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# Acoustics/Fundamentals of Acoustics
## Introduction
Sound is an oscillation of pressure transmitted through a gas, liquid,
or solid in the form of a traveling wave, and can
be generated by any localized pressure variation in a m... |
# Acoustics/Fundamentals of Room Acoustics
## Introduction
Three theories are used to understand room acoustics :
1. The modal theory
2. The geometric theory
3. The theory of Sabine
## The modal theory
This theory ... |
# Acoustics/Fundamentals of Psychoacoustics
Due to the famous principle enounced by Gustav Theodor Fechner, the
sensation of perception doesn't follow a linear law, but a logarithmic
one. The perception of the intensity of light, or the sensation of
w... |
# Acoustics/Sound Speed
The **speed of sound** *c* (from Latin *celeritas*, \"velocity\") varies
depending on the medium through which the sound waves pass. It is
usually quoted in describing properties of substances (e.g. Sodium\'s
Speed of Sound is listed u... |
# Acoustics/Flow-induced Oscillations of a Helmholtz Resonator
## Introduction
The importance of flow excited acoustic resonance lies in the large
number of applications in which it occurs. Sound production in organ
pipes, compressors, transonic wind tunne... |
# Acoustics/Active Control
## Introduction
The principle of active control of noise, is to create destructive
interferences using a secondary source of noise. Thus, any noise can
theoretically disappear. But as we will see in the following sections,
on... |
# Acoustics/Rotor Stator interactions
An important issue for the aeronautical industry is the reduction of
aircraft noise. The characteristics of the turbomachinery noise are to
be studied. The rotor/stator interaction is a predomi... |
# Acoustics/Car Mufflers
## Introduction
A car muffler is a component of the exhaust system of a car. The exhaust
system has mainly 3 functions:
1. Getting the hot and noxious gas from the engine away from the
vehicle
2. Reduce exhaust emission
3. At... |
# Acoustics/Sonic Boom
!Warplane passing the sound
barrier.
A **sonic boom** is the audible component of a shock wave in air. The
term is commonly used to refer to the air shocks caused by the
supersonic flight of military aircraft or passenger transports such... |
# Acoustics/Sonar
**SONAR** (**so**und **n**avigation **a**nd **r**anging) is a technique
that uses sound propagation under water to navigate or to detect other
vessels. There are two kinds of sonar: active and passive.
## History
The French physicist Paul Langevin, working with a Russian émigré
electrical engineer,... |
# Acoustics/Interior Sound Transmission
## Introduction to NVH
Noise is characterized by frequency (20--20 kHz), level (dB) and
quality. Noise may be undesirable in some cases, i.e. road NVH yet may
be desirable in other cases, i.e. powerful sounding engine.
Vibration is defined as the motion sensed by the body, mai... |
# Acoustics/Anechoic and reverberation rooms
## Introduction
Acoustic experiments often require to realise measurements in rooms with
special characteristics. Two types of rooms can be distinguished:
anechoic rooms and reverberation roo... |
# Acoustics/Basic Room Acoustic Treatments
## Introduction
Many people use one or two rooms in their living space as \"theatrical\"
rooms where theater or music room activities commence. It is a common
misconception that... |
# Acoustics/Human Vocal Fold
## Physiology of vocal fold
The human vocal fold is a set of lip-like tissues located inside the
larynx, and is the source of
sound for humans and many animals.
The larynx is located at the top of the trachea. It is ma... |
# Acoustics/How an Acoustic Guitar Works
What are sound vibrations that contribute to sound production? First of
all, there are the strings. Any string that is under tension will
vibrate at a certain frequency. The weight and... |
# Acoustics/Basic Acoustics of the Marimba
## Introduction
Like a xylophone, a marimba has octaves of wooden bars that are struck
with mallets to produce tones. Unlike the harsh sound of a xylophone, a
marimba produces a deep, rich to... |
# Acoustics/Bessel Functions and the Kettledrum
## Introduction
In class, we have begun to discuss the solutions of multidimensional
wave equations. A particularly interesting aspect of these
multidimensional solutions are those of bessel functio... |
# Acoustics/Acoustics in Violins
For a detailed anatomy of the violin, please refer to Atelierla
Bussiere.
## How does a violin make sound?
### General concept
When a violinist bows a string, which can produce vibrations with
abunda... |
# Acoustics/Microphone Technique
## General technique
1. A microphone should be used whose frequency response will suit the
frequency range of the voice or instrument being recorded.
2. Vary microphone positions and distances until yo... |
# Acoustics/Microphone Design and Operation
## Introduction
Microphones are devices which convert pressure fluctuations into
electrical signals. There are two main methods of accomplishing this
task that are used in th... |
# Acoustics/Acoustic Loudspeaker
The purpose of the acoustic transducer is to convert electrical energy
into acoustic energy. Many variations of acoustic transducers exist,
although the most common is the moving coil-permanent magnet transducer.
The classic... |
# Acoustics/Sealed Box Subwoofer Design
A sealed or closed box baffle is the most basic but often the cleanest
sounding sub-woofer box design. The sub-woofer box in its most simple
form, serves to isolate the back of the speaker from the front, much
like the theoretical infinite baffle. The sealed box provides simple
... |
# Acoustics/Bass-Reflex Enclosure Design
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systems. Bass-reflex enclosures are also cal... |
# Acoustics/Polymer-Film Acoustic Filters
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Acoustic filters are used in many devices such as mufflers, noise
control materials (absorptive and reactive), and ... |
# Acoustics/Noise in Hydraulic Systems
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## Noise in Hydraulic Systems
Hydraulic systems are the most preferred source of power transmission in
most of the industrial and mobile equ... |
# Acoustics/Noise from Cooling Fans
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As electric/electronic devices get smaller and functional, the noise of
cooling device becomes important. This page will explain the orig... |
# Acoustics/Piezoelectric Transducers
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# Introduction
Piezoelectricity from the Greek word \"piezo\" means pressure
electricity. Certain crystalline substances generate electric char... |
# Acoustics/Generation and Propagation of Thunder
**Thunder** is the sound made by lightning. Depending on the nature of
the lightning and distance of the listener, thunder can range from a
sharp, loud crack to a long, low rumble (brontide). The sudden increase
in pressure and temperature from lightning produces rapid... |
# New Zealand History/Introduction
## Introduction to A Concise New Zealand History
This is a concise textbook on New Zealand history, designed so it can be
read by virtually anyone wanting to find out more about New Zealand
history.
The textbook covers the time span of human settlement in New Zealand. It
includes:... |
# New Zealand History/The Colonial Government
New
## The Colonial Government
!The Colonial New Zealand
flag
After New Zealand was annexed by Britain, it was initially set up as a
dependency of New South Wales. However, by 1841, New Zealand was made a
colony in its own right. As a colony, it inherited political pract... |
# New Zealand History/Famous New Zealanders
## Famous New Zealanders
!Sir Edmund Hillary in Poland,
2004.
**Edmund Hillary**
On the 29th of May 1953, New Zealander Edmund Hillary became the first
person to reach the summit of Mount Everest with Nepalese climber
Tenzing Norgay (the summit at the time was 29,028 fee... |
# Speech-Language Pathology/Stuttering/Print version
# Core Stuttering Behaviors
# Incidence and Prevalence of Stuttering
# Development of Childhood Stuttering
# Neurology of Stuttering
# Genetics of Stuttering
# Physiology, Psychology, and Personality of Stutterers
# Belief-Related Changes in Stuttering
# Stre... |
# Transportation Economics/Decision Making
**Decision Making** is the process by which one alternative is selected
over another. Decision making generally occurs in the planning phases of
transportation projects, but last minute decision making has been shown
to occur, sometimes successfully. Several procedures for ma... |
# Transportation Economics/Modeling
*All forecasts are wrong; some forecasts are more wrong than others.* -
anonymous
**Modeling** is a means for representing reality in an abstracted way.
Your mental models are your **world view**: your outlook on life, and
the world. The world view is your *internal model of how th... |
# Transportation Economics/Data
There are a variety of types of transportation data used in analysis.
Some are listed below:
- Infrastructure Status
- Traffic Counts
- Travel Behavior Inventory
- Land Use Inventory
- Truck/Freight Demand
- External/Internal Demand (by Vehicle Type)
- Special Generators
... |
# Transportation Economics/Land Use Forecasting
**Land use forecasting** undertakes to project the distribution and
intensity of trip generating activities in the urban area. In practice,
land use models are demand driven, using as inputs the aggregate
information on growth produced by an aggregate economic forecastin... |
# Transportation Economics/Evaluation
A **benefit-cost analysis** (BCA)[^1] is often required in determining
whether a project should be approved and is useful for comparing similar
projects. It determines the stream of quantifiable economic benefits and
costs that are associated with a project or policy. If the benef... |
# UK Constitution and Government/Print version
*Note: current version of this book can be found at
<http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/UK_Constitution_and_Government>*
Remember to click \"refresh\" to view this version.
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# UK Constitution and Government/Normans
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# UK Constitution and Government/Plantagenets
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# UK Constitution and Government/Houses of Lancaster and York
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# UK Constitution and Government/House of Tudor
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# Control Systems/Introduction
## This Wikibook
This book was written at **Wikibooks**, a free online community where
people write open-content textbooks. Any person with internet access is
welcome to participate in the creation and improvement of this book.
Because this book is continuously evolving, there are no fi... |
# Control Systems/System Identification
## Systems
Systems, in one sense, are devices that take input and produce an
output. A system can be thought to **operate** on the input to produce
the output. The output is related to the input by a certain relationship
known as the **system response**. The system response usu... |
# Control Systems/Digital and Analog
## Digital and Analog
There is a significant distinction between an **analog system** and a
**digital system**, in the same way that there is a significant
difference between analog and digital data. This book is going to
consider both analog and digital topics, so it is worth tak... |
# Control Systems/System Metrics
## System Metrics
When a system is being designed and analyzed, it doesn\'t make any sense
to test the system with all manner of strange input functions, or to
measure all sorts of arbitrary performance metrics. Instead, it is in
everybody\'s best interest to test the system with a se... |
# Control Systems/System Modeling
## The Control Process
It is the job of a control engineer to analyze existing systems, and to
design new systems to meet specific needs. Sometimes new systems need to
be designed, but more frequently a controller unit needs to be designed
to improve the performance of existing syste... |
# Control Systems/Transforms
## Transforms
There are a number of transforms that we will be discussing throughout
this book, and the reader is assumed to have at least a small prior
knowledge of them. It is not the intention of this book to teach the
topic of transforms to an audience that has had no previous exposur... |
# Control Systems/Transfer Functions
## Transfer Functions
A **Transfer Function** is the ratio of the output of a system to the
input of a system, in the Laplace domain considering its initial
conditions and equilibrium point to be zero. This assumption is relaxed
for systems observing transience. If we have an inpu... |
# Control Systems/Poles and Zeros
## Poles and Zeros
**Poles** and **Zeros** of a transfer function are the frequencies for
which the value of the denominator and numerator of transfer function
becomes infinite and zero respectively. The values of the poles and the
zeros of a system determine whether the system is st... |
# Control Systems/State-Space Equations
## Time-Domain Approach
The \"Classical\" method of controls (what we have been studying so far)
has been based mostly in the transform domain. When we want to control
the system in general, we represent it using the Laplace transform
(Z-Transform for digital systems) and when ... |
# Control Systems/Linear System Solutions
## State Equation Solutions
The state equation is a first-order linear differential equation, or
(more precisely) a system of linear differential equations. Because this
is a first-order equation, we can use results from Ordinary
Differential Equations to
find a general solut... |
# Control Systems/Time Variant System Solutions
## General Time Variant Solution
The state-space equations can be solved for time-variant systems, but
the solution is significantly more complicated than the time-invariant
case. Our time-variant state equation is given as follows:
$$x'(t) = A(t)x(t) + B(t)u(t)$$
We ... |
# Control Systems/Digital State Space
## Digital Systems
Digital systems, expressed previously as difference equations or
Z-Transform transfer functions, can also be used with the state-space
representation. All the same techniques for dealing with analog systems
can be applied to digital systems with only minor chan... |
# Control Systems/Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
## Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
The eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the system matrix play a key role in
determining the response of the system. It is important to note that
only square matrices have eigenvalues and eigenvectors associated with
them. Non-square matrices ... |
# Control Systems/Standard Forms
## Companion Form
A **companion form** contains the coefficients of a corresponding
characteristic polynomial along one of its far rows or columns. For
example, one companion form matrix is:
$$\begin{bmatrix} 0 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & -a_0 \\
1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots ... |
# Control Systems/MIMO Systems
## Multi-Input, Multi-Output
Systems with more than one input and/or more than one output are known
as **Multi-Input Multi-Output** systems, or they are frequently known by
the abbreviation **MIMO**. This is in contrast to systems that have only
a single input and a single output (SISO)... |
# Control Systems/Realizations
## Realization
**Realization** is the process of taking a mathematical model of a
system (either in the Laplace domain or the State-Space domain), and
creating a physical system. Some systems are not realizable.
An important point to keep in mind is that the Laplace domain
representati... |
# Control Systems/Gain
## What is Gain?
**Gain** is a proportional value that shows the relationship between the
magnitude of the input to the magnitude of the output signal at steady
state. Many systems contain a method by which the gain can be altered,
providing more or less \"power\" to the system. However, increa... |
# Control Systems/Block Diagrams
When designing or analyzing a system, often it is useful to model the
system graphically. **Block Diagrams** are a useful and simple method
for analyzing a system graphically. A \"block\" looks on paper exactly
what it means:
## Systems in Series
When two or more systems are in serie... |
# Control Systems/Feedback Loops
## Feedback
A **feedback loop** is a common and powerful tool when designing a
control system. Feedback loops take the system output into
consideration, which enables the system to adjust its performance to
meet a desired output response.
When talking about control systems it is impo... |
# Control Systems/Signal Flow Diagrams
## Signal-flow graphs
**Signal-flow graphs** are another method for visually representing a
system. Signal Flow Diagrams are especially useful, because they allow
for particular methods of analysis, such as **Mason\'s Gain Formula**.
Signal flow diagrams typically use curved li... |
# Control Systems/Bode Plots
## Bode Plots
A Bode Plot is a useful tool that shows the gain and phase response of a
given LTI system for different frequencies. Bode Plots are generally
used with the Fourier Transform of a given system.
center\|framed\|An example of a Bode magnitude and phase plot set. The
Magnitude ... |
# Control Systems/Stability
## Stability
When a system is unstable, the output of the system may be infinite even
though the input to the system was finite. This causes a number of
practical problems. For instance, a robot arm controller that is
unstable may cause the robot to move dangerously. Also, systems that are... |
# Control Systems/State-Space Stability
## State-Space Stability
If a system is represented in the state-space domain, it doesn\'t make
sense to convert that system to a transfer function representation (or
even a transfer matrix representation) in an attempt to use any of the
previous stability methods. Luckily, the... |
# Control Systems/Discrete Time Stability
## Discrete-Time Stability
The stability analysis of a discrete-time or digital system is similar
to the analysis for a continuous time system. However, there are enough
differences that it warrants a separate chapter.
## Input-Output Stability
### Uniform Stability
An LTI... |
# Control Systems/Routh-Hurwitz Criterion
## Stability Criteria
The Routh-Hurwitz stability criterion provides a simple algorithm to
decide whether or not the zeros of a polynomial are all in the left half
of the complex plane (such a polynomial is called at times \"Hurwitz\").
A Hurwitz polynomial is a key requireme... |
# Control Systems/Jurys Test
## Routh-Hurwitz in Digital Systems
Because of the differences in the Z and S domains, the Routh-Hurwitz
criteria can not be used directly with digital systems. This is because
digital systems and continuous-time systems have different regions of
stability. However, there are some methods... |
# Control Systems/Root Locus
## The Problem
Consider a system like a radio. The radio has a \"volume\" knob, that
controls the amount of gain of the system. High volume means more power
going to the speakers, low volume means less power to the speakers. As
the volume value increases, the poles of the transfer functio... |
# Control Systems/Nyquist Stability Criteria
## Nyquist Stability Criteria
The **Nyquist Stability Criteria** is a test for system stability, just
like the
Routh-Hurwitz
test, or the Root-Locus
Methodology. However, the Nyquist Criteria can also give us additional
information about a system. Routh-Hurwitz and Root-Lo... |
# Control Systems/Controllability and Observability
## System Interaction
In the world of control engineering, there are a slew of systems
available that need to be controlled. The task of a control engineer is
to design controller and compensator units to interact with these
pre-existing systems. However, some syste... |
# Control Systems/System Specifications
## System Specification
There are a number of different specifications that might need to be met
by a new system design. In this chapter we will talk about some of the
specifications that systems use, and some of the ways that engineers
analyze and quantify technical systems.
... |
# Control Systems/State Feedback
## State Observation
The state space model of a system is the model of a single plant, not a
true feedback system. The feedback mechanism that relates *x\'* to *x*
is a representation of the mechanism internal to the plant, where the
state of the plant is related to its derivative. As... |
# Control Systems/Estimators and Observers
## Estimators and Observers
A problem arises in which the internal states of many systems cannot be
directly observed, and therefore state feedback is not possible. What we
can do is try to design a separate system, known as an **observer** or
an **estimator** that attempts ... |
# Control Systems/Eigenvalue Assignment for MIMO Systems
The design of control laws for MIMO
systems are more extensive in
comparison to SISO systems because the additional inputs ($q > 1$) offer
more options like defining the Eigenvectors or handling the activity of
inputs. This also means that the feedback matrix *K... |
# Control Systems/Controllers and Compensators
## Controllers
There are a number of different standard types of control systems that
have been studied extensively. These controllers, specifically the P,
PD, PI, and PID controllers are very common in the production of
physical systems, but as we will see they each car... |
# Control Systems/Polynomial Design
## Polynomial Design
A powerful tool for the design of controller and compensator systems is
**polynomial design**. Polynomial design typically consists of two
separate stages:
1. Determine the desired response of the system
2. Adjust your system to match the desired response.
... |
# Control Systems/Adaptive Control
## Adaptive Controllers
What we\'ve been studying up till this point are fixed systems, that is
systems that do not change over time. However, real-world applications
and experience tells us that the environment can change over time: New
noise can be added to a signal, the signal qu... |
# Control Systems/State Machines
## State Machines
Digital computers have a lot more power and flexibility to offer than
processing simple difference equations like the kind that we have been
looking at so far in our discrete cases. Computer systems are capable of
handling much more complicated digital control tasks,... |
# Control Systems/Nonlinear Systems
## Nonlinear General Solution
A nonlinear system, in general, can be defined as follows:
$$x'(t) = f(t, t_0, x, x_0)$$
$$x(t_0) = x_0$$
Where *f* is a nonlinear function of the time, the system state, and the
initial conditions. If the initial conditions are known, we can simpli... |
# Control Systems/Common Nonlinearities
There are some nonlinearities that happen so frequently in physical
systems that they are called \"Common nonlinearities\". These common
nonlinearities include Hysteresis, Backlash, and Dead-zone.
## Hysteresis
Continuing with the example of a household thermostat, let\'s say ... |
# Control Systems/Noise Driven Systems
## Noise-Driven Systems
Systems frequently have to deal with not only the control input *u*, but
also a random noise input *v*. In some disciplines, such as in a study
of electrical communication systems, the noise and the data signal can
be added together into a composite input... |
# Control Systems/Digital Control Systems
## Digital Systems
Digital systems, expressed previously as difference equations or
Z-Transform transfer functions can also be used with the state-space
representation. Also, all the same techniques for dealing with analog
systems can be applied to digital systems, with only ... |
# Control Systems/Discrete-Time Stability
## Discrete-Time Stability
The stability analysis of a discrete-time or digital system is similar
to the analysis for a continuous time system. However, there are enough
differences that it warrants a separate chapter.
## Input-Output Stability
### Uniform Stability
An LTI... |
# Control Systems/System Delays
## Delays
A system can be built with an inherent **delay**. Delays are units that
cause a time-shift in the input signal, but that don\'t affect the
signal characteristics. An **ideal delay** is a delay system that
doesn\'t affect the signal characteristics at all, and that delays the
... |
# Control Systems/Sampled Data Systems
## Ideal Sampler
In this chapter, we are going to introduce the ideal sampler and the
**Star Transform**. First, we need to introduce (or review) the
**Geometric Series** infinite sum. The results of this sum will be very
useful in calculating the Star Transform, later.
Conside... |
# Control Systems/Z Transform Mappings
## Z Transform Mappings
There are a number of different mappings that can be used to convert a
system from the complex Laplace domain into the Z-Domain. None of these
mappings are perfect, and every mapping requires a specific starting
condition, and focuses on a specific aspect... |
# Control Systems/Physical Models
## Physical Models
This page will serve as a refresher for various different engineering
disciplines on how physical devices are modeled. Models will be
displayed in both time-domain and Laplace-domain input/output
characteristics. The only information that is going to be displayed h... |
# Control Systems/Transforms Appendix
## Laplace Transform
When we talk about the Laplace transform, we are actually talking about
the version of the Laplace transform known as the **unilinear Laplace
Transform**. The other version, the **Bilinear Laplace Transform** (not
related to the Bilinear Transform, below) is ... |
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