlal/Avtar Singh }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Manzil]] | Year = 1979 | Role = Ajay Chandra }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kaala Patthar]] | Year = 1979 | Role = Vijay Pal Singh }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Jurmaana | Year = 1979 | Role = Inder Saxena }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[The Great Gambler]] | Year = 1979 | Role = Dual Role (Jay &amp; Inspector Vijay) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Gol Maal]] | Year = 1979 | Role = as himself Guest Appearance }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Muqaddar ka Sikandar]] | Year = 1978 | Role = Sikandar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Trishul]] | Year = 1978 | Role = Vijay Kumar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kasme Vaade]] | Year = 1978 | Role = Dual Role (Amit &amp; Shankar) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Ganga Ki Saugandh]] | Year = 1978 | Role = Jeeva }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Don]] | Year = 1978 | Role = Double Role (Don/Vijay) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Besharam]] | Year = 1978 | Role = Ram Kumar Chandra/Prince Chandrashekar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Shatranj Ke Khilari | Year = 1977 | Role = Narrator }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Parvarish]] | Year = 1977 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Khoon Paseena]] | Year = 1977 | Role = Shiva/Tiger }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Imaan Dharam]] | Year = 1977 | Role = Ahmed Raza }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Amar Akbar Anthony]] | Year = 1977 | Role = Anthony Gonsalves/Raju }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Alaap]] | Year = 1977 | Role = Alok Prasad }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Charandas (Special Appearance) | Year = 1977 | Role = Qawwali Singer (Special Appearance) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Adalat]] | Year = 1976 | Role = Dual Role (Dharma/Thakur Dharam Chand &amp; Raju) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Hera Pheri]] | Year = 1976 | Role = Vijay }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kabhie Kabhie]] | Year = 1976 | Role = Amitabh &quot;Amit&quot; Malhotra }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Do Anjaane]] | Year = 1976 | Role = Amit Roy/Naresh Dutt }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Sholay]] | Year = 1975 | Role = Jai (Jaidev) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Mili]] | Year = 1975 | Role = Shekhar Dayal }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Zameer]] | Year = 1975 | Role = Baadal/Chimpoo }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Faraar]] | Year = 1975 | Role = Rajesh (Raj) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Deewar]] | Year = 1975 | Role = Vijay Verma }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Chupke Chupke]] | Year = 1975 | Role = Professor Sukumar Sinha/Parimal Tripathi }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Kunwara Baap (Guest) | Year = 1974 | Role = as Himself (Guest Appearance) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Roti Kapda aur Makaan]] | Year = 1974 | Role = Vijay }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Majboor]] | Year = 1974 | Role = Ravi Khanna }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kasauti]] | Year = 1974 | Role = Amitabh Sharma (Amit) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Dost (Guest) | Year = 1974 | Role = Anand (Guest Appearance) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Benaam]] | Year = 1974 | Role = Amit Srivastav }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Bada Kabutar (Guest) | Year = 1973 | Role = Guest appearance }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Zanjeer]] | Year = 1973 | Role = Inspector Vijay }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Saudagar]] | Year = 1973 | Role = Mothi }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Namak Haram]] | Year = 1973 | Role = Vikram (Vicky) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Gehri Chaal]] | Year = 1973 | Role = Ratan }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Baandhe Haath | Year = 1973 | Role = Dual Role (Shyamu &amp; Deepak) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Abhimaan]] | Year = 1973 | Role = Subir Kumar (Beeru) }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Raaste Ka Patthar | Year = 1972 | Role = Jai Shankar Rai }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Bawarchi (Guest) | Year = 1972 | Role = Narrator }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Jaban | Year = 1972 | Role = }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Ek Nazar]] | Year = 1972 | Role = Manmohan Akash Tyagi }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Bombay to Goa]] | Year = 1972 | Role = Ravi Kumar }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Bansi Birju | Year = 1972 | Role = Birju }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Piya Ka Ghar (Guest) | Year = 1971 | Role = Guest Appearance }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Reshma Aur Shera]] | Year = 1971 | Role = Chotu }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Sanjog]] | Year = 1971 | Role = Mohan }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Parwaana]] | Year = 1971 | Role = Kumar Sen }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = Pyar Ki Kahani | Year = 1971 | Role = Ram Chandra }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Guddi]] | Year = 1971 | Role = as himself guest appearance }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Anand]] | Year = 1970 | Role = Dr. Bhaskar K. Bannerjee/Babu Moshai }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Bhuvan Shome]] | Year = 1969 | Role = Narrator aka Mr. Shome }} {{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Saat Hindustani]] | Year = 1969 | Role = Anwar Ali Anwar }} {{Filmography-end }} ===Current projects=== *''[[Baiju Aur Tansen]]'' *''[[Happy New Year!!! (film)| Happy New Year!!!]]'' *''[[Sarkar 2]]'' *''[[Sholay]]'' *''[[God Tussi Great Ho]]'' *''[[Darna Zaroori Hai]]'' *''[[Baabul]]'' *''[[Khazan]]'' *''[[Eklavya]]'' *''[[Struggler]]'' ==References== *{{note|election}} &quot;[http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/amitabh/politics.htm Amitabh Bachchan: Stint in Politics]&quot; HindustanTimes.com. Accessed on [[December 5]], [[2005]]. *{{note|politics}} &quot;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4487416.stm Amitabh Bachchan: The comeback man]&quot; BBC News. Accessed on [[December
ers fermentation chambers when, the risk can be well controlled. Fermentation tanks are typically made of stainless steel. If they are simple cylindrical tanks with beveled ends, they are arranged vertically, as opposed to conditioning tanks which are usually laid out horizontally. A very few breweries still use wooden vats for fermentation as wood is difficult to keep clean and infection-free and must be repitched more or less yearly. After high kraeusen a bung device (German: ''Spundapparat'') is often put on the tanks to allow the [[Carbon|C]][[Oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;[[carbon dioxide|2]]&lt;/sub&gt; produced by the yeast to naturally carbonate the beer. This bung device can be set to a given pressure to match the type of beer being produced. The more pressure the bung holds back, the more carbonated the beer becomes. ===Conditioning=== When the sugars in the fermenting beer have been almost completely digested, the fermentation slows down and the yeast starts to settle to the bottom of the tank. At this stage, the beer is cooled to around freezing, which encourages settling of the yeast, and causes proteins to coagulate and settle out with the yeast. Unpleasant flavors such as phenolic compounds become insoluble in the cold beer, and the beer's flavor becomes smoother. During this time pressure is maintained on the tanks to prevent the beer from going flat. If the fermentation tanks have cooling jackets on them, as opposed to the whole fermentation cellar being cooled, conditioning can take place in the same tank as fermentation. Otherwise separate tanks (in a separate cellar) must be employed. ===Filtering=== Filtering the beer stabilizes the flavor, and gives beer its polished shine and brilliance. Not all beer is filtered. When tax determination is required by local laws, it is typically done at this stage in a calibrated tank. Filters come in many types. Many use pre-made filtration media such as sheets or candles, while others use a fine powder made of, for example, [[diatomaceous earth]], also called kieselguhr, which is introduced into the beer and recirculated past screens to form a filtration bed. Filters range from rough filters that remove much of the yeast and any solids (e.g. hops, grain particles) left in the beer, to filters tight enough to strain color and body from the beer. Normally used filtration ratings are divided into rough, fine and sterile. Rough filtration leaves some cloudiness in the beer, but it is noticeably clearer than unfiltered beer. Fine filtration gives a glass of beer that you could read a newspaper through, with no noticeable cloudiness. Finally, as its name implies, sterile filtration is fine enough that almost all microorganisms in the beer are removed during the filtration process. ====Sheet (pad) filters==== These filters use pre-made media and are relatively straightforward. The sheets are manufactured to allow only particles smaller than a given size through, and the brewer is free to choose how finely to filter the beer. The sheets are placed into the filtering frame, sterilized (with hot water, for example) and then used to filter the beer. The sheets can be flushed if the filter becomes blocked, and usually the sheets are disposable and are replaced between filtration sessions. Often the sheets contain powdered filtration media to aid in filtration. It should be kept in mind that pre-made filters have two sides. One with loose holes, and the other with tight holes. Flow goes from the side with loose holes to the side with the tight holes, with the intent that large particles get stuck in the large holes while leaving enough room around the particles and filter medium for smaller particles to go through and get stuck in tighter holes. Sheets are sold in nominal ratings, and typically 90% of particles larger than the nominal rating are caught by the sheet. ====Kieselguhr filters==== Filters that use a powder medium are considerably more complicated to operate, but can filter much more beer before needing to be regenerated. Common media include [[diatomaceous earth]], or kieselguhr, and [[perlite]]. ===Packaging=== Packaging is putting the beer into the containers in which it will leave the brewery. Typically this means in bottles and [[keg]]s, but it might include bulk tanks for high-volume customers. == See also == {{wikibooks|Brewing}} * [[distilling]]. * The word ''[[zymurgy]]'' is sometimes used as a generic term for brewing, [[wine|winemaking]] and distilling. * [[Brewery#The Brewing Process]] * [[Homebrewing|Homebrew]] * [[History of beer]] * [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Brewing Wikibooks - How To - Brewing] * [[Mead]], honey mead and meadmaking [[Category:Beer]] [[Category:Brewing]] {{commonscat|Beer-Brewing}} [[da:Urt (ingrediens)]] [[de:Bierbrauen]] [[lt:Alaus darymas]] [[sv:Ölframställning]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Barsoom series</title> <id>4411</id> <revision> <id>41979537</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:39:26Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>LtPowers</username> <id>749490</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>/* The movie */ disambiguate link</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Princess_of_Mars.jpg|frame|right|''A Princess of Mars'' by [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]], [[McClurg]], [[1917]]]] In [[1911]], [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]], now better known as the creator of the character [[Tarzan]], began his writing career with ''A Princess of Mars'', a rousing tale of [[Pulp magazine|pulp]] adventure on the planet '''Barsoom''' or [[Mars]]. Several sequels followed. ==John Carter== The novels tell of earthman '''John Carter''', an Earthman mysteriously transported to the planet Mars by a form of [[astral projection]]. There, on the world its natives call Barsoom, he encounters both formidable alien creatures resembling the beasts of ancient myth and various humanoids. Carter is the protagonist of the first three novels, as well as the seventh, tenth and eleventh, and a major secondary character in the fourth and ninth novels. Other books tell the stories of several of his descendants, other native Martians, and another Earthman transported to Barsoom by the same means as Carter. ===As mortals knew him=== Carter stood 6&amp;#8242;2&amp;#8243; tall and had close-cropped black hair and steel-gray eyes. His character and courtesy exemplified the ideals of the [[antebellum]] [[U. S. Southern States|South]]. A [[Virginia|Virginian]] who served as a captain in the [[American Civil War]], he struck it rich by finding gold in [[Arizona]] after the end of hostilities. While hiding from [[Apache Tribe|Apache]]s in a cave, he found himself mysteriously transported to [[Mars]], where he subsequently had many adventures. The less intense [[gravity]] of Mars compared to [[Earth]] gave him [[demigod]]-like [[strength]]. Mysteriously transported back to Earth, he spent the last years of his life on Earth in a small [[cottage]] on the [[Hudson River]] in [[New York]]. He died there on [[March 4]] [[1886]]. ===The immortal being=== Burroughs portrays John Carter as an immortal being. In the opening pages of ''A Princess of Mars'', the author reveals to the reader that Carter can remember no childhood, having always been a man of about thirty years old. Many generations of families referred to him as &quot;Uncle Jack,&quot; but he always lived to see all the members of the families grow old and die, while he remained young. After travelling to Mars, he seemed to find his true calling in life as a warrior-savior of the planet's inhabitants. His &quot;death&quot; actually represents leaving his inanimate body behind on Earth while he travelled about Mars in an identical body. Carter revealed that he mastered the process of travelling to and from Earth and Mars and could travel between the two at will. Accordingly, his Earth body lies in a special tomb that can only be opened from the inside. ==Barsoom== ===Environment=== While Burroughs' Barsoom tales never aspired to being anything other than exciting escapism, his vision of Mars was loosely inspired by [[Astronomy|astronomical]] speculation of the time, especially that of [[Percival Lowell]], that pictured the planet as a formerly [[Earth]]like world now becoming less hospitable to life. Once a wet world with continents and oceans, Barsoom's seas gradually dried up, leaving it a dry planet of highlands interspersed with moss covered dead sea bottoms. [[Lost city|Abandoned cities]] line the former coastlands. The last remnants of the former bodies of water are the '''Great Toonoolian Marshes''' and the [[antarctic]] '''Lost Sea of Korus'''. Modern Barsoomians redistribute scarce water supplies in a worldwide system of [[Martian canals|canals]], controlled by quarreling city-state empires based on the concentrations of population at their junctures. The thinning Martian atmosphere is artificially replenished from an &quot;atmosphere plant&quot; on whose smooth functioning all life on the planet is dependent. Burroughs derived his concept of the [[Martian canals]] from the theories of Lowell and his predecessor [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]]. The few coordinates provided for Burroughs' canals differ from theirs, as their own differ from each other; in fact, most of the linear channel-like features Schiaparelli and Lowell mapped have been proven illusory. Some of Barsoom's other major physical features do correspond to [[albedo features]] of Mars known at the time, flipped upside-down in reflection of the images of the planet as seen through telescopes. For instance, Burroughs' snow-covered '''Artolian Hills''' can be roughly equated to the bright feature [[Hellas Planitia|Hellas]] (actually a huge [[impact crater]]), and the '''Great Toonoolian Marshes''' to the dark feature represented by the [[Valles Marineris]]. ===Peoples and culture=== The dominant culture of Barsoom is that of the human
.. According to Westcott, the [[Cipher Manuscripts]] also contained an address of an aged adept named &quot;Fräulein Sprengel&quot; in Germany, to whom Westcott wrote inquiring about the contents of the papers. Fraulein Sprengel responded, and after accepting the requests of Westcott and Mathers, issued them a charter to operate a Lodge of the Order in England. Westcott's first Golden Dawn Temple was the Isis-Urania Lodge, styled &quot;No.3&quot;. Temple No.1 would have been Fraulein Sprengel's lodge, and No. 2 was supposedly an abortive attempt at a lodge by some unnamed persons in London, (possibly a reference to MacKenzie and other S.R.I.A. members some years earlier.) ===The Golden Age of the Golden Dawn=== In its heyday, many [[culture|cultural]] [[celebrity|celebrities]] belonged to the Golden Dawn, such as actress [[Florence Farr]] and [[Irish]] revolutionary [[Maude Gonne]]. Some well known members included [[Arthur Machen]], [[William Butler Yeats]], and [[Aleister Crowley]]. ([[Bram Stoker]] is rumored to have once been a member, but it has never been proven.) But many men and women of the 19th century [[Fin de siècle]] social culture were members of the Golden Dawn. The original Lodge founded in 1888 did not teach any magical practices per se (except for basic &quot;banishing&quot; rituals and meditation), but was rather a philosophical and metaphysical teaching Order. This was called &quot;the Outer Order&quot;, and for four years the Golden Dawn existed only in &quot;the Outer&quot;. The &quot;Inner Order&quot;, which became active in 1892, was the circle of Adepts who had completed the entire course of study and Initiations of the Outer Order contained in the Cipher Manuscripts. This group eventually became known as the Second Order (the Outer Order being the &quot;First&quot; Order). Mathers and Dr. Westcott have been credited for developing the ritual outlines in the Cipher Manuscript into a workable format.{{fn|1}} Mathers, however, is generally credited with the design of the curriculum and rituals of the Second Order, which he called the ''Rosae Rubae et Aureae Crucis'' (&quot;Ruby Rose and Golden Cross&quot;, or the ''RR et AC''.) Some Golden Dawn practitioners believe that Mathers received his materials from the ''&quot;Secret Chiefs&quot;'' connected to his German Rosicrucian predecessors, which is what he stated to his followers. Some believe that S.L. Macgregor Mathers and his wife Moina [[Channelling (mediumistic)|channelled]] the materials, and later refined and developed them, as was done with the Cipher Manuscripts. Mathers' exegesis of the Cipher materials as practiced by the original Temples is known as the &quot;Z-2&quot;. The Order tradition is to designate it's important &quot;secret&quot; instructional papers as &quot;Z Documents&quot;. The primary Lodges were the original ''Isis-Urania Temple'' in London, the ''Amen-Ra Temple'' in Edinburgh, and the ''Ahathoor Temple'' in Paris. It is unknown how many members the Order had in its heyday, as some lodges' records were lost or destroyed, but estimates range from three to five hundred. Only a small group, probably well under one hundred, ever became part of the Second Order. There were a few other Temples, consisting of small groups scattered in Europe and America, generally meeting in private homes. Mathers left London in 1894 to live in Paris, and his temple there became the nominal center of the organization, though it was notable chiefly for his presence. Westcott remained in London as Chief Adept in Anglica (England.) By the end of the 19th century, Dr. Woodman had passed away, and Dr. Westcott had curtailed his participation in official activities after several occult manuscripts of the Order, in a case bearing his address, had been left in a London taxicab and came to the attention of his superiors in the city government. Not wishing any hint of scandal over &quot;secret occult societies&quot; that had officials of the Crown in their ranks (especially a coroner, who could conceivably cover up a suspicious cause of death), Westcott's employers insisted he disassociate himself with the Order. There are accounts of a similar incident in 1889 which caused him to stop lecturing for the ''Esoteric Section of the Theosophical Society''. Aleister Crowley later alleged in his autobiography that Mathers deliberately planted the documents to consolidate his control of the Order by forcing Westcott's resignation, as this was rumored at the time. While there is no proof of Mathers's complicity, it appears that the relationship between Mathers and Westcott all but ended after this point. After Westcott's departure, Mathers appointed Florence Farr to be Chief Adept in Anglica. (Although Westcott publicly resigned, he must have continued in some capacity since there are Lodge documents bearing his signature dated years after his &quot;resignation.&quot;) This left Mathers as the only active founding member and in charge of the Order. Due to personality clashes with other members, and being absent from the center of Lodge activity in Great Britain, challenges to Mathers' authority as leader began to develop amongst the members of the Second Order. ===The Breakup of the Original Order=== After 13 years of operation, a majority of the high-ranking members in London fostered a schism of the British lodges from Mathers in 1900, which led to further schisms and more splinter groups. The original Golden Dawn ceased to exist under that name in [[1903]] but which continued under at least two spin-off organizations, the [[Stella Matutina]] (Morning Star) and the [[Alpha et Omega]], as well as a renamed faction headed by [[Arthur Edward Waite]]. In 1900, Mathers had entered into a disastrous relationship with a husband and wife known as Mr. and Mrs. Theo Horos. This couple had carved out a living for a number of years as &quot;confidence frauds with an occult slant.&quot; The Horos' had apparently developed some kind of relationship with one of the American temples and had either acquired or forged some Order papers and credentials. Based on these credentials and their mesmeric personalities, the Horoses were able to con Mathers out of Order documents, which they used to set up spurious &quot;temples&quot; and operate confidence schemes. Word of their illicit operations eventually reached Mathers, who subsequently denounced them as frauds, and they were tried and convicted of fraud and sexual misconduct in 1902. By 1903 the name &quot;Golden Dawn&quot; was dropped by both Mathers and by the various splinter groups to avoid the growing public scandal. The Stella Matutina closed its doors in the [[United Kingdom]] before [[World War II|WWII]], but continued to function under the popular name [[Whare Ra]] in [[New Zealand]] until the late [[1970s]]. Mathers' Alpha et Omega had a few members in America in the early 20th century, but no groups are known to have continued after the death of his wife Moina in 1928. ===The Modern Revival=== In 1914, Aleister Crowley published the texts of the Initiation rituals of the Outer Order in his serial publication, &quot;The Equinox&quot;. Real circulation of the materials didn't happen until after World War I, when they created quite a stir in the occult community. The secrets of the Golden Dawn became available to the general public, and were a major part of the occult &quot;revival&quot; of the 1920's. Israel Regardie, who was once Crowley's secretary, published the complete initiation rites, along with a selection of the workings and instructional documents that were in his possession, of the Stella Matutina (essentially identical to the original Golden Dawn rituals and teachings) in the early 1930s. While this action supposedly violated the Order's oaths of secrecy, Regardie claims he believed at the time no functioning lodges remained, and feared the work of the Order would otherwise be lost forever. In the 1920s and 30s more schisms occurred, and by the onset of World War II most of the original Lodges were gone, except for a few small groups (notably in America and New Zealand) that could claim direct descent from the original Lodges, finally dying out in the 1970s. But even as the original lodges died away, new adherents and Initiates of the old Adepts began to revive the Order, reclaiming the name of the Golden Dawn. Lodges currently exist in Europe, the Americas, South Africa and Australia. Numbers are hard to estimate, but there are likely hundreds if not thousands of people currently involved in organized Golden Dawn groups, and many solo practioners. Some can claim lineage of one kind or another to the original lodges by &quot;apostolic succession&quot; (i.e. Adepts having gone on to establish their own Lodges without any official charters), others simply follow the legacy of the original Order according to the wealth of published material available to the public, either in organized lodges or as solo practitioners. This being the case, there is no universally recognized central authority, though there are lodges and individuals that lay claim to it. There are a few organized Golden Dawn groups today that lay claim to the &quot;undiluted&quot; lineage of the original Temples. Generally, this takes the form of issuing claims (especially on the Internet) of being chartered by an offshoot Temple of Isis-Urania Lodge No.3.. Moina Mathers, having assumed the role of Imperatrix after her husband's death in 1918, chartered a few Lodges in Europe and America after her husband died. Claims of lineage are usually by connection to one of these temples. The publication of the Golden Dawn corpus figured prominently in the occult &quot;revival&quot; of the 1960s. Before his death in 1985, Regardie was involved in initiatives to reestablish the [[Golden Dawn tradition]]. Other groups founded by former Golden Dawn associates, such as the [[Builders of the Adytum]] (B.O.T.A.) of [[Paul Foster Case]
istorically formed by combining elements of [[Hardcore Punk]] and early [[thrash metal]]. ==Historical roots and influences== The genre was pioneered during the early [[1980s]] in the [[United Kingdom]],[[Netherlands]] and [[Brasil]] by bands such as [[Sore Throat]] and [[Napalm Death]]. In the [[United States]] the genre has their roots with proto-grindcore and [[hardcore punk]] bands such as [[Siege (band)|Siege]], [[Dirty Rotten Imbeciles|DRI]], [[Deep Wound |Deep Wound]] and [[Repulsion (band)|Repulsion]]. Many of the early bands, such as Napalm Death, DRI, and Siege were seen by their contemporaries as part of the [[anarcho-punk]] and [[hardcore punk]] scenes. As many [[anarcho-punk]] and [[peace punk]] bands in England and [[hardcore_punk|hardcore]] in the United States had already incorporated elements of [[Heavy_metal_music|heavy metal]] into their music. Many of these early bands were, and still are, obscure. For instance, the hardcore punk band [[Siege (band)|Siege]] only released a [[DIY punk ethic|DIY]] demo entitled ''Drop Dead'', and [[Repulsion (band)|Repulsion]] was posthumously exposed to the world in [[1989]] through the album ''Horrified'' which was released in [[Europe]] by [[Necrosis Records]], a label owned by members of the band [[Carcass (band)|Carcass]]. Many consider the first true grindcore band to be British band [[Napalm Death]]. The genre was given its name by Napalm Death's drummer [[Mick Harris]]. Since then, the grind sound has evolved but is still recognisable for its intense [[blast beat|blast-beat]] drumming, grinding guitars (hence the name), brutal [[death grunt|grunted vocals]], and very short songs (the Napalm Death song &quot;[[You Suffer]]&quot; is listed as the shortest song ever by the [[Guinness Book of Records]], clocking in at fractionally over 1 second long; however, others such as the [[Cripple Bastards]] on their demo ''94 Flashback di Massacro'', and [[Agoraphobic Nosebleed]] on their 3&quot; cd/10&quot; lp ''Altered States of America'' have taken this aesthetic to even greater extremes). American grindcore band [[Anal Cunt]], a project of [[Seth Putnam]], has recorded an EP called 5643 Song EP which, amazingly, contains 5643 songs in less than 15 minutes. ==Subgenres== Grindcore has proven somewhat difficult to categorise. Some fans and musicians have a firm concept of genre and subgenre, but others reject such categorisation as limiting or useless. There is often significant crossover from one category to another, and often the influence of non-metal music is present. ====Genres==== *'''[[Political Grindcore]]''': This subgenre is known for having politically aware lyrics, and is sometimes associated with the [[crust punk]] and [[anarcho-punk|peace punk]] movement. Of all the subgenres of grindcore, this one remains the most musically similar to the earliest grindcore bands. Examples include [[Nasum]] and [[Napalm Death]]. *'''[[Power violence]]''' a lot like grindcore, drum-wise and vocal-wise at times, but leans more to being faster sounding hardcore. Widely considered a sub genre of hardcore, equally if not more. *'''[[Goregrind]]''': This subgenre started with the band [[Carcass (band)|Carcass]], and is most notable for having gore obsessed lyrics, and [[pitchshifted]] vocals. Of all the subgenres this one currently has the most (relative) commercial success. *'''[[Cybergrind]]''': Cybergrind is a form of grindcore that, aside from the instruments used by ordinary grindcore, uses computer generated sounds, samples and/or drum machines and other synthetic instruments. Examples include [[Agoraphobic Nosebleed]],[[Microphallus (band) | Microphallus]], [[Gigantic Brain]]. ====Other minor genres==== *'''[[Modern Death/Grind]]''': Death metal with heavy grindcore influences, or vice versa. *'''[[Pornogrind]]''': A sexually explicit, 'groovy,' less death metal form of goregrind. Example: [http://www.goregrind.net/gut Gut]. *'''[[Noisegrind]]''': structure-free grindcore, with feedback, hateful lyrics and general disregard for musicianship. For example [[Anal Cunt]], [[Genital Masticator]]. *'''[[Drum_machine_grind|Drum Machine Grind]]''': Grind that uses a drum machine, and makes no attempt to hide that fact, by playing impossibly fast blast beats. For example [[Agoraphobic Nosebleed]] and [[Wadge]]. ==Crucial bands== &lt;!-- Don't add your band without discussion on the talk list. --&gt; *See also [[List of grindcore bands]]. Crucial grindcore bands include [[Agathocles (band)|Agathocles]], [[Agoraphobic Nosebleed]] [[Anal Cunt]], [[Assück]], [[Benümb]], [[Brutal Truth]], [[Cripple Bastards]], [[Discordance Axis]], [[Extreme Noise Terror]], [[Fear of God]], [[Phobia]], [[Pig Destroyer]], [[Napalm Death]], [[Nasum]], [[Repulsion (band)|Repulsion]], [[Terrorizer]], [[Unseen Terror]] Bands that inspired and helped to define early grind include [[Agonia (band)|Agonia]], [[Anti-cimex(band)|Anti-Cimex]], [[CCM (band)|CCM]], [[Cryptic Slaughter]], [[Discharge (band)|Discharge]], [[Siege (band)|Siege]], [[S.O.B. (band)|S.O.B.]], [[Larm]]. ==See also== * [[Crossover thrash]] * [[Death metal]] * [[Crustcore]] * [[Noisecore]] * [[Metalcore]] * [[Cybergrind]] ==External links== *[http://www.geocities.com/repulsion_band/agrindhistory.html Grindcore Milestones (a subjective history)] *[http://www.ikmf.tk (a site about grindcore)] *[http://www.jellobung.com/phobia (Phobia's Official website)] {{heavymetal}} {{hardcorepunk}} [[Category:Grindcore| ]] [[Category:Metal subgenres]] [[Category:Hardcore punk genres]] [[bg:Grindcore]] [[da:Grindcore]] [[de:Grindcore]] [[es:Grindcore]] [[fr:Grind core]] [[he:גרינדקור]] [[nl:Grindcore]] [[ja:グラインドコア]] [[pl:Grindcore]] [[pt:Grindcore]] [[ru:Грайнд-кор]] [[fi:Grindcore]] [[sv:Grindcore]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Game of Life</title> <id>13139</id> <revision> <id>37566707</id> <timestamp>2006-01-31T20:42:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Vary</username> <id>208472</id> </contributor> <comment>Reversion to revision 29461853 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">There are two things called the '''Game of Life''': * For the [[cellular automaton]] devised by mathematician [[John Horton Conway]], see '''[[Conway's Game of Life]]''' * For the [[board game]] made by games manufacturer [[Milton Bradley]] (a subsidiary of [[Hasbro]]), see '''[[The Checkered Game of Life]]''' and '''[[Hasbro's Game of Life]]''' {{disambig}}</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Georg Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach</title> <id>13140</id> <revision> <id>31584743</id> <timestamp>2005-12-16T07:27:27Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Kmorozov</username> <id>238736</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Georg Friedrich Hohenzollern''', Margrave of [[Brandenburg-Ansbach]] and [[Bayreuth]], and Regent of [[Ducal Prussia]] was born [[1539]] and died [[1603]]. He was the son of [[Georg Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach]], a member of the [[Hohenzollern|Hohenzollern dynasty]] ([[1484]]-[[1543]]). Georg Friedrich reigned in [[Ansbach]] and [[Krnov|Jaegerndorf]] since [[1556]] and after the death of his cousin Alcibiades in [[1557]] also in Bayreuth. He took over the administration of [[Ducal Prussia]] in [[1577]], when the then-reigning duke (''Albert Frederick'') became ill. He was the last of the older Frankish line of the House of Hohenzollern. Upon his death Ansbach and Bayreuth were inherited according to the [[Gera]] house treaty of [[1598]] by younger princes of the Brandenburg line. {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Fürst und Markgraf von Ansbach]] | years=1543&amp;ndash;1603 | before=[[Georg, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Georg]] | after=[[Joachim Ernst, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Joachim Ernst]]}} {{succession box | title=[[Fürst von Bayreuth]] | years=1553&amp;ndash;1603 | before=[[Albrecht Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth|Albrecht Alcibiades]] | after=[[Christian, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth|Christian]]}} {{end box}} [[category:1539 births|Friedrich, Georg]] [[category:1603 deaths|Friedrich, Georg]] [[Category:House of Hohenzollern]] [[Category:Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach]] [[Category:Margraves of Bayreuth]] [[de:Georg Friedrich (Brandenburg-Ansbach)]] [[pl:Jerzy Fryderyk von Ansbach Hohenzollern]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Georg, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach</title> <id>13141</id> <revision> <id>37291605</id> <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:25:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>24.8.160.40</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Georg Hohenzollern Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach''' was born in [[1484]] and died [[1543]]. He was the son of [[Frederick I Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach]] [[Hohenzollern]] and his wife Sophie [[Jagiello]], daughter of [[Casimir IV]] and Elisabeth [[Habsburg]]. Georg had a son named [[Georg Friedrich]] Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and [[Duke of Prussia]]. Georg became the legal guardian and raised the minor [[Louis II of Bohemia]] [[Jagiello]], King of Hungary and Bohemia. From [[1515]] to [[1527]] Georg governed together with his brother Kasimir, then alone. In [[1524]] he confessed to the [[Reformation]] and he urged his brother Albrecht or [[Albert of Prussia]], who was at that time grand master of the [[Teutonic Knights]], to join the Reformation and secularize Prussia as well. Georg signed the Protestation at [[Speyer]] in [[1529]] and the [[Augsburg]] Confession in [[1530]]. He urged the [[Brandenburg]] elector [[Joachim II]] Hohenzollern to confess to the Lutheran teachings. {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[Fürst und Markgraf von Ansbach]] | years=1541&amp;ndash;1543 | before=[[Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Fried
spheric levels caused by human activities, scientists are reporting today.&quot; (November 25, 2005) [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/25/science/earth/25core.html?ei=5090&amp;en=d5078e33050b2b0c&amp;ex=1290574800&amp;adxnnl=1&amp;partner=rssuserland&amp;emc=rss] * {{cite book | last = Ruddiman | first = William F. | year = 2005 | title = Plows, Plagues, and Petroleum: How Humans Took Control of Climate | location = New Jersey | publisher = Princeton University Press | id = ISBN 0691121648 }} * [http://www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/documents/CEO_briefing_climate_change_2002_en.pdf UNEP summary] (2002) ''Climate risk to global economy'', Climate Change and the Financial Services Industry, United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiatives Executive Briefing Paper (UNEP FI) (PDF) Accessed Jan. 7, 2006 * {{cite journal | author = Wang, Y.M., J.L. Lean, and N.R. Sheeley | year = 2005 | title = Modeling the sun's magnetic field and irradiance since 1713 | journal = Astrophysical Journal | volume = 625 | pages = 522–538 }} * Kennett J. P., Cannariato K. G., Hendy I. L. &amp; Behl R. J.American Geophysical Union, Special Publication, Methane Hydrates in Quaternary Climate Change: The Clathrate Gun Hypothesis. 54, (2003). * Sowers T. Science, 311. 838 - 840 (2006). * Hinrichs K.U., Hmelo L. &amp; Sylva S. Science, 299 . 1214 - 1217 (2003). * [http://www.bioedonline.org/news/news.cfm?art=2334 Questions about Clathrate Gun Hypothesis (source of information)] ==See also== *[[Climate change]] *[[Effects of global warming]] *[[Global Atmosphere Watch]] *[[Greenhouse effect]] *[[Iris Hypothesis]] *[[National Assessment on Climate Change]] *[[Phenology]] *[[Timeline of environmental events]] *[[United Kingdom Climate Change Programme]] *[[Wind power]] ==External links== ===Scientific=== *[http://wwwghcc.msfc.nasa.gov/ghcc_home.html NASA's Global Hydrology and Climate Center] *[http://www.ucar.edu/research/climate/ National Center for Atmospheric Research] - Overview of NCAR research on climate change *[http://www.aip.org/history/climate Discovery of Global Warming] &amp;mdash; An extensive introduction to the topic and the history of its discovery *[http://www.wmo.ch/web/etr/pdf_web/926E.pdf Introduction to climate change: Lecture notes for meteorologists] ([[World Meteorological Organization]]) (PDF) ===Other=== *[http://globalchange.org/ Global Change] by the [[Pacific Institute]] *[http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Global_warming Global Warming article on Sourcewatch] *[http://www.manicore.com/anglais/documentation_a/greenhouse/index.html Climate change (global warming): a couple of answers to some elementary questions] by Jean-Marc Jancovici *[http://sdnetwork.net/page.php?instructions=page&amp;page_id=550&amp;nav_id=131 Carrots, Sticks and Climate Change] - Online articles of well-known authors of the [[Sustainable Development Network]], also in a book *[http://www.sepp.org The Science &amp; Environmental Policy Project] *[http://www.globalwarming.org/ GlobalWarming.org] - a site of Cooler Heads Coalition and the Competitive Enterprise Institute that advocate for business interests. *[http://www.giss.nasa.gov/edu/gwdebate/ Misusing figures about global warming in testimony to the United States Congress] *[http://www.brighton73.freeserve.co.uk/gw/globalwarmingfaq.htm Global Warming FAQ] by [http://www.brighton73.freeserve.co.uk/ Tom Rees] *[http://www.autobahn.mb.ca/~het/enviro/globalwarming.html A large compendium of links to sites with information on global warming] *[http://www.istl.org/01-fall/internet.html Science and Technology Librarianship: Global Warming and Climate Change Science] &amp;mdash; Extensive commented list of Internet resources &amp;mdash; Science and Technology Sources on the Internet. *[http://www.realclimate.org RealClimate] - A group blog of climate scientists *[http://www.climateimc.org Climate Indymedia] - An independent, open publishing, news media website about Climate Chaos. (A topical [[Indymedia]] ) *[http://www.junkscience.com/MSU_Temps/Warming_Look.htm Global warming at a glance] - latest data of the global temperature *[http://www.obelus.org/index.php?artID=10 The incredible shrinking Arctic] - explains the albedo effect *&quot;[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/warming/ What's up with the weather?]&quot; ([[NOVA (TV series)|NOVA]] / [[Frontline (PBS)|FrontLine]]) [[Category:Climate change]] [[Category:Climatology]] [[Category:History of climate]] [[ca:Escalfament global]] [[cs:Globální oteplování]] [[da:Global opvarmning]] [[de:Globale Erwärmung]] [[eo:tutmonda varmiĝo]] [[es:Calentamiento global]] [[et:Globaalne soojenemine]] [[fi:Ilmastonmuutos]] [[fr:Réchauffement climatique]] [[he:התחממות גלובלית]] [[it:Riscaldamento globale]] [[ja:地球温暖化]] [[nl:Opwarming van de aarde]] [[no:Global oppvarming]] [[pl:Ocieplenie klimatu]] [[pt:Aquecimento global]] [[ru:Глобальное потепление]] [[sk:Globálne otepľovanie]] [[sv:Global uppvärmning]] [[ta:புவி வெப்பநிலை அதிகரிப்பு]] [[zh:全球变暖]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Graph theory</title> <id>12401</id> <revision> <id>41869996</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:47:06Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Mikkalai</username> <id>28438</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/59.92.143.18|59.92.143.18]] ([[User talk:59.92.143.18|talk]]) to last version by Shanes</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:6n-graf.png|frame|right|A graph diagram of a graph with 6 vertices and 7 edges.]] In [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]], '''graph theory''' studies the properties of [[graph (mathematics)|graphs]]. Informally, a graph is a set of objects called [[vertex|vertices]] (or nodes) connected by links called [[edge]]s (or arcs) which can be directed (assigned a direction). Typically, a graph is designed as a set of nodes (the vertices) connected by lines (the edges). Structures that can be represented as graphs are ubiquitous, and many problems of practical interest can be represented by graphs. The link structure of a [[website]] could be represented by a directed graph: the vertices are the web pages available at the website and there's a directed edge from page ''A'' to page ''B'' if and only if ''A'' contains a link to ''B''. The development of [[algorithm]]s to handle graphs is therefore of major interest in [[computer science]]. A graph structure can be extended by assigning a weight to each edge of the graph. Graphs with weights can be used to represent many different concepts; for example if the graph represents a road network, the weights could represent the length of each road&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;. Another way to extend basic graphs is by making the edges to the graph directional (''A'' links to ''B'', but ''B'' does not necessarily link to ''A'', as in webpages), technically called a [[directed graph]] or [[directed graph|digraph]]. A digraph with weighted edges is called a [[network (mathematics)|network]]. Networks have many uses in the practical side of graph theory, [[network analysis]] (for example, to model and analyze traffic networks or to discover the ''shape'' of the internet -- see [[#Applications|Applications]] below). Within network analysis, the definition of the term &quot;network&quot; varies, and may often refer to a simple graph. == History == One of the first results in graph theory appeared in [[Leonhard Euler]]'s paper on ''[[Seven Bridges of Königsberg]]'', published in [[1736]]. It is also regarded as one of the first topological results in geometry; that is, it does not depend on any measurements. This illustrates the deep connection between graph theory and [[topology]]. In [[1845]] [[Gustav Kirchhoff]] published his [[Kirchhoff's circuit laws]] for calculating the [[voltage]] and [[current (electricity)|current]] in [[electric circuit]]s. In [[1852]] [[Francis Guthrie]] posed the [[four color problem]] which asks if it is possible to color, using only four colors, any map of countries in such a way as to prevent two bordering countries from having the same color. This problem, which was only solved a century later in [[1976]] by [[Kenneth Appel]] and [[Wolfgang Haken]], can be considered the birth of graph theory. While trying to solve it mathematicians invented many fundamental graph theoretic terms and concepts. ==Definition== {{main|Graph (mathematics)}} [[Image:Undirected.png|right]]An '''undirected graph''' or '''graph''' ''G'' is an [[ordered pair]] ''G'':=(''V'', ''E'') with * ''V'', a [[set]] of '''vertices''' or '''nodes''', * ''E'', a set of unordered pairs of distinct vertices, called '''edges''' or '''lines'''. The vertices belonging to an edge are called the '''ends''', '''endpoints''', or '''end vertices''' of the edge. ''V'' (and hence ''E'') are usually taken to be finite sets, and many of the well-known results are not true (or are rather different) for '''infinite graphs''' because many of the arguments fail in the infinite case. [[Image:Directed.png|right]]A '''directed graph''' or '''digraph''' ''G'' is an ordered pair ''G'':=(''V'', ''A'') with * ''V'', a [[set]] of '''vertices''' or '''nodes''', * ''A'', a set of ordered pairs of vertices, called '''directed edges''', '''arcs''', or '''arrows'''. An edge ''e'' = (''x'', ''y'') is considered to be directed '''from''' ''x'' '''to''' ''y''; ''y'' is called the '''head''' and ''x'' is called the '''tail''' of the edge. There are also some mixed type of graphs with undirected and directed edges. == Drawing graphs == {{main|Graph drawing}} Graphs are represented graphically by drawing a dot for every vertex, and drawing an arc between two vertices if they are connected by an edge. If the graph is directed, the direction is indicated by drawing an arrow. A graph drawing should not be confused with the graph itself (the abstract, non-graphical structure) as there are sever
[Ionizing radiation|Radiation]] * Exposure to certain [[environment]]al [[toxin]]s, whether naturally occurring or from [[pollution]]. These include: ** [[Cigarette]] [[smoke]] * Stress/Depression - Research shows that [[psychological stress]] can greatly increase your susceptibility to colds and other viral diseases, namely through an increase in serum corticosteroid levels * Age - Ability of the immune system to respond is decreased at early and old age. * Decrease ability to heal due to disease or medications (ie. [[Diabetes]], [[corticosteroid]]s, immune supressant drugs), causing constant exposure to infectious agents without natural dfense(intact skin) * Inadequate sleep at the Delta brain wave level. According to a sleep study, we need 4 hours of Delta sleep every night * Lack of exercise as well as excessive exercise resulting in [[physiological stress]] * Diseases either infectious or other causing more depression on the immune system like: ** [[Cancer]], and [[hematological malignancy]] (such as [[leukemia]], [[lymphoma]] and [[multiple myeloma|myeloma]]) in particular. ** [[Diabetes Mellitus]] ** [[Cystic fibrosis]] ** [[Lupus Erythematosus]] ** [[Nephrotic syndrome]] ** [[Viral infections]] ie. viral respiratory infections then allowing for bacterial [[pneumonia]] to develop. ** [[HIV]] ** [[Ulcerative colitis]] ** [[Anorexia | Bullimia]] (due to [[malnutrition]], stress, [[depression]]). ** [[Sickle-cell disease]]. ** [[Liver disease]] / [[cirrhosis]] ** [[Cushing's syndrome]] ==Pharmacology== Despite high hopes, there are no [[medication]]s that directly increase the activity of the immune system. Various forms of medication that activate the immune system may indeed cause [[autoimmune disorder]]s. Suppression of the immune system is often used to control autoimmune disorders or [[inflammation]] when this causes excessive tissue damage, and to prevent [[transplant rejection]] after an [[organ transplant]]. Commonly used [[immunosuppression|immunosuppressants]] include [[glucocorticoid]]s, [[azathioprine]], [[methotrexate]], [[ciclosporin]], [[cyclophosphamide]] and [[mercaptopurine]]. In organ transplants, [[ciclosporin]], [[tacrolimus]], [[mycophenolate mofetil]] and various others are used to prevent organ rejection through selective T cell inhibition. ==See also== * [[antigen]]/[[antigenic determinant]]/[[epitope]]/[[hapten]]/[[memory cell]] * [[autoimmune disorder]]s * [[CD4|CD4 receptor]]/[[CD8|CD8 receptor]]/[[perforin]]/[[apoptosis]]/[[clonal selection]] * [[immunosuppression]] * [[immunosuppressive drug]] * [[immunotherapy]] * [[lymphatic system]]/[[lymphocyte]] * [[macrophage]] * [[major histocompatibility complex]]/[[class I MHC]]/[[class II MHC]] * [[monoclonal antibody]]/[[polyclonal antibody]] ==Further reading== * A standard textbook on the immune system is ''Immunobiology'', by [[Charles Janeway]], et al. The paperback of the sixth edition is ISBN 0815341016. [[NCBI]] makes the 5th edition available electronically at [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=imm.TOC&amp;depth=10]. * An excellent introduction to the immune system is &quot;How the Immune System Works&quot; by [[Lauren Sompayrac]]. The paperback of the second edition is ISBN 063204702X. {{organ systems}} {{immune_system}} [[Category:Immune system|*]] [[Category:Immunology]] {{Link FA|pl}} [[bg:Имунна система]] [[cs:Imunita (biologie)]] [[da:Immunforsvar]] [[de:Immunsystem]] [[es:Sistema inmunitario]] [[fr:Système immunitaire]] [[he:מערכת החיסון]] [[id:Imunitas]] [[it:Immunità (medicina)]] [[nl:Afweer]] [[ja:免疫]] [[ko:면역]] [[no:Immunforsvar]] [[pl:Układ odpornościowy]] [[pt:Sistema imunitário]] {{Link FA|pt}} [[ru:Иммунная система]] [[sv:Immunförsvar]] [[zh:免疫系统]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Immunology</title> <id>14959</id> <revision> <id>35072831</id> <timestamp>2006-01-13T22:34:47Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>208.51.65.82</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Classical immunology */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Immunology''' is a broad branch of [[biomedical science|biomedical]] [[science]] that covers the study of all aspects of the [[immune system]] in all [[organism]]s. It deals with, among other things, the [[physiology|physiological]] functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders ([[autoimmune diseases]], [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], [[immune deficiency]], [[transplant|allograft]] rejection); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system [[in vitro]], [[in situ]], and [[in vivo]]. Immunology has various applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided. ==Histological examination of the immune system== Even before the concept of [[immunity]] (from ''immunis'', Latin for &quot;exempt&quot;) was developed, numerous early physicians characterised organs that would later prove to be part of the immune system. The key organs of the immune system are [[thymus]], [[spleen]], [[bone marrow]], [[lymphatic system|lymph vessels]], [[lymph node]]s and secondary lymphatic tissues such as [[tonsil]]s, [[adenoid]]s, and [[skin]]. Two major organs, the thymus and spleen, are examined [[histology|histologically]] only post-mortem during [[autopsy]]. However some lymph nodes and secondary lymphatic tissues can be [[surgery|surgically]] excised for examination while patients are still alive. Many components of the immune system are actually [[cell (biology)|cell]]ular in nature and not associated with any specific organ but rather are embedded or circulating in various [[tissue (anatomy)|tissues]] located throughout the body. ==Classical immunology== Classical immunology ties in with the fields of [[epidemiology]] and [[medicine]]. It studies the relationship between the body systems, [[pathogen]]s, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the [[Pandemic|plague]] of [[Athens]] in [[430 BCE]]. [[Thucydides]] noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could [[nurse]] the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]] before the concept developed into scientific theory. The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive [[innate immunity|innate immune system]], and [[adaptive immunity|acquired or adaptive immune system]] of vertebrates, the latter of which is further divided into [[humoral immunity|humoral]] and [[cell-mediated immunity|cellular components]]. The humoral (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between [[antibody|antibodies]] and [[antigen]]s. Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells (B lymphocytes). Antigens are defined as anything that elicits generation of antibodies, hence they are '''Anti'''body '''Gen'''erators. Immunology itself rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities. However, equally important is the cellular response, which can not only kill infected cells in its own right, but is also crucial in controlling the antibody response. Put simply, both systems are highly interdependent. In the [[21st century]], immunology has broadened its horizons with much research being performed in the more specialized niches of immunology. This includes the immunological function of cells, organs and systems not normally associated with the immune system, as well as the function of the immune system outside classical models of immunity. ==Clinical immunology== [[Clinical immunology]] is the study of [[disease]]s caused by the immune system and diseases of the immune system from a medical perspective. Many diseases caused by the immune system fall into two broad categories: [[immunodeficiency]], in which parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response (examples include [[chronic granulomatous disease]]), and [[autoimmunity]], in which the immune system attacks its own host's body (examples include [[systemic lupus erythematosus]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[Hashimoto's disease]] and [[myasthenia gravis]]). Other immune system disorders include different [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], in which the system responds inappropriately to harmless compounds ([[asthma]] and [[allergy|allergies]]) or responds too intensely. The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is [[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome|AIDS]], caused by the [[HIV virus]]. AIDS is an immunodeficiency characterized by the lack of CD4+ (&quot;helper&quot;) [[T cells]] and [[macrophages]], which are destroyed by the HIV virus. Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent [[transplant rejection]], in which the immune system attempts to destroy [[allograft]]s or [[xenograft]]s. ==Immunotherapy== ''See main article [[Immunotherapy]]'' The use of immune system components to treat a disease or disorder is known as immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is most commonly used in the context of the treatment of [[cancer]]s together with [[chemotherapy]] ([[Medication|drug]]s) and [[radiotherapy]] ([[electromagnetic radiation|radiation]]). However, immunotherapy is also often used in the immunosuppressed (such as [[HIV]] patients) and people suffering from other immune deficiencies or autoimmune diseases. ==Diagnostic immunology== The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made it an excellent tool in the detection of substances in a variety of diagnostic techniques. Antibodies specific for a desired [[antigen]] can be conjugated with a
estamp> <contributor> <ip>68.100.144.157</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* History */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Antipope_Felix_V.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|[[Antipope Felix V]], the last historical Antipope.]] An '''antipope''' is one whose claim to being [[Pope]] is the result of a disputed or contested election. These antipopes were usually in opposition to a specific person chosen by the papal electors (since the [[Middle Ages]], the [[College of Cardinals]]; in the twentieth century, their special secret meeting, called [[conclave]], however applies the age limit for eligibility). Some self-appointed leaders of smaller churches are also called &quot;antipopes.&quot; ==History== During certain periods of turbulence in the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]], controversial Papal elections were conducted. Some such elections were considered invalid, either because a large majority of papal electors claimed the election was invalid (such as the election of [[Amadeus VIII of Savoy|Felix V]]), or because they have subsequently been declared invalid (such as [[Antipope Clement VII|Clement VII]]). The earliest antipope, [[Antipope Hippolytus|Hippolytus]], was elected in protest against [[Pope Callixtus I]] by a schismatic group in the city of [[Rome]] in the [[3rd century]]. Hippolytus was [[exile]]d to the mines on the island of [[Sardinia]] in the company of Callixtus' successor [[Pope Pontian]], and was reconciled to the Catholic Church before his death and has been [[canonization|canonized]] by the Church. The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] also mentions a Natalius[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10448a.htm], before Hippolytus, as first antipope, who, according to Eusebius's EH5.28.8-12, quoting the ''Little Labyrinth'' of Hippolytus, after being &quot;[[Scourge|scourged]] all night by the holy angels&quot;, covered in ash, dressed in [[sackcloth]], and &quot;after some difficulty&quot;, tearfully submitted to [[Pope Zephyrinus]]. The period when antipopes were most numerous was during the struggles between the Popes and the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s of the [[11th century|11th]] and [[12th century|12th centuries]]. The emperors would frequently sponsor antipopes in order to further their cause. (The popes, likewise, frequently sponsored rival imperial claimants in Germany in attempts to disrupt imperial policy.) The late [[14th century|14th]] and early [[15th century]] saw a series of rival popes elected, one line of which is counted by the Roman Catholic Church as popes and the other as antipopes. The scandal of multiple claimants added to the demands for reform that produced the [[Protestant Reformation]] at the turn of the [[16th century]]. (See [[Western Schism]], [[Antipope Benedict XIII]].) It was not evident, during periods when two (or three) rival claimants existed, which was the antipope, and which was the pope, and the clear-cut distinctions made between them in retrospect can give a false sense that certainty existed among their contemporaries. Supporters might offer assistance to a given candidate, but could not know which would be determined to have been an antipope, and which the pope, until events had run their course. There has not been an antipope since [[1449]] (unless ''[[Antipope#Sedevacantist antipopes|Sedevacantist antipopes]]'' are counted - see below). Other schisms such as the [[Church of England]], the [[Old Catholic Church]] and the [[Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association]] began in a rejection of a primary [[dogma]] of the papacy. Today the act of becoming an Antipope is considered a schismatic act by the Roman Catholic Church. This would result in automatic [[excommunication]] for the person who became Antipope. == List of antipopes == #[[Antipope Hippolytus|St. Hippolytus]] ''(reconciled with Pope St. Pontian and died as martyr to the church),'' [[217]]&amp;ndash;[[235]] #[[Antipope Novatian|Novatian]], [[251]]&amp;ndash;[[258]] #[[Antipope Felix II|Felix II]] ''(confused with a martyr with the same name and thus considered an authentic pope until recently),'' [[355]]&amp;ndash;[[365]] #[[Antipope Ursicinus|Ursicinus]] (Ursinus), [[366]]&amp;ndash;[[367]] #[[Antipope Eulalius|Eulalius]], [[418]]&amp;ndash;[[419]] #[[Antipope Laurentius|Laurentius]], [[498]]&amp;ndash;[[499]], [[501]]&amp;ndash;[[506]] #[[Antipope Dioscorus|Dioscorus]] ''(legitimate perhaps as opposed to Boniface II but died 22 days after election)'', [[530]] #[[Antipope Theodore|Theodore (II)]] ''(opposed to antipope Paschal),'' [[687]] #[[Antipope Paschal|Paschal (I)]] ''(opposed to antipope Theodore),'' [[687]] #[[Antipope Theofylact|Theofylact]], [[757]] #[[Antipope Constantine II|Constantine II]], [[767]]&amp;ndash;[[768]] #[[Antipope Philip|Philip]] ''(replaced antipope Constantine II briefly; reigned for a day and then returned to his monastery),'' [[768]] #[[Antipope John VIII|John VIII]], [[844]] #[[Antipope Anastasius|Anastasius III Bibliothecarius]], [[855]] #[[Antipope Christopher|Christopher]], [[903]]&amp;ndash;[[904]] #[[Antipope Boniface VII|Boniface VII]], [[974]], [[984]]&amp;ndash;[[985]] #John Filagatto ([[Antipope John XVI|John XVI]]), [[997]]&amp;ndash;[[998]] #[[Antipope Gregory VI|Gregory VI]], [[1012]] #[[Antipope Sylvester III|Sylvester III]], [[1045]] #John Mincius ([[Antipope Benedict X|Benedict X]]), [[1058]]&amp;ndash;[[1059]] #Pietro Cadalus ([[Antipope Honorius II|Honorius II]]), [[1061]]&amp;ndash;[[1064]] #Guibert of Ravenna ([[Antipope Clement III|Clement III]]), [[1080]] &amp; [[1084]]&amp;ndash;[[1100]] #[[Antipope Theodoric|Theodoric]], [[1100]]&amp;ndash;[[1101]] #[[Antipope Adalbert|Adalbert]], [[1101]] #Maginulf ([[Antipope Sylvester IV|Sylvester IV]]), [[1105]]&amp;ndash;[[1111]] #Maurice Burdanus ([[Antipope Gregory VIII|Gregory VIII]]), [[1118]]&amp;ndash;[[1121]] #Thebaldus Buccapecuc ([[Antipope Celestine II|Celestine II]]) ''(legitimate but submitted to opposing pope, Honorius II and afterwards considered an antipope),'' [[1124]] #Pietro Pierleoni ([[Antipope Anacletus II|Anacletus II]]), [[1130]]&amp;ndash;[[1138]] #Gregorio Conti ([[Antipope Victor IV (1138)|Victor IV]]), [[1138]] #Ottavio di Montecelio ([[Antipope Victor IV (1159-1164)|Victor IV]]), [[1159]]&amp;ndash;[[1164]] #Guido di Crema ([[Antipope Paschal III|Paschal III]]), [[1164]]&amp;ndash;[[1168]] #Giovanni of Struma ([[Antipope Callixtus III|Callixtus III]]), [[1168]]&amp;ndash;[[1178]] #Lanzo of Sezza ([[Antipope Innocent III|Innocent III]]), [[1179]]&amp;ndash;[[1180]] #Pietro Rainalducci ([[Antipope Nicholas V|Nicholas V]]), ''antipope in Rome'', [[1328]]&amp;ndash;[[1330]] #Robert of Geneva ([[Antipope Clement VII|Clement VII]]), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[20 September]] [[1378]] &amp;ndash; [[16 September]] [[1394]] #Pedro de Luna ([[Antipope Benedict XIII|Benedict XIII]]), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[1394]]&amp;ndash;[[1423]] #Pietro Philarghi [[Pope Alexander V|Alexander V]], ''antipope of the Pisan line'', [[1409]]&amp;ndash;[[1410]] #Baldassare Cosa [[Antipope John XXIII|John XXIII]], ''antipope of the Pisan line'', [[1410]]&amp;ndash;[[1415]] #Gil Sánchez Muñoz ([[Antipope Clement VIII|Clement VIII]]), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[1423]]&amp;ndash;[[1429]] #[[Bernard Garnier]] (the first Benedict XIV), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[1425]]&amp;ndash;c. [[1429]] #[[Jean Carrier]] (the second Benedict XIV), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[1430]]&amp;ndash;[[1437]]? #Duke Amadeus VIII of Savoy ([[Antipope Felix V|Felix V]]), [[5 November ]] [[1439]] &amp;ndash; [[7 April]] [[1449]] ==Sedevacantist antipopes== Some breakaway Catholics today, called [[Sedevacantism|sedevacantists]], claim the current Popes are heretics for various reforms which sedevacantists see as innovations in the practices of Roman Catholic Church which were adopted during the reigns of Pope [[John XXIII]] and Pope [[Paul VI]], including aspects of the [[Second Vatican Council]]. Chief among these criticized reforms is the replacing of the [[Tridentine Latin Mass]] with the [[Novus Ordo Missae]]. Many sedevacantists also object to the celebration of the Mass in the [[vernacular]], despite the fact that various provisions existed for the celebration of the Mass in the vernacular prior to the reign of Pope John XXIII. Since the opinion of many Catholic theologians is that a [[heretic]]al Pope would cease to be Catholic and therefore cease to be Pope, sedevacantists believe the current Bishops of Rome are not actually popes. Some sedevacantist groups have their own popes to replace the popes they reject. They are sometimes called antipopes, although it should be noted that in contrast to historical antipopes, the number of their followers is minuscule. Some of these antipopes have developed their own religious infrastructure in recognition that the conventional popes are not likely to consider ceding authority to them, thus being at once antipopes of the ''Universal Church'' and popes of their particular sect. Sedevacantist antipopes frequently refer to the conventional successors of [[Pope Pius XII]] as a series of antipapacies. There is a significant number of antipopes self-proclaimed Peter II, due to the special meaning of this name; see [[Antipope Peter II]]. === Antipopes of the 20th-21st centuries === ====[[Palmarian Catholic Church]]==== * [[Clemente Domínguez y Gómez]] (Gregory XVII), mystically self-proclaimed from [[1978]]&amp;ndash;2005 in [[Spain]], pope of the [[Palmarian Catholic Church]]. * [[Manuel Corral|Manuel Alonso Corral]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]), succeeded Gregory XVII as the Pope of the [[Palmarian Catholic Church]] in 2005 in [[Spain]] ====[[Reformed Church of Christ]]/[[Apostles of Infinite Love]]==== *[[Michel-Auguste-Marie Collin]] (Clement XV), self-proclaimed [[1963]] in [[Clémery]], [[France]] (later at [[St. Jovite]], [[Canada]]), Pope of the &quot;[[Renewed Church of Christ]]&quot; or &
[[Collège de France]], but in [[1848]], the oath having been suspended, he resumed his post at the École Polytechnique, and when the oath was reinstituted after the [[coup d'état]] of [[1851]], Cauchy and [[François Arago]] were exempted from it. Cauchy had two brothers: [[Alexandre Laurent Cauchy]] ([[1792]]&amp;ndash;[[1857]]), who became a president of a division of the court of appeal in [[1847]], and a judge of the court of cassation in [[1849]]; and [[Eugène François Cauchy]] ([[1802]]&amp;ndash;[[1877]]), a publicist who also wrote several mathematical works. The genius of Cauchy was illustrated in his simple solution of the [[Apollonian gasket|problem of Apollonius]], i.e. to describe a [[circle]] touching three given circles, which he discovered in [[1805]], his generalization of [[Euler's theorem]] on [[polyhedra]] in [[1811]], and in several other elegant problems. More important is his memoir on [[wave]] propagation, which obtained the Grand Prix of the Institut in [[1816]]. His greatest contributions to mathematical science are enveloped in the rigorous methods which he introduced. These are mainly embodied in his three great treatises, ''Cours d'analyse de l'École Polytechnique'' ([[1821]]); ''Le Calcul infinitésimal'' ([[1823]]); ''Leçons sur les applications de calcul infinitésimal''; ''La géométrie'' ([[1826]]&amp;ndash;[[1828]]); and also in his ''Courses of mechanics'' (for the École Polytechnique), ''Higher algebra'' (for the [[Faculté des Sciences]]), and of ''Mathematical physics'' (for the Collège de France). His treatises and contributions to scientific journals (to the number of 789) contain investigations on the theory of series (where he developed with perspicuous skill the notion of convergency), on the theory of numbers and complex quantities, the theory of groups and substitutions, the theory of functions, differential equations and determinants. He clarified the principles of the calculus by developing them with the aid of limits and continuity, and was the first to prove [[Taylor's theorem]] rigorously, establishing his well-known form of the remainder. In [[mechanics]], he made many researches, substituting the notion of the continuity of geometrical displacements for the principle of the continuity of matter. In [[optics]], he developed the wave theory, and his name is associated with the simple dispersion formula. In [[elasticity]], he originated the theory of [[stress (physics)|stress]], and his results are nearly as valuable as those of [[Simeon Poisson]]. He was the first to prove the [[Fermat polygonal number theorem]]. He created the [[residue theorem]] and used it to derive a whole host of most interesting series and integral formulas. He was the first to define complex numbers as pairs of real numbers. He discovered many of the basic formulas in the theory of [[q-series]]. His collected works, ''&amp;#338;uvres complètes d'Augustin Cauchy'', have been published in 27 volumes. ==See also== * [[Cauchy integral theorem]] * [[Cauchy's integral formula]] * [[Cauchy-Schwarz inequality]] * [[Cauchy distribution]] * [[Cauchy determinant]] * [[Cauchy formula for repeated integration]] * [[Cauchy sequence]] * [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]] * [[Cauchy-Frobenius lemma]] * [[Cauchy product]] * [[Cauchy principal value]] * [[Cauchy-Binet formula]] * [[Cauchy-Euler equation]] * [[Cauchy's equation]] * [[Cauchy problem]] * [[Cauchy horizon]] * [[Cauchy boundary condition]] * [[Cauchy surface]] * [[Cauchy-Kovalevskaya theorem]] * [[Maclaurin-Cauchy test]] * [[Cauchy's radical test]] * [[Cauchy (crater)]] ==External links== * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Cauchy}} * [http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/CauchyCriterionForConvergence.html Cauchy criterion for convergence] ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1789 births|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]] [[Category:1857 deaths|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]] [[Category:19th century mathematicians|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]] [[Category:French mathematicians|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]] [[Category:Alumni of the École Polytechnique|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]] [[Category:Christians in science|Cauchy]] {{Link FA|de}} [[bg:Огюстен Луи Коши]] [[cs:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[da:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[de:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[es:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[eo:Augustin Louis CAUCHY]] [[fr:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[ko:오귀스탱 루이 코시]] [[hr:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[is:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[it:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[he:אוגוסטין לואי קושי]] [[lt:Augustinas Luisas Koši]] [[hu:Augustin Cauchy]] [[nl:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[ja:オーギュスタン＝ルイ・コーシー]] [[pl:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[pt:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[ru:Коши, Огюстен Луи]] [[fi:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[sv:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[vi:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[tr:Augustin Louis Cauchy]] [[uk:Коші Оґюстен-Луї]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Archimedes</title> <id>1844</id> <revision> <id>42093182</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:00:12Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>DominvsVobiscvm</username> <id>862379</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of this word, see [[Archimedes (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:Archimedes.jpg|thumb|right|Archimedes of Syracuse.]] '''Archimedes''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Αρχιμηδης ) (''c''. [[287 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[212 BC]]) was an ancient Sicilian [[mathematician]], [[physicist]], [[engineer]], [[astronomer]] and [[philosopher]] born in the seaport colony of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]]. He is considered by some [[history of mathematics|historians of mathematics]] to be one of the greatest mathematicians in [[antiquity]]; [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] considered him one of the three greatest ever. ==Discoveries and inventions== [[Image:Archimedes' screw.jpg|thumb|The [[Archimedes' screw]] lifts water to higher levels for irrigation]] Archimedes became a popular figure as a result of his involvement in the defense of Syracuse against the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] [[siege]] in the [[Second Punic War]]. He is reputed to have held the Romans at bay with war machines of his own design; to have been able to move a full-size ship complete with crew and cargo by pulling a single rope[http://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/shipshaker2.html]; to have [[discovery (observation)|discover]]ed the principles of [[density]] and [[buoyancy]], also known as [[Archimedes' principle]], while taking a bath (thereupon taking to the streets naked he called &quot;[[Eureka (word)|Eureka]]&quot;). He has also been credited with the possible invention of the [[odometer]] during the First Punic War. One of his inventions used for military defense of Syracuse against the invading Romans was the [[claw of Archimedes]]. [[Image:DeathRayDiagram.gif|thumb|left|A diagram showing how Archimedes may have enabled the defenders of Syracuse aim their mirrors at approaching ships]]It is said that he prevented one Roman attack on Syracuse by using a large array of [[mirror]]s (speculated to have been highly polished shields) to reflect sunlight onto the attacking ships causing them to catch fire. This popular legend was tested on the Discovery Channel's ''[[MythBusters]]'' program. After a number of experiments, whereby the hosts of the program tried burning a model wooden ship with a variety of mirrors, they concluded that the enemy ships would have had to have been virtually motionless and very close to shore for them to ignite, an unlikely scenario during a battle. A group at MIT subsequently performed their own tests and concluded that the mirror weapon was a possibility [http://web.mit.edu/2.009/www/lectures/10_ArchimedesResult.html], although later tests of their system showed it to be ineffective in conditions that more closely matched the described siege [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2005/10/22/state/n121443D54.DTL]. Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier in the sack of Syracuse during the Second Punic War, despite orders from the Roman general, [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]], that he was not to be harmed. The Greeks said that he was killed while drawing an equation in the sand; engrossed in his diagram and impatient with being interrupted, he is said to have muttered his [[famous last words]] before being slain by an enraged Roman soldier: Μὴ μοὺ τους κύκλους τάραττε (&quot;Don't disturb my circles&quot;). This story was sometimes told to contrast the Greek high-mindedness with Roman ham-handedness; however, it should be noted that Archimedes designed the siege engines that devastated a substantial Roman invasion force, so his death may have been out of retribution. In creativity and insight, he exceeded any other European mathematician prior to the European [[Renaissance]]. In a civilization with an awkward numeral system and a language in which &quot;a myriad&quot; (literally &quot;ten thousand&quot;) meant &quot;infinity&quot;, he invented a positional numeral system and used it to write numbers up to 10&lt;sup&gt;64&lt;/sup&gt;. He devised a [[heuristic]] method based on [[statistics]] to do private calculation that we would classify today as [[integral calculus]], but then presented rigorous [[geometry|geometric]] proofs for his results. To what extent he actually had a correct version of integral calculus is debatable. He proved that the [[ratio]] of a [[circle]]'s [[perimeter]] to its [[diameter]] is the same as the ratio of the circle's area to the [[square (geometry)|square]] of the [[radius]]. He did not call this ratio [[Pi|&amp;pi;]] but he gave a procedure to approximate it to arbitrary accuracy and gave an approximation of it as between 3 + 10/71 (approximately 3.1408) and 3 + 1/7 (approximately 3.1429). He was the first [[ancient Greece|Greek]] mathematician to introduce [[mechanical]] curves (those traced by a moving point) as legitimate objects of study. He proved that the area enclosed by a [[parabola]] and a straight line is 4/3 the area of a [[tria
- [[Allen Klein]], rock and roll business manager *[[1934]] - [[Boris Volynov]], Soviet-born cosmonaut *[[1935]] - [[Jacques Pépin]], French chef *[[1938]] - [[Roger E. Mosley]], American actor *[[1939]] - [[Michael Moorcock]], British author *1939 - [[Harold E. Varmus]], American scientist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate *[[1940]] - Bramwell Morrison, member of children's musical group [[Sharon, Lois &amp; Bram]] *[[1943]] - [[Keith Richards]], British guitarist ([[The Rolling Stones]]) *[[1946]] - [[Steven Spielberg]], American film director *1946 - [[Steve Biko]], South African anti-apartheid activist (d. [[1977]]) *[[1948]] - [[Bill Nelson (musician)|Bill Nelson]], British musician (Be Bop Deluxe) *[[1950]] - [[Gillian Armstrong]], Australian film director *1950 - [[Leonard Maltin]], American film critic *[[1953]] - [[Elliot Easton]], American guitarist ([[The Cars]]) *[[1955]] - [[Ray Liotta]], American actor *[[1956]] - [[Ron White]], American comedian *[[1960]] - [[Kazuhide Uekusa]], Japanese economist *[[1961]] - [[Brian Orser]], Canadian figure skater *[[1963]] - [[Karl Dorrell]], American Football coach *1963 - [[Brad Pitt]], American actor *[[1964]] - [[Stone Cold Steve Austin|Steve Austin]], American professional wrestler *1964 - [[Don Beebe]], American Football player *1964 - [[Robson Green]], British actor and singer *[[1968]] - [[Casper Van Dien]], American actor *[[1970]] - [[DMX (rapper)|DMX]] (Earl Simmons), American rapper and actor *1970 - [[Miles Marshall Lewis]], American author *1970 - [[Rob Van Dam]] (Robert Szatkowski), American professional wrestler *1970 - [[Cowboy Troy]] (Troy Coleman), American rapper *[[1971]] - [[Arantxa Sánchez Vicario]], Spanish tennis player *[[1972]] - [[DJ Lethal]] (Leor Dimant), American DJ ([[House of Pain]] &amp; [[Limp Bizkit]]) *[[1973]] - [[Raymond Herrera]], American drummer ([[Fear Factory]]) *[[1974]] - [[Peter Boulware]], American Football player *[[1975]] - [[Trish Stratus]], Canadian professional wrestler *1975 - [[Masaki Sumitani]], Japanese comedian *[[1976]] - [[Koyuki]] (Koyuki Kato), Japanese actress and model *[[1977]] - [[Ryan Scott Ottney]], American comic book writer *[[1978]] - [[Katie Holmes]], American actress *[[1980]] - [[Christina Aguilera]], American singer *[[1987]] - [[Miki Ando]], Japanese figure skater *[[1989]] - [[Ashley Benson]], American actress ==Deaths== &lt;!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) --&gt; *[[821]] - [[Theodulf]], Bishop of Orléans *[[1133]] - [[Hildebert]], French writer *[[1290]] - King [[Magnus I of Sweden]] (b. [[1240]]) *[[1442]] - [[Pierre Cauchon]], French Catholic bishop (b. [[1371]]) *[[1495]] - King [[Alphonso II of Naples]] (b. [[1448]]) *[[1692]] - [[Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff]], German statesman (b. [[1626]]) *[[1737]] - [[Antonio Stradivari]], Italian violin maker (b. [[1644]]) *[[1787]] - [[Francis William Drake]], British Admiral and Governor of Newfoundland (b. [[1724]]) * 1787 - [[Soame Jenyns]], English writer (b. [[1704]]) *[[1799]] - [[Jean-Étienne Montucla]], French mathematician (b. [[1725]]) *[[1803]] - [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], German writer (b. [[1744]]) *[[1843]] - [[Thomas Graham, Lord Lynedoch]], British Viceroy of India (b. [[1748]]) *[[1848]] - [[Bernard Bolzano]], Bohemian mathematician and philosopher (b. [[1781]]) *[[1869]] - [[Louis Moreau Gottschalk]], American composer and pianist (b. [[1829]]) *[[1936]] - [[Andrija Mohorovičić]], Austro-Hungarian-born Yugoslav seismologist (b. [[1857]]) *[[1971]] - [[Bobby Jones]], American golfer (b. [[1902]]) *[[1974]] - [[Harry Hooper]], American baseball player (b. [[1887]]) *[[1980]] - [[Alexei Kosygin]], [[Premier of the USSR]] (b. [[1904]]) *[[1982]] - [[Hans-Ulrich Rudel]], German pilot (b. [[1916]]) *[[1990]] - [[Paul Tortelier]], French cellist and composer (b. [[1914]]) *[[1991]] - [[George Abecassis]], British Formula 1 driver (b. [[1913]]) *[[1992]] - [[Mark Goodson]], American game show producer (b. [[1915]]) *[[1993]] - [[Sam Wanamaker]], American actor (b. [[1919]]) *[[1994]] - [[Roger Apéry]], French mathematician (b. [[1916]]) *[[1995]] - [[Konrad Zuse]], German engineer and computing pioneer (b. [[1910]]) *[[1996]] - [[Yulii Borisovich Khariton]], Russian physicist (b. [[1904]]) *[[1997]] - [[Chris Farley]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1964]]) *[[1998]] - [[Lev Demin]], Soviet-born Russian cosmonaut (b. [[1926]]) *[[1999]] - [[Robert Bresson]], French film director (b. [[1907]]) *[[2000]] - [[Kirsty MacColl]], British singer and songwriter (b. [[1959]]) *[[2001]] - [[Gilbert Bécaud]], French singer (b. [[1927]]) *[[2002]] - [[Ray Hnatyshyn]], [[Governor-General of Canada]] (b. [[1934]]) *[[2004]] - [[Anthony Sampson]], British journalist and biographer (b. [[1926]]) *[[2005]] - [[Alan Voorhees]], American engineer and urban planner (b. [[1922]]) ==Holidays and observances== * [[Roman festivals]] - Feast of [[Epona]] (during [[Saturnalia]]) * [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[Gatianus of Tours]] * Also see [[December 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]] * [[Niger]] - [[Republic Day]] (autonomous in [[1958]]) * [[International Migrants Day]] * [[Greek orthodox church|Greek Orthodox Church]] &amp;ndash; Feast of [[Sebastian]] the Martyr ==External links== * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/18 BBC: On This Day] * [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20051218.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day] ---- [[December 17]] - [[December 19]] - [[November 18]] - [[January 18]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]] {{months}} [[af:18 Desember]] [[ar:18 ديسمبر]] [[an:18 d'abiento]] [[ast:18 d'avientu]] [[bg:18 декември]] [[be:18 сьнежня]] [[bs:18. decembar]] [[ca:18 de desembre]] [[ceb:Disyembre 18]] [[cv:Раштав, 18]] [[co:18 di decembre]] [[cs:18. prosinec]] [[cy:18 Rhagfyr]] [[da:18. december]] [[de:18. Dezember]] [[et:18. detsember]] [[el:18 Δεκεμβρίου]] [[es:18 de diciembre]] [[eo:18-a de decembro]] [[eu:Abenduaren 18]] [[fo:18. desember]] [[fr:18 décembre]] [[fy:18 desimber]] [[ga:18 Nollaig]] [[gl:18 de decembro]] [[ko:12월 18일]] [[hr:18. prosinca]] [[io:18 di decembro]] [[id:18 Desember]] [[ia:18 de decembre]] [[is:18. desember]] [[it:18 dicembre]] [[he:18 בדצמבר]] [[jv:18 Desember]] [[ka:18 დეკემბერი]] [[csb:18 gòdnika]] [[ku:18'ê berfanbarê]] [[la:18 Decembris]] [[lt:Gruodžio 18]] [[lb:18. Dezember]] [[hu:December 18]] [[mk:18 декември]] [[ms:18 Disember]] [[nap:18 'e dicembre]] [[nl:18 december]] [[ja:12月18日]] [[no:18. desember]] [[nn:18. desember]] [[oc:18 de decembre]] [[os:18 декабры]] [[pl:18 grudnia]] [[pt:18 de Dezembro]] [[ro:18 decembrie]] [[ru:18 декабря]] [[se:Juovlamánu 18.]] [[sco:18 December]] [[sq:18 Dhjetor]] [[scn:18 di dicèmmiru]] [[simple:December 18]] [[sk:18. december]] [[sl:18. december]] [[sr:18. децембар]] [[fi:18. joulukuuta]] [[sv:18 december]] [[tl:Disyembre 18]] [[ta:டிசம்பர் 18]] [[tt:18. Dekäber]] [[te:డిసెంబర్ 18]] [[th:18 ธันวาคม]] [[vi:18 tháng 12]] [[tr:18 Aralık]] [[uk:18 грудня]] [[wa:18 di decimbe]] [[war:Disyembre 18]] [[zh:12月18日]] [[pam:Disiembri 18]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Decision problem</title> <id>8336</id> <revision> <id>39380601</id> <timestamp>2006-02-12T20:09:45Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Stevertigo</username> <id>4099</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[logic]], a '''decision problem''' is determining whether there exists a '''decision procedure''' or [[algorithm]] for a class S of questions requiring a [[Boolean value]] (i.e., a ''true'' or ''false'', or ''yes'' or ''no''). These are also known as yes-or-no questions. For example, the decision problem for the class of questions &quot;Does ''x'' divide ''y'' without remainder?&quot; is ''decidable'' because there exists a mechanical procedure, namely [[long division]], which allows us to determine for any ''x'' and any ''y'' whether the answer for &quot;Does ''x'' divide ''y'' without remainder?&quot; is ''yes'' or ''no''. Every decision problem is reducible to a [[computation problem]] in the following way. Every class of yes-or-no questions is reducible to the predicate form &quot;Is &lt;math&gt;P(x_1,...,x_n)&lt;/math&gt; true?&quot;. For example, the above example is reducible to &quot;Is &lt;math&gt;P(x,y)&lt;/math&gt; true?&quot;. This predicate form is reducible to the [[representing function]] &lt;math&gt;f(x_1,...,x_n) = \left \{ \begin{matrix} 1, &amp; \mbox{if }P(x_1,...,x_n)\mbox{ is true} \\ 0, &amp; \mbox{if }P(x_1,...,x_n)\mbox{ is false} \end{matrix} \right.&lt;/math&gt; So deciding whether &lt;math&gt;P(x_1,...,x_n)&lt;/math&gt; is true is equivalent to computing the value for &lt;math&gt;f(x_1,...,x_n)&lt;/math&gt;. ==Definition== A '''decision problem''' is a [[countable set|countable]] [[set]] ''S'' and a [[function_(mathematics)|function]] :&lt;math&gt;f:S \to \lbrace0, 1\rbrace&lt;/math&gt;. Let ''A'' be the [[preimage]] of ''f'' for 1. :&lt;math&gt;A := \lbrace s \in S | f(s) = 1 \rbrace&lt;/math&gt; The problem is called '''decidable''' if ''A'' is a [[recursive set]]. It is called '''partially decidable''', '''solvable''' or '''provable''' if ''A'' is a [[recursively enumerable set]]. Otherwise, the problem is called '''undecidable'''. We can give an alternative definition in terms of [[computable function]]s: If ''f'' is a [[total function|total]] computable function, the problem is called '''computable'''. If ''f'' is only a [[partial function|partial]] computable function, the problem is called '''partially computable'''. Otherwise, the problem is called '''uncomputable'''. ==Notes== It should be noted that a decision problem is always a set of related problems which is in some sense large enough. A single problem ''P'' is always trivially decidable by assigning the constant function ''f''(''P'')&amp;equiv;0 or ''f''('
s since 1970. Indeed, some sources have calculated Southwest to be the best performing stock over the period, outperforming [[Microsoft]] and many other high performing companies. The chief reasons for this are their product consistency and cost control. The widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost airlines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these low cost companies emulate [[Southwest Airlines]] in various respects, and like Southwest, they are able to eke out a consistent profit throughout all phases of the business cycle. As a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the U.S. and elsewhere. [[United Airlines]], [[US Airways]] (twice), [[Delta Air Lines]], and [[Northwest Airlines]] have all declared [[Chapter 11]] bankruptcy, and [[American Airlines|American]] has barely avoided doing so. [[Alitalia]], [[Scandinavian Airlines System]], [[SABENA]], [[Japan Air System]], [[Air Canada]], [[Ansett Australia]], and others have flirted with or declared bankruptcy since 2000, as low cost entrants enter their home markets as well. Some argue that it would be far better for the industry as a whole if a wave of actual closures were to reduce the number of &quot;undead&quot; airlines competing with healthy airlines while being artificially protected from creditors via [[bankruptcy]] law. ===Ticket sales=== Airlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. To do this well requires [[yield management]] technology and pricing flexibility. They use differentiated pricing, a form of [[price discrimination]], in order to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the current booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. A complicating factor is that of origin-destination control (&quot;O&amp;D control&quot;). Someone purchasing a ticket from say, Melbourne to Sydney for $A200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same airplane, and who is willing to pay $A1400. Should the airline prefer the $A1400 passenger, or the $A200 passenger + a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $A1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily in their markets. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer straightforward, preannounced, simple prices. They can do this by quoting prices for each leg of a trip; passengers simply add them together to construct a full journey. The advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably [[Sabre (computer system)|Sabre]], allowed airlines to easily perform [[cost-benefit analysis|cost-benefit analyses]] on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere). The intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term &quot;[[fare war]]&quot; to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Computers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for &quot;no-shows,&quot; but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats. Since an average of 1/3 of all seats are flown empty, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled with overbooking on high demand flights can help reduce this figure. ===See also=== * [[Price discrimination]] * [[Travel class]] * [[Yield management]] ===Airport operations=== Where an airline has established an engineering base at an airport then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or &quot;hub&quot;) for its scheduled flights. In view of the congestion apparent at many international [[airport|airports]], the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradeable asset in the portfolios of many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline. If a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. Other factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. ===Business-to-business relations=== [[Code sharing]] is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was [[Japan Airlines]]' code sharing partnership with [[Aeroflot]] in the 1960s on flights from [[Tokyo]] to [[Moscow]]: Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Since airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as &quot;show me flights from Chicago to Dusseldorf&quot;), an airline who is able to code share with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago-Dusseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that Airline 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and Airline 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Dusseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms so as to increase sales. Virtually all international airlines practice code sharing. A more recent development is the [[airline alliance]], which became prevalent in the 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. Groups of airlines such as the [[Star Alliance]], [[oneworld]], and [[SkyTeam]] coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent flyer programs), offer special interline tickets, and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations-- sometimes including cross-equity arrangements-- in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline was [[KLM]], who partnered with [[Northwest Airlines]]. Both airlines later entered the [[SkyTeam]] alliance after the fusion of KLM and [[Air France]] in 2004. Often the companies combine IT operations, buy fuel, or purchase airplanes as a bloc in order to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses. ==Customs and conventions== Each operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses a distinct [[airline call sign]] when communicating with airports or air traffic control centers. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a ''Speedbird'' call-sign, named after the logo of its predecessor, [[British Overseas Airways Corporation|BOAC]]. == Airline personnel == The various types of airline personnel include: *[[Flight crew]]s, responsible for the operation of aircraft while airborne. Flight crew members include: ** [[Aviator|Pilot]]s ([[captain]] and [[first officer]]: some older aircraft also require [[flight engineer]]s and/or [[navigator]]s) ** [[Flight attendant]]s (led by a [[purser]] on larger aircraft) ** [[Sky marshal|In-flight security personnel]] on some airlines (most notably [[El Al]]) *[[Ground crew]]s, responsible for operations at airports. Ground crew members include: **[[Airframe]] and [[powerplant]] technicians **[[Avionics]] technicians **[[Flight dispatcher]]s **Baggage handlers **Rampers **Gate agents **Ticket agents **Passenger service agents (such as [[airline lounge]] employees) *Reservations agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport Most airlines follow a [[corporation|corporate]] structure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations, and passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the airline's hubs as well. Airlines also tend to employ considerable numbers of lawyers to deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks. ==See also == *[[Air safety]] *[[Airport security]] &amp;ndash; no longer a responsibility of the airline
.hp.com/calculators/ HP Calculators] *[http://www.hpl.hp.com/ Hewlett-Packard Labs] *[http://h30248.www3.hp.com/recycle/ca/index.html?jumpid=recycle Product Return &amp; Recycling] ;Company Information &amp; History * [http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/10/10723.html Yahoo - Company Profile] * [http://www.forbes.com/finance/mktguideapps/compinfo/CompanyTearsheet.jhtml?tkr=HPQ Forbes - Company Information] * [http://host.businessweek.com/businessweek/Corporate_Snapshot.html?Symbol=HPQ BusinessWeek - Corporate Snapshot] * [http://www.hpalumni.org/hp_way ''The HP Way''] HP's statement of the HP Way, circa 1992. (HP Alumni Association) * [http://www.paloaltoonline.com/weekly/morgue/2002/2002_04_10.hpway10.html ''The rise and fall of the HP Way''] by Jocelyn Dong, with Pam Sturner (Online Edition of the Palo Alto Weekly, April 10, 2002) * [http://www.hydrix.com/wiki/ The HP Calculator Wiki] * [http://www.hpmuseum.org The Museum of HP Calculators] * [http://www.hpmuseum.net HP Computer Museum] * [http://www.hpalumni.org/hp HP History Links] The company; the founders; products and reminiscences; reference sites. (HP Alumni Association) ;Alumni Associations * [http://www.hpalumni.org HP Alumni Association] Non-profit; independent of HP. Open to current employees within three months of their last working day. * [http://www.decalumni.com/ Digital Alumni] ''Share the memories of the past as well as the adventures of the future'' ;Third Party Technology sites * [http://tuxmobil.org/hp.html Linux on Hewlett-Packard laptops] * [http://www.openpa.net/ The OpenPA Project] - resource for information on PA-RISC based computers from HP and other vendors [[Category:Companies based in California]] [[Category:Dow Jones Industrial Average]] [[Category:Electronics companies]] [[Category:Hewlett-Packard]] [[Category:Portable Audio Player Manufacturers]] [[ar:HP]] [[da:Hewlett-Packard]] [[de:Hewlett-Packard]] [[es:Hewlett-Packard]] [[eo:Hewlett-Packard]] [[fr:Hewlett-Packard]] [[it:Hewlett Packard]] [[he:היולט פקארד]] [[nl:Hewlett-Packard]] [[ja:ヒューレット・パッカード]] [[pl:Hewlett-Packard]] [[pt:Hewlett-Packard]] [[ru:Hewlett-Packard]] [[simple:Hewlett-Packard]] [[fi:Hewlett-Packard]] [[sv:Hewlett-Packard]] [[tr:Hewlett-Packard]] [[zh:惠普公司]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hymenoptera</title> <id>13974</id> <revision> <id>39425169</id> <timestamp>2006-02-13T01:30:57Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>JarlaxleArtemis</username> <id>161122</id> </contributor> <minor /> <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink | name = Hymenoptera | image = Hymenoptere(s).jpg | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Arthropod]]a | classis = [[Insect]]a | superordo = [[Endopterygota]] | ordo = '''Hymenoptera''' | ordo_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 | subdivision_ranks = [[Suborders]] | subdivision = * [[Apocrita]] * [[Symphyta]] * Many [[family (biology)|families]], see article }} '''Hymenoptera''' is one of the larger [[order (biology)|order]]s of [[insect]]s, comprising the [[symphyta|sawflies]], [[wasp]]s, [[bee]]s, and [[ant]]s. The name comes from the membranous wings (Greek ''hymen'', a membrane), of which most forms have two pairs, the front wings larger than the back. Females typically have a special [[ovipositor]] for inserting into hosts or otherwise inaccessible places, often modified into a stinger. The young develop through complete [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]] - that is, they have a worm-like larval stage and an inactive pupal stage before they mature. (See [[holometabolism]].) Among the hymenopterans, sex is [[sex-determination system|determined]] by the number of [[chromosome|chromosomes]] the individual receives. Fertilized eggs get two sets of chromosomes, and so develop into [[diploid]] females; unfertilized eggs only receive one set, and so develop into [[haploid]] males. This phenomenon is called [[haplodiploidy]]. Note, however, that the actual genetic mechanisms of haplodiploid sex determination are more complex than simple chromosome number. In many Hymenoptera, sex is actually determined by a single gene locus with many alleles. In these species, haploids are male and diploids heterozygous at the sex locus are female, but occasionally a diploid will be homozygous at the sex locus and develop as a male instead. This is especially likely to occur in an individual whose parents were siblings or other close relatives. Diploid males are known to be produced by inbreeding in many ant, bee and wasp species. The consequence of haplodiploidy is that females on average actually have more genes in common with their sisters than they do with their own daughters. Because of this, cooperation among kindred is unusually advantageous, and varying degrees of sociality have appeared several times among the different subgroups. The most extreme form is [[eusociality]]. ==Suborder Apocrita== The wasps, bees, and ants together make up a suborder of the Hymenoptera called the [[Apocrita]], characterized by a constriction between the first and second abdominal segments called a wasp-waist. The remaining forms (sawflies) were once classified as a second suborder, the [[Symphyta]], but this appears to be [[paraphyletic]]. One classification of the Apocrita (superfamilies) follows: * [[Ichneumon wasp|Ichneumonoidea]] * [[Cynipoidea]] * [[Chalcid]]oidea * [[Ceraphronoidea]] * [[Evanioidea]] * [[Protoctrupoidea]] * [[Platygasteroidea]] * [[Chrysidoidea]] * [[Digger wasp|Sphecoidea]] (e.g. ''[[Digger wasp|Sphex]]'') * [[Vespoidea]] ** [[Vespid]]ae ([[yellowjacket]]s, [[hornet]]s, [[paper wasp]]s, etc.) ** [[Ant|Formicidae]] (ants) ** ... * [[Bee|Apoidea]] ([[Bee|bees]]) ==Suborder Symphyta== Hymenopterans classified in the suborder [[Symphyta]] include the following superfamilies: *[[Xyeloidea]] *[[Megalodontoidea]] *[[Siricoidea]] *[[Orussoidea]] *[[Cephoidea]] *[[Tenthredinoidea]] ==External links== * [http://www.bwars.com/ Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society] (UK) * [http://www.lasius.narod.ru/ Ants Photo Gallery] (RU) [[Category:Hymenoptera|*]] [[Category:Insects]] [[de:Hautflügler]] [[es:Himenóptero]] [[eo:Himenopteroj]] [[fr:Hymenoptera]] [[io:Himenoptero]] [[he:דבוראים]] [[lt:Plėviasparniai]] [[nl:Hymenoptera]] [[ja:ハチ目]] [[no:Årevinger]] [[pl:Błonkoskrzydłe]] [[pt:Hymenoptera]] [[ru:Перепончатокрылые]] [[fi:Pistiäiset]] [[sv:Steklar]] [[zh:膜翅目]] [[cs:Blanokřídlí]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Hannibal Hamlin</title> <id>13976</id> <revision> <id>41096098</id> <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:44:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>68.78.172.208</ip> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hannibal Hamlin.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Vice President Hannibal Hamlin]] '''Hannibal Hamlin''' ([[August 27]], [[1809]] &amp;ndash; [[July 4]], [[1891]]) was an [[American politician]] from the [[U.S. state]] of [[Maine]]. Hamlin served in the [[Maine Legislature]], the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]], the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] and as [[Governor of Maine]]. Hamlin began his career as a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] but later became a member of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]. He was the first Republican to serve as [[Vice President of the United States]], elected as [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s [[running mate]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860 presidential election]]. Hamlin was born in the Paris Hill district of [[South Paris, Maine|South Paris]], Maine, in [[Oxford County, Maine|Oxford County]]. He attended the district schools and [[Hebron Academy]] there, and later managed his father's [[farm]]. For the next few years he worked at several jobs: schoolmaster, cook, woodcutter, surveyor, manager of a weekly [[newspaper]] in [[Paris, Maine|Paris]], and a [[compositor]] at a printer's office. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1833. He began practicing in [[Hampden (town), Maine|Hampden]], where he lived until 1848. The political career of Hamlin began in 1836, when he began a term in the [[Maine House of Representatives]] after being elected the year before. He served in the [[Aroostook War]], which took place in 1839. Hamlin left the House in 1841. He served two terms in the [[United States House of Representatives]], from 1843-1847. He was elected to fill a Senate vacancy in 1848 and to a full term in 1851. A [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] at the beginning of his career, Hamlin supported the candidacy of [[Franklin Pierce]] in 1852. From the very beginning of his service in Congress he was prominent as an opponent of the extension of slavery; he was a conspicuous supporter of the [[Wilmot Proviso]], and spoke against the [[Compromise Measures of 1850]]. In 1854 he strongly opposed the passage of the [[Kansas-Nebraska Bill]], which repealed the [[Missouri Compromise]]. After the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] endorsed that repeal at the [[Cincinnati Convention]] two years later, on [[June 12]], [[1856]] he withdrew from the Democratic Party and joined the newly organized [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], causing a national sensation. The Republicans nominated him for [[Governor of Maine]] in the same year, and having carried the election by a large majority he was inaugurated in this office on the [[January 8]], [[1857]]. In the latter part of February, however, he resigned the governorship, and was again a member of the Senate from 1857 to January 1861. He was chosen for the second place on the winning Republican ticket in 1860. While Vice President he was one of the chief advisers to [[President of the United States|President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]], and urged both the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] and the arming of [[African Americans]]. His identification with the [[Radical R
the United States|President]] spent most of his life, practicing law and living in [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]]. Even so, Illinois was not a strong anti-slavery state. In 1853 Illinois passed a Black Code which, among other things required any black entering the state and staying more than ten days to pay a fine of $50. If he could not pay, the black could be sold into slavery for a period commensurate with the fine. {{further|[[Black Codes in Northern USA]]}} [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] gained prominence as a [[Great Lakes]] port and then as a [[canal]] port after 1848, and as a rail hub soon afterward. By 1857, Chicago was Illinois' largest city. {{further|[[History of Chicago]]}} ===The Civil War=== {{main|Illinois in the Civil War}} During the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]], over 250,000 Illinois men served in the [[Union Army]], more than any other northern state except [[New York]], [[Pennsylvania]] and [[Ohio]]. Beginning with President Lincoln's first call for troops and continuing throughout the war, Illinois mustered 150 infantry regiments, which were numbered from the 7th IL to the 156th IL. Seventeen cavalry regiments were also gathered, as well as two light artillery regiments. ==Government== [[Image:Ilolluds.jpg|thumb|right|The sample version of the current [[Illinois]] [[license plate]] introduced in 2001.]] {{main|Government of Illinois}} The state government of Illinois is modeled after the federal government with adaptations originating from traditions cultivated during the state's frontier era. As codified in the state constitution, there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch is led by the [[Governor of Illinois]]. Legislative functions are given to the [[Illinois General Assembly]], composed of the 118-member [[Illinois State House of Representatives]] and the 59-member [[Illinois State Senate]]. The judiciary is comprised of the [[state supreme court]], which oversees the lower [[court of appeals|appellate court]]s and [[circuit court]]s. *The '''[[Governor of Illinois]]''' is [[Rod Blagojevich]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]) *The '''[[Lieutenant Governor of Illinois]]''' is [[Pat Quinn (politician)|Pat Quinn]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]) *The '''[[Illinois Attorney General|Attorney General of Illinois]]''' is [[Lisa Madigan]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]) *The '''[[Secretary of State of Illinois]]''' is [[Jesse White (politician)|Jesse White]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]) *The '''[[Comptroller of Illinois]]''' is [[Daniel Hynes]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]) *The '''[[Treasurer of Illinois]]''' is [[Judy Baar Topinka]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]) *The '''Senior [[United States Senate|United States Senator]]''' is [[Richard J. Durbin]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]) *The '''Junior [[United States Senate|United States Senator]]''' is [[Barack Obama]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]) Illinois was always a major battleground between the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] and the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party ]]. Since 1992 it has moved steadily more Democratic at the national and state level. Illinois voted for Democratic presidential candidates in the last four elections. John Kerry easily won the state's 21 electoral votes in 2004 by a margin of 11 percentage points with 54.8% of the vote. Traditionally the central cities were Democratic, especially [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and [[East Saint Louis, Illinois|East Saint Louis]]. The suburbs of Chicago were historically Republican, but GOP margins have been plunging there, causing the overall shift to the Democrats. Small cities and towns are Republican strongholds (except for the old coal mining towns). Rural districts in the northern third of the state have historically been Republican; those in the middle third mixed, and those in [[Little Egypt (region)|Little Egypt]] (the southern third of the state), Democratic. == Geography == [[Image:National-atlas-illinois.png|thumb|300px|right|Illinois, showing major cities and roads]] {{main|Geography of Illinois}} Illinois is in the north-central U.S. and borders on [[Lake Michigan]]. Surrounding states are [[Wisconsin]] to the north, [[Iowa]] and [[Missouri]] to the west, [[Kentucky]] to the south, and [[Indiana]] to the east. Illinois also borders Michigan, but only via a water boundary in Lake Michigan. Illinois has three major geographical divisions. The first is [[Chicagoland]], including the city of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], its suburbs, and the adjoining exurban area into which the metropolis is expanding. This region includes a few counties in Indiana and Wisconsin and stretches across much of northern Illinois toward the Iowa border, generally along Interstates [[Interstate 80|80]] and [[Interstate 90|90]]. This region is cosmopolitan, densely populated, industrialized, and settled by a variety of ethnic groups. Southward and westward, the second major division is central Illinois, an area of mostly flat [[prairie]]. Known as the Land of [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] or the Heart of Illinois, it is characterized by small towns and mid-sized cities. Agriculture, particularly [[maize|corn]] and [[soybeans]], figures prominently. Major cities include famously average [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]], [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] (the state capital), [[Decatur, Illinois|Decatur]], [[Bloomington-Normal]] and [[Champaign, Illinois|Champaign]]-[[Urbana, Illinois|Urbana]] (home of the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign|University of Illinois]]). The third division is southern Illinois, comprising the area south of [[U.S. Route 50]], and including [[Little Egypt (region)|Little Egypt]]), near the juncture of the [[Mississippi River]] and [[Ohio River]]. This region can be distinguished from the other two by its warmer climate, different mix of crops (including some [[cotton]] farming in the past), more rugged topography (unglaciated and older, Illinoian Age, glaciated), as well as small-scale oil deposits and [[coal]] mining. The area is a little more populated than the central part of the state with the population centered in two areas: the Greater St. Louis Metropolitan Area (the Illinois suburbs of St. Louis are known as &quot;[[Metro-East]]&quot;) and the Carbondale, Marion, West Frankfort, Herrin, Murphysboro, Carterville, Johnston City area which is home to a little over 180,000 residents. Collectively, all of Illinois outside the Chicago Metropolitan area is called &quot;downstate Illinois&quot; (even though a portion is north or west of Chicago) [[McLean County, Illinois|McLean County]] is the largest county in terms of land area, at 1,184 sq mi. it is larger than [[Rhode Island]], while [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook County]] is the largest county in terms of population, at 5,327,777 (both figures are as of 2004). In extreme northwestern Illinois the [[Driftless Zone]], a region of unglaciated and therefore higher and more rugged topography, occupies a small part of the state. [[Charles Mound]], located in this region, is the state's highest natural elevation above [[sea level]]. The highest true elevation in Illinois is the [[Sears Tower]] with an elevation at the top of its roof of approximately 2,030 feet (the elevation of Chicago is approximately 580 feet and the height of the roof is approximately 1450 feet). On a clear day, you can see four states - Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin and Michigan. Visibility from the Sears Tower Skydeck is approximately 40-50 miles (65 - 80 km). The floodplain on the Mississippi River from [[Alton, Illinois|Alton]] to the [[Kaskaskia River]] is the [[American Bottom]], and is the site of the ancient city of [[Cahokia]], and was a region of early French settlement, as well as the site of the first state capital, at [[Kaskaskia, Illinois|Kaskaskia]]. The southern tip of Illinois is in the [[Gulf Coastal Plain]]. == Economy == [[Image:Illinoisquarter2003 geraldfarinas.PNG|left|Illinois Quarter]] {{main|Economy of Illinois}} The 2004 total [[gross state product]] for Illinois was $528 billion, placing it 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; in the nation. The 2003 per capita income was $32,965. Illinois' agricultural outputs are [[maize|corn]], [[soybean]]s, [[hog]]s, [[cattle]], dairy products, and [[wheat]]. Its industrial outputs are machinery, food processing, electrical equipment, chemical products, publishing, fabricated metal products, transportation equipment, [[petroleum]] and [[coal]]. == Demographics == {| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%; clear:right;&quot; |- ! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations |- ! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population |- | colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt; |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1800 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,458 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1810 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 12,282 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1820 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 55,211 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1830 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 157,445 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1840 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 476,183 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1850 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 851,470 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,711,951 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,539,891 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,077,871 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,826,352 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 4,821,550 |- | align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 5,638,591 |-
ing to create the [[County of Tripoli]] on the Palestinian coast. He was surnamed ''Jourdain'' after being [[baptized]] in the [[Jordan River]]. His father died when he was two years old and he remained under the guardianship of his cousin, [[Guillaume Jourdain]], count of [[Cerdagne]] (d. [[1109]]), until he was five. He was then taken to [[Europe]] and his brother [[Bertrand of Toulouse|Bertrand]] gave him the countship of [[Rouergue]]. In his tenth year, upon Bertrand's death ([[1112]]), he succeeded to the countship of Toulouse and marquisate of [[Provence]], but Toulouse was taken from him by [[William IX of Aquitaine|William IX]], [[count of Poitiers]], in [[1114]], who claimed it by right of his wife Philippa of Toulouse, daughter of William IV of Toulouse. He recovered a part in [[1119]], but continued to fight for his possessions until about [[1123]]. When at last successful, he was [[excommunication|excommunicated]] by [[Pope Callixtus II]] for having expelled the monks of [[Saint-Gilles]], who had aided his enemies. He next fought for the sovereignty of Provence against [[Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona|Raymond Berenger III]], and not till September [[1125]] did the war end in an amicable agreement. Under it Jourdain became absolute master of the regions lying between the [[Pyrenees]] and the [[Alps]], [[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]] and the sea. His ascendancy was an unmixed good to the country, for during a period of fourteen years art and industry flourished. About [[1134]] he seized the countship of [[Narbonne]], only restoring it to the Viscountess [[Ermengarde of Narbonne|Ermengarde]] (d. [[1197]]) in [[1143]]. The claim of the now deceased Philippa of Toulouse was pressed again when [[Louis VII of France|Louis VII]] besieged Toulouse in [[1141]], in right of his wife [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], the grandaughter of Philippa, but without result. Next year Jourdain again incurred the displeasure of the church by siding with the rebels of [[Montpellier]] against their lord. A second time he was excommunicated; but in [[1146]] he took the cross at the meeting of [[Vezelay]] called by Louis VII, and in [[August]], [[1147]] embarked for the East in the [[Second Crusade]]. He lingered on the way in [[Italy]] and probably in [[Constantinople]]. Alphonse might have met [[Eastern Roman Emperor]] [[Manuel I Comnenus]] during his visit there. But in [[1148]] Alphonse had finally arrived at [[Acre, Palestine|Acre]]. Among his companions he had made enemies and he was destined to take no share in the crusade he had joined. He was poisoned at [[Caesarea]], either by [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], the wife of Louis, or [[Melisende of Jerusalem|Melisende]], the mother of [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]], [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|king of Jerusalem]] suggesting the draught. {{start box}} {{succession box|before=[[Raymond of Toulouse|Raymond]]|years=1105&amp;ndash;1109&lt;br&gt;(regent&amp;nbsp;[[William-Jordan]])|title=[[County of Tripoli|Count of Tripoli]]|after=[[Bertrand of Toulouse|Bertrand]]}} {{succession box|before=[[Bertrand of Toulouse|Bertrand]]|years=1112&amp;ndash;1148|title=[[Counts of Toulouse|Count of Toulouse]]|after=[[Raymond V of Toulouse|Raymond V]]}} {{end box}} ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:1103 births]] [[Category:1148 deaths]] [[Category:Counts of Tripoli]] [[Category:Counts of Toulouse]] [[de:Alfons I. (Toulouse)]] [[pl:Alfons I z Tuluzy]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Ambrose the poet</title> <id>1880</id> <revision> <id>32444069</id> <timestamp>2005-12-23T03:54:18Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Adam Bishop</username> <id>13008</id> </contributor> <comment>link MGH</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrose''' (around [[1190]]), [[Normans|Norman]] [[poet]], and chronicler of the [[Third Crusade]], [[author]] of a work called ''L'Estoire de la guerre sainte'', which describes in rhyming [[Old French language|French]] [[verse]] the adventures of [[Richard I of England|Richard Coeur de Lion]] as a [[crusader]]. The poem is known to us only through one [[Vatican Library|Vatican]] [[manuscript]], and long escaped the notice of [[historian]]s. The credit for detecting its value belongs to the late [[Gaston Paris]], although his edition ([[1897]]) was partially anticipated by the editors of the ''[[Monumenta Germaniae Historica]]'', who published some selections in the twenty-seventh volume of their Scriptores ([[1885]]). Ambrose followed Richard I as a [[noncombatant]], and not improbably as a court-[[minstrel]]. He speaks as an eye-witness of the king's doings at [[Messina, Italy|Messina]], in [[Cyprus]], at the [[siege of Acre]], and in the abortive campaign which followed the capture of that city. Ambrose is surprisingly accurate in his [[chronology]]; though he did not complete his work before [[1195]], it is evidently founded upon notes which he had taken in the course of his [[pilgrimage]]. He shows no greater [[politics|political]] insight than we should expect from his position; but relates what he had seen and heard with a naïve vivacity which compels attention. He is prejudiced against the [[Saracens]], against the [[France|French]], and against all the rivals or enemies of his master; but he is never guilty of deliberate misrepresentation. He is rather to be treated as a [[biographer]] than as a historian of the Crusade in its broader aspects. None the less he is the chief authority for the events of the years 1190-1192, so far as these are connected with the [[Holy Land]]. The ''Itinerarium Regis Ricardi'' (formerly attributed to [[Geoffrey Vinsauf]], but in reality the work of Richard, a canon of Holy Trinity, London) is little more than a free paraphrase of Ambrose. The first book of the Itinerarium contains some additional facts; and the whole of the [[Latin]] version is adorned with dowers of [[rhetoric]] which are foreign to the style of Ambrose. But it is no longer possible to regard the Itinerarium as a first-hand [[narrative]]. [[William Stubbs|Stubbs]]'s edition of the Itinerarium ([[Rolls Series]], 1864), in which the contrary [[hypothesis]] is maintained, appeared before Gaston Paris published his discovery. ==See also== *[[Anglo-Norman literature]] *[[Norman language]] ==References== *{{1911}} [[Category:Crusade literature]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Art Deco</title> <id>1881</id> <revision> <id>41928639</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:08:58Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Toksook</username> <id>690292</id> </contributor> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Stamp-ctc-art-deco.jpg|thumb|The Art Deco spire of the [[Chrysler Building]], built 1928-1930, commemorated on a US stamp]] '''Art Deco''' ([[French (language)|French]]: ''Exposition Internationale des '''Art'''s '''Déco'''ratifs et Industriels Modernes'') was an early twentieth century movement in the [[decorative art]]s, that also grew in influence to affect [[architecture]], [[fashion]] and the [[visual arts]]. ==Overview== Art Deco derived its name from the [[World's fair]] held in [[Paris]] in [[1925]], formally titled the [[Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes]], which showcased French luxury goods and reassured the world that Paris remained the international center of style after [[World War I]]. Art Deco did not originate with the Exposition; it was a major style in [[Europe]] from the early [[1920s]], though it did not catch on in the [[United States|U.S.]] until about [[1928]], when it quickly modulated into the [[Streamline Moderne]] during the [[1930s]], the decade with which Americanized Art Deco is most strongly associated today. Paris remained the center of the high end of Art Deco design, epitomized in furniture by [[Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann]], the best-known of Art Deco furniture designers and perhaps the last of the traditional Parisian ''ébénistes'', and [[Jean-Jacques Rateau]], the firm of [[Süe et Mare]], the screens of [[Eileen Gray]], wrought iron of [[Edgar Brandt]], metalwork and lacquer of Swiss-Jewish [[Jean Dunand]], the glass of [[René Lalique]] and [[Maurice Marinot]], clocks and jewelry by [[Cartier SA|Cartier]]. The term '''Art Deco''' was coined during the Exposition of 1925 but did not receive wider usage until it was re-evaluated in the [[1960s]]. Its practitioners were not working as a coherent community. It is considered to be eclectic, being influenced by a variety of sources, to name a few: *Early work from the [[Wiener Werkstätte]]; functional industrial design *&quot;Primitive&quot; arts of Africa, Egypt, or Aztec Mexico *Ancient Greek sculpture and pottery design of the less naturalistic &quot;[[Archaic_period_in_Greece|archaic period]]&quot; *[[Léon Bakst]]'s sets and costumes for [[Diaghilev]]'s ''[[Ballets Russes]]'' *Fractionated, crystalline, facetted form of decorative [[Cubism]] and [[Futurism (art)|Futurism]] *[[Fauvism|Fauve]] color palette *Severe forms of [[Neoclassicism]]: Boullée, Schinkel *Everything associated with Jazz, [[Jazz Age]] or &quot;jazzy&quot; *Animal motifs and forms; tropical foliage; [[ziggurat|ziggurats]]; crystals; &quot;sunbursts&quot;; stylized fountain motifs *Lithe athletic &quot;modern&quot; female forms; flappers' bobbed haircuts *[[Streamline_Moderne|Machine age]] technology such as the [[radio]] and [[skyscraper]]. [[Image:Asheville_City_Hall.jpg|thumb|[[Asheville, North Carolina]] City Hall, 1926&amp;ndash;1928 epitomizes the American [[Art Deco]] style.]] Corresponding to these influences, the Art Deco is characterised by use of materials such as [[aluminium]], [[stainless steel]], lacquer, inlaid wood, sharkskin, and zebraskin. The bold use of zigzag and stepped forms, and sweeping curves (unlike the sinuous curves of the [[Art nouveau]]), [[Chevron (insignia)|chevron]]
e Justus Lipsius building, the Council of the European Union office in Brussels]] Legally speaking, the Council is a single entity, but it is in practice divided into several different councils, each dealing with a different functional area. Each council is attended by a different type of minister. Thus, for example, meetings of the Council in its Agriculture and Fisheries formation are attended by the agriculture ministers of each member state. There are currently nine formations: *'''General Affairs and External Relations (GAERC):''' The most important of the formations, GAERC is composed of [[foreign minister|ministers for foreign affair]]s and meets once a month. Since [[June 2002]] it has held separate meetings on general affairs and external relations. **The GAERC also coordinates preparation for and follow-up to meetings of the European Council. **At its sessions on External Relations, under the context of the [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]], the [[High Representative for Common Foreign and Security Policy]] also takes part. *'''Economic and Financial Affairs (Ecofin):''' Composed of economics and finance ministers of the member states. *'''Agriculture and Fisheries''': One of the oldest configurations, this brings together once a month the ministers for agriculture and fisheries, and the commissioners responsible for agriculture, fisheries, food safety, veterinary questions and public health matters. *'''Justice and Home Affairs Council (JHA):''' This configuration brings together Justice ministers and Interior Ministers of the Member States. *'''Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs Council (EPSCO):''' Composed of employment, social protection, consumer protection, health and equal opportunities ministers. *'''Competitiveness:''' Created in [[June 2002]] through the merging of three previous configurations (Internal Market, Industry and Research). Depending on the items on the agenda, this formation is composed of ministers responsible for areas such as european affairs, industry and scientific research. *'''Transport, Telecommunications and Energy:''' Also created in June 2002, through the merging of three policies under one configuration, and with a composition also varying according to the specific items on its agenda. This formation meets approximately once every two months. *'''Environment:''' Composed of environment ministers, who meet about four times a year. *'''Education, Youth and Culture (EYC):''' Composed of education, culture, youth and communications ministers, who meet around three or four times a year. == Voting == The Council votes either by unanimity or by [[Qualified Majority Voting]]. The voting system used for a given decision depends on the policy area to which that decision belongs; according to the founding treaties, some subjects require unanimity, while others require only a qualified majority. Even in those areas which require a qualified majority, the Council is required to try to reach a unanimous decision where possible. Countries of the EU hold different numbers of votes in the Council. The number of votes held by each country is based indirectly on the size of the country's population, but smaller countries are granted a greater number of votes than their population would strictly merit. This concept is aimed at balancing the voices of larger countries with those of smaller countries. On [[1 November]] [[2004]], modified voting weights from the [[Treaty of Nice]] came into effect (this date was revised by the [[Treaty of Accession 2003]] from the originally intended date of [[1 January]], [[2005]]). The Nice Treaty also provides for qualified majority voting to require a 'double majority' of both population and number of countries. Further revisions to the voting system are made in the proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]], which was signed on [[29 October]], [[2004]] but has yet to be ratified by all member states. ==Political parties== ''Main article: [[Parties in the Council of the European Union]]'' [[Image:Party affiliations in the Council of the EU Nov 2005.png|thumb|200px|right|EU member states by the European parliamentary affiliations of their leaders, as of 22 Nov 2005.]] Almost all of the leaders and ministers of each member state belong to political parties at the national level. Many of these national parties belong to formal political groupings in the European Parliament. However there are no formal political groups or alliances in the Council, and countries led by similar political parties are often not in agreement on questions that come before the body. Nonetheless the table below describes the current breakdown of party affiliations in the Council, as of November 2005, in terms of the European parliamentary alliances with which the leader of each member state is indirectly associated. {| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2 width=50% |-----bgcolor=lightgrey |'''Parliamentary group''' |'''No. of states''' |----- bgcolor=#DDEEFF |[[European People's Party - European Democrats]] |11 |----- bgcolor=#FFE8E8 |[[Party of European Socialists]] |7 |----- bgcolor=#FFFFDD |[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] |5 |----- bgcolor=#DDFFDD |[[Union for a Europe of Nations]] |2 |} ==See also== *[[List of European Union-related topics|List of EU related topics]] ==External links== *[http://ue.eu.int/showPage.ASP?lang=en Council of the European Union] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4218776.stm UK bid to end secret EU debates] *[http://ue.eu.int Council of the European Union] [http://ue.eu.int/cms3_fo/showPage.asp?lang=en&amp;id=242 about itself] (includes info on voting weights) *SCADplus glossary: [http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/cig/g4000c.htm#c33 Council of the European Union] * [http://drcwww.kub.nl/dbi/instructie/eu/en/T1.htm DEsite]: [http://drcwww.kub.nl/dbi/instructie/eu/en/T14.htm Information about the Council] *Reports from the UK Committee on European Scrutiny about the [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmselect/cmeuleg/152-xxxiii/15207.htm#a12 Council] and [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmselect/cmeuleg/152-xxxiii/15205.htm Openness] [[Category:European Union]] [[ca:Consell de la Unió Europea]] [[cs:Rada Evropské unie]] [[cy:Cyngor Gweinidogion Ewrop]] [[da:Rådet for Den Europæiske Union]] [[de:Rat der Europäischen Union]] [[et:Euroopa Liidu Nõukogu]] [[es:Consejo de la Unión Europea]] [[fr:Conseil de l'Union européenne]] [[gl:Consello da Unión Europea]] [[id:Dewan Uni Eropa]] [[it:Consiglio dell'Unione Europea]] [[he:מועצת אירופה]] [[ka:ევროპის კავშირის საბჭო]] [[lb:Conseil vun der Europäescher Unioun]] [[hu:Európai Unió Tanácsa]] [[nl:Raad van de Europese Unie]] [[ja:欧州連合理事会]] [[no:Rådet for Den europeiske union]] [[pl:Rada Unii Europejskiej]] [[pt:Conselho da União Europeia]] [[ro:Consiliul Uniunii Europene]] [[ru:Совет Европейского Союза]] [[sl:Svet Evropske unije]] [[sr:Савет Европске уније]] [[sv:Europeiska unionens råd]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Continental Europe</title> <id>5867</id> <revision> <id>33400256</id> <timestamp>2005-12-31T18:44:53Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>AnonMoos</username> <id>21047</id> </contributor> <comment>/* The English concept */ add &quot;fog in channel...&quot;</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">'''Continental Europe''', also referred to as '''mainland Europe''' or simply '''the continent''', refers to the [[continent]] of [[Europe]], explicitly excluding European [[island]]s and [[peninsula]]e. Notably, in [[British English]] and [[Hiberno-English]] usage, the term means Europe excluding the [[British Isles]]. ==The English concept== In the [[England|English]] mind ''Continental Europe'' is foremost represented by the [[Benelux]], [[Germany]], and especially [[France]]. A famous (perhaps apocryphal) British newspaper headline once read &quot;Fog in Channel; Continent Cut Off&quot;. ==The Nordic concept== In [[Nordic]] usage, the [[British Isles]], [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]] and [[Finland]] are excluded. ==See also== *[[Mainland]] [[Category:Europe]] [[Category:Political geography]] {{euro-geo-stub}} {{poli-stub}} [[de:Kontinentaleuropa]] [[sv:Kontinentaleuropa]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Crossover music</title> <id>5868</id> <revision> <id>15904057</id> <timestamp>2004-03-24T00:51:21Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Camembert</username> <id>3113</id> </contributor> <comment>redirect to the better [[Crossover (music)]] (not necessarily a better title, but certainly a better article)</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Crossover (music)]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Category theory</title> <id>5869</id> <revision> <id>37838883</id> <timestamp>2006-02-02T13:19:41Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>128.232.1.190</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Historical notes */ minor typo</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''category theory''' deals in an abstract way with mathematical structures and relationships between them. It is half-jokingly known as &quot;generalized [[abstract nonsense]]&quot;. [[category (mathematics)|Categories]] appear in most branches of mathematics, in some areas of [[theoretical computer science]] and [[mathematical physics]], and have been a unifying notion. Categories were first introduced by [[Samuel Eilenberg]] and [[Saunders Mac Lane]] in [[1945]], in connection with [[algebraic topology]]. See [[list of category theory topics]] for a breakdown of relevant articles. == Background == The study of [[category (mathematics)|categories]] is an attempt to capture what is commonly found in various classes of related mathematical structures. Consider the following example. The [[class (set th
ica that is staunchly [[left-wing]]. Unlike other leftist punk bands who use more direct sloganeering, the Kennedys' lyrics are often [[satirical]] and sarcastic. &quot;[[Holiday In Cambodia]]&quot; is a multi-layered satire targeting both [[yuppie]] culture and [[Cambodia]]'s then-current [[Khmer Rouge]] regime (together with the US government who at the time of recording were tacitly supporting [[Pol Pot]] in his war against [[Vietnam]]). Songs such as &quot;[[Kill The Poor]]&quot;, &quot;[[California Über Alles]]&quot; and &quot;[[Police Truck]]&quot; actually take the lyrical viewpoint of the band's hated right-wing targets. In some cases in their early days the band attracted support from right-wing punks who took the lyrics of &quot;Kill The Poor&quot;, etc. at face value, somehow missing the staggering amount of sarcastic nastiness and irony with which the lyrics were presented. The Kennedys wrote a song in response to this development, tellingly titled &quot;[[Nazi Punks Fuck Off!]]&quot;. The Kennedys' generally Biafra-penned lyrics sometimes employed the deliberately over-the-top shock tactics traditionally associated with punk; but even these songs were often colored by scathing, sometimes black humor; songs like &quot;Holiday In Cambodia&quot; and &quot;[[Chemical Warfare]],&quot; which employed violent, genocidal imagery, are some of the better examples. However, unlike many other punk and hardcore bands who play with such themes, the Kennedys usually have a clear progressive point to make when they shock. Jello Biafra continues to be a noted critic of the American political establishment, embarking on lecture tours both before and after his time with the band. ==Samples== {{multi-listen start}} {{multi-listen item|filename=Holiday in Cambodia.ogg|title=Holiday in Cambodia|description=&quot;Holiday in Cambodia&quot; from ''Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables''|format=[[Ogg]]}} {{multi-listen end}} ==Members== '''Current lineup''' *[[Jeff Penalty]] - vocals (2003-present) *[[East Bay Ray]] - lead guitar (1978-1986, 2001-present) *[[Klaus Flouride]] - bass (1978-1986, 2001-present) *[[D.H. Peligro]] - drums (1981-1986, 2001-present) '''Former members''' *[[Jello Biafra]] - vocals (1978-1986) *[[Brandon Cruz]] - vocals (2001-2003) *[[6025]] - rhythm guitar (1978-1979) *[[Ted (musician)|Ted]] - drums (1978-1981) ==Discography== ===Studio albums=== *''[[Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables]]'' - September [[1980]] (# 33) *''[[Plastic Surgery Disasters]]'' - November [[1982]] *''[[Frankenchrist]]'' - October [[1985]] *''[[Bedtime for Democracy]]'' - November [[1986]] ===Live albums=== *''[[A Skateboard Party]]'' - August [[1983]] *''[[Mutiny on the Bay]]'' - February [[2001]] *''[[Live at the Deaf Club]]'' - March [[2004]] ===Compilation albums=== *''[[Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death]]'' - June [[1987]] ===EPs=== *''[[In God We Trust, Inc.]]'' - December [[1981]] ===Singles=== *''[[California Über Alles]]'' - June [[1979]] *''[[Holiday in Cambodia]]'' - May [[1980]] *''[[Kill the Poor]]'' - October [[1980]] (# 49) *''[[Too Drunk to Fuck]]'' - May [[1981]] (# 31) *''[[Nazi Punks Fuck Off!]]'' - November [[1981]] *''[[Bleed for Me]]'' - July [[1982]] *''[[Halloween (song)|Halloween]]'' - December [[1982]] ===Videos=== *''[[The Early Years Live]]'' - July [[1987]] *''[[The Lost Tapes (Dead Kennedys)|The Lost Tapes]]'' - July [[2003]] *''[[Live at DMPO's on Broadway]]'' - February [[2004]] ==See also== *[[Punk ideology]] ==References== *Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. &quot;[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=11:z95j8q9tbtq4 Dead Kennedys]&quot;. [[All Music Guide]]. Retrieved May 10, 2005. ==External links== *[http://www.alternativetentacles.com Alternative Tentacles - Record Label Launched by Dead Kennedys] *[http://www.alternativetentacles.com/bandinfo.php?band=deadkennedys&amp;sd=KKxJJPQ55VUXbEdA@FA Alternative Tentacles's Dead Kennedys Biography] *[http://www.deadkennedys.com/ Official site of the DK Kennedys] {{template:Dead Kennedys}} [[Category:American musical groups]] [[Category:Dead Kennedys| ]] [[Category:Early punk groups]] [[Category:Hardcore punk groups]] [[Category:Musical activists|Dead Kennedys]] [[ca:Dead Kennedys]] [[cs:Dead Kennedys]] [[de:Dead Kennedys]] [[es:Dead Kennedys]] [[fr:Dead Kennedys]] [[csb:Dead Kennedys]] [[lt:Dead Kennedys]] [[ja:デッド・ケネディーズ]] [[pl:Dead Kennedys]] [[fi:Dead Kennedys]] [[sv:Dead Kennedys]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>DNA</title> <id>7955</id> <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions> <revision> <id>42062020</id> <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:21:50Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Spaully</username> <id>284087</id> </contributor> <comment>Revert to revision 42010992 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[DNA (disambiguation)]].'' &lt;!-- NOTE: Please refrain from editing the lead section without first discussing any changes on the discussion page for this article. Arriving at a generally acceptable basic account for the general reader has engaged the considerable efforts of many people. Transforming this section into another highly-accurate-but-impossible-to-read one is something that needs to be avoided. Those who have worked long and hard to formulate this introduction have assumed from the beginning that it is not put forth as a very accurate description, and that it is only meant as a generic overview. Please trust readers to look further into the article for a more nuanced presentation of the fine points. --&gt; [[Image:DNA_Overview.png|thumb|270px|The general structure of a section of DNA]] '''Deoxyribonucleic acid''' ('''DNA''') is a [[nucleic acid]] &amp;mdash;usually in the form of a double [[helix]]&amp;mdash; that contains the [[genetics|genetic]] instructions specifying the [[developmental biology|biological development]] of all cellular forms of [[life]], and most [[virus]]es. DNA is a long polymer of [[nucleotides]] and encodes the sequence of the [[amino acid residue]]s in [[protein]]s using the [[genetic code]], a triplet code of [[nucleotide]]s. In complex [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[Cell (biology)|cells]] such as those from [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[protist]]s, most of the DNA is located in the [[cell nucleus]]. By contrast, in simpler cells called [[prokaryotes]], including the [[bacterium|eubacteria]] and [[archaea]], DNA is not separated from the [[cytoplasm]] by a [[nuclear envelope]]. The cellular [[organelle]]s known as [[chloroplast]]s and [[mitochondria]] also carry DNA. DNA is often referred to as the molecule of [[heredity]] as it is responsible for the genetic propagation of most [[biological inheritance|inherited]] [[Trait (biological)|trait]]s. In humans, these traits can range from hair colour to disease susceptibility. During [[cell division]], DNA is [[DNA replication|replicated]] and can be transmitted to offspring during [[reproduction]]. [[Kinship and descent|Lineage]] studies can be done based on the facts that the [[mitochondrial DNA]] only comes from the mother, and the male [[Y chromosome]] only comes from the father. Every person's DNA, their [[genome]], is inherited from both parents. The mother's [[mitochondrial DNA]] together with twenty-three [[chromosome]]s from each parent combine to form the genome of a [[zygote]], the [[fertilization|fertilized]] [[ovum|egg]]. As a result, with certain exceptions such as [[red blood cell]]s, most human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, together with mitochondrial DNA inherited from the mother. ==Overview== [[Image:DNA123.png|thumb|right|125px|Space-filling model of a section of DNA molecule]] [[Image:DNA Under electron microscope Image 3576B-PH.jpg|thumb|right|250px|DNA Under electron microscope]] This section presents an introductory and therefore incomplete overview of DNA. * Genes can be loosely viewed as the organism's &quot;cookbook&quot; or &quot;blueprint&quot;; * A strand of DNA contains [[gene]]s, areas that [[gene regulation|regulate genes]], and areas that either have no function, or a function [[junk DNA|which we do not (yet) know]]; also see last bullet point in this section for the difference between DNA and RNA; * DNA is organized as two complementary strands, head-to-toe, with [[hydrogen bond]]s between them that can be &quot;unzipped&quot; like a zipper, separating the strands &amp;mdash; contrary to a common misconception, DNA is not a single molecule, but rather a pair of molecules joined by these bonds; * DNA is a chain of chemical &quot;building blocks&quot;, called &quot;[[base pair|bases]]&quot;, of which there are four types: these can be abbreviated [[Adenine|A]], [[Thymine|T]], [[Cytosine|C]], and [[Guanine|G]]. Each base can only &quot;pair up&quot; with one single predetermined other base: A+T, T+A, C+G and G+C are the only possible combinations; that is, an &quot;A&quot; on one strand of double-stranded DNA will &quot;mate&quot; properly only with a &quot;T&quot; on the other, complementary strand; ** &lt;small&gt;[[Uracil|U]] replaces T, notably in PBS1 phage DNA; [[Uracil|U]] replaces T in RNA.&lt;/small&gt; * The allowable base components of nucleic acids can be [[polymerized]] in any order giving the molecules a high degree of uniqueness; * DNA is an acid because of the phosphate groups between each deoxyribose. This the primary reason why DNA has a negative charge. * The &quot;polarity&quot; of each pair is important: A+T is not the same as T+A, just as C+G is not the same as G+C (note that &quot;polarity&quot; as such is never used in this context -- it's just a suggestive way to get the idea across); * For each given base, there is just one possible complementary base, so naming the bases on the conventionally chosen side of the strand is enough to describe the entire double-strand sequence; * The genetic [[information]] co
&quot;cones&quot; on account of their shape: *A '''[[volcanic cone]]''' is a mountain formed by material ejected from a [[volcanic vent]]. *In [[special relativity]], the '''[[light cone]]''' of an event consists of all [[spacetime]] events that can interact with it. *The scaly [[fruit]]-like reproductive bodies of certain [[plant]]s, especially [[conifer]]s and [[cycad]]s, are called '''cones''': see '''[[conifer cone]]'''. *In [[vertebrate]] [[anatomy]], a '''[[cone cell]]''' is a type of light-sensitive [[cell (biology)|cell]] found along with [[Rod cell|rods]] in the [[retina]] of the [[eye]]. * In [[pottery]] and [[ceramic]] manufacture, a '''[[pyrometric cone]]''' is a tapered mineral stick used to gauge the effect of time at raised [[temperature]] within a [[kiln]]. *An '''[[ice cream cone]]''' is a container for [[ice cream]], shaped like an inverted cone open at its top. It is often made of edible [[pastry]]. *A '''[[traffic cone]]''' is a brightly colored cone-shaped plastic object commonly used as a temporary traffic barrier or warning sign. *In [[basketball]], a '''cone''' is a player who is so slow and unskilled that he can be dribbled around as if he was a traffic cone. * To '''smoke a cone''' is a slang term for smoking [[marijuana]] using a [[bong]] with a '''[[conepiece]]'''. *A '''cone''' is the name given to an [[Optical fiber|optical fibre]] that tapers almost to a point, used for concentrating [[laser]] or other light. *The part of a [[loudspeaker]] that moves the air, creating [[sound|sound waves]], is called the '''cone'''. It is often made of paper or plastic. The word '''cone''' (and its derivatives '''conic''', '''conical''', '''to cone''', etc.) also have several specialized meanings in [[mathematics]]: *In [[geometry]]: ** [[cone (solid)|'''cone''' (solid)]], the basic shape. ** the '''cone of''' an arbitrary [[set (mathematics)|set]] ''X'' means the union of all [[line segment]]s connecting a fixed point to points of ''X''. For example, this '''coning''' operation will turn a [[triangle]] into a [[tetrahedron]]. ** in particular, a '''[[conic solid]]''' is the cone of a plane figure. ** a '''[[projective cone]]''' is a similar (but more general) concept in [[projective geometry]]. ** a '''[[conical surface]]''' is generated by a moving line with one fixed point. **a '''[[conic section]]''' is any [[curve]] obtained by cutting a conical surface by an arbitrary plane. *In [[topology]], too, '''coning''' may be applied to a [[topological space]], e.g. to define the [[barycentric subdivision]] of a [[cell complex]]; see [[cone (topology)]]. *In [[linear algebra]], a '''cone''' is a subset of vector space closed under positive scaling; see [[cone (linear algebra)]]. In particular, a '''[[convex cone]]''' is a cone that is closed under [[convex combination]]s. *In [[graph theory]], a '''[[cone graph]]''' is a graph with a [[universal vertex]] (a vertex that is connected to all others vertices). *In [[geometry]], especially [[descriptive geometry]], &quot;'''conical projection'''&quot; is another name for a [[central projection]], in particular the [[perspective projection]]. *In [[cartography]], however, a '''conic''' (or '''conical''') '''projection''' maps the [[sphere|spherical]] surface of the [[Earth]] to a [[conical surface]], that is then [[developable|unrolled]] onto a plane; see [[map projection]]. '''Cone''' can also be a proper name or nickname: *'''Cone''' is the nickname of [[Jason McCaslin]], bassist for the [[Canada|Canadian]] band [[Sum 41]]. *'''[[Fairfax M. Cone]]''' was an [[United States|American]] advertising executive sometimes called the &quot;father of modern advertising&quot;. {{disambig}} [[ca:Con]] [[de:Kegel]] [[es:Cono]] [[fr:Cône]] [[ja:&amp;#20870;&amp;#37648;]] [[pl:Sto&amp;#380;ek]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Conic section</title> <id>5305</id> <revision> <id>41630822</id> <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:28:52Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>Ugur Basak Bot</username> <id>735354</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>robot Adding: tr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Conic_sections_3.png|thumb|288px|right|Types of conic sections]] [[Image:Table_of_Conics,_Cyclopaedia,_volume_1,_p_304,_1728.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Table of conics, ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'', 1728]] In [[mathematics]], a '''conic section''' (or just '''conic''') is a [[curve]] formed by intersecting a [[cone (solid)|cone]] (more precisely, a right circular [[conical surface]]) with a [[plane (mathematics)|plane]]. The conic sections were named and studied as long ago as 200 BC, when [[Apollonius of Perga]] undertook a systematic study of their properties. ==Types of conics== Two well-known conics are the [[circle]] and the [[ellipse]]. These arise when the intersection of cone and plane is a [[closed curve]]. The circle is a special case of the ellipse in which the plane is perpendicular to the axis of the cone. If the plane is parallel to a generator line of the cone, the conic is called a [[parabola]]. Finally, if the intersection is an open curve and the plane is not parallel to a generator line of the cone, the figure is a [[hyperbola]]. (In this case the plane will intersect ''both'' halves of the cone, producing two separate curves, though often one is ignored.) The degenerate cases, where the plane passes through the [[wiktionary:apex|apex]] of the cone, resulting in an intersection figure of a [[point (geometry)|point]], a [[straight line]], or a pair of intersecting lines, are often excluded from the list of conic sections. ===Conics as point loci=== Each type of conic can be defined as the [[locus (mathematics)|locus]] of all [[point (geometry)|points]] ''P'' with a certain property: * Circle: &lt;math&gt;dist(P,C)=r&lt;/math&gt;, where ''C'' is a fixed point (the ''center''), and ''r'' is a fixed constant (the ''radius''). * Parabola: &lt;math&gt;dist(P,F)=dist(P,L)&lt;/math&gt;, where ''F'' is a fixed point (the ''[[focus (geometry)|focus]]''), and ''L'' is a fixed line (the ''directrix'') not containing ''F''. * Ellipse: &lt;math&gt;dist(P,A)+dist(P,B) = d&lt;/math&gt;, where ''A'',''B'' are distinct fixed points (the ''foci''), and &lt;math&gt;d &gt; dist(A,B)&lt;/math&gt; is a fixed constant (the ''major diameter'') * Hyperbola: &lt;math&gt;dist(P,A)-dist(P,B) = d&lt;/math&gt;, where ''A'',''B'' are distinct fixed points (the ''foci''), and &lt;math&gt;d &lt; dist(A,B)&lt;/math&gt; is a fixed constant.&lt;!-- Is there a name for ''d''?--&gt; ===Eccentricity=== [[Image:Eccentricity.png|right|thumb|280px|&lt;FONT COLOR=&quot;#ff0000&quot;&gt;Ellipse (''e''=1/2)&lt;/FONT&gt;, &lt;FONT COLOR=&quot;#00ff00&quot;&gt;parabola (''e''=1)&lt;/FONT&gt; and &lt;FONT COLOR=&quot;#0000ff&quot;&gt;hyperbola (''e''=2)&lt;/FONT&gt; with fixed focus ''F'' and directrix.]] The four defining conditions above can be combined into one condition that depends on a fixed point ''F'' (the ''focus''), a line ''L'' (the ''directrix'') not containing ''F'' and a nonnegative real number ''e'' (the ''[[Eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]]''). The corresponding conic section consists of all points whose distance to ''F'' equals ''e'' times their distance to ''L''. For 0 &lt; ''e'' &lt; 1 we obtain an ellipse, for ''e'' = 1 a parabola, and for ''e'' &gt; 1 a hyperbola. For an ellipse and a hyperbola, two focus-directrix combinations can be taken, each giving the same full ellipse or hyperbola. The distance from the center to the directrix is &lt;math&gt;{a}\over{e}&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; is the [[semi-major axis]] of the ellipse, or the distance from the center to the tops of the hyperbola. The distance from the center to a focus is &lt;math&gt;ae&lt;/math&gt;. In the case of a circle ''e'' = 0 and one imagines the directrix to be infinitely far removed from the center. However, the statement that the circle consists of all points whose distance is e times the distance to L is not useful, because we get zero times infinity. The eccentricity of a conic section is thus a measure of how far it deviates from being circular. For a given &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;, the closer &lt;math&gt;e&lt;/math&gt; is to 1, the smaller is the [[semi-minor axis]]. ==Conics in analytic geometry== In the [[Cartesian coordinate system]], the graph of a [[quadratic equation]] in two variables is always a conic section, and all conic sections arise in this way. If the equation is of the form :&lt;math&gt;ax^2 + 2hxy + by^2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0\;&lt;/math&gt; [[Image:Conic sections 2.png|right|450px|thumb|Graphic visualizations of the conic sections]] then: * if ''h''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = ''ab'', the equation represents a [[parabola]]; * if ''h''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &lt; ''ab'' and ''a'' &lt;math&gt; \ne&lt;/math&gt; ''b'' and/or ''h''&lt;math&gt; \ne&lt;/math&gt;0 , the equation represents an [[ellipse]]; * if ''h''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &gt; ''ab'', the equation represents a [[hyperbola]]; * if ''h''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &lt; ''ab'' and ''a'' = ''b'' and ''h'' = 0, the equation represents a [[circle]]; * if ''a'' + ''b'' = 0, the equation represents a [[hyperbola|rectangular hyperbola]]. ==Semi-latus rectum and polar coordinates== [[Image:Elps-slr.png|right|thumb|400px|Semi-latus rectum in the case of an ellipse]] The '''semi-latus rectum''' of a conic section, usually denoted ''l'', is the distance from the single focus, or one of the two foci, to the conic section itself, measured along a line perpendicular to the major axis. It is related to ''a'' and ''b'' by the formula &lt;math&gt;al=b^2\,\!&lt;/math&gt;, or &lt;math&gt;l=a(1-e^2)\,\!&lt;/math&gt;. In [[coordinates (elementary mathematics)|polar coordinates]], a conic section with one focus at the origin and, if any, the other on the positive ''x''-axis, is given by the equation : &lt;math&gt;r (1 - e \cos \theta) =
velation''' or '''The Apocalypse of John''' ({{IPA2|əˈpɑkəlɪps}}, from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''{{polytonic|ἀποκάλυψις}}'' ἀπο or ''apo''- [&quot;away from&quot;] and κάλυψις or ''kaluptein'' [&quot;cover&quot;]&amp;mdash;meaning literally &quot;to pull the cover away from&quot;)[http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=602&amp;version=kjv] is the last [[Biblical canon|canonical book]] of the [[New Testament]] in the [[Bible]]. It is the only biblical book that is wholly composed of [[apocalyptic literature]]. The book is frequently called by the incorrect name Book of Revelations. However, the actual title of the book is '''The Revelation of Jesus Christ ... unto his servant John''', as it is rendered in the first verse.{{ref|KJV}} It was one revelation given to John, not multiple revelations. After a short introduction (ch. 1:1–10), it contains an account of the author, who identifies himself as John, of two visions that he received on the isle of [[Patmos]]. The first vision (chs. 1:11–3:22), related by &quot;one like unto the Son of man, clothed with a garment down to the foot, and girt about the paps with a golden girdle&quot;, speaking with &quot;a great voice, as of a trumpet&quot;, are statements addressed to the [[seven churches of Asia]]. The second vision comprising the rest of the book (chs. 4–22) begins with &quot;a door … opened in heaven&quot; and describes the [[End of the world (religion)|end of the world]]&amp;mdash;involving the final rebellion by [[Satan]] at [[Armageddon]], [[God|God's]] final defeat of Satan, and the restoration of [[peace]] to the world. Revelation is considered one of the most controversial and difficult books of the Bible, with many diverse interpretations of the meanings of the various names and events in the account. [[Protestant]] founder [[Martin Luther]] considered Revelation to be &quot;neither apostolic nor prophetic&quot; and stated that &quot;Christ is neither taught nor known in it&quot; [http://www.bible-researcher.com/antilegomena.html]. In the [[4th century]], [[John Chrysostom|St. John Chrysostom]] and other [[bishop|bishops]] argued against including this book in the New Testament [[Biblical canon|canon]], chiefly because of the difficulties of interpreting it and the danger for abuse. Christians in [[Syria]] also reject it because of the [[Montanism|Montanists]]' heavy reliance on it. In the [[9th century]], it was included with the ''[[Apocalypse of Peter]]'' among &quot;disputed&quot; books in the ''Stichometry'' of [[Saint Nicephorus|St. Nicephorus]], [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]. In the end it was included in the accepted canon, although it remains the only book of the New Testament that is not read within the [[Divine Liturgy]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]. ==Authorship, Audience, and Date== The author of Revelation identifies himself several times as &quot;John&quot; (1:4, 9; 22:8). The author also states that he was in exile on the [[Patmos|island of Patmos]] when he received his first vision (1:9; 4:1&amp;ndash;2). As a result the author of Revelation is referred to as [[John of Patmos]]. Traditional views hold that [[John of Patmos]] was the same person as [[John the Apostle]], who is also considered to be the [[John the Evangelist|author]] of the [[Gospel of John]]. Those in favor of a single common author point to similarities between the Gospel and Revelation. For example, both works frequently refer to Jesus as a lamb or as a shepherd. However, others, especially more recently, believe that [[John the Apostle]], [[John the Evangelist]], and [[John of Patmos]] refer to at least two separate individuals (see [[Authorship of the Johannine works]] for a full discussion). Several lines of evidence suggest that [[John of Patmos]] wrote only Revelation, not the [[Gospel of John]] or the [[Epistles of John]]. Revelation and the Gospel of John are very dissimilar in many ways. For one, the author of Revelation explicitly identifies himself as John several times, but the author of The Gospel of John remains anonymous, never identifying himself directly. The theology of the Gospel is markedly different from that of Revelation. While both works liken Jesus to a lamb, they consistently use different words for lamb&amp;mdash;the Gospel uses &quot;amnos&quot;, Revelation uses &quot;arnion&quot;. Lastly, the Gospel is written in nearly flawless Greek, but Revelation contains grammatical errors and stylistic abnormalities which indicate its author may not have been as familiar with the Greek language as the Gospel's author. Proponents of the traditional view explain these differences by the collaboration of the author with different scribes. Some theologians also argue that the [[Gospel of John]] contains a realized [[Christian eschatology|eschatology]] which contradicts the futurist [[Christian eschatology|eschatology]] contained in Revelation (e.g., chs. 21&amp;ndash;22). John explicitly addresses Revelation to the [[Seven Churches of Asia|seven Christian churches in Asia]]: [[Ephesus]], [[Smyrna]], [[Pergamos]], [[Thyatira]], [[Sardis]], [[Alasehir|Philadelphia]] and [[Laodicea]] (1:4, 11). All of these sites are located in what is now [[Turkey]]. Traditionally, the date of the writing of this book has generally been fixed at the year [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[96]], in the reign of [[Domitian]]. Others contend for an earlier date, AD [[68]] or [[69]], in the reign of [[Nero]] or shortly thereafter. Those who are in favour of the later date appeal to the external testimony of the Christian father [[Irenaeus]] (d. AD [[185]]), who received information relative to this book from those who had seen John face to face. He says that the Apocalypse &quot;was seen no very long time since, but almost in our day, towards the end of Domitian's reign&quot; (A.H. 5.30.3). Also internal evidence has been used to place it under Domitian, who according to [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] had started the [[Persecution of Christians|persecution]] referred to in the book. However, recent scholars dispute that the book is situated in a time of ongoing persecution and have also doubted the reality of a large-scale Domitian persecution, as there is no reference to such a persecution before Eusebius. ==Chronology of Revelation== {{Main|Chronology of Revelation}} Revelation is divided into seven chapters, with the [[7|number seven]] also appearing frequently as a metaphor within the Book of Revelation. The chapters of Revelation present a series of events, full of imagery and metaphor, which detail the chronology of God's judgement on the world. Exact interpretations of the Chronology of Revelation vary extensively. Literal bibical scholars often see the events portrayed as a &quot;laundry list&quot;, to be checked off one by one as the time of Revelation grows near. Others feel that the many images in Revelation are figurative or perhaps even commentaries on the world during the time when Revelation was written. ==Major schools of interpretation== There are several schools of thought concerned with how the symbolism, imagery, and contents of the book of Revelation should be interpreted. * The ''Biblical prophecy'' school of thought holds that the contents of Revelation, especially when interpreted in conjunction with the [[Book of Daniel]] and other eschatological sections of the [[Bible]], constitute a [[prophecy]] of the [[end times]]. This school can be further subdivided into the ''[[preterism|preterist]]'' view, which sees the book concerned with [[1st-century]] events; the ''futurist'' view, which applies all the events in the book into the end times; and the ''historicist'' view, which regards the book as spanning history from the first century through the [[second coming]]. * A second ''Biblical Prophecy'' school of thought exists, believing that Revelation is a rewriting of the various prophetic books of the Old Testament and that it was originally located at the end of the Old Testament with several other, since removed, prophetic books. This school also maintains that many of these same prophetic books are mere rewrites of each other (in the same way that Matthew, Mark, and Luke are). * The ''historical-critical'' approach, which became dominant among critical scholars of religion since the end of the [[18th century]], attempts to understand Revelation within the genre of [[apocalyptic literature]], which was popular in both Jewish and Christian tradition since the Babylonian [[diaspora]], following the pattern of the [[Book of Daniel]]. There is further information on these topics in the entries on [[higher criticism]] and [[apocalyptic literature]]. * Recently, ''aesthetic'' and ''literary'' modes of interpretation focus on Revelation as a work of art and imagination, viewing the imagery as symbolic depictions of timeless truths and the victory of good over evil. * The [[Ebionites]] and other [[Essene]] and [[Primitive churches]] regard Revelation as a description of the Destruction of The Temple in AD 66 and the subsequent Imperial Roman [[persecution of Jews]] and [[Persecution of Christians|Christians]]. * The &quot;Patristic Interpretation&quot;, or the view held by [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]], [[Jerome]], and other early [[Church Fathers]], views Revelation as an attempt to describe a spiritual reality and heavenly worship and compare it to the liturgy of the Christian Church. Although all but forgotten today, this interpretation is alluded to in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] and has been avidly promoted by modern theologians such as [[Scott Hahn]]. These schools of thought are not mutually exclusive, and many Christians adopt a combination of these approaches in the manner they find most meaningful. However, certain tendencies may be observed. The Biblical Prophecy school of thought is popular among [[Protestant]] [[fundamentalism|fundamentalists]], other [[evangelicalism|evangelicals]]
[[United States|American]] professional sports. Typically, a team is owned by one person, partnership, or corporate entity; thus, a &quot;team owner.&quot; It has been speculated that this is one of the reasons the Green Bay Packers have never been moved from the city of Green Bay, a city of just over 100,000 people. By comparison, the typical NFL football city usually is populated in the millions. However, the Packers have long had a large following throughout [[Wisconsin]] and the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]]; in fact, for decades, the Packers played four (one pre-season, three regular-season) home games each year in [[Milwaukee]]. The Packers did not move their entire home schedule to Green Bay until 1995. Based on the original &quot;Articles of Incorporation for the (then) Green Bay Football Corporation&quot; put into place in 1923, if the Packers franchise was sold, after the payment of all expenses, any remaining monies would go to the Sullivan-Wallen Post of the [[American Legion]] in order to build &quot;a proper soldier's memorial.&quot; This stipulation was enacted to ensure the club remained in Green Bay and that there could never be any financial enhancement for the shareholders. At the November 1997 annual meeting, shareholders voted to change the beneficiary from the Sullivan-Wallen Post to the [[Green Bay Packers Foundation]]. In 1950, the Packers held a stock sale to again raise money to support the team. In 1956, area voters approved the construction of a new stadium, which on September 11, 1965 became [[Lambeau Field]]. Another stock sale occurred late in 1997 and early in 1998. It added 105,989 new shareholders and raised more than $24 million, money utilized for the Lambeau Field redevelopment project. Priced at $200 per share, fans bought 120,010 shares during the 17-week sale, which ended [[March 16]], [[1998]]. As of [[June 8]], [[2005]], 111,921 people (representing 4,749,925 shares) can lay claim to a franchise ownership interest. Shares of stock include voting rights, but the redemption price is minimal, no dividends are ever paid, the stock cannot appreciate in value, and there are no season ticket privileges associated with stock ownership. No shareholder is allowed to own more than 200,000 shares, a safeguard to ensure that no one individual is able to assume control of the club. As a means of running the corporation, a board of directors is elected by the stockholders. The board of directors in turn elect a seven-member Executive Committee (officers) of the corporation, consisting of a president, vice president, treasurer, secretary and three members-at-large. The president is the only officer who receives compensation. The balance of the committee is sitting &quot;gratis.&quot; The Packers have won more league championships (12, including three Super Bowls) than any other American professional football team. They are also the only American professional football team to win three straight titles, which they did twice (1929-1931 and 1965-67). The Packers of the 1960s were one of the most dominant NFL teams of all time. Coach [[Vince Lombardi]] took over a last-place team and built it into a juggernaut, winning five league championships over a seven-year span. Green Bay won the first two [[Super Bowl]]s. The Super Bowl trophy was ultimately named the [[Vince Lombardi Trophy]] in recognition of his and his team's accomplishment. The Packers' fan base is famously dedicated: no matter how the team performs, every Packer game at Lambeau Field has been sold out since 1960. The Packers have one of the longest waiting lists for season tickets in [[professional sports]]. The current wait time for season tickets is approximately 35 years. For this reason, it is not unusual for fans to designate a recipient of their season tickets in their wills. The Packers also draw the largest national TV audiences for the NFL's [[Monday Night Football]] telecasts. An informal name for Packer fans is &quot;[[cheesehead]]s&quot;. The term is often used to refer to people from the state of Wisconsin in general (because of its cheese production), but is also used to refer to Green Bay Packer fans in particular. Many Packer fans, embracing this nickname, wear foam triangle hats made to look like [[cheese]]. ===Nickname and uniforms=== [[Curly Lambeau]], the team's founder, solicited funds for uniforms from his employer, the Indian Packing Company. He was given $500 for uniforms and equipment, on the condition that the team be named for its sponsor (this is similar to what would happen the following year with the [[Decatur Staleys]], who would become the [[Chicago Bears]]). The new Green Bay team was referred to as &quot;the Indians&quot; in one of the earliest newspaper articles about the new squad, but by the time they played their first game they had adopted the name &quot;Packers.&quot; In the early days, the Packers also were referred to as the &quot;Bays&quot; and the &quot;Blues&quot; (and even occasionally as &quot;the Big Bay Blues&quot;). These never were official nicknames, although Lambeau did consider replacing &quot;Packers&quot; with &quot;Blues&quot; in the 1920s. In 1920, the Indian Packing Company was purchased by the [[Acme Packing Company]]. Acme continued its support of Lambeau's team, and in its first season in the NFL the team wore jerseys with the words &quot;ACME PACKERS&quot; emblazoned on the chest. Lambeau, who attended the University of Notre Dame, chose the team's colors of blue and gold/yellow from the college. In the 1930s, the Packers briefly experimented with green and gold, although they always returned to the traditional navy. In 1959, new head coach [[Vince Lombardi]] changed the colors to the current hunter green and athletic gold/yellow (navy blue was kept as a secondary color, but it was not actually used and quietly was dropped from the team colors list on all official materials shortly thereafter). This color scheme yields the common Packers nickname, &quot;The Green and Gold&quot;. The oval 'G' logo was created in 1961 by Packers equipment manager Dad Braisher. The team actually used a number of different logos prior to 1961, but the 'G' is the only logo that has ever appeared on the helmet.[http://www.packers.com/fans/faq/] Although other organizations, notably the [[University of Georgia]] and [[Grambling State University]], utilize a similar logo, the Packers were the first to employ it and hold the trademark for it.[http://sports.espn.go.com/ncaa/news/story?id=2071363&amp;num=0] Due to the fact that &quot;Packer&quot; refers to &quot;meat-packing,&quot; the [[animal rights]] organization [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals|PETA]] asked the team in in 2000 to change its name to a more &quot;peaceful&quot; name. Among the suggestions were &quot;Pickers&quot; refering to vegetable farmers, and &quot;Six-Packers&quot; in reference to the famous Wisconsin brewing industry. [http://www.animalrights.net/archives/year/2000/000034.html] ===2005 season=== The Packers finished their season at 4-12, in last place in the NFC North division (one game behind the third-place [[Detroit Lions]]). The Packers' [[November 27]] loss to the [[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]] assured the Packers their first losing season since 1991 and [[Brett Favre]]'s first losing season in his career. The team's offensive roster was devastated by injuries, including many of the team's standout players. For example, wide receivers [[Javon Walker]] and [[Robert Ferguson]] and running backs [[Ahman Green]], [[Najeh Davenport]], [[Tony Fisher]], and [[Samkon Gado]] all suffered major injuries. Also hampered by injuries yet remaining in the line-up were linebacker [[Na'il Diggs]] and Favre, who suffered repeated injuries to his throwing hand. One day after the conclusion of the regular season, Packers General Manager Ted Thompson announced the firing of head coach Mike Sherman, who had been at the helm for six years. Sherman compiled records of 9-7, 12-4, 12-4, 10-6, 10-6 and 4-12. This included four straight playoff appearances and three straight NFC North division titles, both of which streaks came to an end in 2005. As a result of their dismal season, the Packers ended up with the fifth overall pick in the [[2006 NFL Draft]], which is to be held April 29-30 in New York City. ===2005 Team Leaders=== Passing Yards [[Brett Favre]] 3881 Yards Passing Touchdowns Brett Favre 20 TD QB Rating: Brett Favre, 70.9 Rushing Yards: [[Samkon Gado]], 582 Yards Rushing Touchdowns: Samkon Gado, 6 TD Receiving Yards: [[Donald Driver]], 1221 Yards Receiving Touchdowns: Donald Driver, 5 TD Points: [[Ryan Longwell]], 90 points Kickoff Return Yards: [[Ahmad Carroll]], 390 Yards Punt Return Yards: [[Antonio Chatman]], 381 Yards Tackles: [[Nick Barnett]], 91 Tackles Sacks: [[Kabeer Gbaja-Biamila]], 8.0 Sacks Interceptions: [[Al Harris]], 3 Interceptions ===Season-by-season records=== :''Since 1921'' {{Start NFL SBS}} |- |1921 || 3 || 2 || 1 || 6th APFA&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; || valign=&quot;middle&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''The NFL did not hold playoff games until 1932'' |- |1922 || 4 || 3 ||3 || 8th NFL |- |1923 || 7 || 2 || 1 || 3rd NFL |- |1924 || 7 || 4 || 0 || 6th NFL |- |1925 || 8 || 5 || 0 || 9th NFL |- |1926 || 7 || 3 || 3 || 5th NFL |- |1927 || 7 || 2 || 1 || 2nd NFL |- |1928 || 6 || 4 || 3 || 4th NFL |- |1929 || 12 || 0 || 1 || 1st NFL || '''Named NFL Champions'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; |- |1930 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 1st NFL || '''Named NFL Champions'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; |- |1931 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFL || '''Named NFL Champions'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; |- |1932 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 2nd NFL || -- |- |1933 || 5 || 7 || 1 || 3rd NFL West || -- |- |1934 || 7 || 6 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || -- |- |1935 || 8 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || -- |- |1936 || 10 || 1 || 1 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]]) |- |1937 || 7 ||
www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/flashpoints/literature/huck.html Culture Shock: Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn] * [http://library.titiland.com/toc/adventures_of_huckleberry_finn_mark_twain.htm Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain] - Online book in user-friendly HTML. Other Mark Twain books available, too. *[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/beyond/huck.html Born To Trouble: Adventures of Huck Finn] [[Category:1885 books]] [[Category:American novels]] [[Category:Banned books]] [[Category:Children's books]] [[Category:Mark Twain]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Harpsichord</title> <id>14312</id> <revision> <id>41941045</id> <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:51:23Z</timestamp> <contributor> <username>RexNL</username> <id>241337</id> </contributor> <minor /> <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/195.92.67.67|195.92.67.67]] ([[User talk:195.92.67.67|talk]]) to last version by FlavrSavr</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Flemish_harpsichord_small.png|thumb|250px|Harpsichord in Flemish style; for more info, click the image.]] A '''harpsichord''' is the general term for a family of European [[musical keyboard|keyboard]] [[musical instrument|instrument]]s, including the large instrument nowadays called a harpsichord, but also the smaller '''virginals''', the '''muselar virginals''' and the '''spinet'''. All these instruments generate [[sound]] by plucking a [[strings (music)|string]] rather than striking one, as in a [[piano]] or [[clavichord]]. The harpsichord family is thought to have originated when a keyboard was affixed to the end of a [[psaltery]], providing a mechanical means to pluck the strings. == History == [[Image:Harpsichord - Project Gutenberg eBook 12254.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Virginal, probably English, late 17th century]] The origin of the harpsichord is obscure, but is known to have begun some time during the high or late [[Middle Ages]]. The earliest written references to the instrument date from the [[1300]]s and it is possible that the harpsichord was indeed invented in that century. This was a time in which advances in [[clockwork]] and other forms of early pre-modern machinery were being made and thus a likely time for the invention of those mechanical aspects that distinguish a harpsichord from a [[psaltery]]. A [[Latin]] [[manuscript]] work on musical instruments by Henri [[Arnault de Zwolle]], c. [[1440]], includes detailed diagrams of a small harpsichord and three types of jack action. The earliest complete harpsichords still preserved come from [[Italy]], the oldest specimen being dated to [[1521]]. The Royal Academy of Music in London, has an instrument of a curious upright form which may be older; unfortunately it lacks the action. These early Italian instruments can however shed no light on the ''origin'' of the harpsichord, as they represent an already well-refined form of the instrument. The Italian harpsichord makers made single-manual instruments with a very light construction and relatively little string tension. This design persisted with little alteration among Italian makers for centuries. The Italian instruments are considered pleasing but unspectacular in their [[Pitch (music)|tone]] and serve well for [[accompaniment|accompanying]] singers or other instruments. [[Image:Jan Vermeer van Delft 024.jpg|thumb|left|A lady standing at a virginal, by Jan Vermeer van Delft]] A revolution in harpsichord construction took place in [[Flanders (county)|Flanders]] some time around [[1580]] with the work of [[Hans Ruckers]] and his descendants, including [[Ioannes Couchet]]. The Ruckers harpsichord was more solidly constructed than the Italian. Because they used longer strings (always with the basic two sets of strings; either one 8-foot and a 4-foot, or both at 8-foot pitch), greater string tension, and a heavier case, as well as a very slender and responsive spruce soundboard, the tone was more powerful than with the Italian harpsichord, and served as the basis for subsequent harpsichord building in most other nations. The Flemish makers also innovated the two-manual harpsichord, which was initially used merely to permit easy [[transposition (music)|transposition]] (at the interval of a fourth) rather than to increase the expressive range of the instrument. However, later in the [[17th century]] the additional manual was also used for contrast of tone with the ability to couple the registers of both manuals for a fuller sound. The Flemish harpsichords were often elaborately painted and decorated. The Flemish instrument received further development in [[18th century|18th-century]] [[France]], notably with the work of the [[Blanchet]] family and their successor [[Pascal Taskin]]. These French instruments imitated the [[Flemish]] design, but were extended in range, from about four to about five octaves. In addition, two-manual French instruments used their manuals to vary the combination of stops being used (that is, strings being plucked) rather than for transposition. The [[18th century]] French harpsichord is often considered one of the pinnacles of harpsichord design, and it is widely adopted as a model for the construction of modern instruments. A striking aspect of the 18th-century French tradition was its near-obsession with the Ruckers harpsichords. In a process called ''grande ravalement'', many of the surviving Ruckers instruments were dissasembled and reassembled, with new soundboard material and case construction adding an octave to their range. It is considered likely that many of the harpsichords claimed at the time to be Ruckers restorations are fraudulent, though they are superb instruments in their own right. In [[England]], two immigrant makers, [[Jacob Kirckman]] (from [[Alsace]]) and [[Burkat Shudi]] (from [[Switzerland]]), achieved eminence with harpsichords noted for their powerful tone and exquisite [[Veneer (wood)|veneered]] cases. The sound of Kirckman and Shudi harpsichords has impressed many listeners, but the feeling that it overpowers the music has led to very few modern instruments being modeled on them. The Shudi firm was passed on to Shudi's son-in-law [[John Broadwood]], who adapted it to the manufacture of [[piano]]s and became a leading creative force in the development of that instrument. German harpsichord makers roughly followed the French model, but with a special interest in achieving a variety of sonorities, perhaps because some of the most eminent German builders were also builders of [[Organ (music)|pipe organs]]. Some German harpsichords included a choir of 2-foot strings (that is, strings pitched two octaves above the primary set). A few even included a 16-foot [[Organ stop|stop]], pitched an octave below the main 8-foot choirs. One still-preserved German harpsichord even has three manuals to control the countless combinations of strings that were available. The 2-foot and 16-foot stops of the German harpsichord are not particularly favored among [[harpsichordist]]s today, who tend to prefer the French type of instrument. At the peak of its development, the harpsichord lost favor to the [[piano]]. The piano quickly evolved away from its harpsichord-like origins, and as a result the knowledge of how to build good harpsichords died out for over a century. In the early [[20th century]], an awakening interest in [[authentic performance]] led to the revival of the harpsichord. This included crude &quot;modernizations&quot; of antique instruments, as well as the construction of harpsichords resembling modern concert grand pianos. These instruments sounded surprisingly weak for their size, because their frames and soundboards were too heavy to properly match the thin and lightly tensioned strings of the harpsichord. Builders typically included a 16-foot stop in these instruments to bolster the sound, even though in historical times the 16-foot had played only a minor role. Ultimately, it was acknowledged that to make fine modern harpsichords it would be necessary to learn the methods followed by the old builders. Two important pioneers in the process of rediscovery were the builder-scholars [[Frank Hubbard]] and [[William Dowd]], who took apart and inspected many old instruments and consulted the written material on harpsichords from the historical period. Today, harpsichords that are based on the rediscovered principles of the old makers are built in workshops around the world. The workshops often also construct kits, which are assembled into final form by amateur enthusiasts. ==Action== The action is fairly similar in all harpsichords: [[image:Harpsichord_action.png|center|frame|How it works]] * The ''keylever'' is a simple pivot which rocks on a pin passing through a hole drilled through it. * The ''jack'' is a thin, rectangular piece of wood which sits upright on the end of the keylever, held in place by the guides (upper and lower) which are two long pieces of wood with holes through which the jacks can pass. [[image:Jack.JPG|center|frame|Upper part of a jack]] * In the jack, a ''[[plectrum]]'' juts out almost horizontally (normally the plectrum is angled upwards a tiny amount) and passes just under the string. Historically, plectra were normally made of [[crow]] quill or leather, though most modern harpsichords use a plastic ([[delrin]] or [[celcon]]) instead. * When the front of the key is pressed (2), the back is lifted up, the jack is raised, and the plectrum plucks the string (3). [[image:Jack_action.PNG|center|frame|jack action]] * Upon lowering the key, the jack falls back down under its own weight, and the plectrum pivots backwards to allow it past the string (4). This is made possible by having the plectrum held in a tongue which is attached with a hinge and a spring to the body of the jack. * At the top of the jack, a damper of felt sticks out and keeps the string from vibrating when the key is
plane/shortk.html Kite Index] *[http://photoguide.jp/pix/index.php?cat=10 Giant Kite Festival in Higashi-Omi (Yokaichi), Japan] *[http://photoguide.jp/pix/thumbnails.php?album=52 Giant Kite Festival in Saitama, Japan] *[http://photoguide.jp/pix/thumbnails.php?album=59 Giant Kite Festival in Sagamihara, Japan] *[http://photoguide.jp/pix/thumbnails.php?album=58 Giant Kite Festival in Zama, Japan] *[http://www.travelrogue.com/archives/2005/05/laddie_the_kite.html Kite Artist] *[http://www.kites.org/zoo/ The Virtual Kite Zoo] *[http://www.vientocero.com/kpb/ Kite Plan Base] *[http://www.thekitesociety.org.uk The Kite Society of Great Britain] *[http://www.steadywinds.com Bill Wilson's personal kite blog, kite building information and news] *[http://www.best-breezes.squarespace.com Bob White's Kite history site and personal kite journal] *[http://www.flickr.com/groups/kiteaerialphotography/ Flickr Kite Aerial Photography group] *[http://www.kitebuilder.com/forums/ Kitebuilder.com forums - excellent kite building resource] *[http://www.fracturedaxel.co.uk/ Fractured Axel - A Friendly UK based kite forum for sport/freestyle flying] *[http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Pakistan_bans_kite_flying Pakistan bans kite flying - WikiNews Dec 2005] === See also === * [[Kite surfing]] * [[Kite buggying]] * [[Kiteboarding]] * [[Windsports]] * [[Fishing#Kite fishing|Kite fishing]] [[Category:Kites|*]] [[ar:طائرة ورقية]] [[an:Milorcha]] [[ca:Milotxa]] [[da:Drage (menneskeskabt)]] [[de:Drachen]] [[es:Cometa (juego)]] [[eo:Kajto]] [[fr:Cerf-volant]] [[gl:Papaventos]] [[ko:연날리기]] [[io:Kaito]] [[it:Aquilone]] [[he:עפיפון]] [[nl:Vliegeren]] [[ja:凧]] [[pl:Latawiec (lotnictwo)]] [[pt:Pipa (brinquedo)]] [[sl:Spuščanje zmajev]] [[zh:风筝]]</text> </revision> </page> <page> <title>Fanzine</title> <id>11101</id> <revision> <id>41290232</id> <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:45:03Z</timestamp> <contributor> <ip>72.13.131.85</ip> </contributor> <comment>/* Punk fanzines */</comment> <text xml:space="preserve">A '''fanzine''' (see also: [[zine]]) is a nonprofessional publication produced by [[fan (aficionado)|fan]]s of a particular subject for the pleasure of others who share their interest. The term was coined in October [[1940]] by [[Russ Chauvenet]] and first popularized within [[science fiction fandom]], although [[self-publishing|self-published]] fanzine-like publications did not originate with science fiction fandom. Fanzines are not funded or subsidized by commercial or public entities; publishers, editors and contributors receive no financial compensation. Fanzines are traditionally circulated for at most a nominal cost to defray postage or production expenses, in exchange for similar publications, or contributions for publication [art, articles, letters of comment (LoCs), etc.], or free of charge to any interested parties. Some fanzines have evolved into professional publications, and many professional writers were first published in fanzines and even contributed to them after establishing a professional reputation. The term fanzine has, in recent times, come to be confused with &quot;[[fan magazine]]&quot;, but the latter term refers to professionally-produced media intended for fan consumption. ==Origin== The origins of &quot;fanzines&quot; are obscure, but can be traced at least back to 19th-century literary groups in the [[United States]] which formed [[amateur press association]]s to publish collections of amateur fiction, poetry and commentary. These publications were produced first on small tabletop [[printing press]]es, often by students. As professional printing technology progressed, so did the technology of fanzines. Early fanzines were hand-drafted or typed on a manual [[typewriter]] and printed using primitive reproduction techniques (e.g., the [[spirit duplicator]] or even the [[hectograph]]). Only a very small number of copies could be made at a time, so circulation was extremely limited. The use of [[mimeograph machine]]s enabled higher press runs, and the [[photocopier]] increased the speed and ease of publishing once more. Today, thanks to the advent of [[desktop publishing]] and [[self-publishing|self-publication]], there is often little difference between the appearance of a fanzine and a professionally produced [[magazine]]. ==Genres== ===Science fiction fanzines=== The first science fiction fanzine, ''The Comet'', was published in [[1930]] by the [[Science Correspondence Club]] in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]. The term &quot;fanzine&quot; was coined by [[Russ Chauvenet]] in the October 1940 edition of his fanzine Detours. &quot;Fanzines&quot; were distinguished from &quot;prozines,&quot; (a term Chauvenet also invented): that is, all professional [[magazine]]s. Prior to that, the fan publications were known as &quot;fanmags&quot; or &quot;letterzines.&quot; These magazines used a variety of printing methods prior to the commercialization of the [[photocopier]], let alone the computer printer, even a dot-matrix printer. The [[hectograph]] could produce a hundred copies by laying each page atop a tray of gelatin. The [[ditto machine]], whose printing is purple, smells of hydrocarbons, and fades with exposure to light, was the next cheapest. But it was the true [[mimeograph]] machine, which forced ink through a wax paper stencil cut by the keys of a typewriter, which became the main standard. Shaded pictures, such as is customarily done by [[photolithography]], could not be printed by any of these means. And true printing, with a pieces of type and a press, was the most expensive of all and was quite rare. In the 1960s, before there were machines in libraries and specialty shops, the first fanzine to be &quot;printed&quot; by surreptitiously photocopying its pages in an office was considered amazing. The means of printing affected the style of writing. For example, there were alphanumeric contractions which are actually precursors to &quot;[[leet]]-speak.&quot; The best-known example is the &quot;initials&quot; used by [[Forrest J. Ackerman]] in his fanzines, namely &quot;4SJ.&quot; As mentioned above, fanzines did not originate in [[science fiction fandom]], although the term did. Never commercial enterprises, most [[science fiction fanzine]]s were (and many still are) available for &quot;the usual,&quot; meaning that a sample issue will be mailed on request; to receive further issues, a reader sends a &quot;letter of comment&quot; (LoC) about the fanzine to the editor. The LoC might be published in the next issue: some fanzines consisted almost exclusively of letter columns, where discussions were conducted in much the same way as they are in internet [[newsgroup]]s and [[mailing list]]s today, though at a relatively glacial pace. For several decades, [[science fiction]] fans have formed [[amateur press association]]s (APAs); the members contribute to a collective assemblage or bundle that contains contributions from all of them, called [[apazines]]. Some APAs are still active, and some are published as virtual &quot;e-zines,&quot; distributed on the [[internet]]. For additional information on specific science fiction fanzines and fanwriters, see: separate articles on [[David Langford]] (writer/editor of ''Ansible''), [[Emerald City (magazine)|Cheryl Morgan]] (''Emerald City''), [[Plokta|Alison Scott, Steve Davies and Mike Scott]] (''Plokta''), [[File 770|Mike Glyer]] (''File 770''), [[Mimosa (magazine)|Richard and Nicki Lynch]], (''Mimosa''), and [[Christopher J. Garcia]] (''The Drink Tank''). Many artists working for fanzines have risen to prominence in the field, including [[Joe Mayhew]], [[Brad W. Foster]], [[Teddy Harvia]], [[Ian Gunn]] and [[Frank Wu]]. Specific [[Hugo Award]]s are given for [[Hugo Award for Best Fanzine|fanzines]], [[Hugo Award for Best Fan Writer|fan writing]] and [[Hugo Award for Best Fan Artist|fanart]]. ===Comics and Graphic Arts fanzines=== Comic book collectors and afficionados began to produce fanzines in the early 1960s: ''Alter Ego,'' devoted to costumed heroes, began in 1961, and is sometimes cited as the first comics fanzine. Other early comics fanzines included ''AE, Comic Art,'' and ''Xero.'' The zines were instrumental in creating the culture of comic fandom: conventions, collecting, etc. Comics fanzines often include fan artwork based on existing characters as well as discussion of the history of comics. In Britain, there have since 2001 been created a number of fanzines pastiching children's comics of the 1970s and '80s (eg ''[[Solar Wind (comic)|Solar Wind]]'', ''[[Pony School]]'', etc). These adopt a style of storytelling rather than specific characters from their sources, usually with a knowing or [[irony|ironic]] twist. ===Rock fanzines=== By the mid-1960s, several fans active in SF or Comic fandom recognized a shared interest in rock music, and the rock fanzine was born. [[Paul Williams (Crawdaddy! creator)|Paul Williams]] and [[Greg Shaw]] were two such SF-fans turned rock zine editors. Williams' ''[[Crawdaddy!]]'' (1966) and Shaw's two California-based zines, ''Mojo Navigator'' (full title, &quot;''Mojo-Navigator Rock and Roll News''&quot;) (1966) and ''[[Who Put the Bomp]]?'', (1970), are among the most important early rock fanzines. ''[[Crawdaddy!]]'' (1966) quickly moved from its fanzine roots to become one of the first rock music &quot;prozines,&quot; with paid advertisers and newsstand distribution. ''Bomp'' remained a fanzine, featuring many writers who would later become prominent music journalists, including [[Lester Bangs]], [[Greil Marcus]], [[Ken Barnes]], [[Ed Ward]], [[Dave Marsh]], [[Mike Saunders]] and [[Richard Meltzer | R. Meltzer]]. ''Bomp'' featured cover art by Jay Kinney and Bill Rotsler, both veterans of SF and Comics fandom. &quot;Bomp&quot; was not alone; an August 1970 issue of ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' included an article about the explosion of rock fanzines. Othe